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HANDBOOK
A C M M
A
B
A
K
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C Y
A
Steelmaking: Materials, Attributes,
K
and Manufacturing Processes
B
H
A
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B A A B C
H A
B
A F
Df C
B C M
B A
PINS E A
F S Max
RETAINING RINGS G
L
MACHINE BUSHINGS S Min
B D
A
A
BEARINGS
KEYSTOCK
B X
A
MACHINE KEYS L
A H SHAFTING/SHAFT COLLARS C
GREASE FITTINGS
A B
C L
A
SHIMS
B
E
E H
E
B
C
A
B
X
A
B
B
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ID A H
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PURVEYORS OF A WAY OF LIFE ™
F ROM THE OLD TIN SHED
T
he Old Tin Shed houses the story of
G.L. Huyett. According to newspaper
accounts, a German immigrant named
Guy Lamson Huyett bought the
hardware stock of the Globe Department Store
in 1899 and moved it to a location on Main Street
in Minneapolis, Kansas. He incorporated the
business in 1906 which is the date that we trace
to our founding over 100 years ago.
ISO
9001:2008
CERTIFIED
Introduction
This book was created based on years of research and Other glossary definitions are taken from Cutting Tool
experience of G.L. Huyett staff and is intended to be a Engineering (ISSN:0011-4189) Chicago, Illinois, CTE
consolidated reference source for technical information Publications Inc.
related specifically to the manufacture and sale of non-
threaded industrial fasteners for our customers, vendors, Some information regarding differences of steel grades
and associates. This handbook is not a design standard, and their properties came from the McMaster-Carr
design guide, or otherwise. G.L. Huyett does not engage Supply Company website at www.mcmaster.com,
in designing, developing, or changing the design of McMaster-Carr Supply Company, 2003.
products it manufactures or sells.
Much of the basic and helpful information about steel
Invaluable technical information, including statistical properties and usage came from Drake H. Damerau,
data contained in the tables, is from Machinery’s Metallurgy FAQ v1.0, Survivalist Books, 1999.
Handbook, 26th & 28th ed. New York, New York:
Industrial Press, Inc., 2000. Other resources were gathered from the Society of
Automotive Engineers at www.sae.org.
Many technical definitions are from Michelle
Applebaum, Everything You Always Wanted to Know G.L. Huyett assumes no ownership of the above referenced
About Steel…But Were Afraid to Ask: A Glossary of Terms material nor liability of any kind, implied or expressed,
and Concepts, New York, New York, Salomon Smith for the accuracy, scope, or completion of the information
Barney, Inc., 2000. contained herein.
Suggested Reading
ASM Handbooks. Vol. 1-22. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM Jones, Denny A. Principles and Prevention of Corrosion.
International, 2003. Of specific interest: Vols. 1 & 2: Second ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice
Properties and Selection of Metals and Vol. 13 A – C: Hall, 1996.
Corrosion.
Avallone, Eugene A., Theodore Baumeister, and Ali
Gale, William F., and Terry C. Totemeier, eds. Metals Sadegh. Marks’ Standard Handbook for Mechanical
Reference Handbook. Eighth ed. Elsevier, 2004. Engineers. Eleventh ed. New York, New York: McGraw-
Hill, 2006.
785-392-3017 • huyett.com
© 2014 G.L. Huyett
ii
Table of Contents
1. Steelmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 12L14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Smelting Iron: The Blast Furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1144 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Smelting Iron: The Direct Reduction Furnace . . . . . . . . . . 6 4140 Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Smelting Iron: The Basic Oxygen Furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 4140 ASTM-A193 Grade B7 Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Smelting Iron: The Electric Arc Furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 8630 Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Steel Casting: Continuous Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Common Grades of Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Hot-working Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 302 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Advantages of Hot-working: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 303 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Disadvantages of Hot-working: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 304 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 316 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Cold-working Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Oiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Cold-working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Common Grades of Tool Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
W1 (Water-Hardened Steel) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
C
410 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
416 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
L
Advantages of Cold-working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Disadvantages of Cold-working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Storage and Handling of Raw Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
D2 (High-Chrome Air-Hardened Steel) . . . . . . . . . . . 30
S7 (Shock-Resistant Air-Hardened Steel) . . . . . . . . . . 30
A6 (Low-Temperature Air-Hardened Steel) . . . . . . . 30
4142 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2. Chemical Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Identifying Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Periodic Table of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Characteristics of Common Alloy Elements . . . . . . . . . . 19
G
P20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Properties of Tool Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
What is That Part Made from? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Comparisons of Tool Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Chemical Composition of Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Applications for Common Grades of Steels . . . . . . . . . . 35
S Ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Modes of Fatigue Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Low/High-Cycle Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
How a Rockwell Test is Performed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Avoiding Faulty Rockwell Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Comparison of Hardness Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Thermal Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Corrosion Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 8. Finishing Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Surface or Contact Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Anodizing Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Df
Creep Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Combined Creep and Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5. Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Black Oxide Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Brushed Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Buff Polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Chromate Conversion Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Dip-Spin Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Thermal Modification of Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Dry Film Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Electroless Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Baking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Electroplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Stress Relieving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Electropolishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Metal Grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Direct Hardening Vs. Indirect Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Passivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Phosphate Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6. Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
T
Vibratory Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Band Sawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Powder Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Cold-drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Zinc Electroplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Cold-heading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Steel corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Cold-sawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Common Forms of Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Military Plating & Coating Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Lasering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Anodizing (Chromic and Sulfuric),
Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 MIL‑A-8625F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Non-Milling Processes that Mimic Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Black Oxide Coating, MIL-C-13924C . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
W
Arbor Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Cadmium Plating, QQ-P-416F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Broaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Lubrication, Solid Film, MIL-L-46010D . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Nickel Plating, QQ-N-290A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Shearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Phosphate Coating – Heavy,
Punching/Stamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 DOD-P-16232-F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Threading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Zinc Coatings, ASTM-B633 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Tumbling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Environmental Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Ds Dg
Turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 REACH – Registration, Evaluation, Authorization,
Turning and Facing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 and Restriction of Chemical Substances . . . . . . . 88
Parting and Grooving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 IMDS – International Material Data System . . . . . . . 88
Boring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 RoHS – Restriction of Hazardous Substances . . . . . . 89
Wire Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
G.L. Huyett Manufacturing Capabilities 9. Conversion Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Ht
and Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7. Hardness Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Hardness Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Linear Measure Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Weight Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Metric and English Equivalents –
Use of Conversion Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Brinell Hardness Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Units of Force Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Rockwell Hardness Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Vickers Hardness Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Microhardness Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Micro-Vickers Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Links & Related Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Knoop Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Relationship Between Hardness and Tensile Strength . . . 71 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Durometer Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
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Tables & Illust rations
h
Chromate Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
W
ANSI Keystock Tolerance Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Steel Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Comparative Properties of Tool Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
D
Electrochemical Corrosion Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Common Types of Steel Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Common Platings and Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Types of Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Banned RoHS Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Testing and Measuring Shear Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Dodd-Frank Section 1502: Conflict Minerals . . . . . . . . . 89
Testing and Measuring Tensile Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Metric Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
f
Expected Minimum Mechanical Properties of
D
U.S. Pound to Kilogram and
g
Cold-drawn Carbon Steel Rounds, Squares, and
Hexagons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Typical Mechanical Properties of Selected Hot-Rolled,
Inches to Millimeters and D
Kilogram to U.S. Pound Conversion Table . . . . . . . . . 92
CHAPTER 1
Steelmaking
S
teel is an alloy of iron and carbon When oxygen combines with carbon, carbon
containing less than 2% carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide is produced which
and 1% manganese and small must be removed from the molten steel. If this
amounts of silicon, phosphorus, dissolved oxygen is not removed from the melt
sulfur and oxygen. It exists in several phases prior to or while pouring, the gaseous products
and is malleable, within a temperature range, continue to evolve during solidification. If the
immediately after solidification from a steel is strongly deoxidized by the addition of
molten state. deoxidizing elements, no gas is evolved, and the
steel is called “killed” because it lies quietly in
Did you know
that pig iron got
The principal raw materials used in steelmaking the molds. Increasing degrees of gas evolution
its name because are iron ore, coal, and limestone. These (decreased deoxidation) characterize steels
it looked like materials are converted in a blast furnace into called “semikilled,” “capped,” or “rimmed.”
a litter of pigs a product known as “pig iron,” which contains The degree of deoxidation affects some of the
and a sow when considerable amounts of carbon (above 1.5%), properties of the steel. In addition to oxygen,
it was poured manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon. liquid steel contains measurable amounts of
into its earthen dissolved hydrogen and nitrogen. For some
molds? Pig iron is hard, brittle, and unsuitable for critical steel applications, special degassing
direct processing into wrought forms. Pig iron practices as well as vacuum treatments may be
was named long ago when molten iron was used to reduce and control dissolved gases.
poured through a trench in the ground to flow
into shallow earthen holes. The arrangement The carbon content of common steel grades
looked like newborn pigs suckling. The central ranges from a few hundredths of a percent
channel became known as the “sow,” and the to about one percent. All steels also contain
molds were “pigs.” varying amounts of other elements, principally
manganese, which act as a deoxidizer and
Steelmaking is the process of refining pig iron facilitates hot-working. Silicon, phosphorus,
as well as iron and steel scrap by removing and sulfur are also always present, if only in
undesirable elements from the melt and then trace amounts. Other elements may be present,
adding desirable elements in predetermined either as residuals that are not intentionally
amounts. During steelmaking carbon is reduced added through raw materials used in
by blowing oxygen through the molten steel. steelmaking practices, or as alloying elements
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Steelmaking
added to effect changes in the properties of Other grades, such as blue tempered, also
the steel. When reviewing a steel chemical known as blue clock or clock spring steel, which
certification, it is important to remember that is used to manufacture shims, are heat treated
iron is the primary element of steel and is not and ground for finer tolerances and harder
included in the list of chemical values. See “How finishes. See also “Chapter 5: Heat Treating,”
to Read a Material Certification,” page 4. page 48.
Steels can be cast to shape, or cast in ingots Steel must be handled carefully after
or strands to be reheated and hot-worked by manufacturing so that straightness tolerances
rolling, forging, extrusion, or other processes are maintained, and surface imperfections are
into a wrought mill shape. Wrought steels are not created. Proper storage from the elements
very versatile and the most widely used of must be used (including when shipping on a
engineering materials, offering a multitude truck) to minimize corrosion. Finally, steel
of forms, finishes, strengths, and usable must be handled carefully during loading and
temperature ranges. unloading so that bars are not bent, warped, or
“pinged” on the sides. Particularly for keystock,
In certain instances following hot-working, edges must be sharp, straight, and true to ease
steel is annealed in preparation for cold- installation into the keyway. See “Storage &
working. Annealing softens the metal making it Handling of Raw Steel,” page 15. ¾
more ductile. See “Annealing,” page 11. After
annealing it goes through a “pickling” process.
Pickling is a chemical process where steel
is run through a progressive series of tanks.
Chemicals – such as hydrochloric acid – remove
oxidation and impurities from the surface of the
product.
