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Habitat International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/habitatint
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The world population is growing rapidly and much of that growth is happening in urban areas. In
Received 29 January 2015 developing countries, this process is often accompanied by the formation and expansion of slums. A
Received in revised form variety of slum upgrading projects have been implemented to improve the living conditions of slum
13 August 2015
dwellers however a wide study to investigate the objectives of slum upgrading projects highlighted that
Accepted 26 August 2015
Available online 12 September 2015
environmental features were of low priority compared to basic services and infrastructure. The paper
deduces this to be a result of the dominance of UN's household-based definition of slums which lacks
emphasis on the locational aspects. An aerial analysis of slums located near waterbodies emphasised the
Keywords:
Slum upgrading
slums' dynamic nature brought about by location and therefore the importance of location itself. Taking
Physical infrastructure cue from this, the paper recommends upgrading projects to be more location-specific that offer flexible
Location yet customised solutions that build upon local knowledge to account for the dynamic and diverse nature
Waterbody of slums. Another inference from the study was that for various reasons e one of which is hazardous
Flooding location e slums are perceived to be temporary and as a result, there is low incentive to invest in slums.
Adaptation Such a perception prohibits slum upgrading and pushes them into a negative spiral. Concluding that
slums are, however, permanent features in the urban landscape, the paper recommends a change in
perception and urges practitioners to accept this permanent nature of slums. The focus and findings of
this paper are relevant in context of the Habitat III Conference in 2016 which has as its focus the ‘New
Urban Agenda’ that recognises the ever-changing dynamics of human civilization and aims to bring
together diverse urban actors to review urban and housing policies.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.08.033
0197-3975/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K. Olthuis et al. / Habitat International 50 (2015) 270e288 271
increased focus on adopting slum upgrading measures. Slum Mehta & Mehta, 2012), a spatially-driven analysis was done on
upgrading, rather than treating the slum as a separate entity, aims some of the slums previously identified. For the purpose of the
to integrate slums into the city through improvement and for- paper, spatial analysis is restricted to investigating the spatial dis-
malisation (The World Bank Group, 2001a, 2001b). Slum upgrading tribution and growth pattern of the slum with the help of satellite
actions consist of physical, social, economic, organizational, and images from Google Earth. Traditional data collection methods,
environmental improvements (United Nations Human Settlements such as census data, rarely give an idea of the spatial distribution
Programme, 2003) which are undertaken as a collaboration be- and heterogeneity of slums. Techniques that incorporate remote
tween citizens, community groups, businesses and authorities. sensing, on the other hand, are suitable for a quick analysis of the
These approaches would, ideally, foster social and economic in- location and physical composition of the slums (Baud, Kuffer,
clusion, address overall city issues and improve the quality of life. Pfeffer, Sliuzas, & Karuppannan, 2010; Kohli, Sliuzas, et al., 2012).
Furthermore, it is suggested to be more affordable, viable, and e in Six slums with different locational characteristics (three located
theory e more flexible than adopting common demolition and away from water and three located near water) were chosen for
relocation mechanisms (The Cities Alliance, 2014). slum mapping using images from Google Earth. A temporal
There is a general consensus in the literature on natural di- component was included in the slum mapping through the use of
sasters that cities and within the cities, the poor, are greatly at risk the Historical Imagery Tool in order to study the growth trend of
to natural hazards. Hazardous location and poor infrastructure put each slum.
these communities at risk. In addition to these issues, the poor are
risk-averse in the aspect that they lack savings or assets but are 3. Results
more risk-taking in spatial terms. The condition is bad not only
because of lack of resources but also because of public policies. (Fay, An analysis of the 88 identified slum upgrading projects1
Ghesquiere, & Solo, 2003). showed that legal, social and political upgrading measures often
Among the disasters, the number of water-related disasters is complement the dominant physical infrastructure upgrading that
significantly higher than the non-water related disasters. Around were the primary focus for the purpose of this study (Fig. 1).
