System Dynamic Modelling for a Balanced Scorecard:

A Case Study

By
Steen Nielsen
(E-mail: sni@asb.dk)
&
Erland H. Nielsen
(E-mail: ehn@asb.dk)

January 2006
Addresses for correspondence:
Steen Nielsen, Department of Business Studies
Aarhus School of Business,
Fuglesangs Allé 4,
Aarhus 8200, Denmark
Tel: +45 89486688

The paper is presented at the Annual Congress of the EAA March 22-25 2006,
Dublin Ireland.
 1

System Dynamic Modelling for a Balanced Scorecard:

A Case Study
By
Steen Nielsen*
Erland H. Nielsen†
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this research is to make an analytical model of the BSC foundation by using a
dynamic simulation approach for a ‘hypothetical case’ model, based on only part of an actual case study
of BSC.
Design/methodology/approach – The model includes five perspectives and a number of financial and
non-financial measures. All indicators are defined and related by a number of assumed cause-and-effect
relationships. Time lags are included to stipulate one of the most important characteristic of BSC. We use
the model to simulation different strategies or scenarios and to reach a kind of optimum or ‘steady-state-
condition. We, also demonstrate through three different scenarios how different variables influence the
optimum time that normally also influence decision making.
Findings – The results shows how profit, and ROCE (Return-On-Capital-Employed) are influenced by
three chosen variables: skills, customer base and work in process. We are able to show that only minimal
changes may create large effects on profit.
Research limitations/implications – Our analytical model is based on both assumed but also on case
documented assumptions of a concrete model. In every such kind of model, the sensitivity of our results
with respect to the assumptions should be analysed in subsequent studies. Besides, our model should be
extended to cover a whole BSC of an actual company.
Practical implications – The model may be used as the first step in putting numbers on an integrated
BSC model. The model is our first attempt to study an analytical version of BSC and to make inferences
concerning some optimal or rational behaviour of an assumed relationship between different indicators
and perspectives. The credibility or benefit of the model is insight into the finality of a model but also as
a teaching exercise of BSC. It is relativity easy to extend our model to more realistic circumstances, by
including more measures or change time lags. Using the assumed cause-and-effect relationships between
financial and non-financial performance measures, attention should also be paid to the definitions and the
number of measures.
Originality/value – A large number of case studies and surveys are now present in the literature of BSC.
However, there is a lack of more theoretical and analytical modelling of the BSC. Our paper just throws a
little light to this modelling approach.
Keywords: Balanced Scorecard, model, analytical, time lag, indicators, financial measures, non-financial
measures, and steady-state-condition.

1 IntroductionI
The aim of the holistic model of BSC is to implement and explain the strategy of the firm
with subsequently translation into more operational terms (Drury, 2002; Garrison & Noreen, 2000).

*
Steen Nielsen is Ph.D. and associate professor at the Department for Business Studies in the Aarhus School of
Business in Denmark, and member of Management Accounting Research Group.
†
Erland H. Nielsen is associate professor at the Department of Business Studies in the Aarhus School of Business in
Denmark, and member of Logistic Research Group.
 2

The emergence of information has made many of the fundamental assumptions from the
industrial age competition of traditional financial measures obsolete. It is no longer enough to gain
sustainable competition advantage just by rapidly deploying new technology into physical assets or
by excellent management of financial assets alone. The information age for both manufacturing and
service organizations requires new capabilities for success (Johnson & Kaplan, 1987). Companies
in a global world economy must develop and retain loyal customers, introduce innovative products
mobilize employee skills invest in technology and implement new data bases and systems. Separate
and single develop measures only tell a fraction of a company’s story. Therefore, the financial
accounting model must expand to incorporate the valuation of the company’s intangible and
intellectual assets that satisfy customers and employees (Kaplan & Atkinson, 1998). The balanced
scorecard is developed to communicate the multiple, linked objectives that modern companies must
achieve to compete on the capabilities. BSC translate mission and strategy into objectives and
measures in different perspectives. BSC has also developed over time, from performance
measurement system (Kaplan & Norton, 1992), to the so-called strategy map approach (Kaplan &
Norton, 2004) with focus on a generic business model based on causality between measures and
perspective to an interactive controlling system that drives learning and improvements (Simon,
1994) to a model that also encompasses intellectual capital and finally to an integrated strategic
planning process through the BSC (Horváth & Ralf, 2004).
By focusing and controlling relevant key perspectives the company achieve a ‘simple’
description of how a company can attain its strategic goals. The generic model includes four
different perspectives: financial perspective, customer perspective, internal perspective, and
learning and growth perspective, as stated by Kaplan & Norton (1992, 1996b). The model aims you
to control a numbers of key performance areas (or perspectives), based on some form of a cause and
effect logic. Subsequently, Kaplan and Norton (2001a,b,c) has developed an overall strategic
management concept that consist of: i) transform strategy to operational terms, ii) get the company
to focus on this strategy, iii) make strategy every person’s job to achieve, iv) make strategy a
continuous process, and v) mobilize changes through a strong and effective management. However,
as pointed out by Olve et al., (1997, 2000), the interest in non-financial measures is only a belated
awakening to what others have been doing
The news in BSC – in contrast to other holistic models – is the balance and the
comprehensiveness and future view. Also the importance of the latest version of BSC is put on
cause and effect logics through the concept of ‘strategy maps’. An example of a complete and
integrated BSC is, however, still hard to find in the real world, although companies are trying to use
BSC as described by Kaplan and Norton.
Maisel (1992) also points to fact that financial measures need to be supplemented by non-
financial measures, such as customer’s attitude, quality, innovation and flexibility. Financial
measures may in fact create barriers for meaningful communication between perspectives. How
many perspectives should be used depends on the company’s strategy. Contrary to Kaplan &
Norton (1996a,b), Maisel (1992) discusses a specific perspective for Human Resource Measures.
By Kaplan & Norton (1996b) this perspective is included in the learning and innovation
perspective. The innovative and developing perspective includes the lifecycle of the products.
Because of constant change, intense competition, and more responsiveness to satisfying customer
demands, companies need to strike balance between efficiency, develop new products to lower
costs (Maisel, 1992). Therefore, BSC needs to stress TQM and continuous improvements.
In conclusion, balance is needed between the horizontal and a vertical view, between financial
and non-financial measures, between external and internal measures, between management control
concepts such as costs and revenues, between short and long run and between hard and soft values.
 3

