CH 12

EULER'S
INTRODUCTIO IN ANALYSIN INFINITORUM VOL. 1

Chapter 12.
Translated and annotated by Ian Bruce. page 338
CHAPTER XII
CONCERNING THE REAL EXPANSION OF

FRACTIONAL FUNCTIONS.
199. Now above, in the second chapter, a method has examined any fractional function
being resolved into just as many parts as its denominator may have simple factors ;
indeed these present the denominators of all the partial fractions. From which it is
evident, if a denominator may have simple imaginary parts, the fractions thence also
arising shall be imaginary ; therefore in these cases it will be of little help to have a real
fraction resolved into imaginary parts. Therefore [Ch. IX] I have shown that for all
integral functions, the denominator of any fraction of such, however great the number of
simple imaginary factors may be present, yet may be resolved into real two–fold factors,
or of the second dimension ; in this manner the resolution of fractional imaginary
quantities can be avoided, if we may assume for the denominators, two–fold factors
rather than simple principal denominators.
200. Therefore this fractional function shall be proposed M , from which just as many
N
simple fractions may be elicited following the method put in place above, as the
denominator N may have simple real factors. But in place of the imaginary factors there
shall be this expression
pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ,
for a factor of N ; and because in this calculation it is required to consider the numerator
and denominator to be set out in this form, this shall be the proposed fraction
A+ Bz +Cz 2 + Dz 3 + Ez 4 + etc .
( )( )
pp − 2 pqzcos .ϕ + qqzz α + β z +γ zz +δ z 3 + etc .
and this partial fraction arises, that may be put in place from the factor of the denominator
pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ,
A +az
pp − 2 pqzcos .ϕ + qqzz
because indeed the variable z in the denominator has two dimensions, in the numerator it
will only have one dimension, not truly several; for the integral function may contain
several, that it will be necessary to elicit in turn.
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
201. For the sake of brevity the numerator shall be
A + Bz + Cz 2 + Dz 3 + Ez 4 + etc. = M
and the other factor of the denominator
a + β z + γ z 2 + etc. = Z ;
the other part Z arising from the factor of the denominator may be put = YZ and there will
be
Y= M -AZ −azZ
[i.e. the whole fraction
A+ Bz +Cz 2 + Dz 3 + Ez 4 + etc . = M
( )( ) ( pp −2 pqzcos.ϕ
pp − 2 pqzcos .ϕ + qqzz α + β z +γ zz +δ z 3 + etc . + qqzz Z)
= A +az + YZ .]
which expression Y must be an integral function of z, and thus it is necessary that

M - AZ − azZ shall be divisible by pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz . Therefore M - AZ − azZ
shall vanish, if there is put
pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz = 0 ,
that is, if there may be put both [§ 146]
z= p
q (cos.ϕ + −1 ⋅ sin .ϕ )
as well as
z= p
q (cos.ϕ − −1 ⋅ sin .ϕ . )
p
Let q
= f and there becomes [§ 133]
(
z n = f n cos.nϕ ± −1 ⋅ sin .nϕ . )
Therefore the double value substituted for z will give a two–fold equation, from which
both the unknown constants A and a may be defined.
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
202. Therefore with this substitution made, the equation
M = AZ + azZ
expanded out will give this equation
A + Bfcos.ϕ + Cffcos.2ϕ + Df 3 cos .3ϕ + etc.
(
± Bf sin .ϕ + Cff sin .2ϕ + Df 3sin.3ϕ + etc. ) −1
(
= A α + β fcos.ϕ + γ ffcos.2ϕ + δ f 3 cos .3ϕ + etc. )
± A ( β f sin .ϕ + γ ff sin .2ϕ + δ f sin.3ϕ + etc.) −1
3
+ a (α fcos.ϕ + β ffcos.2ϕ + γ f cos .3ϕ + etc.)

3
± a (α f sin .ϕ + β ff sin .2ϕ + γ f sin.3ϕ + etc.) −1.

3
To abbreviate the calculation, let
A + Bfcos.ϕ + Cffcos.2ϕ + Df 3 cos .3ϕ + etc. = P ,

Bf sin .ϕ + Cff sin .2ϕ + Df 3sin.3ϕ + etc. = p,
α + β fcos.ϕ + γ ffcos.2ϕ + δ f 3 cos .3ϕ + etc. = Q ,
β f sin .ϕ + γ ff sin .2ϕ + δ f 3sin.3ϕ + etc. = q,
α fcos.ϕ + β ffcos.2ϕ + γ f 3 cos .3ϕ + etc. = R ,
α f sin .ϕ + β ff sin .2ϕ + γ f 3sin.3ϕ + etc. = r
and with these in place, the equation [ M = AZ + azZ ] becomes
P ± p −1 = AQ ± Aq −1 + aR ± ar −1 .
203. On account of the ambiguity of the signs, these two equations arise :
P = AQ + aR ,
p = Aq + ar ,
from which the unknowns A and a thus are defined, so that there shall be
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
Pr − pR Pq− pQ
A= Qr −qR
and a = qR − Qr
Therefore for the proposed fraction
M
( pp −2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz Z )
the partial fraction arising from that may be defined by the following rule:
A +az .
By putting f = p
q
and with the individual terms expanded out, it becomes as follows :
On putting
z n = f n cos.nϕ , M becomes = P ,
z n = f nsin .nϕ , M becomes = p,
z n = f n cos.nϕ , Z becomes = Q ,
z n = f nsin .nϕ , Zz becomes = q,
z n = f n cos.nϕ , zZ becomes = R ,
z n = f nsin .nϕ , zZ becomes = r .
[i.e. the real and imaginary parts of the terms are found, for some n.]
With the values P , Q , R , p, q, r found in this way, there becomes
Pr − pR pQ− Pq
A= Qr −qR
and a = Qr −qR
.
EXAMPLE 1
Let this fraction be proposed to be resolved :
zz ,
(1− z + zz )(l+ z ) 4
from the denominator factor 1 − z + zz of which, it shall be required to define the

