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Plants
B. Kingdom Plantae
All plants are multicellular, eukaryotic, and photosynthetic (i.e., autotrophs) and
have cell wall made of cellulose
Plants are grouped into two general categories based on how they transport
water : nonvascular plants ( bryophytes ex: mosses) and vascular plants
(tracheophytes )
Vascular plants are further subdivided into seedless plants (ex ferns ) and seed
plants
Seed plants are further divided into nonflowering plants (gymnosperms) and
flowering plants (angiosperms)
monocot dicot
ferns
2) Division Pterophyta (Ferns)
Ferns are some of the earliest vascular plants and contain the
vascular tissue xylem and phloem وظيفتها نقل الماء من التربة لبقية
النبات و نقل السكر اللى اتعمل فى الورقة لباقي النباتas well as true stems,
leaves, and roots
Do NOT have seeds. Instead, ferns have spores, which can be
scattered تحملها الرياحby wind
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
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true vascular plants. The term conifer مخروطيةrefers to cones that carry
seeds of these plants
Most are large evergreen trees such as pines الصنوبر, fir نبات الشوحand cedar األرز
Because seeds are not protected in a seed coat, these are “naked-seed” plants
( gymnosperms)
pines
a) Class Monocots
Monocots are named for their single seed leaves called cotyledons
Ex: grasses , wheat , corn , oats , lawn grass , rice ….. Monocots
provide food for most of the world….. palm trees are also monocots
b) Class Dicots
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
Very important
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
shows evolutionary relationships among 4 main groups of living plants using the
prescence or absence of 3 derived traits : vascular tissue , seeds , flowers
Plants began life in seas and moved to land as competition for resources increased. The
biggest problems a plant on land faces are supporting plant body and absorbing and
conserving water. Several modifications enable plants to live on land
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
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Unlike animals, plants continue to grow as long as they live because plants have
meristem tissue نسيج انشائيthat continually divides , generating new cells . Plants
grow in two ways: primary growth
and secondary growth
1-Primary Growth
Root cap protects root tip → (it secretes a substance that helps digest earth
حواليها فى التربةas root tip grows through soil )
Zone of elongation → Cells here elongate to push تدفعroot cap downward and
deeper into soil
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
woody plants are protected by bark اللحاءand live for many years.
Plants can live for hundreds of years as long as the meristem keeps dividing
Roots
Function → absorb nutrients from soil , anchor يثبتthe plant and store food
Structure :
1-Epidermis
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
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2-Cortex القشرة
Function → storage
consists of parenchyma cells
that contain many plastids for
storage of starch and other
organic substances
Function → transport
consists of vascular tissues
(xylem and phloem) surrounded by one or more layers of tissue
called the pericycle→ from which lateral roots arise
4-Endoderm
Plants use their roots to absorb nutrients and water from soil …… These then
must be absorbed by the cells themselves
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
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Apoplast →the network of cell walls and intercellular spaces الفراغات بين
الخاليا و بعضهاwithin a plant body that permits extensive extracellular
movement حوالين الخاليا مش جواهاof water within a plant
Question : Leguminous plants such as soy beans and peas exhibit a mutualistic symbiosis with
(A) Herbivores
(B) Bacteria
(C) Other leguminous plants
(D) Humans
(E) Soils
Ans: B
Types of Roots
Taproot → In dicots
Some taproots “tap” water deep in soil ….. Others
like carrots , beets and turnips اللفتare modified for
storage
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
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1. Aerial roots :
Ex: English ivy اوراق اللبالبhas aerial roots that enable ivy to cling
تثبتto sides of buildings
2. Prop Roots :
2-Leaf
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
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Stomates
When plant cells carry out cellular respiration, they take in oxygen and give
off carbon dioxide
When plant cells carry out photosynthesis , they take in carbon dioxide and
give off oxygen and water vapor
Plants exchange these gases between air spaces in spongy mesophyll and the
exterior of the leaf by opening their stomates
So why do plants ever close their stomates? If stomates were kept open all the
time, the plant would lose so much water through transpiration (loss of water
from the leaf) it could not survive
To minimize excessive water loss, when the sun is shining brightly and
photosynthesis is running at top speed, stomates are open. At night, though,
most plants close their stomates
Plants must keep their stomates open long enough to allow photosynthesis to
take place but not so long that they lose too much water
Guard cells are modified epithelial cells that control opening and closing of
stomates in response to changes in water pressure
When guard cells absorb water by osmosis and become turgid ( منتفخةrigid) ,
they curve like hot dogs, causing stomate to open
When guard cells lose water and become flaccid, the stomate closes