Balance also implies a balance between lead and lagging indicators (Kaplan & Norton, 1996a, p.
56; 1996, p. 25).
BSC is only one out of several new holistic accounting innovations. However, in contrast to
more partial and single-purpose oriented innovation, such as ABC, target costing, kaizen costing
BSC was first introduced in 1992 by Kaplan & Norton in the article, ‘The Balanced Scorecard –
Measures that Drive Performance’ from Harvard Business Review, as one of more holistic
concepts or innovations with the focus on management the company from it’s vision and strategy
(other models or company models are the EFQM model (European Foundation for Quality
Management), the TQM model (Dale & Plunkett, 1995; Conti, 1999), the Performance Pyramid
(McNair et al., 1990), Business Models (Eccles et al., 1991), Intellectual Capital Statements
(Mouritsen et al., 2002) or classical budgeting models (Shank & Govindarajan, 1993). Kaplan and
Norton (1996b, 2004) point out that it is important to be able to evaluated the economic effect or
outcome in the financial perspective (e.g. by an improvement – or reduction - in ROI, ROS, ROA,
RI, or ROCE). BSC is a tool to transform the company’s vision, mission and strategy into
operational terms and integrated connections, or as Kaplan & Norton (1996b,p.2) write, ‘The
Balanced Scorecard translates an organization’s mission and strategy into a comprehensive set of
performance measures that provides the framework for a strategic measurement and management
system’.
The Balanced Scorecard developed by Kaplan and Norton (1992, 1996a,b,c, 2001a,b,c, and
2004) has become a very popular concept and an important innovation in almost all countries
around the world. A large number of books, articles, and papers have been published that examines
the concept or part of it in theory writings (Maisel, 1992; Nørreklit 2000). Besides, Kaplan has
developed his own problem based research methodology, ‘Innovation Action Research: Creating
New Management Theory and Practice’ (JMAR, 1998) as a template for solving practical problems.
One direction began appearing in the mid of the 90’s and dedicated to case-studies (Ax &
Bjørnenak, 2005; Malina & Selto, 2001, Olve, et al., 1997; Kraus & Lind, 2002/03). Another
direction began from end 90’s and beginning of 2000 and was conducted to a number of surveys
(Hoque & James, 2000; Töpfer et al. 2002) and in the Nordic countries (Bukh et al., 2000; Malmi et
al., 2001; Nielsen Sørensen, 2004). Now a quantitative or model direction is beginning to show,
dedicated to analytical oriented studies and frameworks concerning the problem of transforming
BSC into a dynamic model (Laitinen, 2004, 2005; Schöneborn, 2003). Often company invests and
implement in more than one accounting innovation at a time (Joshi, 2001, Nielsen et al., 2002)
which also indicate a great interest in new accounting innovations.
Also a large number of cases which also have emphasized the opportunities for a success-
oriented enterprise control have been published in recent years. The reason for this fast spreading of
the BSC in all kind of businesses around the world is probably the first real attempt to integrate the
strategic dimension and objectives of the company and to formulate specific measures that should
be used to increase profit. However, there also seems to be heavy difficulties in formulating these
strategic objectives or goal into the company’s operational processes and finally to locate the
benefit in the P & L statements. What has to be done in the operational and concrete area is to make
sure that the objectives or goal will be achieved. How are these operational measures linked with
the strategic objectives, and how can financial and non-financial measures be linked together? I.e.
how can we translate the different perspectives and different kinds of measures into a common
languish that can be used to evaluate and control the company? The traditional four perspectives -
financial, customer, internal business processes, and learning and growth - only provide a generic
model without any real description of how the measures should be linked and used as drivers for
future performance. The core elements of BSC are strategic success factors, which should guarantee
the survival of the company as well as its financial success in the long run. It is, however, stressed
 4

that the BSC does not only represent a mathematical model or system. However, the core idea of a
BSC as pointed out several times is that the financial success of an enterprise can be measured or
determined in the long run. However, an isolated view and maximization of financial results may
also lead to a neglect of other measures, to a misuse of the financial element or to conflicting
signals about the organization values (Kaplan & Norton, 1996a). This will not create a long-term
consensus for the member of the company. Therefore writers on BSC often use the metaphor of
entering a cockpit of a jet plain. On the other hand, only a mixture of financial and non-financial
measures represents a limited application of the full power of BSC because of the missing strategy
indicators (Kaplan & Norton, 1996a).
Kaplan and Norton point out these relations or hypotheses relations between perspectives as
an important facet of BSC (Kaplan & Norton, 1996b). These perspectives should be connected to
the financial and monetary success of the company. Therefore, the recognition of single elements or
measures and their influence on other measures including the financial area are important for a
success oriented company’s control view. To bring strategies in action, measures have to be
implemented which guarantee the achievement of the strategic goals and an increase in profitability
in the long run. However, trying to connect measures to one single outcome measure has been tried
before e.g., in the DuPont Powder Company, formed in 1903, where the financial outcome was on
the Return of Investment (ROI). One problem is related to the high complexity of incorporating
several measures to a single financial measure including both different time delays and stochasticity
in measures. These problems are not yet part of the practical problems for BSC, probably because
companies have not yet reached this analytical step. Therefore, the purpose of our paper is to start
and develop this step and to illustrate a network dynamic model which integrates different time lags
situations with the help of causal loop diagrams in a system-dynamic research. Even though our
model may labelled as a naive estimation of the real world it has some creditability and gives some
insight of the extreme difficulties that are to be expected in the further if this analytical perspective
is going to be explored. However, by using a dynamic model approach it becomes possible to
conduct and test different scenarios by the help of simulation.
There has been some discussion concerning how the cause-and-effect relations should be
interpreted. Nørreklit (2000, 2003) and Nørreklit et al. (2004) has taken the point that BSC should
be based on a generic cause-and-effect relationships mostly takes for the natural science or on logic
relationships. Others, (e.g. Bukh & Malmi 2005; Ittner et al., 2000; Kaplan & Norton, 1996b,
2001a,b,c, 2004) has taken the point that the cause-and-effect should be based on a more pragmatic,
practical contingency or assumed approach. Even though we mostly agree with the last mentioned
approach which also is in line with what Mattessich (1995a,b) calls a finality approach, we also
think that these relationships must be conducted by statistical hypothesis testing methods, like all
other kinds of relationships in economics. The important point is that the assumed relationship
between different kinds of indicators, actual works, which may first be evaluated after some time.
Besides, statistical test and estimation have a long tradition in management accounting (see Kaplan,
1982; Hirsch, 2002). However, the word ‘causal’ has many meanings (James et al., 1987). As we
see it, the cause-and-effect relationship in a social science cannot be driven by a stringent cause-
and-effect relationship known from the natural science. We see management accounting basically
as an applied research approach in line with Ittner et al., (2002), Chenhall, (2003), Samuelson
(1990), Horngren, (1977), and Kaplan (1998). Besides, ‘the assumed cause-and-effect approach’ or
hypnotises is in no respect different from other approaches within management accounting, e.g. the
cost driver in ABC, relationships in ABM between customers and profit, in forecast techniques for
revenue and costs, or in developing strategies in association to the economic results of the company.
Beside, this assumed approach is also used within econometrics and statistical analysis (correlation,
regression, covariance structures, structural equation modelling etc. (Johnson, 1986; Kemnta, 1986).
Kaplan & Norton (1996a, p. 67) also point to this possibility, by saying; ‘managers can test the
 5

