Algebra 2 Formulas

Essential Formulas for Algebra 2 Final Exam

Laws of Exponents

Multiply Powers of the Same Base = Adding Exponents (am)(an) = am + n

am m−n
Divide Powers of the Same Base = Subtracting Exponents n = a
a
Power Rule = Multiplying Exponents (am)n = am × n
Zero Exponent = 1 a0 = 1
(ab)n = anbn
n
Distribution of Exponent with Multiple Bases a an
  = n
b b
1
a−n =
an
Negative Exponent = Reciprocal
a−m bn
= m
b−n a
1
(ab)−n = a−nb−n =
a nb n
Distribution of Negative Exponent with Multiple Bases −n n
a b bn
  =   = n
b a a

a+b ≠ a + b a×b = a × b
a−b ≠ a − b a÷b = a ÷ b
Properties of Radicals

Distribution of Radicals of the Same Index

n
ab = ( a )( b )
n n

n
(where a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0 if n is even) n
a
=
a
n
b b

Power Rule of Radicals = Multiplying Exponents m n (m × n )

a = a
n
an = a (if n is odd)
Reverse Operations of Radicals and Exponents
n
a n = | a | (if n is even)

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Algebra 2 Formulas

m The index of the radical is the

a = n am
n
denominator of the fractional exponent.

Special Products (A + B)(A − B) = A2 − B2

(A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B2 (A + B)3 = A3 + 3A2B + 3AB2 + B3
(A − B)2 = A2 − 2AB + B2 (A − B)3 = A3 − 3A2B + 3AB2 − B3

Special Expressions
Difference of Squares
Perfect Trinomial Squares
Perfect Trinomial Squares
Sum of Cubes
Difference of Cubes
A2 − B2 = (A + B)(A − B)
A2 + 2AB + B2 = (A + B)2
A2 − 2AB + B2 = (A − B)2
A3 + B3 = (A + B)(A2 − AB + B2)
A3 − B3 = (A − B)(A2 + AB + B2)

− b ± b 2 − 4ac
Quadratic Formula: x =
2a
Discriminant = b − 4ac
2

When Discriminant is Positive, b2 − 4ac > 0 → Two Distinct Real Roots

When Discriminant is Zero, b2 − 4ac = 0 → One Distinct Real Root
(or Two Equal Real Roots)
When Discriminant is Negative, b2 − 4ac < 0 → No Real Roots

Note the pattern:

Product of Conjugate Complex Numbers
i = i i = −1 i = −i
1 2 3
i =1 4
(a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 − b2i2 = a2 − b2(−1)
i5 = i i6 = − 1 i7 = − i i8 = 1
(a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 + b2
i9 = i i10 = −1 …..
Pattern repeats every 4th power of i.

Midpoint of a Line Segment Distance of a Line Segement Slope

 x + x2 y1 + y2  y2 − y1
M = 1 ,  d = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 m=
 2 2  x2 − x1

Standard Equation for Circles

(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2
P (x, y) = any point on the path of the circle
C (h, k) = centre of the circle
r = length of the radius

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Algebra 2 Formulas

Point-Slope form: - a form of a linear equation when given a slope (m) and a point (x1, y1) on the line
y − y1
= m (slope formula) y − y1 = m (x − x1) (Point-Slope form)
x − x1
If we rearrange the equations so that all terms are on one side, it will be in standard (general) form:
Ax + By + C = 0 (Standard or General form)
(A ≥ 0, the leading coefficient for the x term must be positive)

When given a slope (m) and the y-intercept (0, b) of the line, we can find the equation of the line using
the slope and y-intercept form:
y = mx + b where m = slope and b = y-intercept

Parallel Lines Perpendicular Lines

slope of line 1 = slope of line 2 slope of line 1 = negative reciprocal slope of line 2
−1
m1 = m2 ml 1 =
ml 2

y ∝ x (y is directly proportional to x)
y = kx
where k = constant of variation (constant of proportionality – rate of change)

xz
y∝ (y is jointly proportional to x, z and w)
w
xz
y=k
w
where k = constant of variation (constant of proportionality)