[fractional] part
A +az
1− z + zz
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
And indeed in the first place this factor compared with the general form
pp − 2 pqz cos.ϕ + qqzz gives:
p = 1, q = 1 and cos.ϕ = 12 ,
from which there becomes
ϕ = 600 = π3 .
And thus because there is
M = zz, Z = 1 + z 4 and f = 1 ,
there will be
P = cos. 23π = − 12 , p = 2
3
,
Q = 1 + cos. 43π = 12 , q = − 2
3
,
R = cos. 23π + cos. 53π = 1, r = 0.
From these is found
A = −1 and a = 0
and thus the fraction sought is
−1
1− z + zz
and the complement of this shall be

1− z + zz ;
l+ z 4
of which the denominator 1 + z 4 since it may have the factors

1 + z 2 + zz and 1 − z 2 + zz , can be undertaken to be resolved anew ; moreover there
becomes ϕ = π4 and in the first case f = −1 , in the second f = +1 .
EXAMPLE 2
Let this fraction be proposed to be resolved

:
1+ z + zz
(1+ z )(
2 + zz 1− z 2 + zz )
and there will be
M = 1 + z + zz ;
and for the first factor there will be found:

EULER'S
Chapter 12.
f = −1, ϕ = π4 and Z = 1 − z 2 + zz
from which there becomes, [on substituting the real and imaginary parts of z into the
above table :]
2 −1
P = 1 − cos. π4 + cos. 24π = ,
2
2 −1
p = −sin . π4 + sin . 24π = ,
2
Q = 1 + 2 ⋅ cos. π4 + cos. π4 = 2 ,
q = + 2 ⋅ sin . π4 + sin . 24π = 2 ,
R = −cos. π4 − 2 ⋅ cos. 24π − cos. 34π = 0 ,
r = −sin . π4 − 2 ⋅ sin . 24π − sin . 34π = −2 2 .
From these there is found:

Qr − qℜ = −2 2
and
A= −1 et a = 0 ,
2 2
from which, with the factor of the denominator 1 + z 2 + zz , this partial fraction will
arise
( )
2 −1 : 2 2
1+ z 2 + zz
Moreover the other factor will give this in a similar manner
( )
2 +1 : 2 2
.
1− z 2 + zz
Hence the first proposed function

1+ z + zz
( )(
1+ z 2 + zz 1− z 2 + zz )
is resolved into these partial fractions :
−1 +
( )
2 −1 : 2 2
+
( )
2 +1 : 2 2
.
1− z + zz 1+ z 2 + zz 1− z 2 + zz
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
EXAMPLE 3
Let this fraction be proposed to be resolved
1+ 2 z + zz .
(1− 85 z + zz )(1+ 2 z +3zz )
For the factor of the denominator 1 − 85 z + zz this fraction may arise :
A +az
1− 8 z + zz
5
and there will be

p = 1, q = 1, cos.ϕ = 45 ,
from which
f = 1, M = 1 + 2 z + zz, Z = 1 + 2 z + 3zz .
Truly because here the ratio of the angle ϕ to a right angle is not determined, the sines
and cosines of the multiples must be found in turn. Since there shall be
cos.ϕ = 45 , there will be sin .ϕ = 53 ,

cos.2ϕ = 7 ,
25
sin .2ϕ = 24 ,
25
cos.3ϕ = − 125
44 sin .3ϕ = 117 ;
125
hence there shall be
P = 1 + 2 ⋅ 45 + 25
7 = 72 ,
25
p = 2 ⋅ 53 + 24
25
= 54
25
,
Q = 1 + 2 ⋅ 45 + 3 ⋅ 25
7 = 86 ,
25
q = 2 ⋅ 53 + 3 ⋅ 24
25
= 102
25
,
R = 45 + 2 ⋅ 25
7 − 3 ⋅ 44 =
125
38 ,
25
r = 45 + 2 ⋅ 24
25
+ 3 ⋅ 117
25
= 666
25
and thus
Qr − qR = 53400
⋅
25125
= 2136 .
125
Therefore
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
Q = 1836 = 153 , a = − 2136

2136 178
540 = − 45 .
178
Whereby the fraction arising from the factor 1 − 85 z + zz will be
9(17−5 z ) :178
l − 85 z + zz
.
In the same way we may find the fraction corresponding to the other factor ; there will be
p = 1, q = − 3 and cos.ϕ = 1 ,
3
therefore
f =− 1 , M = 1 + 2 z + zz and Z = 1 − 85 z + zz.
3
On account of which there becomes :

cos.ϕ = 1 , sin .ϕ = 2
,
3 3
cos.2ϕ = − 13 , sin .2ϕ = 2 2

,
3
cos.3ϕ = − 5 sin .3ϕ = 2

,
3 3 3 3
consequently
P = 1− 2 ⋅ 1 + 13 ⋅ − 13 = 92 ,
3 3
p=− 2 ⋅ 2
+ 13 ⋅ 2 2
= − 4 92 ,
3 3 3
Q = 1+ 8 ⋅ 1 + 13 ⋅ − 13 = 64 ,
45
5 3 3
q=+ 8 ⋅ 2
+ 13 ⋅ 2 2
= 34 2
45
,
5 3 3 3
R=− 1 ⋅ 1 − 58⋅3 ⋅ − 13 − 1 ⋅− 5 = 135
4 ,
3 3 3 3 3 3
r=− 1 ⋅ 2
− 58⋅3 ⋅ 2 3 2 − 1 ⋅ 2 = − 981352
3 3 3 3 3 3
and thus
Qr − qR = − 712
675
2
;
therefore there becomes
A = 100 = 25 , a =
712 178
540
712
= 178
135 .
Therefore the proposed fraction