business theory’s hypothesised causal chain of performance drivers and outcomes. If we didn’t use
such an approach, we would not be able to come up with any model at all. However, this cause-and-
effect may of cause be verified in practical situations (Bukh & Malmi, 2005).
The purpose of this paper is to
1. developed an analytical base model based on a theoretical foundation of BSC with the
aid of the simulation language Vensim;
2. apply the model for different scenarios concerning a change in strategy combined
with problems searching for steady-state-conditions.
There have only been a few writings concerning the problem of converting BSC into an
analytical model. Laitinen (2004) derive a theoretical foundation for BSC, by the use of shadow
prices and different strategies. In Laitinen (2005) a microeconomic analysis of BSC on practical
company is used, here Nokia Corporation. The model includes demand, production, and objective
mathematical functions. Strategy is described by the objective function to be maximized. However,
an experimental simulation strategy has been mentioned by Brinberg & McGrath (1988). In
building a BSC-model is no different from building models in other areas e.g. management science
or logistics.
This has also been pointed out by Kaplan & Norton (1996a, p. 67) who says: ‘at this point,
the Balanced Scorecard can be captured in a systems dynamics model that provides a
comprehensive, quantified model of a business value creation process.’
The paper is organized as follows. In the next section we present a short introduction to
financial and non-financial measures on the background of BSC. In section three, we introduce the
concept of model in a classical sense and try to convert the specific assumption on the model of a
BSC. In section four, we introduce our framework for our BSC model, its assumptions, containing
elements of skills, customer base and work in process. In section five, we introduce three numerical
simulation scenarios; one for the given basic ideas, one for changing the number of trainings, and
one for changing the number of staff. Finally, the sixth section we summarize the main results of
the study and discuss the limitations and making suggestions for further research on the topic. .

2 Financial and non-financial measures

Several economic theories discus the choice of performance measures and indicate that
performance measures and reward systems should incorporate measures that provide incremental
information on managerial effort (Ittner & Larcker, 1998). It is important to define measures that
also improve competitiveness (Ghalayini et al., 1997; Neely et al.,1996).
Many measures used in BSC have already been used and defined in earlier literature for
performance measures, both in Anglo-Saxon literature (e.g. Solomon, 1965), in German literature
(Hahn, 1974) and in the Nordic literature, e.g. Johansson & Őstman (1995). Several of these may be
called ‘generic measure’, e.g. market share; customer satisfaction; customer retention; profitability;
EVA (Economic Value Added); because they are already accepted and have been used for decades.
One of the main problems in BSC is the combination and integration of financial and non-
financial measures. Non-financial measures are normally considered short termed or operational
measures, whereas financial measures are long termed and strategic measures, Atkinson & Kaplan
(1999). In BSC these two types of measures must work together. At the same time assumed
relations and measures between different perspectives e.g. the outcome profitability measure from a
customer perspective should be related to the sale in the financial perspective. The construction of
BSC also allows other accounting innovations to be included, e.g. TCO (Total Cost of Ownership)
 6

for suppliers, TCS (Total Cost to Serve) in the customer perspective, or the theory of ABC/M for
the internal and external perspective. In contrast to ABC, where the separability theorem of
activities, cost pools and cost driver must exits (Christensen & Demski, 1995), indicators in BSC
should correlate. The correlation between measures and perspectives, also gives the opportunity for
simulation, to search for optimization/minimization stages, to change substitutions between
different input factors or to choose between different outcome measures.
There are two types of performance measures; performance drivers also called lead indicators
and output measures or lag indicators. Performance drivers also named as metrics are the ones that
tend to be unique for a particular business unit and reflect the uniqueness of the business unit’s
strategy (Kaplan & Norton, 1996a). If e.g. the company want to reduce lead time in the internal
perspective as part of its strategy, the company should chose those underlying lead indicators that
support this part of the strategy e.g., product design, speed of processing, DFM (Design for
Manufacturability). The indicators are not a goal in itself but must support outcome drivers and the
strategy. BSC will normally also create new processes and new indicators that should be used in
combination with existing measures in the strategic planning (Kaplan & Norton (1996, p. 11).
Normally, BSC also clarify the company’s strategic goals and at the same time identify critical
drivers that should ensure the strategy. However, as known from practice, the learning process from
BSC is a major factor. BSC also gives the possibility to make feedback from the strategic level and
the strategic learning. At the same time goal congruence, incentive and autonomy must all be
considered simultaneously to secure consistency and transparency and prevent unknowingly sub-
optimization. Typically, maximum 25 measures are prescribed as sufficient in the generic model
which are both consistent and mutually reinforcing (Kaplan & Atkinson, 1998).

3 A-priori Model-considerations
The most important objective for BSC is the feedback for learning and improvements for
employees, the communication and information, and learning for executives (Kaplan & Norton,
1996a, b p. 15). This presumes a stringent model-approach build on a-priory knowledge and tests of
how different performance indicators are connected, both within a single perspective but also
between different perspectives. The final goal is to be able to control the operational performance of
the company, and therefore be able to secure the competitions of the company and to increase the
value of the company in the long run.
Looking in classical literature for model building, e.g. in operation research accounting
(Churchman et al, 1957; Hillier & Lieberman, 1989; Sterman, 2000; Sterman et al., 1997) (or in
micro economics e.g. Varian, 1997), accountants may get help to build and secure the validity of the
BSC model (here validity as used by Brinberg & McGrath (1988, p. 13) i.e. ‘integrity, character, or
quality to be assessed relation to purposes and circumstances’). But also in the area of analytical
accounting research (Christensen & Demski, 1995; Magee, 1986; Mattessich, 1984) and in a system
oriented approach (Bjørnenak & Olson, 1999), different model approaches can be found.
Using the assumptions above implies that the BSC model should provide a means to explore
the consequences of alternative policies and environmental circumstance in such a setting (Sterman
et al., 1997). Translating the thoughts of model builders such as Sterman (2000) and Churchman et
al., (1957) into the BSC means that developers of BSC must consider the following ingredients:
¾ Problem Articulation/Boundary Selection: I.e. the general problem formulation
of the BSC model, i.e. the definition of and operational definition of strategy and
vision. This also includes the number and choice of perspectives, the choice of
including both performance-drivers (lead indicators) and output measures (lag
indicators), and the feedback loops both forward and backwards. It also includes
 7