A material certification is B C
generated by the producer Control No.: 26198 Specification: AISI 8630
using a sample of molten Grade: 8630
Description: 1/4″ SQ +0.001 -0.000 A
material taken directly from the D
Heat No.: Melt Source: Country of Origin: Weight:
ladle. In the case of slabs used for 231740 CHARTER USA 6125# N & 6425# G
reheating or rolling, a sample is
taken from the finished state. In E F
this example, you will notice that CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
the chemical composition does Specification:
not equal 100%. Since iron is
the primary component of steel,
G
its percentage is not included in J
H I
the analysis. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Tensile Yield Hardness R/A Elongation Over 2″ Grain Size
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Steelmaking
Iron ore – in the form of lumps or pellets and with 65% – 70%
iron content – is fed into the top of the shaft furnace. Heated
reducing gases, primarily carbon monoxide and hydrogen, are fed
in a counter-current against the flow of ore. As the hot gas rushes
against the ore, it strips the carbon and oxygen molecules from
the ore. While the gas is hot enough to strip out these elements,
it is not hot enough to melt the remaining iron, so the iron forms
pellets or lumps known as direct reduced iron (DRI) or sponge
iron because of its porous nature. Sponge iron is 90% – 97% pure Hot Gas In Hot Gas In
iron making it an excellent source of raw material for electric
arc furnaces which can readily melt DRI, but are not hot enough
to melt ore.
DRI
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Steelmaking
Smelting I ron:
The Basic Oxygen F u rnace
Charge
Nearly 54% of the crude steel output in the U.S. is produced Bucket
by basic oxygen furnaces (BOFs). Usually these furnaces are in
proximity to the blast furnace so that liquid iron can be transported
directly to the BOF. A BOF is self-sufficient, collecting energy from
its own processes.
Smelting I ron:
The Elect ric Arc F u rnace
Unlike a blast furnace or a basic oxygen furnace, an electric arc
furnace (EAF) uses only scrap steel and direct reduced iron (DRI)
for its raw material. Before the heat begins, scrap is carefully Charge
Box
selected for its content and size. The scrap is carefully placed in a
charge bucket along with lime and carbon to act as a flux. The scrap EAF Vessel
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Steelmaking
When the strand exits the mold, it enters a roller containment section Core solidifies
as it descends
which preserves the shape integrity and quality of the strand. At the same
time, it is also subjected to water spray or water/air combination spray to
promote solidification. The strand emerges from the roller/cooling section
and is then sectioned into slabs, blooms, billets, rounds, or beam blanks.
These can be sold as semi-finished product, put into storage, or moved
directly into hot-working lines.
THIN SLABS
5 – 20" 2 – 16"
7 – 15"
7"
7" 7 – 23" 100+"
ROUND CASTINGS BILLETS BLOOMS
Aspect Ratio < 2.5:1 SLAB CASTINGS
Aspect Ratio > 2.5:1
Hot-working St eel
Hot-working steel is the process of rolling,
stamping, or hammering near-molten steel that
has been heated 1,350°F – 2,000°F into desired
shapes. At room temperature steel is considered
rigid since the molecular structure of its crystals BILLETS BLOOMS THIN SLABS
is tightly packed. Heating steel above its crucial
point, or crystallization temperature, increases
its plasticity. Hot-worked steel is easier to roll
or shape and is less likely to fracture than steel
that is worked or forged at room temperature
because its ductility is greater. See “Thermal
Modification of Steel,” page 50.
Advantages of Hot-working:
nnDecreased yield strength makes
steel easier to work with less
energy or force
nnIncreased ductility
solution called austenite is formed that can be worked easily and later hardened by
cold-working instead of heat treating
Disadvantages of Hot-working:
nnScalingor rapid oxidation may occur due to undesirable reactions between steel
and the surrounding atmosphere. This layer can be very hard and dull cutting tools.
nnThermal contraction makes tolerances difficult to maintain
heating circuits to keep tooling between 500°F – 850°F while rolling or stamping
parts.
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Steelmaking
Annealing
Steel can exist in several phases, each with distinct characteristics. These phases can
be manipulated through heating and cooling processes to produce steel with specific
mechanical properties. Annealing is a heating and cooling process which relieves
internal stresses caused by hot-working. It also increases ductility making the steel
more workable. Annealing is usually done after steel is hot-worked but before it is
cold-worked; however, it can also be performed on individual workpieces.
Steel is heated to above its critical
During hot-rolling, the outside grains of the steel receive more work than the inner temperature forcing it into an
grains. This makes the grains on the surface smaller than those in the middle creating austenitic phase.
a residual stress. Annealing will homogenize the grains, making them all the same size
eliminating the stress. See”Chapter 5: Heat Treatment,” page 48 and “Steel Phases”
illustration, page 27.
The steel or workpiece is heated to above its upper critical temperature for a period
long enough for the microstructure to fully transform to an austenitic phase. It is then
slowly cooled in a controlled atmosphere allowing maximum transformation to the
ferrite and pearlite phase. By carefully managing this process, the steel or workpiece
is taken through three stages: recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. The steel is then slowly cooled in a
controlled atmosphere letting it settle
Recovery into a stress-free ferrite/pearlite phase.
Recovery happens at the lowest temperatures of the heating process and softens
the metal by allowing defects known as dislocations to realign into the crystal lattice
eliminating the stress associated with them.
Recrystallization
As the steel continues to heat, new strain-free grains begin to nucleate and grow
replacing grains deformed by internal stresses. The crystallized grain structure of the
steel changes shape and then recrystallizes into longer and thinner strain free grains.
This makes the finished, cooled product more ductile and workable while lessening When the steel reaches room
the yield strength and hardness of the material. temperature it is ready for pickling,
oiling, and cold-working.
a b c d
a) Cast steel often contains stresses prone to fracturing (light gray lines in grains)
b) Annealing steel reorients the molecular structure of steel properties
c) Stronger, more compact grains are formed as elements realign
d) Longer, strain-free recrystallized steel results that is more ductile and resistant to fracturing
Grain Growth
In the final stage, grain growth occurs making the grains larger and more coarse.
The steel loses a substantial part of its original strength, but its ductility is increased
dramatically allowing it to be easily worked. Once worked the steel can be quenched
to increase its mechanical properties.
Cold-working Steel
Pickling
Prior to cold-working, hot-worked steel is allowed to cool and is
cleaned using an alkaline solution. Since hot-working steel at high
temperatures leaves a discolored oxide layer or rust-like scale on
the surface, the steel is run at high speeds (up to 800' per minute) SLABS THIN SLABS
through an acidic solution called “pickle liquor.” Pickling results in a
higher quality steel product as oxidation (rust), contaminants, imperfections, or scale
are removed or dissolved in hydrochloric or sulfuric acid. Chemical inhibitors are also
added to discourage the acid from attacking the steel beneath the scale. The steel is
then rinsed with water and air-dried leaving bare steel with
a dull silver luster.
Oiling
After pickling, the steel is coated
with a thin layer of high-quality
oil, often containing sulfur PICKLING LINE
Cleans steel of rust, dirt, and oil.
additives, to create a barrier Uses hydrochloric acid baths and water cleaning
to moisture and inhibit rust in to enhance the steel for further working.
moderately humid atmospheric
conditions. Oiling steel can protect it for up to six months though the oil must be
removed prior to most fabrication, plating, or painting processes.
Cold-working
Frequently called work hardening, strain hardening, or forging – cold-
working is any process used to reshape steel at temperatures below the
recrystallization temperature. In most cases, cold-working is performed
COLD-ROLLING
at room temperature. See “Recystallization” illustration, page 11. Unlike Structure of steel changed through rolling,
hot-working that relieves stresses and makes the steel easier to work, hammering or stretching; enhancing its hardness,
strength and finish.
cold-working introduces mechanical stresses that increase yield strength,
tensile strength, and hardness while reducing ductility to produce very strong results.
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Steelmaking
Squeezing, bending, shearing, and drawing are As shown in the examples below, a cylindrical
the most common operations utilized to cold- or square billet of steel can be forced through a
work steel. Though many processes have been die to produce any number of profiles. Though
developed for each method, cold-rolling, cold- less common, cold extrusion features several
forging, and extrusion are the most common. advantages over hot extrusion: better control
over finished dimensions, cleaner surfaces
Cold-rolling free of scale and oxidation, and higher rates of
Cold-rolled steel is formed by squeezing sheets, production.
rolls, or bars of steel through a series of rotating
progressive dies to form products with smooth Advantages of Cold-working
surfaces and accurate dimensions in just about any nnHeating is not required
desired profile. nnBetter surface finishes (no oxidation occurs)
Extrusion powerful
Extrusion is typically performed while material is nnRequires clean, scale-free surfaces
hot to reduce the effort needed to reshape metal, nnMay require annealing to alleviate brittleness
however, cold extrusion is possible and often nnGreater risk of fracture/failure due to residual
a)
Extruded
Rod d)
Ram
Ram
Billet Hydraulic
Chamber c) Fluid
Ram
Billet
b)
Chamber
Ram Billet
Extruded
Rod Chamber
Billet Ram
Chamber
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Steelmaking
CHAPTER 2
Chemical Content
S
teel is differentiated by its grades and by using a magnet to pick out those materials
mechanical properties. The chemical that contain magnetic elements.
composition of each grade determines
its characteristics. A specific recipe To differentiate various levels of carbon and
of alloying elements is used to create each other elements in a steel bar, hold the bar in
particular grade and achieve the desired contact with a grinding wheel and observe the
Did you know attributes for a given application. sparks. With high levels of carbon, sparks are
that each kind produced that appear to split into several bright
of metal creates
Identifying Metals tracers. Patterns produced by several other
a unique spark elements, such as small amounts of aluminum
when it is
When it is necessary to sort materials, several or titanium, can be identified with the aid of
ground?
rough methods may be used without elaborate Heat Treating Data Sheet 13, issued by the
chemical analysis. The most obvious of these is American Society for Metals (ASM), Metals
Park, OH.