80.5% of the natural disasters that happen in the world are water- Another observation made was that most projects were imple-
related, of which flood and windstorms are the major ones. mented at a national/regional/state scale or at the city/metropol-
(Adikari & Yoshitani, 2009). itan area-level (Appendix).
Therefore, the objective of this paper is to assess current slum Within the physical infrastructure upgrading category, upgrad-
upgrading measures, with a specific focus on projects that target ing measures were classified into three categories e basic infra-
the physical environment of slum and to investigate how effectively structure, housing and environmental measures (Fig. 2). Most
targeted these upgrading measures are in relation to specific investment was spent on basic services and infrastructure provi-
location-induced risks, such as flooding. sion with water and sanitation provision being a priority.
Other basic service/infrastructure upgrading measures included
2. Methodology sewage and wastewater treatment, and mobility provision through
the construction of roads, lanes and bridges. Electricity provision
Two methods were incorporated to attempt this task. Firstly, an was also mentioned as an objective in some slum upgrading pro-
analysis of previous and current slum upgrading measures was jects. The provision of housing and shelter also falls under the
done. Data was combined from a variety of sources, including the category of physical infrastructure. However, it was mentioned the
MIT slum upgrading database (The World Bank Group, 2001a, least number of times. Environmental measures suggested to be a
2001b), the “Slum upgrading up close” publication (The Cities more frequent objective than housing provision. At the same time,
Alliance, 2008), and the World Bank Projects and Operations the investment in environmental measures fell far behind that
database (The World Bank Group, 2015). This was believed to give a spent on basic services. Aside from flood protection and drainage
detailed overview of the up-to-date investments into slum improvement, air quality management and pollution control ob-
upgrading measures and their key objectives, encompassing the jectives were also classified as environmental upgrading. Thus
most recent ones while also reaching back as far as 1986. As a first environmental measures, particularly those that address the threat
step, 88 projects with a primary focus on addressing the physical of flooding, as well as the provision of housing were less frequent
issues of slums were identified, from here on referred to as investment objectives of slum upgrading projects. Basic services
“physical upgrading projects”. Since the paper aims to focus only on and infrastructure improvements seem to be an effective generic
physical upgrading projects, projects with a focus on social, political upgrading measure, a blanket approach for addressing the poor
and legal issues were not included though these are important to conditions of slum settlements. Environmental measures, on the
effectively tackle the problem of slums. However, some physical contrary, are more specific as they address factors related to the
upgrading projects included elements of social, political and/or particular spatial environment of each slum.
legal upgrading measures as a secondary focus. To better under- Protection from flooding, for instance, presents an investment
stand which features were most frequently addressed, the next step objective that relates to the specific location and associated threats
involved the identification of key objectives and scale of the faced by a slum. This is particularly important since flooding is seen
selected 88 projects. The objectives were then logically grouped as the “most expensive and devastating natural hazard” (Dewan,
into sub-categories, such as basic services/infrastructure, environ- 2013). The UNESCO further reports that, from 1990 to 2006,
mental measures, institutional strengthening etc. As a last step, the water-related disasters accounted for 88.4 per cent of the 1000
measures falling under physical infrastructure e housing, basic most fatal disasters (Adikari & Yoshitani, 2009). Furthermore,
services/infrastructure and environmental measures e were flooding will continue to be a major future regional concern, ac-
examined in detail to find out with what frequency issues related to cording to the recent IPCC Report (IPCC, 2007). Slums, particularly
location were addressed. those located in low-lying areas and on floodplains, are increasingly
Secondly, as a response to the growing demands for an incor- threatened by the risk of flooding and rising sea level. This threat
poration of spatial criteria when understanding the vulnerability of
slums (Janowska, Weeks, & Engstrom, 2011) and in slum upgrading
(Kohli, Kerle, & Sliuzas, 2012; Kohli, Sliuzas, Kerle, & Stein, 2012; 1
Complete list of physical upgrading projects in Appendix.
272 K. Olthuis et al. / Habitat International 50 (2015) 270e288
Fig. 1. Analysis of 88 slum upgrading projects from 1969 to 2014 will a primary focus solely on physical upgrading.