the determination of key variables (depending and independent) and the defintions
of each indicator. An important factor is the time horizon or time lag i.e. how far
in the future but also how far back in the past lies the roots of the problem.
Finally, the dynamic problem (known as the reference modes i.e. literally a set of
graphs and other descriptive data showing the development of the problem over
time) i.e. what is the historical behaviour of the key concepts and variables.
¾ Formulation of the Dynamic Elements: What are current theories of the
problematic behaviour? All areas of BSC are covered of different theories
(Chenhall, 2003). The endogenous focus implies the formulation of the dynamic
hypothesis that explains the dynamics as endogenous consequences of the
feedback structure (loops). Using and developing maps of causal structure based
on initial hypothesis, key variables, reference modes and other available data
should be used. Besides, strategy maps and other tools such as, model boundary
diagrams, subsystem diagrams, stock and flow maps (e.g. employees’ knowledge
vs. cost flows), could be used.
¾ Formulation of a Simulation Model: This process should be ‘easy’ when the
above mentioned steps are conducted. This step implies the specification of
structure, decision rules, estimation of parameters, knowledge of behavioural
relationships and setup initial conditions. Determination of time lags or the
dynamic aspect between relation and algorithm functions between different
perspectives, i.e. the time lag from input effort and to effect in the next
perspective (static vs. stochastic). Varian (1997) also points to the determination
of constraints. E.g. who are the people that make the choices, what are the
constraints they face, how do they interact, what adjusts if the choices aren’t
mutually consistant? Kaplan & Norton (2004, p. 366) also argues ‘The collection
of linked objectives, targets, initiatives, and budgets for a strategy theme, …,
provides a complete stand-alone business case for the piece of the strategy’.
However, Kaplan & Norton (2004) also use the term ‘theme’ as the building
blocks of the strategy, meaning that each thema of the strategy, should be
considered as having ‘its own microeconomic action plan’. Accumulting the
microecnomic plans, provide the macroeconomic model of the enterprise (Kaplan
& Norton, 2004, p. 369).
¾ Testing: I.e. comparison to the reference modes above and by asking ‘does the
model reproduce the problem behavior adequately for the intended purpose’?
Does the model behave realistically when stressed by extreme conditions? How
does the model behave given uncertainty in parameters, initial conditions, model
boundary, and aggregartion? This has also been pointed out by Kaplan & Norton
(1996, p. 258) in what they call ‘Management game simulation’, or ‘without
quantifying, a strategy objective is simply a passive statement of intent’ (Kaplan
& Norton, 2004, p. 365).
There is no cookbook recipe for successful modelling, no procedure you can follow to
guarantee a useful model. Modelling is inherently creative, because individual modellers have
different styles and approaches (Sterman, 2000, p. 87). It is important to be aware of the structure of
BSC model and how the model behave e.g., exponential growth, goal seeking, oscillations, steady-
state-solution etc. These behave characteristics depends on feedback loops, stocks and flows,
linearity and non-linearities created by the interaction of the physical and institution structure of the
model. Besides, traditional concepts such as cost vs. spending, capacity utilization etc. have to be
determined (Cooper & Kaplan, 1999).
 8

For each relation, the company has to select and determine all variables, i.e. those
performance measures that measure the underlying indicators. E.g. lead time may be described as
LT = f(x1 ,x 2,x3 ,x 4 ) where x1 represents processing time, x 2 inspection time, x3 transportation
time, and x4 waiting time. How these variables relate to each other may be a specific problem of its
own. The variables may be linear or non-linear and the function may be separable or non-separable.
Technically, the BSC-model has many similarities with statistical models, such as simultaneous
equation systems (Kmenta, 1986) or the batteries of techniques within the term of ‘Structural
Equation Models’ (SEM) (Johnson & Wichern, 1998). Simulation techniques may be used to search
for different kinds of solutions (Law & Kelton, 1998).
The time lag or time delay problem must be considered if BSC should be used as a model
predicting future financial results. The time delay will be presented both between performance
measures and between perspectives. The time delay is defined as a process whose output lags
behind its input in some fashion (Sterman, 2000, p. 411). There might be material delay and
information delay. Both types assume that there is at least one stock within every delay. In some
cases the time delay will be short, but in cases there will be longer time periods, e.g. customer
satisfaction and the customer profitability or between a customer outcome and company net profit.
The dynamic assumption and the feedback loops will imply that is will be possible to reach a
steady-state-solution before an evaluation of the model can be conducted. E.g., if time is expressed
by f (t2 ) = 1.2e0.15t1 where t1 represents starting point and t2 represents ending point between setup
and finishing a product, then by setting time to 50 time units, we get a total delay value of 86 time
units. For the BSC it is important that we can go both ways, i.e. – top-down from the financial
perspective to a lower perspective or from bottom-up to the financial perspective. A top-down
example could be by using the BSC in the strategy-focused business planning process, where
marked target may be expressed in a specific profitability return (e.g. through ROCE or EVA).
From these targets the company can use the BSC-model to simulate the demands for all
performance measures down to lower level perspectives.
If this is the case the company must decide whether to use nominal or relative estimates and
how the results will be represented by columns, bars, pies, radars, surfaces, histograms or frequency
polygons. Finally, the manual of the model should include plan of actions for what should be done
if bottleneck problems turns up or if research and development is not able to make the suggested
improvements. All variables and performance measures should be consistent, depending and
transparent. When the model building step is finished it will be relatively easy to implement or
change to a new strategy by changing variables, implement new parameters or changing the time
delay dimension.
In the BSC terms like strategy, mission and vision are used. The mission provides the starting
point. It defines why the organization exits or how a business unit fits within a broader corporate
architecture (Kaplan & Norton, 2001, p. 72).
The vision is a short and inspired syntax sentence that all members of the company should
understand. E.g., we want to be the most successful company within our field, or, we want to
satisfied customers and make profitability above average, or as mentioned at Rockwater (see
Kaplan & Norton 1993,p 135), ‘as our customers’ preferred provider, we shall be the industry
leader’.
Although the definition of strategy differs there is general agreement that a strategy describes
the general direction in which a company plans to move to attain its goal (Anthony & Govindarajan,
2004, p. 54). Strategy is defined as set of hypotheses about cause and effect, and expressed in a
sequence of if-then statements (Kaplan & Norton, 1996b), in relation to what the company want to
 9