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Chemical Content
numerous the carrier lines and sprigs. Some The presence of silicon and aluminum have a
alloying elements change the appearance of tendency to depress the carbon bursts.
the test. Sulfur imparts a flame shaped, orange
colored swelling on each carrier line. The higher There are three primary methods of
the sulfur, the more numerous the swellings. A determining the chemical analysis of steel;
spear-point shape detached from the end of the Optical Emission Spectrometry (OES),
carrier line identifies phosphorus. The higher X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRF),
the phosphorus content, the more numerous and Coupled Plasma - Atomic Emission
the spear points. Nickel appears as a white Spectrometry (ICP-AES). All three are
rectangular-shaped block of light throughout laboratory-based analyses and yield highly
the spark stream. Chromium appears as tint accurate results. Field tests will produce general
stars throughout the carrier lines, having a results and cannot be used to certify steel
flowering or jacketing effect to the carbon burst. compositions. ¾
Specimen
1 H
1.0079
2 Unknown 13 14 15 16 17 He
4.0026
IIA Group IUPAC IIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
6
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
3 4
VIB Group CAS 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be Name
B C N O F Ne
Molybdenum Iron
2 42 black solid 26
Atomic Number
6.941 9.0122 Period 3
Mo Symbol
blue
red
liquid
gas Fe Common Steel
Alloying Elements
10.811 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180
Sodium Magnesium 95.96 Relative Atomic Mass white synthetic 55.845 Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
most stable isotope
3 Na
22.990
Mg
24.305
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Al
26.982
Si
28.086
P
30.974
S
32.065
Cl
35.453
Ar
39.948
IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII IB IIB
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K
39.098
Ca
40.078
Sc
44.956
Ti
47.867
V
50.942
Cr
51.996
Mn54.938
Fe
55.845
Co
58.933
Ni
58.693
Cu
63.546
Zn 65.38
Ga69.723
Ge72.63
As
74.922
Se78.96
Br
79.904
Kr
83.798
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb85.47
Sr
87.62
Y
88.91
Zr
91.22
Nb92.91
Mo95.96
Tc
[98]
Ru
101.07
Rh
102.91
Pd
106.42
Ag
107.87
Cd 112.41
In
114.82
Sn
118.71
Sb121.76
Te
127.60
I
126.90
Xe
131.29
Caesium Barium Lanthanide Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs
132.91
Ba
137.33
La-Lu Hf
178.49
Ta
180.95
W
183.84
Re
186.21
Os
190.23
Ir
192.22
Pt
195.08
Au
196.97
Hg 200.59
Tl
204.38
Pb207.2
Bi
208.98
Po[209]
At
[210]
Rn[222]
Francium Radium Actinide Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Ununtrium Flerovium Ununpentium Livermorium Ununseptium Ununoctium
87 88 89-103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr
[223]
Ra
[226]
Ac-Lr Rf
[265]
Db[268]
Sg[271]
Bh
[270]
Hs[277]
Mt
[276]
Ds
[281]
Rg[280]
Cn [285]
Uut[284]
Fl
[289]
Uup[288]
Lv
[293]
Uus Uuo
[294] [294]
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La
138.91
Ce
140.12
Pr
140.91
Nd
144.24
Pm[145]
Sm150.36
Eu
151.96
Gd157.25
Tb
158.93
Dy 162.50
Ho164.93
Er
167.26
Tm168.93
Yb
173.05
Lu
174.97
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac
[227.03]
Th
232.04
Pa
231.04
U
238.03
Np
[237.05]
Pu
[244.06]
Am
[243.06]
Cm
[247.07]
Bk
[247.07]
Cf
[251.08]
Es
[252.08]
Fm
[257.10]
Md[258.10]
No
[259.10]
Lr
[262]
Na O
O
He
by the number of its protons,
O
O
O
Atom O
Cl
O O
H
O
Na
Cl
H
O
Na
Molecules are groups of atoms
that have been chemically bonded Mixture
O O together. A compound is a
molecule made from different
Molecule elements. Compounds cannot Fe Cr Alloys are metals made by
be easily taken apart. Water is combining two or more metallic
a compound because it is made elements. Other elements may
H from hydrogen and oxygen. All also be added to enhance specific
compounds are molecules but not Cr Fe characteristics.
O O all molecules are compounds.
Alloy
Compound
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Chemical Content
noncorrosive properties.
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Chemical Content
CHAPTER 3
Steel and Steel Alloys
S
everal different numbering systems (ASTM), American National Standards
have been developed for metals and Institute (ANSI), Steel Founders Society
alloys by various trade associations, of America (SFSA), American Society of
professional engineering societies, Mechanical Engineers (ASME), American
standards organizations, and by private Welding Society (AWS), Aluminum
industries for their own use. The numerical Association, Copper Development Association,
code used to identify the metal or alloy may U.S. Department of Defense (Military
or may not be related to a specification, Specifications), and the General Accounting
which is a statement of the technical and Office (Federal Specifications).
Did you know
the 12th
commercial requirements that the product
edition of the must meet. Numbering systems in use include The Unified Numbering System (UNS) was
UNS contains those developed by the American Iron and developed through a joint effort of the ASTM
over 5,600 Steel Institute (AISI), Society of Automotive and the SAE to provide a means of correlating
designations, Engineers (SAE), the different numbering systems for metals
4,100 American and alloys that have a commercial standing.
specification Society for This system avoids the confusion caused when
cross references, Testing and more than one identification number is used
and 15,350
Materials to specify the same material, or when the same
trade names?
number is assigned to two entirely different
materials. It is important to understand that
a UNS number is not a specification; it is an
identification number for metals and alloys
for which detailed specifications are provided
elsewhere. Each number consists of a letter
prefix followed by five digits. In some
instances, the letter is suggestive of
the family of metals identified by the
series, such as “A” for aluminum and
“C” for copper. Whenever possible, the
numbers in the UNS groups contain
numbering sequences taken directly
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Steel and Steel Alloys
from other systems to facilitate identification system, followed by two numbers that represent
of the material; e.g., the corresponding UNS the nominal percentage of carbon in the
number for AISI 1020 steel is G10200. product (up to 1.00%). For example, 1018 has
0.18% carbon, while 1045 has 0.45%.
Carbon Steels
Carbon adds hardness to the material
Carbon steel is steel that has properties made improving its wearability. For carbon contents
up mostly of the element carbon, and relies above 0.30%, the product may be direct
upon carbon content for its structure. The hardened (“through hardened”). Carbon steel
hardest carbon structure in the world is a below this level typically requires carburizing
diamond, which is 100% carbon. Carbon when heat treated. During carburization carbon In the same way
is present in all steel and is the principal molecules are introduced so that a hardened that salt lowers
hardening element that determines the level of “skin” develops on the surface, creating a “case.” the temperature
hardness or strength attainable by quenching. It This is where the concept of case hardening at which water
changes phases,
raises tensile strength, hardness, and resistance is found. See “Direct Hardening vs. Indirect
carbon lowers
to wear and abrasion as the carbon content of Hardening, page 51. the temperature
steel is increased. However, it can also lower at which iron
ductility, toughness, and machinability. Carbon is maximized under 1.00% of steel changes phases.
because higher levels cause the material to
Cold-drawn carbon steel is typically numbered become brittle. The higher the carbon content,
with the prefix “10” in the AISI numbering the more difficult carbon steel is to machine.
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Steel and Steel Alloys
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Steel and Steel Alloys
are harder and can be heat treated, but are also Steel Phases
magnetic. 2100
1100
2000
Precipitation-hardened martensitic steels have 1900
less corrosion resistance than austenitic steels, 1000 Austenite
but by using precipitation hardening can be 1800
Temperature °C
Temperature °F
made even harder and stronger than standard 900 1700
martensitic varieties. See “Common Grades of Austenite 1600
Stainless Steels” on page 29. & Cementite
1500
800
Ferrite
Internationally, stainless steel has two & Austenite 1400
commonly used looser designations that are 700 1300
used in DIN specifications, not only for shaft Ferrite Cementite 1200
keys, but also for all fastener categories. A2 600 & Pearlite & Pearlite
1100
refers to 300 series stainless such as AISI 303.
A4 is a high nickel content, referencing AISI 1000
316. For example, “DIN 6885A A4” refers to a 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
full radiused machine key (both ends round),
made from 316 (A4) stainless steel. % Carbon
Steel changes phases as it is being heated. The phase is determined by the
Tool Steels percent of carbon in the alloy and its current temperature.
1018 1144
Heat treating in contact with carbon (carburizing) A medium-carbon, resulferized steel with free-
hardens the surface of this low-carbon steel. machining qualities. 1144 steel heat treats better
It is easy to cold-form, bend, braze, and weld. than 1045 steel. Stress relieving allows it to
Yield strength Rockwell hardness is B71. Melting point is 2800°F. obtain maximum ductility with minimum warping.
is the amount Yield strength is 53,700 psi. It is commonly used Rockwell hardness is B97. Melting point is 2750°F.
of pressure a in shafts, spindles, pins, rods, sprockets, and Yield strength is 95,000 psi. This is frequently
material will component parts such as clevis pins, straight pins, used in keyed shafts, clevis pins, and detent pins.
accept before
machine keys, and keystock.
becoming
4140 Alloy
permanently
deformed. See 1045 Also called “chrome-moly” steel. Ideal for forging
“Chapter 4: This medium-carbon steel is stronger than 1018 and heat treating, 4140 alloy is tough, ductile, and
Mechanical and is slightly more difficult to machine and weld. wear resistant. Rockwell hardness is B92. Melting
Properties,” Rockwell hardness is B84. Melting point is 2800°F. point is 2750°F. Yield strength is 60,000 – 75,800
page 36. Yield strength is 45,000 psi. It is used in gears, psi. It is the most common steel and is used in
shafts, axles, bolts, studs, clevis pins, machine virtually all industries and applications. It is also
keys, and keystock. used for clutch keys, clevis pins, and military clevis
pins.
A36
General purpose carbon steel is suitable for 4140 ASTM-A193 Grade B7 Alloy
welding and mechanical fastening. Rockwell Similar to 4140 alloy, but it is already quenched,
hardness is B68. Melting point is 2000°F. Yield tempered, and stress relieved. Maximum Rockwell
strength is 36,000 psi. This is used primarily for hardness is C35. It is commonly used for threaded
structural and commercial grade steel. rod.
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Steel and Steel Alloys
302 316
A common heat-resisting stainless steel, 302 is Austenitic (chromium-nickel stainless class)
austenitic, non-magnetic, extremely tough, and stainless steel containing 2.00% – 3.00%
ductile. Cold-working will dramatically increase its molybdenum (whereas 304 has none). The
hardness. It is amenable to stamping, spinning, and inclusion of molybdenum gives 316 greater
wire forming. 302 is commonly used for washers, resistance to various forms of deterioration.
springs, screens, and cables. It can be found in It is well-suited for extreme situations such as
bridge pins, spring pins, and spiral rings. laboratory equipment, chloride environments,
and sub-zero temperatures. 316 is frequently used
303 for chemical, food, paper, mining, pharmaceutical,
303 is a popular free machining stainless steel and petroleum equipment. It is one of the most
providing excellent speed and feed capabilities. common stainless steels and can be found in most
303 is used extensively in the screw and machining types of pins, hose clamps, keyed shafts, threaded
industries to make hardware, fasteners such as rod, machine keys, and keystock.
lock nuts, valve parts, nozzles, and trim. It can
also be used for keyed shafts, pins, and grease 410
fittings. The most widely used martensitic (plain
chromium stainless class with exceptional
304 strength) stainless steel, featuring the high-level
Originally known as 18-8, 304 is the most of strength conferred by martensitic steels. It
commonly specified austenitic (chromium-nickel is a low‑cost, heat treatable grade suitable for
stainless class) stainless steel, accounting for non-severe corrosion applications. It is used
more than half of the stainless steel produced for cutlery, turbine blades, bushings, valve
in the world. This grade withstands ordinary components, fasteners, screens, kitchen utensils,
corrosion in architecture, is durable in typical and spring pins.
food processing environments, and resists most
chemicals. 304 is available in virtually all product 416
forms and finishes and is used for cookware, This was one of the first free machining stainless
appliances, sinks, and tabletops. It can be found steels. It has excellent machinability and non-
in bridge pins, thread inserts, hose clamps, and galling characteristics and is magnetic. It is used
spring pins. for nuts, bolts, screws, gears, and pinions, valve
trim, shafts, axles, dowel pins, and keystock.