4. Analysis
Fig. 4. Evolution of Orangi Town in Karachi, Pakistan (Above:2001; Below:2014).
While many diverse definitions of slums exist e this being part
of the problem to finding global and inclusive policies e the
dominant definition was coined by UN-Habitat in 2003 (Fig. 9). In these attributes (United Nations Human Settlements Programme,
its essence, it classifies slums as areas with households having 2003). A key feature of the UN definition is its household-based
inadequate access to safe water, inadequate access to sanitation and nature, not a place-based one (Janowska et al., 2011).
other infrastructure, poor structural quality of housing, over- Subsequently, the objectives of slum upgrading policies corre-
crowding, or insecure residential status, or a combination of any of spond closely with the indicator and target slum problems at the
household level. The results from our analysis clearly indicate that
the provision and improvement of basic services and infrastructure
have been a priority in investments in slum upgrading up until
now. Basic service provision relates to the water and sanitation
Fig. 3. Evolution of Kanwangware slum in Nairobi, Kenya (Above:2002, Below:2014). Fig. 5. Evolution of Mathare Valley in Nairobi, Kenya (Above: 2002, Below: 2014).
274 K. Olthuis et al. / Habitat International 50 (2015) 270e288
Fig. 9. Indicators and thresholds for defining a slum as prescribed by the UN (Source:UN-Habitat, 2003).
Porio's study might not make them a priority when it comes to building scale, addressing the housing quality of slums, their
deciding which slums should be upgraded. In this way, slums enter problem of density and drainage control can help reduce the impact
a “negative spiral” where the temporariness stemming from loca- of flooding. The aforementioned negative spiral, however, often
tion and fear of eviction discourages investments for upgrading, prevents investments towards such actions. Slums with additional
especially environmental upgrading. This lack of investment pre- vulnerability from high flood risk might be perceived as even more
vents long term improvement and in turn worsens the situation of temporary and unstable, something that could negatively affect the
the slum. decision-making process for endorsing environmental upgrading
measures (flood control, drainage, pollution control, emergency
management) versus basic infrastructure provision (access to water
4.2. Impacts of flooding for slums
and sanitation, sewerage and waste management, mobility and
electricity) (Fig. 2).
The diversity of the impacts of flooding and their particular
threat for slums have been widely discussed (Hamza & Zetter, 1998;
Porio, 2011; De Risi, Jalayer, De Paola, Iervolino, & Giugni, 2013). 4.3. Lessons from the spatial analysis
While presenting an extreme health and sanitation risk in itself,
flooding also disrupts the livelihood practices of slum dwellers. This A focus on the provision of basic services e even though crucial
includes, for instance, small-scale commerce, artisanal trades and to improving overall conditions in slums e only addresses a
petty trading (Douglas, Alam, Maghenda, McDonnell, et al., 2008; symptom of the wider problem. The analysis of aerial images
Douglas, et al., 2008). The disruption of such economic activities not highlights the extent of the problem of overcrowding and the
only negatively affects the productivity of the slum itself, but also resulting lack of space in slums. As a result, slums not only grow
has detrimental effects on the functioning of the wider urban area. outwards but e perhaps due to a lack of choice e also evolve onto
The particular vulnerability of slums to flooding is due to a com- the hazardous sites, in this case waterbodies. This increases their
bination of several factors. Their location on floodplains, low-level exposure, particularly in the context of more extreme weather
areas, or generally hazardous sites heightens the exposure of conditions and rising sea level and heightens their vulnerability.
many slums to the risk of flooding and the effects of climate change. The temporal aspect, brought out by the aerial images, furthermore
This is further exacerbated by unplanned urbanisation manifested provides an indication of the growth of slums. There is a constant
in poor structural quality of buildings and the associated lack of evolution that affects the shape and size of slum settlements
proper drainage control, alongside high population density making it extremely difficult to have an accurate database. Often,
(Wamsler, 2008; Janowska et al., 2011). Therefore, investments that exact numbers and needs of slums are unknown to municipalities,
are spent on slums in an emergency post-disaster situation are not making it hard to find and implement the most appropriate
enough to improve their condition in the long-term. At an urban upgrading policies.