EULER'S
Chapter 12.
1+ 2 z + zz
(1− 85 z + zz )(1+ 2 z +3zz )
is resolved into
9(17−5 z ) :178 5( 5+ 27 z ) :178
l− 85 z + zz
+ 1+ 2 z +3 zz
.
204. But the values of the letters R and r can be defined from the letters Q and q .
[i.e. the real and imaginary parts of the term Z are Q and q ; and of zZ, R and r .]
For since there shall be
Q = α + β fcos.ϕ + γ ffcos.2ϕ + δ f 3 cos .3ϕ + etc.

q = β f sin .ϕ + γ ff sin .2ϕ + δ f 3sin.3ϕ + etc.
there will be
Qcos.ϕ − q sin .ϕ = α cos.ϕ + β fcos.2ϕ + γ ffcos.3ϕ + etc.
and thus
R = f ( Qcos.ϕ − q sin .ϕ ) .
Then there will be
Qsin .ϕ + qcos.ϕ = α sin .ϕ + β fsin.2ϕ + γ f 2sin .3ϕ + etc. ,

therefore
r = f ( Qsin .ϕ + qcos.ϕ ) .
From these again there shall be
Qr − qR = ( QQ + qq ) fsin.ϕ ,
Pr − qR = ( PQ + pq ) fsinϕ + ( Pq − pQ ) fcos.ϕ ;
and consequently there will be

PQ+ pq − pQ cos .ϕ
A= QQ+qq
+ Pq ⋅
QQ+qq sinϕ
,
-Pq+ pQ
a= .
( QQ+qq) fsin.ϕ
Whereby from the factor of the denominator pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz this partial fraction
arises
( PQ+ pq) fsin.ϕ +( Pq-pQ )( f cos .ϕ − z )

( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )( QQ+qq) fsin.ϕ
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
p
or this, on account of f = q
:
( PQ+ pq) psin.ϕ +( Pq-pQ )( p cos .ϕ − qz )
.
( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )( QQ+qq) psin.ϕ
205. This [above] partial fraction therefore arises from the proposed function
M
( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ) Z
with the factor of the denominator pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz and the following letters
P , p, Q and q are found from the functions M and Z only : On putting
pn
zn = .cos.nϕ there shall be M = P and Z = Q
qn
and on putting
pn
zn = sin .nϕ there shall be M = p and Z = q ,
qn
where it is to be observes the functions M and Z, before this substitution is made, must all
be expanded out, so that they have forms of this kind
M = A + Bz + Cz 2 + Dz 3 + Ez 4 + etc.
and
Z = α + β z + γ z 2 + δ z 3 + ε z 4 + etc. ;
and thus there will be
p2 p3
P = A + B qp cos.ϕ + C cos.2ϕ + D cos.3ϕ + etc.,
q2 q3
p2 p3
p= B qp sin .ϕ + C sin .2ϕ + D sin .3ϕ + etc.,
q2 q3
p2 p3
Q=α + β cos.ϕ +γ cos.2ϕ + δ cos.3ϕ + etc.,
p
q q2 q3
p2 p3
q= β qp sin.ϕ + γ sin .2ϕ + δ sin .3ϕ + etc.
q2 q3
206. But from the preceding it is understood this resolution does not have a place, if the
function Z at this stage has the same factor pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz included within it ; for
in this case in the equation
M = AZ + α zZ
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
with the substitution made

(
z n = f n cos.nϕ ± −1 ⋅ sin .nϕ )
the quantity Z itself will vanish and therefore nothing may be deduced. On account of
which if the denominator of the fractional function M N
may have the factor
( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )2 or a higher power, there will be a need for the resolution of the
individual powers. Therefore let
N = ( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ) Z ,
2
and from the factor ( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ) of the denominator, two partial fractions of
2
this kind will emerge
A +az + B+bz ,
( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )2 pp − 2 pqzcos .ϕ + qqzz
where it is necessary to determine the constant letters A , a , B and b .
207. With these in place this expression
M −( A +az ) Z −( B+bz ) Z ( pp − 2 pqzcos .ϕ + qqzz )

( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )2
must be a whole function and on this account the numerator will be divisible by the
denominator [§ 43]. Therefore in the first place this expression
M - AZ - azZ
must be divisible by pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ; which since it shall be the preceding case,
the letters A and a will be found in the same way too.
Whereby on putting
pn
zn = cos.nϕ there shall be M = P and Z = N
qn
and on putting
pn
zn = sin .nϕ there shall be M = p and Z = n .
qn
And with these made, the second rule given above will become :
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
PN + pn Pn − pN cos .ϕ
A= + 2 2 ⋅ sin .ϕ ,
N2 +n2 N +n
-Pn + pN q
a= ⋅ psin .ϕ
.
N2 +n2
208. Therefore with A and a found in this way, the whole function
M −( A +az ) Z
is made, which shall be = P , and remains, so that
P − BZ − bzZ
emerges divisible by pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ; which expression since it shall be similar to