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Steel and Steel Alloys
TOUGHNESS
Low High
H13
V44 (H13 Modified)
S7
O1
W1
A2
M2
D2
Carbon steel is sometimes used to describe any steel that is not stainless steel. However, in its
strictest sense, carbon steel is any steel in which the primary alloying element is carbon with no
minimum contents of other alloying elements. The more carbon the steel contains the harder and
stronger it is; however, it also becomes more brittle. Low-carbon steel is the most common and is used
for structural steel because of its low cost and high malleability. Medium-carbon steel balances ductility
and strength and is used for large parts, forging, and automotive components. High-carbon steel is very
strong and is used for springs and high-strength wires.
Tool steels, as the name suggests, are used for metal-working tools. They are alloyed to achieve
distinctive hardness, abrasion resistant, and heat resistant qualities. Tool steels are used for tooling
blanks, knives, axes, stamping dies, and metal-cutting tools.
Despite its name, stainless steel is not stain proof. However, it is highly resistant to corrosion and
prevents rusting by creating a layer of chromium oxide preventing further surface oxidation. Stainless
steel has a wide range of uses including decorative finishes, household hardware, cutlery, surgical
instruments, food processing equipment, and jewelry.
Carbon Steel
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Steel and Steel Alloys
Tool Steel
A2 M2 W1 P20
Die Shapes Cutting Tools Cutting Tools Die-casting Dies
Machine Keys Cold Heading Injection Molds
Slitters Ground Flat Stock
Embossing Taps
Drill Rod
Reamers
D2 O1 4142
Blanking Dies Blanking Dies Machine Keys
Thread Rolling Dies Ground Flat Stock Ground Flat Stock
Forming Dies Cutting Tools Keystock
Drill Rod
Stainless Steel
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Steel and Steel Alloys
CHAPTER 4
Mechanical Properties
S
trength of materials deals with may have a significant impact on how effectively
the relations between the external parts are able to resist stresses.
forces applied to steel, and the
resulting deformations and stresses. Many mechanical properties of steel are
In the design of structures and machines, the determined from tests that show relationships
application of the principles of strength of between stresses and strains. These values can
materials is necessary if satisfactory steel is to be charted to show specific relationship changes
be utilized and adequate proportions obtained as the values progress.
to resist functional forces.
Did you know
there are three Stress
kinds of stress: Forces are produced by the action of gravity,
compressive, by accelerations and impacts of moving parts, Stress is defined as the force per unit area and
tensile, and by gases and fluids under pressure, by the is usually expressed in pounds per square inch
shearing; and transmission of mechanical power, etc. In order (psi). Tensile stress will stretch or lengthen
they can occur to analyze the stresses and deflections of a steel steel. Compressive stress will compress or
simultaneously piece, the magnitudes, directions and points shorten steel. Shearing stress will break or
and in cycles? of application of forces acting on the piece must tear steel into pieces. Tensile and compressive
be known. stresses always act at right angles to (normal to)
the area being considered; shearing stresses are
The time element in the application of force always in the plane of the area (at right angles to
on a steel piece is an important consideration. compressive or tensile stresses).
A force may be static or change so slowly
that its maximum value can be treated as if Unit Strain
it were static; it may be suddenly applied, as Unit strain is the amount by which the
with an impact, or it may have a repetitive or dimension of steel changes when it is subjected
cyclic behavior. to a load, divided by the original value of the
dimension. The simpler term “strain” is often
The environment in which forces act on a used instead of unit strain.
machine or part is also essential. Factors such
as high and low temperatures; the presence of
corrosive gases, vapors, liquids, radiation, etc.
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Mechanical Properties
Types of Stress
TENSILE STRESS COMPRESSIVE STRESS SHEARING STRESS
Tensile stress pulls apart, compressive stress pushes together, and shearing stress pushes from opposite sides.
Proportional limit the test specimen. This is the value of the stress
The point on a stress/strain ratio curve at at the elastic limit for materials for which there
which it begins to deviate from the straight is an elastic limit. Because of the difficulty in
line relationship between stress and strain. determining the elastic limit, yield strength
This is a mathematical point and is not directly is often determined by the stress value on the
observable. stress/strain curve corresponding to a definite
amount of permanent set or strain, usually 0.1 –
Elastic Limit 0.2% of the original dimension.
Elastic limit is the maximum stress to which a
test specimen may be subjected and still return Tensile Strength
to its original length upon release of the load. Tensile strength (also called ultimate strength)
Steel is said to be stressed within the elastic is the maximum stress value obtained on a
region when the working stress does not exceed stress/strain curve.
the elastic limit, and to be stressed in the plastic
region when the working stress exceeds the Shear Properties
elastic limit. The elastic limit for steel is for all The properties of shear yield strength are
practical purposes the same as its proportional determined by direct shear and torsional tests.
limit. Single shear strength is the amount of force
applied against the side of an object in one place
Yield causing it to break into
two pieces. Double STRESS/STRAIN RATIO CURVE
Yield Point shear strength is the
Yield point is a point on a stress/strain curve amount of force applied Yield Point
at which there is a sudden increase in strain against the side of an
STRESS
without a corresponding increase in stress. Not object in two places Tensile Strength
all materials have a yield point. causing is to break into Elastic Limit
three pieces. Proportional Limit
Yield Strength See “Testing and
Yield strength is the maximum stress that can Measuring Shear STRAIN
be applied without permanent deformation of Strength,” page 38. Typical stress/strain ratio curve.
Fo
rc
e
Fo
rc
e
Shear strength is tested by measuring the force necessary to slice a sample into
two pieces for single shear, or three pieces for double shear. In a single shear test
the workpiece is supported on only one end whereas in a double shear test the
workpiece is supported from both ends which requires greater force to break a
middle piece free. Both tests result in strength ratings that categorize the metal.
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Mechanical Properties
amounts of plastic strain induced during each cycle, and short Testing and Measuring
lives or a low number of cycles to failure. Tensile Strength
or less.
Thermal Fatigue
Cyclic temperature changes in a machine part will produce
cyclic stresses and strains if natural thermal expansions and
contractions are either wholly or partially constrained. These
Sample mounted in test fixture
cyclic strains produce fatigue failure just as though they were
with no force applied.
produced by external mechanical loading. When strain cycling is
produced by a fluctuating temperature field, the failure process is
termed “thermal fatigue.”
Yield Point:
Corrosion Fatigue The strength rating
Corrosion fatigue is a failure mode where cyclic stresses and before deformation starts.
a corrosion producing environment combine to initiate and PSI
propagate cracks in fewer stress cycles and at lower stress
amplitudes than would be required in a more inert environment.
The corrosion process forms pits and surface discontinuities
that act as stress raisers to accelerate fatigue cracking. The cyclic Force
loads may also cause cracking and flaking of the corrosion layer,
baring fresh metal to the corrosive environment. Each process
accelerates the other, making the cumulative result more serious. Sample is pulled from opposite ends
but no deformation has taken place.
Surface or Contact Fatigue
Surface fatigue failure is usually associated with rolling surfaces
in contact, and results in pitting, cracking, and spalling of the
contacting surfaces from cyclic contact stresses that cause shear Tensile Strength:
stresses to be slightly below the surface. The cyclic subsurface The strength rating before breaking.
shear stresses generate cracks that propagate to the contacting Elongation:
surface, dislodging particles in the process. The percentage of change in length. PSI
Creep Failure
Unlike fatigue failure, creep failure is the result of strain Force
developing from long-term stress. A solid material can
imperceptibly flow or deform when subjected to high
temperatures or stresses over a long period. Common examples Sample is pulled apart; permanent
of creep are the visible distortions in antique glass, the slow deformation and eventual breakage occurs.
movement of glaciers, and the filament pulling apart in
household light bulbs. A test sample is tooled to have large shoulders on the ends
which are used by the testing apparatus to pull the sample
Combined Creep and Fatigue apart to breaking. The point just before deformation begins
In this failure mode, all of the conditions for both creep failure is the yield point. Tensile strength is how much force it
and fatigue failure exist simultaneously. Each process influences takes to stretch the sample before breaking. Elongation is
the other in producing failure, but this interaction is not well how far it stretches as a percentage of change.
understood. ¾
Elongation in
Elongation in
Elongation in
Reduction in
Reduction in
Reduction in
Size (″) Strength Strength Strength
Hardness
Hardness
Hardness
sq in (%)
sq in (%)
sq in (%)
area (%)
area (%)
area (%)
(BHN)
(BHN)
(BHN)
Tensile Yield Tensile Yield Tensile Yield
(psi) (psi) (psi)
AISI 1018 and 1025 Steels
5/8 – 7/8 70,000 60,000 18 40 143 --- --- --- --- --- 65,000 45,000 20 45 131
Over 7/8 – 1-1/4 65,000 55,000 16 40 131 --- --- --- --- --- 60,000 45,000 20 45 121
Over 1-1/4 – 2 60,000 50,000 15 35 121 --- --- --- --- --- 55,000 45,000 16 40 111
Over 2 – 3 55,000 45,000 15 35 111 --- --- --- --- --- 50,000 40,000 15 40 101
AISI 1117 and 1118 Steels
5/8 – 7/8 75,000 65,000 15 40 149 80,000 70,000 15 40 163 70,000 50,000 18 45 143
Over 7/8 – 1-1/4 70,000 60,000 15 40 143 75,000 65,000 15 40 149 65,000 50,000 16 45 131
Over 1-1/4 – 2 65,000 55,000 13 35 131 70,000 60,000 13 35 143 60,000 50,000 15 40 121
Over 2 – 3 60,000 50,000 12 30 121 65,000 55,000 12 35 131 55,000 45,000 15 40 111
AISI 1035 Steel
5/8 – 7/8 85,000 75,000 13 35 170 90,000 80,000 13 35 179 80,000 60,000 16 45 163
Over 7/8 – 1-1/4 80,000 70,000 12 35 163 85,000 75,000 12 35 170 75,000 60,000 15 45 149
Over 1-1/4 – 2 75,000 65,000 12 35 149 80,000 70,000 12 35 163 70,000 60,000 15 40 143
Over 2 – 3 70,000 60,000 10 30 143 75,000 65,000 10 30 149 65,000 55,000 12 35 131
AISI 1045, 1145, and 1146 Steels
5/8 – 7/8 95,000 85,000 12 35 187 100,000 90,000 12 35 197 90,000 70,000 15 45 179
Over 7/8 – 1-1/4 90,000 80,000 11 30 179 95,000 85,000 11 30 187 85,000 70,000 15 45 170
Over 1-1/4 – 2 85,000 75,000 10 30 170 90,000 80,000 10 30 179 80,000 65,000 15 40 163
Over 2 – 3 80,000 70,000 10 30 163 85,000 75,000 10 25 170 75,000 60,000 12 35 149
AISI 1050, 1137, and 1151 Steels
5/8 – 7/8 100,000 90,000 11 35 197 105,000 95,000 11 35 212 95,000 75,000 15 45 187
Over 7/8 – 1-1/4 95,000 85,000 11 30 187 100,000 90,000 11 30 197 90,000 75,000 15 40 179
Over 1-1/4 – 2 90,000 80,000 10 30 179 95,000 85,000 10 30 187 85,000 70,000 15 40 170
Over 2 – 3 85,000 75,000 10 30 170 90,000 80,000 10 25 179 80,000 65,000 12 35 163
AISI 1144 Steel
5/8 – 7/8 110,000 100,000 10 30 223 115,000 105,000 10 30 229 105,000 85,000 15 40 212
Over 7/8 – 1-1/4 105,000 95,000 10 30 212 110,000 100,000 10 30 223 100,000 85,000 15 40 197
Over 1-1/4 – 2 100,000 90,000 10 25 197 105,000 95,000 10 25 212 95,000 80,000 15 35 187
Over 2 – 3 95,000 85,000 10 20 187 100,000 90,000 10 20 197 90,000 75,000 12 30 179
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Mechanical Properties
Typical Mechanical Properties of Selected Hot-Rolled, Normalized, and Annealed Carbon and Alloy
Steels (cont.)