∆y
Average Rate of Change = m =
∆x
f (b ) − f (a )
Average Rate of Change =
b−a

It is the slope of the secant line between

the points (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b))

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Algebra 2 Formulas

Summary of Types of Functions: (see page 226 of textbook)

Linear Functions f(x) = mx + b
b
b

f(x) = b f(x) = mx f(x) = mx + b

Domain: x ∈ R Domain: x ∈ R Domain: x ∈ R

Range: f(x) ∈ R Range: f(x) ∈ R Range: f(x) ∈ R
Power Functions f(x) = xn where n > 1 and n ∈ N

f(x) = x2 f(x) = x3 f(x) = x4 f(x) = x5

Domain: x ∈ R Domain: x ∈ R Domain: x ∈ R Domain: x ∈ R

Range: f(x) ≥ 0 Range: f(x) ∈ R Range: f(x) ≥ 0 Range: f(x) ∈ R
Root Functions f(x) = n
x where n ≥ 2 and n ∈ N

f(x) = x f(x) = 3
x f(x) = 4
x f(x) = 5
x

Domain: x ≥ 0 Domain: x ∈ R Domain: x ≥ 0 Domain: x ∈ R

Range: f(x) ≥ 0 Range: f(x) ∈ R Range: f(x) ≥ 0 Range: f(x) ∈ R
1
Reciprocal Functions f(x) = where n ∈ N
xn

1 1 1 1
f(x) = f(x) = f(x) = f(x) =
x x2 x3 x4
Domain: x ≠ 0 Domain: x ≠ 0 Domain: x ≠ 0 Domain: x ≠ 0
Range: f(x) ≠ 0 Range: f(x) > 0 Range: f(x) ≠ 0 Range: f(x) > 0
Absolute Value Functions Greatest Integer Functions

f(x) = | x | f(x) = [[x]] or int(x)

Domain: x ∈ R Domain: x ∈ R
Range: f(x) ≥ 0 Range: f(x) ∈ I

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Algebra 2 Formulas

g(x) = f(x + h) + k
h = amount of horizontal movement h > 0 (move left); h < 0 (move right)
k = amount of vertical movement k > 0 (move up); k < 0 (move down)

Reflection off the x-axis Reflection off the y-axis

g(x) = −f(x) g(x) = f(−x)
All values of y has to switch signs but All values of x has to switch signs but
all values of x remain unchanged. all values of y remain unchanged.

Vertical Stretching and Shrinking Horizontal Stretching and Shrinking

g(x) = af(x) g(x) = f(bx)
a is the Vertical Stretch Factor b is the Horizontal Stretch Factor
a > 1 (Stretches Vertically by a factor of a) 0 < b < 1 (Stretches Horizontally by a factor of 1/b)
0 < a < 1 (Shrinks Vertically by a factor of a) b > 1 (Shrinks Horizontally by a factor of 1/b)

For Quadratic Functions in Standard Form of f(x) = a(x − h)2 + k

Vertex at (h, k) Axis of Symmetry at x = h Domain: x ∈ R
a = Vertical Stretch Factor
a>0 Vertex at Minimum (Parabola opens UP) Range: y ≥ k (Minimum)
a<0 Vertex at Maximum (Parabola opens DOWN) Range: y ≤ k (Maximum)
| a | > 1 Stretched out Vertically |a|<1 Shrunken in Vertically
h = Horizontal Translation (Note the standard form has x − h in the bracket!)
h >0 Translated Right h < 0 Translated Left
k = Vertical Translation
k >0 Translated Up k < 0 Translated Down

For Quadratic Functions in General Form: f(x) = ax2 + bx + c

y-intercept at (0, c) by letting x = 0 (Note: Complete the Square to change to Standard Form)
 − b ± b 2 − 4ac 
x-intercepts at  , 0  if b2 − 4ac ≥ 0. No x-intercepts when b2 − 4ac < 0
 2a 
 
b  b 
Vertex locates at x = − y = f −  Minimum when a > 0 ; Maximum when a < 0
2a  2a 

f(x) = One-to-One Function f −1(x) = Inverse Function

(x, y) (y, x)
−1
Domain of f(x) → Range of f (x)
Range of f(x) → Domain of f −1(x)
1
Note: f −1(x) ≠ (Inverse is DIFFERENT than Reciprocal)
f (x)
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Algebra 2 Formulas