the preceding, if on putting
pn
zn = cos.nϕ becomes P = R
qn
and on putting
pn
zn = sin .nϕ becomes P = r ,
qn
there will become
RN + rn cos .ϕ
B= + Rn2− rN2 ⋅ sin .ϕ ,
N2 +n2 N +n
b= -Rn + rN ⋅ q
.
N 2 +n2 psin .ϕ
209. Hence now generally it is possible to conclude, in what way the resolution must be
put in place, if the denominator of the proposed function M
N
should have the factor
( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )k .
For there shall be
k
thus so that this shall be the fractional function required to be resolved :
M .
( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )k Z
Therefore the factor of the denominator ( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ) presents these parts :
k
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
A +az + B+bz
( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )k ( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )k −1
+ C +cz + D+ dz + etc.
( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )k −2 ( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )k −2
Now on putting
pn
zn = cos.nϕ there shall be M = M and Z = N
qn
and on putting
pn
zn = sin .nϕ there shall be M = m and Z = n ;
qn
there becomes
MN + mn cos .ϕ
A= + Mn2− mN
2 ⋅ sin .ϕ ,
N2 +n2 N +n
a= -Mn + mN ⋅ q
.
N 2 +n2 psin .ϕ
Then there will be named :
M −( A +az ) Z
=P
pn
zn = cos.nϕ shall be M = P
qn
and on putting
pn
zn = sin .nϕ there shall be P = p ;
qn
there will be
PN + mn Pn − pN cos .ϕ
B= + 2 2 ⋅ sin .ϕ ,
N2 +n2 N +n
-Pn + pN q
b= ⋅ psin .ϕ
.
N2 +n2
Then there may be named :

P −( B+bz ) Z
=Q
and on putting
pn
zn = sin .nϕ there shall be Q = Q ;
qn
and on putting
pn
zn = sin .nϕ there shall be Q = q ;
qn
there becomes
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
QN +qn Qn −qN cos .ϕ

C= + 2 2 ⋅ sin .ϕ ,
N2 +n2 N +n
-Qn +qN q
c= ⋅ psin .ϕ
.
N2 +n2
Again there may be named

Q −( C +cz ) Z
=R
and on putting
pn
zn = sin .nϕ there shall be R = R
qn
and on putting
pn
zn = sin .nϕ there shall be R = r ;
qn
there becomes
RN + rn cos .ϕ
D= + Rn2− rN2 ⋅ sin .ϕ ,
N2 +n2 N +n
d= -Rn + rN q
⋅ psin .
N2 +n2 .ϕ
And by progressing in this way, until the numerator of the last of the fractions shall be
determined, the denominator of which shall be pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz .
EXAMPLE
Let this fractional function be proposed :

z− z3
(
(1+ zz )4 1+ z 4 )
from the factor of the denominator (1 + zz ) these fractional parts may arise :
4
A +az + B+bz + C +cz + D+ dz .

(1+ zz )4 (1+ zz )3 (1+ zz )2 1+ zz
By comparison therefore there will be put in place :
p = 1, q = 1, cos.ϕ = 0 and thus ϕ = π2

and again
M = z − z 3 and Z =1+ z 4
Hence there will be
M = 0 , m = 2 , N = 2 , n = 0 and sin .ϕ = 1 .
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
And thus hence there is found:

A = − 44 ⋅ 0 = 0 , and a = 1 ,
therefore
A + az = z
and hence
P= z − z3 − z − z5 = − z3
1+ zz
and
P = 0, p = 1 ,
from which there is found
B = 0 and b = 12 .
Therefore
B + bz = 12 z
and
− z 3 − 12 z − 12 z 5
Q= 1+ zz
= − 21 z − 12 z 3 ,
from which
Q = 0 and q = 0 ,
therefore
C = 0 and c = 0.
And hence
− 12 z − 12 zz 3
R= 1+ zz
= − 12 z,
therefore
R = 0 and r = − 12 ,
from which there becomes
D = 0 and d = − 14 .
On account of which these are the fractions sought :
z + z − 4 1+z zz .
( zz )4
1+ 2(1+ zz )
3
( )
Truly the numerator of the remaining fraction is :
R −( D+ dz ) Z
S= 1+ zz
= − 14 z + 14 z 3 ,
which therefore will be
− z + z3 .
(
4 1+ z 4 )
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
210. Therefore by this method likewise the fraction of the complement becomes known,
which, taken together with the fraction found, produces the proposed fraction itself.
Clearly if all the partial fractions of the fraction
M
were found arising from the factor ( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ) , for which the forms are the
k
values of the functions P, Q, R, S, T, if the series of these letters may be continued

further, for which there is a need for finding the numerators it follows that the final will
be the numerator of the remaining fraction having the denominator Z ; surely, if k = 1 , the
Q
remaining fraction will be P
Z
; if k = 2 , the remaining fraction will be Z
; if k = 3 , that
will be R , and thus henceforth. But for this remaining fraction having the denominator Z
Z
that will be able to be found by the final rules.
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
CAPUT XII
DE REALI FUNCTIONUM FRACTARUM

EVOLUTIONE
199. Iam supra, in capite secundo, methodus est tradita functionem quamcunque fractam
in tot partes resolvendi, quot eius denominator habeat factores simplices; hi enim
praebent denominatores fractionum illarum partialium. Ex quo manifestum est, si
denominator quos habeat factores simplices imaginarios, fractiones quoque inde ortas
fore imaginarias; his ergo casibus parum iuvabit fractionem realem in imaginarias
resolvisse. Cum igitur ostendissem [cap. IX] omnem functionem integram, qualis est
denominator cuiusvis fractionis, quantumvis factoribus simplicibus imaginariis scateat,
tamen in factores duplices, seu secundae dimensionis, reales semper resolvi posse, hoc
modo in resolutione fractionum quantitates imaginariae evitari poterunt, si pro
denominatoribus fractionum partialium non factores denominatoris principalis simplices,
sed duplices reales assumamus.
200. Sit igitur proposita haec functio fracta M ex qua tot fractiones simplices secundum
N
methodum supra [cap.11] expositam eliciantur, quot denominator N habuerit factores
simplices reales. Sit autem loco imaginariorum haec expressio
pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz
factor ipsius N, et quoniam in hoc negotio numeratorem et denominatorem in forma,

evoluta contemplari oportet, sit haec fractio proposita
A+ Bz +Cz 2 + Dz 3 + Ez 4 + etc .
( )( )
pp − 2 pqzcos .ϕ + qqzz α + β z +γ zz +δ z 3 + etc .
ac ponatur fractio partialis ex denominatoris factore pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ; +qqzz