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Mechanical Properties
Typical Mechanical Properties of Selected Quenched and Tempered Carbon & Alloy Steels (cont.)
Tempering Strength Elongation Reduction in Hardness
AISI No.a Temperature Tensile Yield (%) Area (%) (BHN)
(°F)
(psi)
400 216,000 152,000 10 31 601
600 212,000 150,000 11 33 534
1095b 800 199,000 139,000 13 35 388
1000 165,000 110,000 15 40 293
1200 122,000 85,000 20 47 235
400 187,000 120,000 10 30 401
600 183,000 118,000 10 30 375
1095 800 176,000 112,000 12 32 363
1000 158,000 98,000 15 37 321
1200 130,000 80,000 21 47 269
400 157,000 136,000 5 22 352
600 143,000 122,000 10 33 285
1137 800 127,000 106,000 15 48 262
1000 110,000 88,000 24 62 229
1200 95,000 70,000 28 69 197
400 217,000 169,000 5 17 415
600 199,000 163,000 9 25 375
1137b 800 160,000 143,000 14 40 311
1000 120,000 105,000 19 60 262
1200 94,000 77,000 25 69 187
400 237,000 176,000 6 17 461
600 212,000 186,000 9 32 415
1141 800 169,000 150,000 12 47 331
1000 130,000 111,000 18 57 262
1200 103,000 86,000 23 62 217
400 127,000 91,000 17 36 277
600 126,000 90,000 17 40 262
1144 800 123,000 88,000 18 42 248
1000 117,000 83,000 20 46 235
1200 105,000 73,000 23 55 217
400 232,000 211,000 9 39 459
600 207,000 186,000 9 44 402
1330 b 800 168,000 150,000 15 53 335
1000 127,000 112,000 18 60 263
1200 106,000 83,000 23 63 216
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Mechanical Properties
Typical Mechanical Properties of Selected Quenched and Tempered Carbon & Alloy Steels (cont.)
Tempering Strength Elongation Reduction in Hardness
AISI No.a Temperature Tensile Yield (%) Area (%) (BHN)
(°F)
(psi)
400 262,000 231,000 11 35 505
600 230,000 206,000 12 43 453
1340 800 183,000 167,000 14 51 375
1000 140,000 120,000 17 58 295
1200 116,000 90,000 22 66 252
400 149,000 110,000 6 38 310
600 138,000 111,000 14 53 295
4037 800 127,000 106,000 20 60 270
1000 115,000 95,000 23 63 247
1200 101,000 61,000 29 60 220
400 261,000 241,000 12 37 516
600 234,000 211,000 13 42 455
4042 800 187,000 170,000 15 51 380
1000 143,000 128,000 20 59 300
1200 115,000 100,000 28 66 238
400 236,000 212,000 10 41 467
600 217,000 200,000 11 43 435
4130b 800 186,000 173,000 13 49 380
1000 150,000 132,000 17 57 315
1200 118,000 102,000 22 64 245
400 257,000 238,000 8 38 510
600 225,000 208,000 9 43 445
4140 800 181,000 165,000 13 49 370
1000 138,000 121,000 18 58 285
1200 110,000 95,000 22 63 230
400 280,000 250,000 10 39 530
600 256,000 231,000 10 40 495
4150 800 220,000 200,000 12 45 440
1000 175,000 160,000 15 52 370
1200 139,000 122,000 19 60 290
400 272,000 243,000 10 38 520
600 250,000 230,000 10 40 486
4340 800 213,000 198,000 10 44 430
1000 170,000 156,000 13 51 360
1200 140,000 124,000 19 60 280
Typical Mechanical Properties of Selected Quenched and Tempered Carbon & Alloy Steels (cont.)
Tempering Strength Elongation Reduction in Hardness
AISI No.a Temperature Tensile Yield (%) Area (%) (BHN)
(°F)
(psi)
400 280,000 245,000 8 38 538
600 250,000 228,000 8 39 483
6150 800 208,000 193,000 10 43 420
1000 168,000 155,000 13 50 345
1200 137,000 122,000 17 58 282
400 295,000 250,000 10 33 550
600 256,000 228,000 8 42 475
81B45 800 204,000 190,000 11 48 405
1000 160,000 149,000 16 53 338
1200 130,000 115,000 20 55 280
400 238,000 218,000 9 38 465
600 215,000 202,000 10 42 430
8630 800 185,000 170,000 13 47 375
1000 150,000 130,000 17 54 310
1200 112,000 100,000 23 63 240
400 270,000 242,000 10 40 505
600 240,000 220,000 10 41 460
8640 800 200,000 188,000 12 45 400
1000 160,000 150,000 16 54 340
1200 130,000 116,000 20 62 280
400 281,000 243,000 10 38 525
600 250,000 225,000 10 40 490
8650 800 210,000 192,000 12 45 420
1000 170,000 153,000 15 51 340
1200 140,000 120,000 20 58 280
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Mechanical Properties
Austenitic Steels
Annealed 90,000 37,000 55 65 B82 155
1.4 hard 125,000 a
75,000 a
12 a
--- C25 ---
302 (sheet, strip)
Cold-drawn to 350,000 --- --- --- --- ---
(bar, wire)
303, 90,000 35,000 50 55 B84 160
Annealed
303 (Se)
304 Annealed 85,000 35,000 55 65 B80 150
304L Annealed 80,000 30,000 55 65 B76 140
310, 95,000 40,000 45 65 B87 170
Annealed
310S
Annealed 85,000 35,000 55 70 B80 150
316 Cold-drawn to 300,000 --- --- --- --- ---
(bar, wire)b
321 Annealed 87,000 35,000 55 65 B80 150
Martensitic Steels
Annealed 75,000 40,000 30 65 B82 155
Hardenedc --- --- --- --- C43 410
Tempered at 190,000 145,000 15 55 C41 390
400°F
403, 410,
416, 600°F 180,000 140,000 15 55 C39 375
416Z (Se) 800°F 195,000 150,000 17 55 C41 390
1000°F 145,000 115,000 20 65 C31 300
1200°F 110,000 85,000 23 65 B97 225
1400°F 90,000 60,000 30 70 B89 180
420, 420F Annealed 95,000 50,000 25 55 B92 195
Hardened d
--- --- --- --- C54 ---
Tempered at 285,000 275,000 2 10 C57 ---
440C, 440F
600°F
Annealed 110,000 65,000 13 25 B97 230
CHAPTER 5
Heat Treatment
H
ardenability is the property of treated condition, thermal treatment greatly
steel that determines the depth increases the number of properties that can
and distribution of hardness be obtained, because at certain “critical
induced by quenching from the temperatures” iron changes from one type of
austenitizing temperature. Hardenability crystal structure to another. This structural
should not be confused with hardness or change, known as an allotropic transformation,
maximum hardness. Hardness is a measure is spontaneous and reversible and can be made
of the ability of a metal to resist penetration to occur by simply changing the temperature of
as determined by any one of a number of the metal.
Did you know
steel can exist
standard tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers,
in five distinct etc.). The maximum attainable hardness of any In steel, the transformation in crystal structure
phases between steel depends solely on carbon content and occurs over a range of temperatures, bounded
solid and is not significantly affected by alloy content. by lower and upper critical points. When
liquid and Maximum hardness is only realized when the heated, most carbon and low alloy steels have
manipulating cooling rate in quenching is rapid enough to a critical temperature range 1300°F – 1600°F.
these phases ensure full transformation to martensite. The Steel above this temperature, but below the
with heat as-quenched surface hardness of a steel part is melting range, has a crystalline structure
gives a steel
dependent on carbon content and cooling rate, known as austenite, in which the carbon and
its particular
characteristics?
but the depth to which a particular hardness alloying elements are dissolved in a solid
level is maintained with given quenching solution. Below this critical range, the crystal
conditions is a function of its hardenability. structure changes to a phase known as ferrite,
Hardenability is largely determined by the which is capable of maintaining only a very
percentage of alloying elements in the steel; small percentage of carbon in solid solution.
however, austenite grain size, time and The remaining carbon exists in the form of
temperature during austenitizing, and prior carbides, which are compounds of carbon and
microstructure also significantly affect the iron and small amounts of the other alloying
hardness depth. elements. Depending primarily on the cooling
rate, carbides may be present as thin plates
Steel’s versatility is due to its response to alternating with the ferrite (pearlite); as
thermal treatment. Although most steel spheroidal globular particles at ferrite grain
products are used in the as-rolled or un-heat boundaries or dispersed throughout the ferrite;
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Heat Treatment
Baking Tempering
Hydrogen embrittlement is the process by which Heating a quench-hardened or normalized ferrous
steel becomes brittle and fractures following alloy to a temperature below the transformation
exposure to hydrogen. Hydrogen embrittlement is range to produce desired changes in properties.
usually the result of unintentional introduction of
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Heat Treatment
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Heat Treatment
CHAPTER 6
Manufacturing
U
nique to
G.L. Huyett is
the breadth of its
manufacturing
operations. These operations
are complemented with a
state-of-the-art world class
warehouse containing over
95,000 non-threaded fasteners
Did you know
G.L. Huyett
and industrial components.
started as a This section defines some
hardware store of the major manufacturing
supplying local operations often performed
farmers with when manufacturing products
hard-to-source from raw steel.
replacement
hardware?
Band Sawing Automated industrial band saws are used to manufacture machine keys,
keystock, and spacers to tight tolerances for a wide range of applications and
A band saw is a computer- industries.
controlled multi-point cutting
machine designed to cut off barstock, tubing, it passes through material held firmly in place
pipe, or other metal stock. The band saw by hydraulic jaws on both sides of the blade to
functions by bringing a continuously moving, produce tight tolerance cutting accuracy. At
endless metal blade with teeth along one edge G.L. Huyett cold-finished barstock is welded
in contact with the workpiece to be cut. The into a pack to prevent the bars from sliding back
blade travels continuously between a drive and forth as they are fed through the band saw.
wheel and an idler wheel to produce a uniform
cutting action. At least two teeth must be in G.L. Huyett has pioneered the use of
contact with the workpiece at all times to proprietary fixtures, materials handling, and
avoid stripping of the teeth. The cutting blade band sawing equipment to automate this
stands on edge with the teeth facing down as process.