compete to reach its mission and vision. E.g. if the company wants to improve the relation between
the sales personals and an improvement in profit, this may take the following sequences: if we
improve the employees education, then the employees have a better understanding of the knowledge
of the products, and if the employees have more knowledge about the products, then they are able to
target a better sales campaign, and if they can make a better sales campaign, then they are able to
improve the profitability of the company. However the word strategy, may on one side have many
meanings, and on the other side a company may have many different types of strategies, relating to
all kinds of directions e.g. where to place a new factory or which type of supplier the company
should choose for its new products. Communicating the last mentioned strategy into a BSC could
be a serious mistake for the company (Anthony & Govindarajan, 2004; Porter, 1985). Kaplan &
Norton (1996a,b) use and describe different strategies or themes that could be used. E.g. in the
financial perspective a revenue growth and mix, improvement and asset utilization could be
combined to the classical build, hold, harvest, and divest developed by Boston Consulting Group
(1990) or Porters’ (1985) Relative Differentiation Position matrix. Each of these generic strategies
demands different financial and non-financial measures in BSC. E.g. if the company chose a build
strategy, the company should emphasize new investments, R & D, increase in market shares etc., or
if the company implement a hold strategy emphasise should be put on re-investments and
maintenance. However, companies often transform one state to another, e.g. from a mature to a
rapid growth theme. Using BSC as a model makes this dynamic process easier. Similar templates of
performance measures may be developed for other strategies (see e.g. Simons, 1994). However,
several case studies have documented that it is possible to combine different measures for different
strategies in a single financial metrics in a BSC (e.g. Metro Bank Strategy, see Kaplan & Atkinson,
1999).
It is also assumed that the strategy can and will be communicated to the employees using a
BSC and that the measures used in BSC are the measures that the employees can influence.One of
the most important aspect of BSC model is to be able to make feedback for learning and
improvement, e.g. increase yield, reduce defects, improve cycle time or throughput, or reduce
resource consumption (Cooper & Kaplan, 1999).
Figure 1
Relations between mission, vision and strategy

Mission
(Why we exist)

Core Values
(What we believe in)

Vision
(What we want to be)

Strategy
(Our game plan)

Inspired by: Kaplan & Norton (2004, p. 33).

 10

The company can use either historical data or ex-ante oriented data. The data or the model
may be either deterministic or stochastic and data may also be based on time series development.
Historical data generated from the company’s MAS (Management Accounting System), can be used
to make statistic tests or to find an appropriate probability distribution that matches the distribution
of the data. Some relations may be weak while other is strong, some are based on belief while other
are based on actual statistical tests. Testing the correlation between financial and non-financial data
is important and can be used for better predictions. Software systems like SAP/R3, Oracle, Axapta,
and Peoplesoft, normally has a facility for extracting data to be used in separate statistical packages
like Excel, SAS, SPSS. In both cases the BSC model should be evaluated on its ability to be able to
make prediction and improvements.

4 The ’Case Company’

In our generic System Dynamics model presented in this paper we have used only part of the
case company’s balanced scorecard. Our model is centred on three basic state variables:
Skills
Customer Base
Work in Process
It’s a generic setup that is used by numerous authors (e.g. Sterman 1997; Schöneborn, 2003)
and as a consequence of obeying to the System Dynamics model building logic and laws the model
structure is almost given in a unique fashion.
The dynamic behaviour of the proposed model is partly determined by the integration process
(implicit delays) on these three state variables as well as the various assumptions explicitly defining
behavioural reaction and the delays put down in smooth- as well as delay-functions.
The BSC structure that has been reasoned upon in the previous part of this paper is shown in
figure 2 below.
Figure 2. BSC model structure
 11

Translated into System Dynamics terms combined with the choice of state variables “Skills”,
“Customer Base” and “Orders in Process” a corresponding generic structure might look like the one
depicted in figure 3 as follows
Figure 4. The documentation of the dynamic model

The dynamics for the three state variables are given by their respective rate-inflow and rate-
outflow functions as listed below.
Dynamics of the state variable “Skills”:
Skills = INTEG (Skills Learned - Skills Lost)
Skills Learned = TE*Staff*NOT
Skills Lost = Skills*LR

The “Skills Learned” rate of change variable is modelled as the product of the variable “Staff”
with a “training efficiency” coefficient (TE) and a coefficient indicating “the number of trainings”
per time unit.
The “Skills Lost” rate of change variable is modelled simply as a exponential decay
mechanism with the decay rate (LR) per time unit.
Dynamics of the state variable “Customer Base”:
Customer Base = INTEG(Customer Won - Customer Lost)
Customer Won = IF THEN ELSE(R+2>0,Customer Base*(R+2),0)
Customer Lost = IF THEN ELSE(CL<0,-0.1*Customer Base*CL,0)
The “Customer Won” rate of change variable is modelled as a function of some index
measuring (“Recommendations”+2) (R) per time unit so that if R>0 then “Customer Won” =
“Customer Base” multiplied by “Recommendations” (R) and else zero. The constant value of 2
 12

added to the “Recommendations” accounts for the fact that if “Recommendations” equal zero there
are still a flow of customers into the firm’s base of customers from other firms.
The “Customer Lost” rate of change variable is modelled in a similar fashion as a function of
some index variable “Customer Loyalty” (CL) per time unit and the mechanism is only active if
CL<0 where it is given by “-0.1*Customer Base*CL” that is in fact a positive loss and zero else.
Dynamics of the state variable “Orders in Process”:
WIP = INTEG (Orders-Shipments)
Orders = OF*Customer Base
Shipments = MIN(WIP,AP*Staff)
The “Orders” rate of change variable is modelled as the product between the “Order Frequency”
(OF) per time unit and the “Customer Base”.
The “Shipments” rate of change variable is modelled as a minimum function between the
variables “Work in Process” (WIP) and a handlings capacity constraint given by the product
between the “Actual Productivity” (AP) per time unit and the number of employees (Staff).
As for now the model is expressed only in time units, but if coefficients as well as functional
relations are put in proper sizes relative to a desired time frame the model can be assigned a
calendar time dimension, which we will do as follows.
The coefficients which must have the time dimension given by definition are essentially,
“Number of Trainings”
NOT =1 per month (per Staff)
“Loss Rate”
LR = 0.05 per month
“Order Frequency”
OF = 2 per month (per customer)
This model is hereby cast in time units equal to months. The actual settings for the variables NOT,
LR and OF are clearly in this paper entirely arbitrary and primarily for illustrative purposes, as is
the model structure in general. The various functional relations are primarily chosen as simple as
possible, just to make a generic point of argument.
Now let us deal with the variables TE, R, CL and AP and the functional assumptions that
determine their behaviour
“Training Efficiency”
TE = 10/R&D activity
“Recommendations”
R= CL + R&D activity
“Customer Loyalty”
CL = -ADT/2
“Actual productivity”
AP = ASP*Skills/20000
"R&D activity"
"R&D activity" = SQRT("R&D budget p.a."/Production Cost)
The “R&D activity” is defined as the square root of the ratio between the per year budget for
R&D purposes and the companies running total operative cost.
The logic of the TE function is that when “R&D activity” variable is small (close to zero) it
should mean that the relative weight of “R&D” in the overall business activities is small and the
“Training Efficiency” should be higher due to the assumption that training on a more static product
portfolio is more efficient. If “R&D activity” variable is high it means that the relative weight of
“R&D” in the overall business activities is more dominant and the “Training Efficiency” is lowered
 13