End Behaviours and Leading Terms

y y y y

x x x x

Odd Degree Odd Degree Even Degree Even Degree

Polynomial Function Polynomial Function Polynomial Function Polynomial Function
and Positive Leading and Negative Leading and Positive Leading and Negative Leading
Coefficient, a > 0 Coefficient, a < 0 Coefficient, a > 0 Coefficient, a < 0

Odd Degree Polynomial Functions

When a > 0, Left is Downward (y → −∞∞ as x → −∞∞) and Right is Upward (y → ∞ as x → ∞).
When a < 0, Left is Upward (y → ∞ as x → −∞∞) and Right is Downward (y → −∞∞ as x → ∞).
Even Degree Polynomial Functions
When a > 0, Left is Upward (y → ∞ as x → −∞∞) and Right is Upward (y → ∞ as x → ∞).
When a < 0, Left is Downward (y → −∞∞ as x → −∞∞) and Right is Downward (y → −∞∞ as x → ∞).

Multiplicity: - when a factored polynomial expression has exponents on the factor that is greater than 1.
y y
Even Multiplicity or Odd Multiplicity or
Multiplicities of 2, 4, 6… Multiplicities of 3, 5, 7…
means x-intercept is means inflection at x-int
tangent to the x-axis
b b c
0 c x x

P(x) = ax(x − b)2, 4, 6 …(x − c)2, 4, 6,… P(x) = a(x − b)3, 5, 7 …(x − c)

Polynomial Function Divisor Function

In general, for P(x) ÷ D(x), we can write

P( x) R
= Q( x ) + or P(x) = D(x) Q(x) + R
D( x ) D( x )

Restriction: D(x) ≠ 0
Quotient Function Remainder

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Algebra 2 Formulas

P(x)
If R = 0 when , then (x − b) is a factor of P(x) and P(b) = 0.
(x − b)
P(x) = D(x) × Q(x)
P(x) = Original Polynomial D(x) = Divisor (Factor) Q(x) = Quotient
P(x)
If R ≠ 0 when , then (x − b) is NOT a factor of P(x).
(x − b)
P(x) = D(x) × Q(x) + R(x)

The Remainder Theorem:

P( x)
To find the remainder of : Substitute b from the Divisor, (x − b), into the Polynomial, P(x).
x−b
P( x)
In general, when , P(b) = Remainder.
x−b

P( x) b
To find the remainder of : Substitute   from the Divisor, (ax − b), into the Polynomial, P(x).
ax − b a
P( x)
In general, when , P ( ab ) = Remainder.
ax − b

The Factor Theorem:

P( x)
1. If gives a Remainder of 0, then (x −b) is the Factor of P(x).
x−b
OR
If P(b) = 0, then (x − b) is the Factor of P(x).
P( x)
2. If gives a Remainder of 0, then (ax −b) is the Factor of P(x).
ax − b
OR
If P ( ab ) = 0, then (ax − b) is the Factor of P(x).

Rational Roots Theorem:

For a polynomial P(x), a List of POTENTIAL Rational Roots can be generated by Dividing
ALL the Factors of its Constant Term by ALL the Factors of its Leading Coefficient.
ALL Factors of the Constant Term
Potential Rational Zeros of P(x) =
ALL Factors of the Leading Coefficient

The Zero Theorem

There are n number of solutions (complex, real or both) for any nth degree polynomial function
accounting that that a zero with multiplicity of k is counted k times.
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Algebra 2 Formulas

Graphs of Exponential Functions

y y
f(x) = ax f(x) = ax
for a > 1 for 0 < a < 1

(0, 1) (0, 1)
x x

Graphs of Natural Exponential Functions

y y
f(x) = ex
f(x) = e−x

(0, 1) (0, 1)
x x

y = ax x = logay
Simple Properties of Logarithms
loga1 = 0 because a0 = 1
logaa = 1 because a1 = a
a log a x = x because exponent and logarithm are inverse of one another
logaax = x because logarithm and exponent are inverse of one another