oriunda haec
A +az
( pp − 2 pqzcos .ϕ + qqzz )
quoniam enim variabilis z in denominatore duas habet dimensiones, in numeratore
unam habere poterit, non vero plures; alias enim integra functio contineretur,
quam seorsim elici oportet.
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
201. Sit brevitatis gratia numerator
A + Bz + Cz 2 + Dz 3 + Ez 4 + etc. = M
et alter denominatoris factor
a + β z + γ z 2 + etc. = Z ;
ponatur altera pars ex denominatoris factore Z oriunda = YZ eritque
Y= M -AZ −azZ
quae expressio functio integra ipsius z esse debet, ideoque necesse est, ut
M - AZ − azZ divisibile sit per pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz . Evanescet ergo M - AZ − azZ ,
si ponatur
pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz = 0 ,
hoc est, si ponatur [§ 146] tam

z= p
q (cos.ϕ + −1 ⋅ sin .ϕ )
quam
z= p
q (cos.ϕ − −1 ⋅ sin .ϕ )
p
sit q
= f eritque [§ 133]
(
z n = f n cos.nϕ ± −1 ⋅ sin .nϕ . )
Duplex ergo hic valor pro z substitutus duplicem dabit aequationem, unde ambas
incognitas constantes A et a definire licet.
202. Facta ergo hac substitutione aequatio
M = AZ + azZ
evoluta hanc duplicem dabit aequationem

EULER'S
Chapter 12.
A + Bfcos.ϕ + Cffcos.2ϕ + Df 3 cos .3ϕ + etc.
(
± Bf sin .ϕ + Cff sin .2ϕ + Df 3sin.3ϕ + etc. ) −1
(
= A α + β fcos.ϕ + γ ffcos.2ϕ + δ f 3 cos .3ϕ + etc. )
± A ( β f sin .ϕ + γ ff sin .2ϕ + δ f sin.3ϕ + etc.) −1
3
+ a (α fcos.ϕ + β ffcos.2ϕ + γ f cos .3ϕ + etc.)

3
± a (α f sin .ϕ + β ff sin .2ϕ + γ f sin.3ϕ + etc.) −1.

3
Sit ad calculum abbreviandum
A + Bfcos.ϕ + Cffcos.2ϕ + Df 3 cos .3ϕ + etc. = P ,

Bf sin .ϕ + Cff sin .2ϕ + Df 3sin.3ϕ + etc. = p,
α + β fcos.ϕ + γ ffcos.2ϕ + δ f 3 cos .3ϕ + etc. = Q ,
β f sin .ϕ + γ ff sin .2ϕ + δ f 3sin.3ϕ + etc. = q,
α fcos.ϕ + β ffcos.2ϕ + γ f 3 cos .3ϕ + etc. = R ,
α f sin .ϕ + β ff sin .2ϕ + γ f 3sin.3ϕ + etc. = r
eritque his positis
P ± p −1 = AQ ± Aq −1 + aR ± ar −1 .
203. Ob signorum ambiguitatem hae duae oriuntur aequationes
P = AQ + aR ,
p = Aq + ar ,
ex quibus incognitae A et a ita definiuntur, ut sit
Pr − pR Pq− pQ
A= Qr −qR
et a = qR − Qr
Proposita ergo fractione
M
( pp −2 pqzcos.ϕ )
+ qqzz Z
per sequentem regulam fractio partialis ex ea, oriunda

EULER'S
Chapter 12.
A +az
p
definietur. Posito f = q
et evolutis singulis terminis fiat, ut sequitur:
Posito
z n = f n cos.nϕ sit M = P ,
z n = f nsin .nϕ sit M = p,
z n = f n cos.nϕ sit Z = Q ,
z n = f nsin .nϕ sit Z = q,
z n = f n cos.nϕ sit zZ = R ,
z n = f nsin .nϕ sit zZ = r .
Inventis hoc modo valoribus P , Q , R , p, q, r erit
Pr − pR pQ− Pq
A= Qr −qR
et a = Qr −qR
.
EXEMPLUM 1
Sit proposita haec functio fracta
zz ,
(1− z + zz )(l+ z 4 )
ex qua partem a denominatoris factore 1 − z + zz oriundam definire oporteat, quae sit
A +az
1− z + zz
Ac primo quidem hic factor cum forma generali pp − 2 pqz cos.ϕ + qqzz comparatus dat
p = 1, q = 1 et cos.ϕ = 12 ,
unde fit
ϕ = 600 = π3 .
Quia itaque est
M = zz, Z = 1 + z 4 et f = 1 ,
erit
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
P = cos. 23π = − 12 , p = 2
3
,
Q = 1 + cos. 43π = 12 , q = − 2
3
,
R = cos. 23π + cos. 53π = 1, r = 0.
Ex his invenitur
A = −1 et a = 0
ideoque fractio quaesita est
−1
1− z + zz
huiusque complementum erit

1− z + zz ;
l+ z 4
cuius denominator 1 + z 4 cum habeat factores 1 + z 2 + zz et 1 − z 2 + zz ,

resolutio denuo suscipi potest; fit autem ϕ = π4 et priori casu f = −1 ,
posteriori f = +1 .
EXEMPLUM 2
Sit igitur proposita haec fractio resolvenda
1+ z + zz
(1+ z )(
2 + zz 1− z 2 + zz )
et erit
M = 1 + z + zz ;
et pro priore factore habebitur
f = −1, ϕ = π4 et Z = 1 − z 2 + zz
unde erit
2 −1
P = 1 − cos. π4 + cos. 24π = ,
2
2 −1
p = −sin . π4 + sin . 24π = ,
2
Q = 1 + 2 ⋅ cos. π4 + cos. π4 = 2 ,
q = + 2 ⋅ sin . π4 + sin . 24π = 2 ,
R = −cos. π4 − 2 ⋅ cos. 24π − cos. 34π = 0 ,
r = −sin . π4 − 2 ⋅ sin . 24π − sin . 34π = −2 2 .
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
Ex his reperitur
Qr − qℜ = −2 2
et
A= −1 et a = 0 ,
2 2
unde ex denominatoris factore 1 + z 2 + zz haec orietur fractio partialis
( )
2 −1 : 2 2
1+ z 2 + zz
Alter autem factor dabit simili modo hanc
( )
2 +1 : 2 2
.
1− z 2 + zz
Hinc functio primum proposita