somewhat due to training in relation to a more varying product portfolio. The “Recommendations”
variable is also a function of the “R&D activity” variable which is added linearly to a “Customer
Loyalty” variable, so both an increased activity in “R&D activity” as well as an increased
“Customer Loyalty” will imply an increase in “Recommendations” and vice versa.
“Actual Productivity” (AP) is defined as “Actual Standard Productivity” (ASP) scaled by the
expression “Skills/20000”.
“Actual Standard Productivity” (ASP) is defined as “Standard Productivity” (SP) scaled by the
expression 1-(“Time Away”*NOT/”Working Days) per Month”.
Besides the financial variables which are straightforward in their expressions and
interpretations, the last vital model component is the “Actual Delivery Time” (ADT).
ADT = (Orders + WIP)/(Shipments+1)
It’s a rough indicator of the actual delivery time and should be interpreted more as a psychological
reaction measure to delivery problems in this model in connection with the “Customer Loyalty”
variable.
Finally some constants of the model will be as follows
Table 1
Constants of the Model

CONSTANTS Value
Capital Employed 1e+007
Cost per Head 2
Cost per Training 10
Material Cost per Unit 10
Working days per month 20
Unit Price 100
Staff 100
Std. Productivity 100
Time Away 1
Working Days per Month 20

The model operates a couple of performance indicators besides of course “Skills”, “Customer
Base” and “Work in Process”

RoCE p.a. = Profit p.a./Capital Employed

Staff Utilization = Shipments/(Actual productivity*staff)
Profit p.a. = SMOOTH(profit, 12)
R&D activity = SQRT(R&D budget p.a./Production Cost)

These indicators obviously cover both the financial as well as the non-financial aspects of the
overall systems performance as should be the case if we actually want to take a BSC-view on
system performance and control.
Before running a couple of illustrative scenarios to unfold some aspects of the actual
dynamics of the given BSC model proposed, it is advisable to get the expectations, as to the
dynamic capabilities of the model, set right.
 14

The System Dynamics tool for this operation is the so called closed loop analysis that aims at
the entanglement of the signs between different elements in the model as well as for complete
closed loops embedded in the model. Further analysis can be performed to establish the dominant
loop structure, which essentially tells us what kind of dynamics the model will produce.
If we analyse the closed loop structure of the model from the respective stand point of the
three state variables in turn we get the following statistics
• Skills - 10 closed loops
• Customer Base - 19 closed loops
• Work in Process - 10 closed loops
This immediately unveils a complicated dynamic structure of the model that would, if the
model was to be used for more than illustrative purposes, require a most complicated dominant
closed loop analysis. However we will settle for somewhat lesser namely the loop signs embedded
in the model extracted to the BSC figure 2 and shown in figure 4.
Figure 4. The extracted model of BSC

Let us isolate a couple of important closed loops in the structure depicted in figure 4. In
determining the sign that will characterize the full closed loop, the number of negative partial signs
has to be summed. If the sum is even, the loop is positive or self - reinforcing, if the sum is odd then
the loop is negative or stabilizing.
(1) Negative (stabilizing) loop structure:

Orders -> Actual Delivery Time -> Customer Loyalty -> Customer Base -> Orders

(2) Positive (reinforcing) loop structure:

Orders -> Production Cost -> R&D Activity -> Training Efficiency ->
Skills -> Shipment -> Actual Delivery Time -> Customer Loyalty ->
Customer Base -> Orders
 15

(3) Positive (reinforcing) loop structure:

Orders -> Production Cost -> Profit p.a. -> R&D Budget -> R&D Activity ->
Training Efficiency -> Skills -> Shipment -> Actual Delivery Time ->
Customer Loyalty -> Customer Base -> Orders

(4) Negative (stabilizing) loop structure:

Orders -> Production Cost -> R&D Activity -> Recommendations ->
Customer Base -> Orders

(5) Negative (stabilizing) loop structure:

Orders -> Production Cost -> Profit p.a. -> R&D Budget -> R&D Activity ->
Recommendations -> Customer Base -> Orders
(6) Negative (stabilizing) loop structure:

Shipment -> Revenue -> Profit p.a. -> R&D Budget -> R&D Activity ->
Training Efficiency -> Skills -> Shipment

(7) Negative (stabilizing) loop structure:

Shipment -> Actual Delivery Time -> Customer Loyalty -> Customer Base ->
Orders -> Production Cost -> Profit p.a. -> R&D Budget -> R&D Activity ->
Training Efficiency -> Skills -> Shipment

(8) Positive (reinforcing) loop structure:

Shipment -> Actual Delivery Time -> Customer Loyalty -> Customer Base ->
Orders -> Production Cost -> R&D Activity -> Training Efficiency -> Skills -> Shipment
In this accounting of loops we have 3 positive self-reinforcing loops and 5 negative stabilizing
loops. Now care must be observed in seeking to understand such loop information. Positive self-
reinforcing loops are not necessarily destabilizing and negative stabilizing loops are not always
stabilizing. How can this make sense?
If a positive self-reinforcing loop is all by itself it will indeed go crazy and result in an
exploding time pattern where the variables are approaching plus or minus infinity. But if a positive
self-reinforcing loop is embedded in a system of other positive- and/or negative loop, there may be
certain interaction in the system that reverses an otherwise unstable development all in all resulting
in a controlled outcome. With respect to negative stabilizing loops the dynamic movement towards
some fix-point value can be so over exaggerated that the dynamic path results in oscillations around
the fix-point but with ever increasing amplitude.
What to expect from actual simulations with the BSC model is consequently somewhat
inconclusive given the loop information obtained in loop 1-8. However, the information in loop 1-8
is extremely important when certain behaviour is sought during a simulation session with a System
Dynamics model. Anybody with experience in manipulating System Dynamics models in general
will know that the abundance of parameters and even more numerous combinations of parameter
values almost make a targeted search impossible if no structural knowledge is available – and such
information constitutes the information given in loop 1-8.
 16