scale, flood management should be extended to the slums even if Accordingly, the analysis of aerial images can give more
they are not a legal and formal entity of the city while at the insight into the extreme diversity of slums that arises from
276 K. Olthuis et al. / Habitat International 50 (2015) 270e288
factors beyond local and national policies, social adaptation therefore be more useful adaptation measures. A local example
measures and cultural knowledge. This diversity might first and for such adaptation techniques are the floating communities in
foremost result from a slum's location and the surrounding Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia (Travers, 2012) where communities
environmental conditions. Instead of pursuing a generic slum live on connected houseboat structures. Slum upgrading pro-
upgrading approach, these types of diversity have to be incor- jects, such as the Medicines Sans Frontiers' Clinic (Medecins Sans
porated in the upgrading process. Based on the results from the Frontieres, 2012) and the Floating School (NLE, 2014) in Makoko,
analysis, up-to-date upgrading measures seem to be rather Lagos have incorporated these clues and built upon these local
generic with a dominant focus on improving basic conditions. adaptation techniques. By taking the threat that water presents
Environmental adaptation measures often only become a priority to the slum and turning it into an opportunity for upgrading,
in spontaneous post-disaster emergency upgrading investments these projects provide examples of targeted action that combine
(Deri & Alam, 2008). But such objectives should be a concern in local knowledge with advanced technology. This imparts features
upgrading projects even before the disaster strikes. Understand- of permanency to otherwise temporary slums.
ing the role that spatial factors, such as location, play is a crucial
aspect in this regard. Additionally integrating a temporal 5. Conclusion
component makes it possible to understand the evolution of each
slum and observe general growth trends. Our study of 88 slum upgrading projects revealed that invest-
ment into physical slum upgrading is predominantly focused on
4.4. Incorporating local knowledge basic services and basic infrastructure provision, such as access to
safe water and sanitation. Upgrading objectives that clearly relate
The high prevalence of the national and city-level scale in to and integrate the locational characteristics of slums, such as
slum upgrading projects (see Appendix) could imply that most flood protection, drainage and pollution, were found to be a less
projects are implemented top-down. The rise of ‘participation frequent investment concern in upgrading projects. On the con-
development’ from the 1970s onwards has continuously chal- trary, upgrading projects with a sole focus on environmental im-
lenged mainstream ‘top-down’ development to foster the inclu- provements were often only initiated spontaneously as a post-
sion of local knowledge for more sustainable benefits. A range of disaster response. This is believed to be a result of the domi-
different types of such local coping strategies have been identi- nance of the UN definition of slums based on household data
fied (Wisner, Blakie, Cannon, & Davis, 2004; Wamsler, 2007, which lacks emphasis on their locational aspects. It is particularly
2008; Porio, 2011). Slum upgrading measures that incorporate a slum's location however, alongside the constant threat of evic-
local knowledge and participation have shown to be more suc- tion that creates a perceived temporary nature. As a result, there is
cessful (The World Bank Group, 2001a, 2001b). Nevertheless, a low incentive to invest in these kind of temporary slums which
there has been a lack of research which investigates adaptation pushes them into a negative spiral. In an attempt to integrate
measures to changing environmental conditions such as climate location into slum research, a simple aerial analysis of six of the
variability in urban areas (Jabeen, Allen, & Johnson, 2009). In previously identified slums was done. This gave an indication of
general, local adaptation techniques for slums located near water the extreme diversity in shape and surrounding of slums that
show a variety of uniquely adapted lifestyles to the specific naturally arises from their diverse locations. The integration of a
spatial conditions of such slums. Wamsler suggests that the key temporal component furthermore highlighted their dynamic na-
adaptation techniques in urban environments consist of a ture and relationship with their environment, such as for instance
modification to the physical and built environment (Wamsler, waterbodies. As an important finding, slums on or along water-
2007). In slums located near water, local adaptation techniques bodies have been shown to expand onto the water. Integrating
show a variety of ways in which the urban fabric and lifestyle findings from spatial analysis, such as locational attributes and