1+ z + zz
(1+ z )(
2 + zz 1− z 2 + zz )
resolvitur in has
−1 +
( )
2 −1 : 2 2
+
( )
2 +1 : 2 2
.
1− z + zz 1+ z 2 + zz 1− z 2 + zz
EXEMPLUM 3
Sit proposita haec fractio resolvenda
1+ 2 z + zz .
(1− 85 z + zz )(1+ 2 z +3zz )
Pro factore denominatoris 1 − 85 z + zz oriatur ista fractio
A +az
1− 8 z + zz
5
eritque
p = 1, q = 1, cos.ϕ = 45 ,
unde
f = 1, M = 1 + 2 z + zz, Z = 1 + 2 z + 3zz .
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
Quia vero hic ratio anguli ϕ ad rectum non constat, sinus et cosinus eius multiplorum
seorsim debent investigari. Cum sit
cos.ϕ = 45 , erit sin .ϕ = 53 ,

cos.2ϕ = 7 ,
25
sin .2ϕ = 24 ,
25
cos.3ϕ = − 125
44 sin .3ϕ = 117 ;
125
hinc fit
P = 1 + 2 ⋅ 45 + 25
7 = 72 ,
25
p = 2 ⋅ 53 + 24
25
= 54
25
,
Q = 1 + 2 ⋅ 45 + 3 ⋅ 25
7 = 86 ,
25
q = 2 ⋅ 53 + 3 ⋅ 24
25
= 102
25
,
R = 45 + 2 ⋅ 25
7 − 3 ⋅ 44 =
125
38 ,
25
r = 45 + 2 ⋅ 24
25
+ 3 ⋅ 117
25
= 666
25
ideoque
Qr − qR = 53400
⋅
25125
= 2136 . .
125
Ergo
Q = 1836 = 153 , a = − 2136
2136 178
540 = − 45 .
178
Quare fractio ex factore 1 − 85 z + zz oriunda, erit
9(17−5 z ) :178
l − 85 z + zz
.
Quaeramus simili modo fractionem alteri factori respondentem; erit
p = 1, q = − 3 et cos.ϕ = 1 ,
3
ergo
f =− 1 , M = 1 + 2 z + zz et Z = 1 − 85 z + zz.
3
Fiet autem ob
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
cos.ϕ = 1 , sin .ϕ = 2
,
3 3
cos.2ϕ = − 13 , sin .2ϕ = 2 2

,
3
cos.3ϕ = − 5 sin .3ϕ = 2

,
3 3 3 3
conseqneuter
P = 1− 2 ⋅ 1 + 13 ⋅ − 13 = 92 ,
3 3
p=− 2 ⋅ 2
+ 13 ⋅ 2 2
= − 4 92 ,
3 3 3
Q = 1+ 8 ⋅ 1 + 13 ⋅ − 13 = 64
45
,
5 3 3
q=+ 8 ⋅ 2
+ 13 ⋅ 2 2
= 34 2
45
,
5 3 3 3
R=− 1 ⋅ 1 − 58⋅3 ⋅ − 13 − 1 ⋅− 5 = 135
4 ,
3 3 3 3 3 3
r=− 1 ⋅ 2
− 58⋅3 ⋅ 2 3 2 − 1 ⋅ 2 = − 981352
3 3 3 3 3 3
ideoque
Qr − qR = − 712
675
2
;
fiet ergo
A = 100 = 25 , a =
712 178
540
712
= 178
135 .
Fractio ergo proposita

1+ 2 z + zz
(1− 85 z + zz )(1+ 2 z +3zz )
resolvitur in
9(17−5 z ) :178 5( 5+ 27 z ) :178
l− 85 z + zz
+ 1+ 2 z +3 zz
.
204. Possunt autem valores litterarum R et r ex litteris Q et q definiri.

Cum enim sit
Q = α + β fcos.ϕ + γ ffcos.2ϕ + δ f 3 cos .3ϕ + etc.
q = β f sin .ϕ + γ ff sin .2ϕ + δ f 3sin.3ϕ + etc.
erit
Qcos.ϕ − q sin .ϕ = α cos.ϕ + β fcos.2ϕ + γ ffcos.3ϕ + etc.
ideoque
R = f ( Qcos.ϕ − q sin .ϕ ) .
Deinde erit
Qsin .ϕ + qcos.ϕ = α sin .ϕ + β fsin.2ϕ + γ f 2sin .3ϕ + etc. ,
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
ergo
r = f ( Qsin .ϕ + qcos.ϕ ) .
Ex his porro fit
Qr − qR = ( QQ + qq ) fsin.ϕ ,
Pr − qR = ( PQ + pq ) fsinϕ + ( Pq − pQ ) fcos.ϕ ;
eritque consequenter
PQ+ pq − pQ cos .ϕ
A= QQ+qq
+ Pq ⋅
QQ+qq sinϕ
,
-Pq+ pQ
a= .
( QQ+qq) fsin.ϕ
Quare ex denominatoris factore pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz nascitur ista fractio partialis
( PQ+ pq) fsin.ϕ +( Pq-pQ )( f cos .ϕ − z )