5 Model Simulation Scenarios

In the following we analyse three simple scenarios or strategies on profit according to table 2.
Table 2
Strategies and scenarios

Strategy Relevant variables

We want to maximize profit within
5 years
We want to maximize profit within
5 years
We want to maximize profit within
5 years
Skills = 10.000
Work in process = 1.000
Customer base = 2.000
Number of training is increased from 1 to 2
(≈an increase in staff of 35)
Order frequency increased for 2 to 3

The base model will be parameterized as described in the documentation given above and the
initialization values for the state variables “Skills”, “Work in Process” and “Customer Base” will
respectively be set to 10000, 1000 and 2000.
Figure 5. The parameterized BSC model

A closer view into the time plot of “Profit p.a.” and “Number of Customer outside the
Customer Base” alias potential customers will be as follows, shown in figure 6.
 17

Figure 6. First scenario: present situation

2M
10,000

1M
5,000

0
0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
Time (Month)

"profit p.a." : Current

Number of Customer outside the customer base : Current

A quick inspection reveals that the company is in trouble. The company looses its customer
base already within half a year and profit starts to decline around year 3. This is serious. By the
way, the “Staff Utilization”=100% almost the entire period, and “RoCE p.a.”=8.4% at the end of
the simulation run with a peak value of 13.19% one year and four months into the run.
To remedy on this unfortunate development we have several options. We can in this model
essentially increase the “Number of Trainings” variable or we can hire more “Staff” or we can of
course introduce actions with the intention to change some of the relations in the model, however
this last option is of a more subtle kind and will not be considered in this work. The variable
“Number of Trainings” will be raised from 1 to 2 in the following experiment.
Figure 7. Second scenario: Number of trainings increased from 1 to 2

2M
10,000

1M
5,000

0
0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
Time (Month)

"profit p.a." : Current

Number of Customer outside the customer base : Current
 18

The effect is quite dramatic in that “Number of Customer outside the Customer Base” flattens
almost out totally and the “Profit p.a.” reaches a level almost 1.5 the previous level from the base
run with “Number of Trainings”=1. Also “RoCE p.a.” shows great improvement in that it settles at
a value of close to 16% at the end of the simulation period.
The “Staff” variable has also the potential to remedy on the base run situation and given the
improvements in performance by increasing “Number of Trainings” from 1 to 2 it seems sensible to
ask for – how big a “Staff” increase will be needed to obtain the same effect as increasing “Number
of Trainings” from 1 to 2 ?
The result turns out to be that “Staff” must be increased from 100 to 135 to off-set an increase
of “Number of Trainings” from 1 to 2. These two solutions to the base run problem are identical not
only with respect to “Number of Customer outside the Customer Base” but also with respect to the
“Profit p.a.” as well as the “RoCE p.a.” time patterns.
The “Order Frequency” in the base run was set to a value of 2. If we increase this value to 3
we get the following time plot in figure 8.

Figure 8. Third scenario: Order frequency increased from 2 to 3

2M
10,000

1M
5,000

0
0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
Time (Month)

"profit p.a." : Current

Number of Customer outside the customer base : Current

In this case we see that the “Profit p.a.” is almost unaltered compared to the base run. But the
“Number of Customer outside the Customer Base” is showing a development that is worsening
compared to the base run and already there we had a problem. We are loosing potential customers
faster than is comfortable but it seems not to affect “Profit p.a.” – how can this be?
Because we have increased the “Order Frequency”, fewer customers take the same amount of
business to our company per time unit. This also means that we experience an increase in our
“Actual Delivery Time” sooner than was the case in the base run, resulting in an earlier loss of
customers due to promoted decrease in “Customer Loyalty”.
Clearly the medicine for this problem is essential the same as above.
 19

6 Summary and Conclusion

One basic points for BSC is to be aware of the purpose. We have formulated a simple strategy
and transformed that into an analytical BSC model base on ‘simple’ assumed cause and effect
relationships between various performance measures. Even with such a simple strategy, the BSC
model already becomes relatively complicated. As already shown, the most discussed cause-and-
effect relationships and the time delay or time lag perspective are two important explicitly
assumptions that have to be considered and evaluated in detail. The first scenario shows that with
the base mode, that the company is in trouble. The company will loos its customers within a year
and profit will decline around year 3. Beside the staff utilization is 100 % almost the entire period.
The second scenario illustrates that the company can chose different possibilities. One such
possibility is to increase the number of periods of training for the employees from one to two. This
will make quit an effect on the possible new customers (will be able to take in new customers) and
beside profit will increase. Finally, in the third scenario, we tested how big a staff will be need to
obtain the same effect as in scenario two? The result turns out to be that staff must be increased
from 100 to 135 of off-set an increase of number of trainings for one to two. Compared to the base
scenario, profit and ROCE will be the same over time.
Several new references can be considered, e.g.:
¾ How many perspectives is needed and in what priority?
¾ How do we test different indicators and how do they work together?
¾ How do we define a single strategy that actual works in a BSC model?
¾ How long time before we reach a steady-state-condition in the financial
perspective, if we change strategy?
¾ How do we integrate other accounting innovations e.g. ABC, ABM, TQM in the
analytical BSC?
¾ Or how do we combine the budget into BSC, and make sure that we can simulate
cash flow?
In this paper we have left out a number of more organizational problems e.g. who is
responsible, who defines what, how do we involve people, and consideration about the costs of
implementing. When the company has developed a BSC-model, it is relatively easy to keep
measures up to date or change them or to make new cause-and-effect relationships. This updating is
necessary to maintain a model that can be used forward and backwards economic evaluation.
 20

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Exploring a Paradox of Organizational Improvement, Management Science, Vol. 43, April, pp. 503-521.
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I
The authors also wish to thank MBA-students Nicholas Dalgas Fritsche, and Jesper Johnsen Steen, The Aarhus School
of Business, for their help in developing an earlier model in excel of the model.
 23