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Manufacturing
Cold-drawing
Cold-drawing is a metalworking process that
uses tensile force to stretch metal by pulling
steel bars or sheets through a progressive set of
rollers or dies at room temperature in order to
modify their shape and structure.
Cold-sawing
Compared to band saws, cold-saws use a slow-
moving angular blade that provides highly
accurate finish-quality cuts, but in lower
volume. Due to improved accuracy, cold-sawing
is typically used when fine length tolerances are
desired as it produces minimal burrs and dust
while cutting and does not discolor the metal. Cold-sawing is slower than band sawing, but is highly
accurate and does not scar the metal. It is used to make
products such as woodruff keys and spacers with keyways.
Lasering
Lasering, or laser cutting, is a metal forming
process that uses intensified beams of light
to drill or cut forms into metal to finished
tolerances. Lasers use a high-energy beam
supported by a coaxial supply of cutting gas
to melt, vaporize, or combust material in a
small and concentrated area. Lasering should
be considered for production runs up to 500
pieces where tooling costs can be prohibitive.
Lasered parts are flat, such as washers and other
Grinding is employed when extremely tight tolerances are required on flat forms, but parts can be bent at angles following
surfaces such as shims and thrust washers. laser work.
Milling
grinding is a more precise method of tolerance
modification. Special end designs or special dimensions on
non-standard parts require a milling process.
Parts are laid on a table that has a chuck or Milling is a multi-point cutting process used
holder. The holder uses magnets to hold parts to remove material from the face or periphery
on the table, or in the case of non-magnetic of a workpiece by a rotating cutting tool (also
materials like stainless steel, a vacuum chuck commonly referred to as a cutter or insert).
or adhesive is used. The magnetism of the
chuck has limitations based on the size of the The cutting tool rotates rapidly as the workpiece
workpiece as well as the holding power around is moved relatively to the cutting tool on a
the outer edges of the chuck (about 1″ in total). fixture. A fixture is a work-holding device
designed specifically to hold one or more
The table reciprocates, or moves back and forth, workpieces tightly in place in order to reduce
beneath an abrasive turning wheel. As the table the amount of time needed to position or lock
moves back and forth, the entire table moves so workpieces to the machine table. Milling is a
that over time, the grinding wheel passes over violent and stressful process that is far more
the entire surface area of the table. This process, technical than it appears. The process requires
while slow, is precise. With each pass, as much rigidity in the fixtures as even slight movements
as 0.001″ of material is removed. The maximum can affect the finished results.
thickness to be removed using this process is
0.008″. Otherwise, milling should be used.
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Manufacturing
control the amount of material removed on each produce a sculpted surface. For shaft keys, the
side of a part, as a percentage of total thickness. parts are stood up in the fixture and shaped in
batches in just a few passes.
Generally, the maximum amount of material
that can be removed on carbon steel parts is Shearing
0.125″. For greater tolerance modifications, the Shearing is a high-speed cutting process where
part requires milling on both sides. Stainless an upper cutoff blade is passed by a lower
steel is generally always milled on both sides, blade, one of which is stationary, with a desired
because of the presence of more stresses than offset. It is an excellent production method for
carbon steel. high-speed production of shaft keys, both with
square (Form B) and radial (Form A) ends.
The minimum tolerance that can be held in
tolerance modification using milling is 0.003″. G.L. Huyett has developed proprietary state-
Tighter tolerances can be realized using of-the-art fixtures for milling shaft keys
grinding as a secondary operation, but keep and profiles.
A punched shear in mind that these operations are both time
or burnished consuming and expensive. See “Chapter 5: Punching/Stamping
area is the Heat Treatment” for additional information on
area where a metallurgical stress and strain, page 48. Punching, also referred to as stamping, is a
substrate has
process of using a punch press to punch through
been cut by
a punch. It is Non-Milling Processes that material and into a die to create a hole in a
smooth, well- Mimic Milling workpiece with expert precision. As the punch
defined, and pushes through the material, it shears off, and
consistent in Arbor Milling the sidewall of the resulting hole displays a
size. A rollover is Arbor milling can be used to produce keyed burnished area, a rollover, and a breakout.
the rounded edge shafts, keyways, or the steps on keyways. An
made as a punch arbor mill works the same as an end-mill except There are several variations of the basic punch
compresses that the cutting takes place on a surface that design. For starters, more than one part can be
a substrate
runs parallel to the axis of rotation. punched in a single stroke for higher volume
before it shears
the material.
applications. A progressive set of dies can be
A breakout is Broaching
the rough edge Broaching is used to cut
created on the internal keyways into the
underside of the inside diameter of a gear or
substrate as the sprocket, and to form the
punch breaks radius on a Form A shaft
through. key. Broaching is a cutting
operation where stock removal
is built into the tool by having
each successive tooth cut
deeper into the material. The
tools are long and tapered.
Shaping
Shaping is used to form the
ends of radial shaft keys.
Material is removed by a
single-point cutting tool that
reciprocates across the face Stamping/punching creates a series of pieces from a single sheet of metal and is
of a stationary workpiece to generally used for washers or bushings with internal cut-outs.
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Manufacturing
Threading
(major diameter) of the part and thus a smaller
There are three distinct methods used to thread blank size can be used as opposed to the blanks
a part: cutting, milling, and forming. Thread used for cut threads. There is a typical 15–20%
cutting is a process of using a single-point savings in blanks, measured by weight, in
tool to produce a uniform helical thread form. rolled versus cut thread parts. Rolled threads
Thread cutting involves removal of material and are recognizable to the observer because the
is used when full thread depth is required, the threads are larger than the blank rod from
production quantity is small, the blank is not which they are formed. While cut and milled
very accurate, threading up to the shoulder is threads can be both internal and external,
required, or when the material is brittle. Thread rolled threads are only external because of the
cutting can be performed on a lathe. forming process.
Turning
Turning is a machining operation performed
on a lathe in which the workpiece rotates at
high speeds while a fixed cutting tool removes
material.
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Manufacturing
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Manufacturing Case Study A
Opportunity:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Opportunity:
C
Dowel pins are more expensive to produce
Shaft than alternate designs such as a rolled
Key pin. Rolled pins have a less precise outside
diameter than many dowel pins. Orientation
may be required of the rolled pin, which can
D
complicate installation. A “Type H” grooved
Type H pin was the best solid pin application
Grooved Pin
because it required a less precise hole than
a dowel pin, and the grooved end provided a
more sturdy grip.
E
An alternate design and build strategy was
considered. Die-casting provided sufficiently
precise dimensions, with a solid stopping
mechanism. With die-casting, there was no pin
Shaft
Key installation cost, and overall design was
F more Consistent. In addition, there was no
Alternate Designs need for operator intervention in pin depth
and placement.
Solution:
Rolled Pin Dowel Pin
Using G.L. Huyett engineering and global
G
sourcing, a die-casting contractor was
located. Low tooling and setup costs,
Redesigned Method coupled with the installation and production
cost advantages over multiple-piece designs
yielded an acceptable part at a fraction of
the legacy cost. Overall, the customer’s
H
goal of cost reduction was exceeded by a
wide margin.
Die Cast
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Problem:
Opportunity: Conventional
D
Cold-Draw
G.L. Huyett’s global sourcing team was able
to locate profile mills to make raw material
with pre-radiused edges. The raw steel was
specified to precise lengths to reduce waste Profiled Draw
on the chucked end.
E
Solution:
After
12% Savings
Chamfered Edges
H
Turned Grooves
Special Note:
The G.L. Huyett team also
proposed to ship parts
with one e-clip assembled,
further reducing the cost
of the assembled part.
I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Opportunity:
D
G.L. Huyett has proprietary air-over hydraulic
milling fixtures that are seated on pallets.
The air-over hydraulic design provides high
rigidity, clamping power, and throughput. The
Legacy Method throughput is increased because the operator
loads parts while the machining center
E
operates.
Solution:
Redesigned Method
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Original Design
Problem:
Pull
A few years ago, a medical supply company Ring
approached us with a challenge to create B
a ring pull pin with a threaded shaft. Our Threaded
shaft to
sales team and engineers worked with stabilize
the company to develop a cost-effective
solution. Recently, they came back to us Locking
with a need for a locking mechanism that pin
would allow them to keep the pin in an open
C
position. They only needed a small quantity,
and they needed them as quickly as possible.
Opportunity:
D
Along with our customer, the G.L. Huyett Redesigned Method
manufacturing team worked quickly to
develop several potential solutions. One
was a costly, time-consuming side pin that
would serve their needs, but wasn’t an Hex Collar
affordable option. Another was a notched pin
E
that could be locked, but was not a viable
solution since clearance was too tight to
allow the shaft of the pin to slide into a
locked position. A third solution provided a
cost-effective, custom manufactured, hex-
shaped locking collar that could be quickly F
added to or removed from the original pin.
Set
Solution: Screw
I
Set
Screw
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
CHAPTER 7
Hardness Tests
S
teel is used for a multitude of A variety of tests exist to measure the hardness
different applications; from forming of a material by indentation. Macro-hardness
the skeleton of tall skyscrapers tests use larger indentation forces in the range
to decorating the face of a of 50 to 3000N (9.807 Newtons = 1 kilogram-
watch. Measuring its hardness is critical in force = 2.204 pounds-force); examples
determining its suitability for a given function. include Rockwell, Brinell, and Vickers tests.
Microhardness tests use smaller indentation
Hardness Testing forces in the range of 10 to 1000gf (1 gram-force
= 0.00220462262941 pound-force); examples
Unlike height, weight, and width, hardness include Micro-Vickers and Knoop tests.