.
( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )( QQ+qq) fsin.ϕ
p
seu ob f = q
haec
( PQ+ pq) psin.ϕ +( Pq-pQ )( p cos .ϕ − qz )
.
( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )( QQ+qq) psin.ϕ
205. Oritur ergo haec fractio partialis ex functionis propositae
M
( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ) Z
factore denominatoris pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz atque litterae P , p, Q et q sequenti modo

ex functionibus M et Z inveniuntur: Posito
pn
zn = .cos.nϕ sit M = P et Z = Q
qn
et posito
pn
zn = sin .nϕ sit M = p et Z = q ,
qn
ubi notandum est functiones M et Z, antequam haec substitutio fiat, omnino evolvi
debere, ut huiusmodi habeant formas
M = A + Bz + Cz 2 + Dz 3 + Ez 4 + etc.
et
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
Z = α + β z + γ z 2 + δ z 3 + ε z 4 + etc. ;
eritque ideo
p2 p3
P = A + B qp cos.ϕ + C cos.2ϕ + D cos.3ϕ + etc.,
q2 q3
p2 p3
p= B qp sin .ϕ + C sin .2ϕ + D sin .3ϕ + etc.,
q2 q3
p2 p3
Q=α + β cos.ϕ +γ cos.2ϕ + δ cos.3ϕ + etc.,
p
q q2 q3
p2 p3
p= β qp sin .ϕ + γ sin .2ϕ + δ sin .3ϕ + etc.
q2 q3
206. Ex praecedentibus autem intelligitur hanc resolutionem locum habere non posse, si
functio Z eundem factorem pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz adhuc in se complectatur; hoc enim
casu in aequatione
M = AZ + α zZ
facta substitutione
(
z n = f n cos.nϕ ± −1 ⋅ sin .nϕ )
ipsa quantitas Z evanesceret nihilque propterea colligi posset. Quamobrem si functionis
denominator habeat factorem ( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ) vel altiorem
M 2
fractae N
potestatem, peculiari opus erit resolutione. Sit igitur
N = ( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ) Z
2
atque ex denominatoris factore ( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ) orientur huiusmodi duae

2
fractiones partiales
A +az + B+bz ,
( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )2 pp − 2 pqzcos .ϕ + qqzz
ubi litteras constantes A , a , B et b determinari oportet.
207. His positis debebit ista expressio
M −( A +az ) Z −( B+bz ) Z ( pp − 2 pqzcos .ϕ + qqzz )

( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )2
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
esse functio integra et hanc ob rem numerator divisibilis erit per denominatorem
[§ 43]. Primum ergo haec expressio
M - AZ - azZ
divisibilis esse debet per pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ; qui cum sit casus praecedens,
eodem quoque modo litterae A et a determinabuntur.
Quare posito
pn
zn = cos.nϕ sit M = P et Z = N
qn
et posito
pn
zn = sin .nϕ sit M = p et Z = n .
qn
Hisque factis secundum regulam supra datam erit
PN + pn Pn − pN cos .ϕ
A= + 2 2 ⋅ sin .ϕ ,
N2 +n2 N +n
-Pn + pN q
a= ⋅ psin .ϕ
.
N2 +n2
208. Inventis ergo hoc modo A et a fiet
M −( A +az ) Z
functio integra, quae sit = P , atque superest, ut
P − BZ − bzZ
divisibile evadat per pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ; quae expressio cum similis sit
praecedenti, si posito
pn
zn = cos.nϕ vocetur P = R
qn
et posito
pn
zn = sin .nϕ vocetur P = r ,
qn
erit
RN + rn .ϕ
B= + Rn2− rN2 ⋅ cos
sin .ϕ
,
N2 +n2 N +n
b= -Rn + rN ⋅ q
.
N 2 +n2 psin .ϕ
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
209. Hinc iam generaliter concludere licet, quomodo resolutio institui debeat, si
denominator functionis propositae MN
factorem habeat
( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )k .
Sit enim
k
ita ut haec resolvenda sit functio fracta
M .
( pp − 2 pqz cos .ϕ + qqzz ) Z
k
Praebeat ergo factor denominatoris ( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ) has partes

k
A +az + B+bz
( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )k ( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )k −1
+ C +cz + D+ dz + etc.
( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )k −2 ( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )k −2
Iam posito
pn
zn = cos.nϕ sit M = M et Z = N
qn
et posito
pn
zn = sin .nϕ sit M = m et Z = n ;
qn
erit
MN + mn cos .ϕ
A= + Mn2− mN
2 ⋅ sin .ϕ ,
N2 +n2 N +n
a= -Mn + mN ⋅ q
.
N 2 + n2 psin .ϕ
Deinde vocetur
M −( A +az ) Z
=P
pn
zn = cos.nϕ sit M = P
qn
atque posito
pn
zn = sin .nϕ sit P = p ;
qn
erit
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
PN + mn Pn − pN cos .ϕ
B= + 2 2 ⋅ sin .ϕ ,
N2 +n2 N +n
-Pn + pN q
b= ⋅ psin .ϕ
.
N2 +n2
Tum vocetur
P −( B+bz ) Z
=Q
atque posito
pn
zn = sin .nϕ sit Q = Q
qn
et posito
pn
zn = sin .nϕ sit Q = q ;
qn
erit
QN +qn Qn −qN cos .ϕ
C= + 2 2 ⋅ sin .ϕ ,
N2 +n2 N +n
-Qn +qN q
c= ⋅ psin .ϕ
.
N2 +n2
Porro vocetur
Q −( C +cz ) Z
=R
atque posito
pn
zn = sin .nϕ sit R = R
qn
et posito
pn
zn = sin .nϕ sit R = r ;
qn
erit
RN + rn .ϕ
D= + Rn2− rN2 ⋅ cos
sin .ϕ
,
N2 +n2 N +n
d= -Rn + rN ⋅ q .
N2 +n2 psin .ϕ
Hocque modo progrediendum est, donec ultimae fractionis, cuius denominator

est pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz , numerator fuerit determinatus.
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
EXEMPLUM
Sit ista proposita functio fracta
z− z3
(
(1+ zz )4 1+ z 4 )
ex cuius denominatoris factore (1 + zz ) oriantur hae fractiones partiales
4
A +az + B+bz + C +cz + D1++zzdz .