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
3-Stems
function support
This support allows leaves to receive the most light
Stems also → transport water and minerals from soil, and food from leaves to
the rest of plant
Structure
Vascular tissue runs the length of the stem بطول الساقin strands called
vascular bundles ( veins )
Each bundle contains → xylem on the inside, phloem on the outside, and
meristem tissue between the two
In monocots → vascular bundles are scattered throughout the stem
In dicots → they are arranged in a ring around the edge of the stem
The ground tissue of stem consists of cortex and pith القشرة و النخاع,
parenchymal tissues modified for storage
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
Dermal Tissue
For the most part, epidermal cells do not contain chloroplasts and
cannot photosynthesize
Exception are guard cells which are modified epidermal cells that
contain chloroplasts and can photosynthesize هام
Vascular tissue → transports water and nutrients up and down the plant
There are two types: xylem ( transports water ) and phloem ( transports
food/sugar )
اللى اتعمل فى الfood او الsugar بينقل الphloem و الwater بينقل الxylem ال
لباقي النباتleaves
Ground Tissue
It consists of 3 cell types: parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma
cells
Ground tissue makes up all plant tissue besides dermal and vascular
tissue قلناهم فوق
Plants
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Parenchyma cells :
Collenchyma cells
have very thick primary and secondary cell walls that are fortified مقوى
بالليجنينwith lignin
function support
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
Transport in plants
Just like animals, plants need to transport water, nutrients, and gases. Unlike animals, plants
do not have blood, arteries, or a heart to accomplish this. Instead, they have xylem and
phloem
Xylem
consists of two types of elongated cells: tracheids and vessel elements
The secondary cell walls of tracheids are hardened with lignin and function to
support plant and transport nutrients and water
Xylem → ( wood )
Xylem carries water and nutrients from soil up to the tallest leaves against gravity
with no expenditure دون استهالك للطاقةof energy. Instead, they are pulled up by a
combination of two phenomena: transpirational pull and cohesion tension
Cohesion التماسك water molecules are attracted to each other and stick
together
The transpirational pull-cohesion tension theory states that : for each molecule of
water that evaporates from a leaf by transpiration, another molecule of water is
drawn in at the root to replace it. The absorption of sunlight drives transpiration by
causing water to evaporate from leaf
Several factors affect the rate of transpiration and loss of water from
a leaf :
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
Phloem
Phloem vessels are made of chains of two types of cells: sieve tube
elements and companion cells
They carry sugar from photosynthetic leaves to rest of plant by a process
called translocation
Sugar is stored in roots Unlike transport in the xylem, this process
requires energy
Plant reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
1. Petals → Brightly colored, modified leaves found just inside the circle of
sepals; attract animals that will pollinate the plant
2. Sepals →Outermost circle of leaves; are green and closely resemble ordinary
leaves
4. Ovary → Swollen part of pistil that contains the ovule, where one or more ova
are produced by meiosis
5. Ovule → The structure within the ovary where the ova (female gametophytes)
are produced
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
7. Stigma → Sticky top of the style where pollen lands and germinates
9. Anther → Male part of the flower where sperm (pollen) are produced by meiosis
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
N.B :
- Pollen is made from little cells called microspores, and mature pollen
grains contain a cell that can divide to form → two sperm cells
7) After fertilization :
ovule becomes seed and the ripened ovary becomes fruit هام جدا
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
Double fertilization:
The seed
o Figure 13.8 shows a dicot seed (like a peanut الفول السودانىsplit مقسومةin half
Alternation of generations
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
Remember
Term Definition
Antheridium Structure that produces sperm
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
Bryophytes ( Mosses )
o primitive
o green, carpet-like plants growing in damp forests, sometimes on fallen logs
o gametophyte generation dominates its life cycle → هو األساسي فى النبات دهThis
means that the organism is haploid (n) for most of its life cycle, and sporophyte
(2n) is dependent on gametophyte
o gametophyte obtains nutrients by photosynthesis
o sporophyte obtains nutrients from gametophyte
Ferns
o seedless vascular plant
o Sporophyte generation is larger and is independent مستقلfrom gametophyte
o Both gametophyte and sporophyte sustain themselves by photosynthesis
Seed Plants
o Seed plants are advanced, vascular plants
o divided into : Conifers ( cone –bearing ) ( gymnosperms ) and
flowering plants ( angiosperms )
o In gymnosperm (cone-bearing plant) like pine tree →
gametophyte generation develops from haploid spores ( retained
within the sporangia )
o In flowering plants (angiosperms) → gametophyte generation
is dependent on sporophyte
Plant hormones
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
Cytokinins
Gibberellins
Plants
SAT II Biology E/M Dr Haitham AbdAllah
0100 36 777 19
Plants