Did you know
the diamond
is not a fundamental property. Hardness is
is one of most closely related to tensile strength and For rapid on-site testing, macro-hardness tests
the hardest is a reliable indicator of ductility and wear are the most widely used. They test normal-
substances on resistance. The principle of any hardness testing sized materials with standard loads, indenters,
earth, yet it can method is to force an indenter (penetrator) and dwells: controlled intervals of time in
be shattered with into a material sample under a specific load which an indenter is held under load against a
a simple tap of a at a controlled rate and then measure the material to ensure accurate hardness ratings.
hammer? dimensions (depth or surface area) of the
indentation. Unlike length, mass, or time which Brinell Hardness Test
have exact measures, hardness testing is a
comparative measure: accurate testing results The Brinell test for determining the hardness
can only be achieved with calibrated machines of metallic materials consists of applying a
and previous test results taken from a material known load to the surface of the material to
of known hardness. be tested through a hardened steel ball of
known diameter. The diameter of the resulting
In metallurgy, the hardness of a material permanent impression in the metal is measured,
depends on a combination of yield strength, and the Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) is
tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity – the then calculated from the following formula in
stiffness of a material and its ability to resist which D = diameter of the ball in millimeters,
deformation under applied force. It is measured d = measured diameter at the rim of the
by indenting a small sample piece of material impression in millimeters, and P = applied load
without destroying it. in kilograms force:
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Hardness Tests
=
load on indenting tool in kgf Rockwell Hardness Test
surface area of indentation in sq. mm
BHN P
The Rockwell hardness tester is essentially
= a machine that measures hardness by
D (D - D2 - d 2 ) determining the depth of penetration of a
2
penetrator into the specimen under certain
If the steel ball were not deformed under fixed conditions of test. The penetrator may
the applied load and if the impression were be either a steel ball or a diamond sphero-
truly spherical, then the preceding formula conical penetrator. The hardness number is
would be a general one, and any combination related to the depth of indentation and, the
of applied load and size of the ball could be higher the number, the
used. The impression, however, is not quite a harder the material. A
spherical surface because there must always be minor load of 10 kgf is first
START
some deformation of the steel ball and some applied, causing an initial 90
0
10
recovery of form of the metal in the impression; penetration; the dial is set 80 20
hence, for a standard Brinell test, the size and at zero on the black-figure 70 30
scale, and the major load is applied. This major Test Force Tranformation
load is customarily 60 kgf or 100 kgf when Handwheel
Microscope Eyepiece
a steel ball is used as a penetrator, but other
loads may be used when necessary. The ball
penetrator is 1/16″ in diameter normally, but
other penetrators of larger diameter, such
Knoop & Vickers
as 1/8″, may be employed for soft metals. Indenters
When a diamond sphero-conical penetrator
is employed, the load is usually 150 kg. Microscope Lenses
Experience decides the best combination of
load and penetrator for use. After the major load Specimen
is applied and removed, according to standard
procedure, the reading is taken while the minor
Work Platform
load is still applied.
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Hardness Tests
+/-
Use a correct load/indenter Hardness testing is toleranced with
combination relative to the thickness variables for plus or minus results.
of the material. Tests will end up Refer to ASTM E10, ASTM E18,
measuring anvil hardness and results ! ASTM 392, ASTM E140, or
will not be indicative of the true ASTME E384 for specific allowances
hardness of the sample piece. for your testing equipment.
No Stacking Indentors
Never stack multiple pieces of sample Round ball indentors must be round.
material. The interfaces between the While steel ball indentors are less
strip will negatively affect the reading. expensive than their tungsten carbide
Testing strip thickness needs to be at counterparts, steel is more likely to
least 10x greater than the expected flatten during tests of very hard
major load indentation depth. material samples.
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Hardness Tests
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Hardness Tests
MEASUREMENT – ENVIRONMENT –
Verification of each measurement Smooth specimen surface
Calibration of loading systems Clean specimen
Magnification of lenses Constant temperature and humdity
Uniformity of illumination Vibration free
Same conditions for each test
HARDNESS
MEASUREMENT OPERATOR –
Clear understanding of equipment
INSTRUMENT – operation
Load constant on all tests Knowledge of surface requirements
Indentation Well versed in fixture techniques
Indenter free of defects
Load cells rather than weights
Regularly calibrated
Widely spaced indentations
MATERIAL –
Quality of specimen preparation
Reflectivity of specimen surface
Type of material
Shape of material
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Hardness Tests
CHAPTER 8
Finishing Processes
I
n most cases, raw steel must be finished Anodizing Aluminum Alloys
using one or more treatments – or In the anodizing process, aluminum objects
secondary processes – to increase its to be treated are immersed as the anode in an
surface hardness and durability. Though acid electrolyte and a direct current is applied.
the primary purpose of finishing is to protect Oxidation of the surface occurs producing
steel from oxidation and corrosion to extend a hard, porous film of aluminum oxide. The
its shelf life, a variety of other processes have object is then immersed in boiling water, nylon,
been developed to increase wear resistance, or other plastic to seal the porosity and render
electrical conductivity or resistance, or to the film impermeable. Before sealing, the film
Did you know
that while
improve its appearance by making it brighter can be colored by impregnation with dyes or
plating is several or reflective, alter its color, or enhance it by pigments. Special electrolytes may also be used
hundred years etching, grinding, or polishing its surface. to produce colored anodic films directly in the
old, the process Some finishing processes affect torque anodizing bath. The anodic coatings are used
has evolved tolerance, increase – or decrease – surface primarily for corrosion protection and abrasion
to the point of friction, improve solderability, or prep the resistance, and as a paint base.
being able to surface for bonding to other materials such as
layer a metal
coating a single
adhesives, rubber (also known as vulcanizing), Black Oxide Coatings
other metals, or organic coatings. See “Steel
atom thick.
Corrosion,” page 82. Thin black oxide coatings are applied to steel
by immersing the parts to be coated in a boiling
Determining which finishing process will solution of sodium hydroxide and mixtures of
generate the best result depends on the nitrates, and nitrites. These coatings serve as
application for which the steel is to be used. It is paint bases and, in some cases, final finishes.
relatively common to simply clean and deburr When the coatings are impregnated with oil
finished parts by grinding or sandblasting or wax, they furnish fairly good corrosion
them to remove rough edges and smooth out resistance. These finishes are relatively
the surface of metal. Metal vibratory finishing inexpensive compared to other coatings and can
equipment (tumblers) is also frequently used be performed on large batches of small parts.
to remove minor imperfections such as dings Unlike paint or other plating processes, at only
and scratches in order to produce a uniform a micrometer thickness black oxide coatings do
surface or appearance and to round and smooth not alter the dimensions of finished parts.
sharp edges.
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Finishing Processes
Brushed Metal
A wire brush or a 120 grit – 180 grit rotating Mechanical Plating
abrasive belt is used to remove surface Mechanical plating, also known
imperfections and polish metal to create a as “ping plating,” is an
uniform, parallel grain surface texture while alternate coating method to
slightly rounding edges perpendicular to the electroplating and is used
grain. While brushing produces an attractive on heat treated parts in
pattern of very fine lines, the process exposes order to eliminate any
the bare metal to the environment making it opportunity for hydrogen
prone to corrosion. embrittlement. See
“Baking,” page 50. In this
Buff Polishing method, parts are placed
into a tumbler or vibrating
Similar to wet/dry sanding, a cloth wheel is device with zinc nuggets. The
used along with various grades of powdered parts are vibrated, “pinging” the zinc into
aluminum oxide compounds and wax to buff the surface. The absence of water and heat in the process
metal surfaces to a smooth, non-textured finish does not enable hydrogen atoms to absorb into the parts.
with a high-gloss sheen. It is usually necessary Mechanically plated parts have a dull finish and are not as
to clean any residual compound from the bright as electroplated parts.
surface and treat it with a corrosion-resistant
coating. Chromate Conversion
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Finishing Processes
After a period of time, accumulation of rust on Uniform attack corrosion accounts for the
the surface can cause the corrosion process to greatest amount of metal destruction by
be suppressed. New anodic sites may form in corrosion, but is considered a safe form of
adjacent areas allowing further corrosion. In this corrosion because it is predictable, manageable,
case, over long periods of time, the loss of metal and often preventable.
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Finishing Processes
Anodizing (Chromic and Sulfuric), than 900°F. Salt oxidizing is suitable for corrosion
MIL‑A-8625F resistant steel alloys that are tempered at 900°F
Conventional types I, IB, and II anodic coatings are or higher.
intended to improve surface corrosion protection
under severe conditions or as a base for paint Cadmium Plating, QQ-P-416F
systems. Coatings can be colored with a large Cadmium plating is required to be smooth,
variety of dyes and pigments. Class 1 is nondyed; adherent, uniform in appearance, free from
Class 2 is dyed. Color is to be specified on the blisters, pits, nodules, burning, and other defects
contract. Prior to dying or sealing, coatings shall when examined visually without magnification.
meet weight requirements. Unless otherwise specified in the engineering
drawing or procurement documentation, the use
Type I and IB coatings should be used on fatigue of brightening agents in the plating solution to
critical components (due to thinness of coating). modify luster is prohibited on components with
Type I, unless otherwise specified, shall not be a specified heat treatment of 180 ksi minimum
applied to aluminum alloys with over 5% copper tensile strength (or 40 Rockwell C) and higher.
or 7% silicon or total alloying constituents over Either a bright (not caused by brightening agents)
7.5%. Type IC is a mineral or mixed mineral/ or dull luster shall be acceptable. Baking on types
organic acid that anodizes. It provides a non- II and III shall be done prior to application of
chromate alternative for type I and IB coatings supplementary coatings. For Classes 1, 2, and
where corrosion resistance, paint adhesion, and 3 the minimum required thicknesses is 0.0005″,
fatigue resistance are required. Type IIB is a thin 0.0003″, and 0.0002″ respectively.
sulfuric anodizing coating for use as non-chromate
alternatives for type I and IB coatings where Type I is to be used as plated. Types II and III
corrosion resistance, paint adhesion, and fatigue require supplementary chromate and phosphate
resistance are required. Be sure to specify the treatment respectively. Chromate treatment
class of anodic coating and any special sealing required for type II may be colored iridescent
requirements. bronze to brown including olive drab, yellow
and forest green. Type II is recommended for
Types I, IB, IC, and IIB must have a thickness corrosion resistance. Type III is used as a paint
0.00002″ – 0.0007″. Type II must have a thickness base and is excellent for plating stainless steels
0.0007″ – 0.0010″. that are to be used in conjunction with aluminum
to prevent galvanic corrosion. For types II and
Black Oxide Coating, MIL-C-13924C III the minimum cadmium thickness requirement
A uniform, mostly decorative black coating must be met after the supplementary treatment.
for ferrous metals used to decrease light
reflection. Provides only very limited corrosion Lubrication, Solid Film, MIL-L-46010D
protection under mild corrosion conditions. This specification establishes the requirements for
Black oxide coatings should normally be given a three types of heat cured solid film lubricants that
supplementary treatment. are intended to reduce wear and prevent galling,
corrosion, and seizure of metals. For use on
Used for moving parts that cannot tolerate the aluminum, copper, steel, stainless steel, titanium,
dimensional change of a more corrosion resistant chromium, and nickel bearing surfaces.
finish. Use alkaline oxidizing for wrought iron, cast
and malleable irons, plain carbon, low alloy steel, Types I, II, and III must have a thickness
and corrosion resistant steel alloys. Alkaline- 0.008 mm – 0.013 mm with no single reading less
chromite oxidizing may be used on certain than 0.005 mm or greater than 0.018 mm.
corrosion resistant steel alloys tempered at less
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Finishing Processes
Type I has a curing temperature of 150 ± 15°C and For type M, Class 4 is chemically converted (may
an endurance life of 250 minutes; type II, 204 ± be dyed to color as specified) with no specified
15°C and 450 minutes; and type III is a low volatile supplementary coating. For type Z, Class 4 is the
organic compound (VOC) content lubricant with same as Class 3.
cure cycles of 150 ± 15°C for two hours, or 204
± 15°C for one hour with an endurance life of 450 This coating is for medium and low alloy steels.
minutes. Color 1 has a natural product color and The coatings range from gray to black in color.
Color 2 has a black color. The “heavy” phosphate coatings covered by this
specification are intended as a base for holding/
Nickel Plating, QQ-N-290A retaining supplemental coatings which provide
There is a nickel finish for almost any need. the major portion of the corrosion resistance.