has uniquely adapted to the waterbody. Existing reports and growth trends, could help in devising and implementing cus-
studies that investigate household and adaptation strategies in tomised approaches of slum upgrading that account for the di-
slums in Lagos, Nigeria (Agence France-Presse in Lagos, 2014; versity and dynamism of each slum. To further investigate the
IRIN Africa, 2006, Basckin, 2012; Mruaya, 2014), in Iquitos, Peru dynamic and diverse nature of slums, the paper looked at ways in
(Faldetta et al. 2014), or Dhaka, Bangladesh (Jabeen et al., 2009) which local slums have adapted to particular locational charac-
show how slums have adapted to flood risk and water by teristics, such as the risk of flooding. As a result, the paper has
building on stilts. Materials vary from timber to bamboo, highlighted the importance of local knowledge and local partici-
depending on their availability. This technique furthermore in- pation in slum upgrading. A review of existing studies on slums in
corporates a seasonal adaptability. In the Belen slum in Iquitos, Belen, Peru and Lagos, Nigeria have shown how building on stilts
the stilted housing sits on land during the dry season (Faldetta has helped the slums adapt to the recurring problem of flooding
et al. 2014). When the land is flooded, the stilted constructions that naturally arises due to their proximity to water. Local
provide protection from the water. Further adaptation measures knowledge can be an extremely valuable resource for under-
have been integrated into the regular lifestyle of slum dwellers standing how upgrading can incorporate and address spatial and
in Korail in Dhaka. These include the creation of barriers at front environmental characteristics and make it possible to scale up
doors, increasing the height of the furniture and plinth, and ar- existing local adaptation measures. For instance, when planning
ranging storage facilities that are higher (Jabeen et al., 2009). an upgrading project, knowledge of a slum's exposure to flood
With flooding effects predicted to intensify due to the rising sea risks and existing adaptation measures could lead to an effective
level from changing climate (IPCC, 2007; 2014), it has been spatialized provision of adaptive housing and services provision.
established that these effects will disproportionately affect the Effective, targeted upgrading is put in jeopardy by generic mea-
urban poor and heighten their vulnerability in comparison to sures that do not consider the locational attributes of slums or the
other urban dwellers (Alam and Golam Rabbani 2007; local knowledge. As a solution to this complex problem of generic
McGranahan, Balk, & Anderson, 2007; Pelling, 2003; slum upgrading, this paper therefore proposes a customised
Satterthwaite, Huq, Reid, Pelling, & Romero Lankao, 2007). approach that goes beyond conventional, blanket methods of
Stilted constructions are only effective up to a certain height of upgrading such as the provision of basic services. A method that
the water level. Amphibious and floating constructions might actively seeks to incorporate location through spatial analysis as
K. Olthuis et al. / Habitat International 50 (2015) 270e288 277
well as integrate existing local adaptation techniques would make sanitation risk and affects the functioning of the wider urban area.
it possible to find flexible and customised solutions that account To avoid this, these settlements should be prepared for disaster.
for the dynamic and diverse nature of the slum. For this, a few Therefore investments should be made pre-disaster and not as
recommendations have been formulated. emergency relief in post-disaster situations. (Jha, Miner, & Stanton-
Geddes, 2013; Wieriks & Vlaanderen, 2015).
The paper has four main findings which are the highlights of the In order to carry out the aforementioned guidelines effectively,
paper. These are: the temporary yet permanent nature of slums, our knowledge of slums should not be restricted to household
impact of flooding for slums, the diverse and dynamic nature of data and numbers. It warrants a better understanding of slums
slums, and the vast local knowledge that exist in these slums. From and to achieve this, the following recommendations have been
these findings, the paper ends with two sets of recommendations e drawn up. They consist of suggestions for a new approach to
one for slum upgrading projects and the other for the study and study slums.
analysis of slums in the future.
a. Define slums using their locational attributes
1. For slum upgrading projects
This should be an important goal of all experts involved in
Upgrading projects have become very general and are more slums. As shown by the studies, the situation of the slum is
or less a blanket approach. Despite having upgrading projects, largely dictated by its location. To emphasise this point, there
we see that slums and their poor conditions continue to exist. has to be a formal connection between slums and their location.