MODEL APPENDIX
ADT = Actual Delivery Time
WIP = Work in Process
AP = Actual productivity
ASP = Actual Std. Productivity
SP = Std. Productivity
TA = Time Away
NOT = Number of Trainings
WDPM = Working Days per Month
CE = Capital Employed
CPH = Cost per Head
CPT = Cost per Training
CL = Customer Loyalty
R = Recommendations
LR = Loss Rate
MC = Material Cost
MCPP = Material Cost Per Product
OF = Order Freq.
SC = Staff Cost
TC = Training Cost
TE = Training Efficiency
PC = Production Cost
NCOCB = Number of Customer outside the customer base

(01) ADT = (Orders+WIP)/(Shipments+1)

(02) AP = ASP*Skills/20000
(03) ASP = SP*(1-(TA*NOT/WDPM))
(04) CE = 1e+007
(05) CPH =2
(06) CPT = 10
(07) Customer Base = INTEG(Customer Won-Customer Lost,2000)
(08) Customer Lost = IF THEN ELSE(CL<0, -0.1*Customer Base*CL,0)
(09) CL = -ADT
(10) Customer Won = IF THEN ELSE(R+2>0,NCOCB*(R+2),0)
(11) FINAL TIME = 60
(12) INITIAL TIME = 0
(13) Loss Rate = 0.05
(14) MC = MCPP*Orders
(15) MCPP = 10
(16) NCOCB = MAX(10000-Customer Base,0)
(17) NOT =1
(18) OF =2
(19) Orders = OF*Customer Base
(20) WIP = INTEG(DELAY1(Orders,2,1000)-Shipments,1000)
(21) Product Price = 100
(22) Production Cost = MC+SC+TC
(23) Profit = Revenue-MC-SC-TC
(24) Profit p.a. = SMOOTHI(profit,12,1000)
(25) R&D activity = R&D budget p.a./PC
(26) R&D budget p.a. = Profit p.a./5
(27) R = CL + R&D activity
(28) Revenue = (Product Price)*Shipments
(29) Revenue p.a. = SMOOTH(Revenue,12)
(30) RoCE = Profit/CE
(31) RoCE p.a. = Profit p.a./CE
(32) SAVEPER =1
(33) Shipments = MIN(WIP,AP*staff)
 24

(34) Skills = INTEG(skills learned-skills lost,10000)

(35) Skills Learned = TE*Staff*NOT
(36) Skills Lost = Skills*LR
(37) Staff = 100
(38) SC = CPH*Staff
(39) Staff Utilization = Shipments/(AP*Staff)
(40) SP = 100
(41) TA =1
(42) TIME STEP = 0.0078125
(43) TC = CPT*NOT*Staff
(44) TE = 10/"R&D activity"
(45) WDPM = 20

Full list of loops emanating from the “Skills” variable.

Loop Number 1 of length 1
Skills
skills lost
Loop Number 2 of length 9
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
revenue
profit
profit p.a.
R&D budget p.a.
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Loop Number 3 of length 12
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
customer lost
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Loop Number 4 of length 13
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
WIP
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
customer lost
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Loop Number 5 of length 13
 25

Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
recommendations
customer won
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Loop Number 6 of length 14
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
WIP
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
recommendations
customer won
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Loop Number 7 of length 15
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
customer lost
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
profit
profit p.a.
R&D budget p.a.
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Loop Number 8 of length 16
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
WIP
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
customer lost
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
 26

profit
profit p.a.
R&D budget p.a.

R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Loop Number 9 of length 16
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
recommendations
customer won
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
profit
profit p.a.
R&D budget p.a.
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Loop Number 10 of length 17
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
WIP
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
recommendations
customer won
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
profit
profit p.a.
R&D budget p.a.
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned

Full list of loops emanating from the “Customer Base” variable.

Loop Number 1 of length 1
Customer Base
customer lost
Loop Number 2 of length 2
Customer Base
Number of Customer outside the customer base
customer won
Loop Number 3 of length 4
Customer Base
orders
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
 27

customer lost
Loop Number 4 of length 5
Customer Base
orders
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
recommendations
customer won
Loop Number 5 of length 5
Customer Base
orders
WIP
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
customer lost
Loop Number 6 of length 6
Customer Base
orders
WIP
shipments
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
customer lost
Loop Number 7 of length 6
Customer Base
orders
WIP
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
recommendations
customer won
Loop Number 8 of length 6
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
R&D activity
recommendations
customer won
Loop Number 9 of length 7
Customer Base
orders
WIP
shipments
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
recommendations
customer won
Loop Number 10 of length 9
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
profit
profit p.a.
R&D budget p.a.
R&D activity
recommendations
customer won
 28

Loop Number 11 of length 10

Customer Base
orders
WIP
shipments
revenue
profit
profit p.a.
R&D budget p.a.
R&D activity
recommendations
customer won
Loop Number 12 of length 12
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
customer lost
Loop Number 13 of length 13
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
WIP
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
customer lost
Loop Number 14 of length 13
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
recommendations
customer won
Loop Number 15 of length 14
Customer Base
orders
 29

material cost
Production Cost
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
WIP
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
recommendations
customer won
Loop Number 16 of length 15
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
profit
profit p.a.
R&D budget p.a.
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
customer lost
Loop Number 17 of length 16
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
profit
profit p.a.
R&D budget p.a.
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
recommendations
customer won
Loop Number 18 of length 16
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
profit
profit p.a.
R&D budget p.a.
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
 30

Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
WIP
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
customer lost
Loop Number 19 of length 17
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
profit
profit p.a.
R&D budget p.a.
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
WIP
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
recommendations
customer won

Full list of loops emanating from the “Work in Process” variable.

Loop Number 1 of length 1
WIP
shipments
Loop Number 2 of length 5
WIP
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
customer lost
Customer Base
orders
Loop Number 3 of length 6
WIP
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
recommendations
customer won
Customer Base
orders
Loop Number 4 of length 6
WIP
shipments
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
customer lost
Customer Base
orders
Loop Number 5 of length 7
WIP
shipments
actual delivery time
 31

customer loyalty
recommendations
customer won
Customer Base
orders
Loop Number 6 of length 10
WIP
shipments
revenue
profit
profit p.a.
R&D budget p.a.
R&D activity
recommendations
customer won
Customer Base
orders
Loop Number 7 of length 13
WIP
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
customer lost
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
Loop Number 8 of length 14
WIP
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
recommendations
customer won
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
Loop Number 9 of length 16
WIP
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
customer lost
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
profit
profit p.a.
 32

R&D budget p.a.

R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments
Loop Number 10 of length 17
WIP
actual delivery time
customer loyalty
recommendations
customer won
Customer Base
orders
material cost
Production Cost
profit
profit p.a.
R&D budget p.a.
R&D activity
training efficiency
skills learned
Skills
Actual productivity
shipments