Common and Natural Logarithm

Common Logarithm: log x = y 10y = x
Natural Logarithm: ln x = y ey = x

Exponential Laws Logarithmic Laws

(am)(an) = am + n logax + logay = loga(xy)

am  x
= am − n logax − logay = loga  
an  y
(am)n = am × n logaxy = y loga x
a0 = 1 loga 1 = 0

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Algebra 2 Formulas

Common Logarithm Mistakes

loga(x + y) ≠ logax + logay loga(x − y) ≠ logax − logay
Example: log(2 + 8) ≠ log 2 + log 8 Example: log(120 − 20) ≠ log 120 + log 20
1 ≠ 0.3010 + 0.9031 2 ≠ 2.0792 + 1.3010

 x  log a x
loga   ≠ (logax)y ≠ ylogax
 y  log a y

Example: log  1  ≠
log1
Example: (log 100)3 ≠ 3 log 100
 10  log10
−1 ≠ 01 23 ≠ 3(2)

log y
ax = y x=
log a

nt
 r A = Final Amount after t years P = Principal
A = P 1 +  r = Interest Rate per year n = Number of Terms per year
 n

nt A(t) = Final Amount after t years

 r n→∞
A(t) = Ao  1 +  A(t) = Aoe rt
Ao = Initial Amount
 n r = Rate of Increase (+r) / Decrease (−r) per year

A(t) = Final Amount after t years

A(t) = Aoert Ao = Initial Amount
r = Rate of Increase (+r) / Decrease (−r) per year

N(t) = Final Population after t years, hours, minutes, or seconds

rt
N(t) = Noe No = Initial Population
r = Rate of Increase per year, hour, minute, or second

Graphs of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions To obtain equation for the inverse of
y = ax an exponential function, we start with
y
for a > 1 y = x Exponential Function y = ax
y-int = 1 No x-intercept
x = ay (switch x and y for inverse)
Domain x ∈ R ; Range y > 0 y = logax (rearrange to solve for y)
(0, 1)
x Logarithmic Function
(1, 0)
x-int = 1 No y-intercept
Domain x > 0 ; Range y ∈ R
y = logax
for a > 1

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Algebra 2 Formulas

π
π rad = 180o OR rad = 1o
180

y = a sin k(x + b) + c y = a cos k(x + b) + c

| a | = Amplitude c = Vertical Displacement (how far away from the x–axis)
b = Horizontal Displacement (Phase Shift) b > 0 (shifted left) b < 0 (shifted right)
2π 360o
k = number of complete cycles in 2π Period = =
k k
Range = Minimum ≤ y ≤ Maximum

y = a sin [ω (t + b)] + c y = a cos [ω (t + b)] + c

| a | = Amplitude c = Vertical Displacement (distance between mid-line and t-axis)
b = Horizontal Displacement (Phase Shift) b > 0 (shifted left) b < 0 (shifted right)
2π ω
ω = number of complete cycles in 2π Period = Frequency =
ω 2π
Range = Minimum ≤ y ≤ Maximum

1 1
Note: sin−1(x) ≠ sin−1(x) ≠ (sin x)−1 (sin x)−1 = = csc x
sin( x ) sin( x )

y = sin−1 x y = cos−1 x
π π Domain: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 Range: 0 ≤ x ≤ π
Domain: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 Range: − ≤ y ≤
2 2

−1 cos(cos−1 x) = x for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
sin(sin x) = x for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
π π cos−1(cos x) = x for 0 ≤ x ≤ π
sin−1(sin x) = x for − ≤ x ≤
2 2

y = tan−1 x
π π
Domain: x ∈ R Range: − ≤ y ≤
2 2

tan(tan−1 x) = x for x ∈ R
π π
tan−1(tan x) = x for − ≤ x ≤
2 2
Some Basic Trigonometric Definitions and Identities (proven equations)
sin θ 1 1 1 cos θ
tan θ = csc θ = sec θ = cot θ = =
cos θ sin θ cos θ tan θ sin θ
cos2θ + sin2θ = 1
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