The paper recommends the following guidelines to effectively This can be brought through a location-based definition. Through
upgrade slums. In addition to asking for a change in perception, such definitions, it will be possible to get a holistic picture of the
the guidelines ask for a revised approach which will incorporate slum.
the characteristics of the location and emphasise what the
priorities should be while investing in physical upgrading of b. Develop a methodology to get a more precise understanding of the
slums. slums.
a. Accept the permanent nature of slums in order to create a mind-set Existing methods to study slums generalise slum conditions.
for effectively upgrading slums. Most data are restricted to be at the city level. This way, data also
exhibit a top-down character. As slums are diverse and heteroge-
Slums are perceived to be temporary due to their illegal status as neous, such an approach carries the risk of not understanding the
well as threat of floods. This discourages investments leading to a exact condition of the slum. Therefore, new systems and method-
negative spiral. From our analysis, we see that slums are anything ologies should be developed to get a more precise understanding of
but temporary. They keep growing, as shown by our spatial anal- the slum.
ysis. This permanent nature of slums should be accepted in order to
effectively upgrade slums. c. Have at our disposal a more accurate and updated database of
slums and slum upgrading projects
b. To deal with the dynamic nature of slums brought about by its
location, we have to ensure upgrading measures consist of flexible As noted in the paper, there is a dearth of updated information
solution. or a single database regarding slums or slum upgrading projects.
This can lead to analyses being cumbersome and inaccurate. To
The spatial analysis done showed how slums are dynamic in avoid these issues, we require real-time data and stronger data-
nature owing to their location. If we continue to address slums bases. It is therefore necessary that there are new and innovative
without addressing this dynamic nature, we will be stuck with methods to collect and distribute data.
solutions that are obsolete in a few years. Projects or solutions to
upgrade these slums should be as flexible as their settlement is d. Conduct more research to counter other aspects also (eg: legality)
dynamic. that lead to ineffective slum upgrading.
c. To address the diverse nature of slums, upgrading measures should The most common aspect that leads to ineffective slum
involve customised solutions integrated with local knowledge. upgrading is the slum settlement's lack of tenure. Substantial
research exists as to why this is so (Davis, 2006) but there are still
The spatial analysis threw light on the diversity of slums very little strategies to tackle this problem.
necessitating the importance of customised solutions. The vast
local knowledge prevalent in the slums is helpful in this regard.
For effectively improving their conditions, strategies have to go Acknowledgements
one step further and integrate advanced technology to local
knowledge. We would like to thank the Flood Resilience Group at UNESCO-
IHE, Delft for providing us space and resources for the research. We
d. Make sure investments on slums are made pre-disaster not post- especially thank William Verbeek at UNESCO-IHE for his help and
disaster. guidance to use GIS data, Mats Lehwald and Stephan van Berkel for
their tremendous contribution in shaping this paper. We also thank
For these least prepared settlements, floods pose a huge threat. our anonymous reviewers for fine-tuning and sharpening our
It disrupts economic activities, presents a huge health and paper.
278
Appendix
Name of slum upgrading Area (if known, specific slums Time of Key objectives for resource and Notes Scale Source
project are identified) investment investment allocation
approval
1 Kampung Improvement Kampung, Jakarta, Indonesia 1969 Infrastructure provision (roads, bridges Government-assisted, self-help Community http://www.akdn.org/
Programme and footpaths) community planning architecture/project.asp?id¼1
Basic services (sanitation and water) programme.
Flood control (drainage canals) Aga Khan Award for
Schools and health clinics Architecture.