(1+ zz )4 (1+ zz )3 (1+ zz )2
Comparatione ergo instituta erit
p = 1, q = 1, cos.ϕ = 0 ideoque ϕ = π2
porroque
M = z − z 3 et Z =1+ z 4
Hinc erit
M = 0 , m = 2 , N = 2 , n = 0 et sin .ϕ = 1 .
Hinc itaque invenitur
A = − 44 ⋅ 0 = 0 , et a = 1 ,
ergo
A + az = z
hincque
P= z − z3 − z − z5 = − z3
1+ zz
et
P = 0, p = 1 ,
unde reperitur
B = 0 et b = 12 .
Ergo
B + bz = 12 z
et
− z 3 − 12 z − 12 z 5
Q= 1+ zz
= − 12 z − 12 z 3 ,
unde
Q = 0 et q = 0 ,
ergo
C = 0 et c = 0.
Hincque
EULER'S
Chapter 12.
− 12 z − 12 zz 3
R= 1+ zz
= − 12 z,
ergo
R = 0 et r = − 12 ,
unde fit
D = 0 et d = − 14 .
Quamobrem fractiones quaesitae sunt hae
z + z − z .
(1+ zz )4 2(1+ zz )3 4(1+ zz )
Reliquae vero fractionis numerator est
R −( D+ dz ) Z
S= 1+ zz
= − 14 z + 14 z 3
quae ergo erit
− z+ z3 .
(
4 1+ z 4 )
210. Hac ergo methodo simul innotescit fractio complementi, quae cum inventis
coniuncta producat fractionem propositam ipsam. Scilicet si fractionis
M
inventae fuerint omnes fractiones partiales ex factore ( pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz )

k
oriundae, pro quibus formati sunt valores functionum P, Q, R, S, T, si harum litterarum

series ulterius continuetur, erit ea, quae ultimam, qua opus est ad numeratores
inveniendos, sequitur, numerator reliquae fractionis denominatorem Z habentis; nempe,
si k = 1 , erit reliqua fractio ZP ; si k = 2 , erit reliqua fractio QZ ; si k = 3 , erit ea ZR , et ita
porro. Inventa autem hac reliqua fractione denominatorem Z habente ea per has regulas
ulterius resolvi poterit.

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EULER'S

INTRODUCTIO IN ANALYSIN INFINITORUM VOL. 1

CONCERNING THE REAL EXPANSION OF

201. For the sake of brevity the numerator shall be

and the other factor of the denominator

[i.e. the whole fraction

which expression Y must be an integral function of z, and thus it is necessary that

that is, if there may be put both [§ 146]

202. Therefore with this substitution made, the equation

expanded out will give this equation

A + Bfcos.ϕ + Cffcos.2ϕ + Df 3 cos .3ϕ + etc.

+ a (α fcos.ϕ + β ffcos.2ϕ + γ f cos .3ϕ + etc.)

± a (α f sin .ϕ + β ff sin .2ϕ + γ f sin.3ϕ + etc.) −1.

To abbreviate the calculation, let

A + Bfcos.ϕ + Cffcos.2ϕ + Df 3 cos .3ϕ + etc. = P ,

and with these in place, the equation [ M = AZ + azZ ] becomes

Therefore for the proposed fraction

With the values P , Q , R , p, q, r found in this way, there becomes

Let this fraction be proposed to be resolved :

from the denominator factor 1 − z + zz of which, it shall be required to define the

and thus the fraction sought is

and the complement of this shall be

of which the denominator 1 + z 4 since it may have the factors

Let this fraction be proposed to be resolved

and for the first factor there will be found:

From these there is found:

Moreover the other factor will give this in a similar manner

Hence the first proposed function

Let this fraction be proposed to be resolved

For the factor of the denominator 1 − 85 z + zz this fraction may arise :

and there will be

cos.ϕ = 45 , there will be sin .ϕ = 53 ,

hence there shall be

Q = 1836 = 153 , a = − 2136

Whereby the fraction arising from the factor 1 − 85 z + zz will be

On account of which there becomes :

cos.2ϕ = − 13 , sin .2ϕ = 2 2

cos.3ϕ = − 5 sin .3ϕ = 2

Therefore the proposed fraction

Q = α + β fcos.ϕ + γ ffcos.2ϕ + δ f 3 cos .3ϕ + etc.

Qsin .ϕ + qcos.ϕ = α sin .ϕ + β fsin.2ϕ + γ f 2sin .3ϕ + etc. ,

From these again there shall be

and consequently there will be

( PQ+ pq) fsin.ϕ +( Pq-pQ )( f cos .ϕ − z )

and thus there will be

with the substitution made

this kind will emerge

where it is necessary to determine the constant letters A , a , B and b .

207. With these in place this expression

M −( A +az ) Z −( B+bz ) Z ( pp − 2 pqzcos .ϕ + qqzz )

is made, which shall be = P , and remains, so that

emerges divisible by pp − 2 pqzcos.ϕ + qqzz ; which expression since it shall be similar to

thus so that this shall be the fractional function required to be resolved :

Then there may be named :

QN +qn Qn −qN cos .ϕ

Again there may be named

Let this fractional function be proposed :

A +az + B+bz + C +cz + D+ dz .

By comparison therefore there will be put in place :

p = 1, q = 1, cos.ϕ = 0 and thus ϕ = π2

And thus hence there is found:

On account of which these are the fractions sought :

Truly the numerator of the remaining fraction is :