Little disturbance to existing
housing, little housing
assistance but improvements in
access, flood control and
economic activity stimulated
home improvement
2 Lusaka Squatter Upgrading and Lusaka, Zambia 1974 Housing (upgrading existing squatter Large-scale, low-cost urban City http://web.mit.edu/urbanup
Sites and Services Project settlements) housing using the concept of grading/upgrading/case-
Sites and services mutual help construction examples/ce-ZA-lus.html;
Primary infrastructure http://www.worldbank.org/
279
(continued )
280
Name of slum upgrading Area (if known, specific slums Time of Key objectives for resource and Notes Scale Source
project are identified) investment investment allocation
approval
20 Sulawesi Irian Jaya Urban Irian Jaya, Indonesia 1991 (closed) Services (water supply, drainage, solid Regional http://web.worldbank.
Development Project (SIJUDP) waste, sanitation, roads) org/external/projects/
main?pagePK¼104231
&theSitePK¼40941&
menuPK¼228424&
Projectid¼P003922
21 Family Welfare Project India 1992 (closed) Social services (education and health) Physical component in this Communities http://www.worldbank.
Participation and capacity building project is the upgrading of org/projects/P009963/
existing and construction of family-welfare-urban-
new health facilities slums-project?lang¼
en&tab¼overview
22 Low Income Barrios Venezuela, Bolivia 1992 (closed) Capability strengthening National http://www.worldbank.
Improvement Project Institutional development org/projects/P008212/
Basic infrastructure (water supply, low-income-barrios-
sewerage, electricity, drainage, street improvement-project?
paving, garbage collection) lang¼en&tab¼overview
281
(continued )
282
Name of slum upgrading Area (if known, specific slums Time of Key objectives for resource and Notes Scale Source
project are identified) investment investment allocation
approval
41 Jordan National Urban Amman, Jordan 1996 Housing Provide low-cost housing Regional http://web.mit.edu/
Development Project Basic infrastructure in slums of Aqaba without subsidy, guide new urbanupgrading/
Finance growth and create mixed upgrading/case-examples/
Social facilities income communities ce-JO-jor.html;
42 Morocco Second Sewerage and Morocco 1996 (closed) Improving sewerage services Regional/Municipality http://www.worldbank.org/
Water Reuse Project projects/P005503/morocco-
second-sewerage-water-
reuse-project?lang¼en
&tab¼overview
43 North West Frontier Province Pakistan 1996 (closed) Basic infrastructure and community Province/Community http://www.worldbank.
(NWFP) development org/projects/P010478/
pakistannwfp-community-
infrastsructure-project-cip?
lang¼en&tab¼overview
44 Social Investment Fund Project Jamaica 1996 (closed) Basic services and infrastructure Contribute to reduction of Community http://www.worldbank.
Financing poverty and help to create an org/projects/P039029/
283
(continued on next page)
(continued )
284
Name of slum upgrading Area (if known, specific slums Time of Key objectives for resource and Notes Scale Source
project are identified) investment investment allocation
approval
61 Bogota Urban Services Project Bogota 2003 (closed) Access to basic services (water, City http://www.worldbank.
sanitation and transport) org/projects/P074726/
Improve mobility (access, roads) bogota-urban-services-
Institutional strengthening project?lang¼en&tab¼
overview
62 Lima Water Rehabilitation and Lima, Peru 2003 (closed) Water supply and sanitation (water City http://www.worldbank.
Management Project wells, water conservation) org/projects/P081834/
Institutional capacity strengthening additional-financing-
lima-water-rehabilitation-
management-project?lang
¼en&tab¼overview
63 Recife Urban Upgrading Project Beberibe River Basin, Recife, 2003 (closed) Institutional capacity Regional http://www.worldbank.
Brazil Basic shelter and housing org/projects/P049265/
Urban services (road, drainage and recife-urban-upgrading-
sewage, water supply and sanitation) project?lang¼en&tab¼
overview
285
(continued on next page)
(continued )
286
Name of slum upgrading Area (if known, specific slums Time of Key objectives for resource and Notes Scale Source
project are identified) investment investment allocation
approval
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