Nickel can be deposited soft, hard, dull, or bright, “Light” phosphate coatings used for a paint base
depending on the process used and conditions are covered by other specifications. Heavy zinc
employed in plating. Thus, hardness can range phosphate coatings may be used when paint and
150 – 500 Vickers. Nickel can be similar to supplemental oil coatings are required on various
stainless steel in color, or can be a dull gray parts or assemblies.
(almost white) color. Corrosion resistance is a
function of thickness. Nickel has a low coefficient Zinc Coatings, ASTM-B633
of thermal expansion. This specification covers requirements for
electro-deposited zinc coatings applied to iron
All steel parts having a tensile strength of 1517 or steel articles to protect them from corrosion.
MPa (megapascal) or greater cannot be nickel It does not cover zinc-coated wire or sheets.
plated without specific approval of procuring Type I will be as plated; type II will have colored
agency. chromate conversion coatings; type III will have
colorless chromate conversion coatings; and type
Class 1 is used for corrosion protection. Plating IV will have phosphate conversion coatings.
must be applied over an underplating of copper or
yellow brass on zinc and zinc based alloys. In no High strength steels (tensile strength over
case, may the copper underplating be substituted 1700 MPa) must not be electroplated.
for any part of the specified nickel thickness. Class
2 is used in engineering applications. Stress relief: All parts with an ultimate tensile
strength of 1000 MPa and above must be baked
Grade A has a thickness of 0.0016″; Grade B, at a minimum of 190°C for three hours or more
0.0012″; Grade C, 0.001″; Grade D, 0.0008″; before cleaning and plating.
Grade E, 0.0006″; Grade F, 0.0004″; and
Grade G, 0.002″. Hydrogen embrittlement relief: All electroplated
parts with an ultimate tensile strength of
Phosphate Coating – Heavy, 1200 MPa or higher must be baked at 190°C for
DOD-P-16232-F three hours or more within four hours after
The primary differences are that type M is used electroplating.
as a heavy manganese phosphate coating for
corrosion and wear resistance and type Z is used
as a zinc phosphate coating.
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Finishing Processes
CHAPTER 9
Conversion Charts
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Conversion Charts
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Conversion Charts
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Conversion Charts
Glossary
A Abrasive Belt
Abrasive-coated belt used for
Abrasive production finishing, deburring,
Garnet, emery, carborundum, and similar functions. See coated
aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, abrasive.
diamond, cubic boron nitride, Media
or other material in various grit Abrasive Cutoff Disc
sizes used for grinding, lapping, Blade-like disc with abrasive Workpiece
polishing, honing, pressure particles that parts stock in a slicing
blasting, and other operations. motion.
Each abrasive particle acts like a
tiny, single-point tool that cuts Abrasive Cutoff Machine
a small chip; with hundreds of Machine that uses blade-like discs
thousands of points doing so, high impregnated with abrasive particles
metal removal rates are possible to cut/part stock. See saw, sawing
while providing a good finish. machine.
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Glossary
slurry of fine abrasive grains to is often, but not always, due to a Amorphous
machine materials. See waterjet phase change (precipitation), but Not having a crystal structure;
cutting. never involves a change in chemical noncrystalline.
composition of the metal or alloy.
Abrasive-wire Band Sawing
A variation of band sawing that Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3r)
uses a small-diameter wire with Abrasive material for grinding tools,
diamond, cubic boron nitride Al 2O3r is also the base for ceramics
(CBN), or aluminum-oxide and is used to coat tools.
abrasives bonded to the surface as
the cutting blade. Abrasive-wire Alloy
Crystalline
band sawing is an alternative to A substance having metallic
electrical-discharge machining properties and being composed of
for product dies, stripper plates, two or more chemical elements of
electrodes, and cams from difficult- which at least one is a metal.
to-machine conductive and
nonconductive materials. See band Alloying Element
sawing. An element that is added to a metal
to change the metal’s properties.
Additive
Amorphous
Sulfur, chlorine, and other materials Alpha Iron
GRAIN STRUCTURE OF STEEL
added to cutting fluids to improve The body-centered cubic
lubricity, stabilize oil emulsions, and (BCC) form of pure iron,
prevent chip welding under high stable below 1,670°F. Angle Plate
heat and pressure. See cutting fluid. Solid adjustable or nonadjustable
plate that holds work at a precise
Admixture angle to the spindle during milling
Mixture of concentrate and water and grinding. Also used for other
prepared to restore depleted cutting cutting operations and inspection.
fluid to its original state.
Annealing
Age Hardening Softening a metal by heating it
Hardening of a heat treated to and holding at a controlled
material that occurs slowly at room BODY-CENTERED temperature, then cooling it at a
CUBIC LATTICE (BCC)
temperature and more rapidly controlled rate. Also performed to
at higher temperatures. Usually produce simultaneously desired
follows rapid cooling or cold- Aluminizing changes in other properties or in
working. Formation of an aluminum or microstructure. The purposes of
aluminum-alloy coating on a metal these changes include improvement
Aging by hot-dipping, hot-spraying, or of machinability, facilitation of
A change in the properties of certain diffusion. cold-working, improvement of
metals and alloys that occurs at mechanical or electrical properties,
ambient or moderately elevated and/or increase in stability of
temperatures after a hot-working dimensions. Types of annealing
operation or a heat treatment include blue, black, box, bright, full,
(quench aging in ferrous alloys, intermediate, isothermal, quench,
natural or artificial aging in ferrous and recrystallization.
and nonferrous alloys) or after a
cold-working operation (strain
aging). The change in properties
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Glossary
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Glossary
carburizing and quench hardening, within the family of parts. See family into holes drilled in the workpiece
cyaniding, nitriding, and of parts; group technology. ends. Centers that turn with the
carbonitriding. The use of the work are called “live” centers;
applicable specific process name is Center Drill those that do not are called “dead”
preferred. Drill used to make mounting holes centers.
for work to be held between centers.
Also used to pre-drill holes for Ceramic
subsequent drilling operations. Made from finely powdered
aluminum oxide sintered into the
Center Drilling desired form. Ceramics operate at
Tough, ductile core
Drilling tapered holes for higher speeds than carbides, plus
mounting work between centers. they wear longer, provide smoother
Center-drilled holes also serve finishes, and can machine harder
Hardened surface
as preliminary “starter” holes for materials. They are, however, less
drilling larger holes in the same shock-resistant. Typically used for
location. See drilling. high-speed turning.
CASE HARDENING
Center Rest Chamfering
Cast Alloy Support provided at the center of Machining a bevel on a workpiece or
Alloy cast from the molten state; the working area of a cylindrical tool to improve the tool’s entrance
most high-speed steel is melted in grinder to prevent part deflection into the cut.
an electric-arc furnace and cast into during grinding.
ingots.
Centering
Cast Iron Process of locating the center
A generic term for a large family of a workpiece to be mounted
of cast ferrous alloys in which on centers. Also, the process of
the carbon content exceeds the mounting the workpiece concentric
solubility of carbon in austenite at to the machine spindle.
the eutectic temperature. Most cast
CHAMFERING
irons contain at least 2% carbon, Centerless Grinding
plus silicon and sulfur, and may Grinding operation in which the
or may not contain other alloying workpiece rests on a knife-edge Chamfering Tool
elements. For the various forms – support, rotates through contact Cutter or wheel that creates a
gray cast iron, white cast iron, with a regulating or feed wheel, beveled edge on a tool or workpiece.
malleable cast iron and ductile cast and is ground by a grinding wheel.
iron – the word “cast” is often left This method allows grinding long, Charpy Test
out. thin parts without steady rests; A pendulum-type, single-blow
also experiences lessened taper impact test in which the specimen,
Cavity Cutting problems. Opposite of cylindrical usually notched, is supported at
Machining entirely within the body grinding. See grinding; cylindrical both ends as a simple beam and
of a workpiece. grinding. broken by a falling pendulum. The
energy absorbed, as determined
Cell Manufacturing Cementite by the subsequent rise of the
Grouping processes, equipment, Fe3C, also known as iron carbide. pendulum, is a measure of impact
and people together to manufacture strength or notch toughness. See
a specific family of parts. Highly Centers impact test; Izod test.
automated and able to change over Cone-shaped pins that support
quickly to produce a different part a workpiece by one or two ends
during machining. The centers fit
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Glossary
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EDDY-CURRENT TESTING
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
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Glossary
Laser Machining
Intensified, pulsed beams of light
generated by lasers – typically
Indent carbon dioxide or neodymium-
KNOOP HARDNESS TEST doped yttrium aluminum garnet
(Nd:YAG) – that drill, weld,
Knurling engrave, mark, slit, case harden, etc.
Rolling depressions into the surface Usually under computer numerical
KEYSEATING
of a handle or similar part to control, often at both high cutting
provide a better gripping surface. In rates (100 linear inches/second) and
Killed Steel automotive machining, this process high power (5 kW or more). Lasers
Steel treated with a strong is used to enhance clearances and also are used in conjunction with in-
deoxidizing agent such as silicon help pistons and valve guides retain process quality control monitoring
or aluminum to reduce the oxygen oil. systems allowing measuring
content so that no reaction occurs accuracies of 0.00001″.
between carbon and oxygen during Knurling Tool
solidification. Normally a lathe tool for impressing Lathe
a design on a rod or handle to Turning machine capable of
Knockout improve gripping. May be either a sawing, milling, grinding, gear-
A mechanism for releasing cutting or forming operation. cutting, drilling, reaming, boring,
workpieces from a die; it is also threading, facing, chamfering,
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Physical Properties
O P Properties of a metal or alloy that
are relatively insensitive to structure
Outer Diameter (OD) Parallel and can be measured without the
Dimensions that define the exterior Strip or block of precision-ground application of force; for example,
of a part. See inner diameter (ID). stock used to elevate a workpiece, density, electrical conductivity,
while keeping it parallel to the coefficient of thermal expansion,
worktable, to prevent cutter/table magnetic permeability, and lattice
contact. parameter. Does not include
chemical reactivity. See mechanical
OD ID
Parting properties.
When used in lathe or screw-
machine operations, this process Pitch
separates a completed part from On a saw blade, the number of
INNER AND OUTER DIAMETERS chuck-held or collet-fed stock by teeth per inch. In threading,
means of a very narrow, flat-end the number of threads per inch.
Offhand Grinding cutting tool (parting tool). 1″
Hand-feeding a workpiece into a
bench grinder. Usually utilized Pearlite
in the shop to resharpen tools. A lamellar aggregate of ferrite and
Attachments or other mechanical cementite. Softer than most other
devices are required for increased micro-structures. Formed from
efficiency and accuracy. See grinding. austenite during air cooling from
austenite.
Orthogonal Chip Formation THREAD PITCH
Concentrated shear action at the
point of cut that results in the
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Glossary
Pitting location is readily determined. Tool the forward or return stroke. See
Localized corrosion of a metal is rapidly moved to a position, then saw, sawing machine.
surface, confined to a point or small drills, taps, reams, bores, counter-
area, that takes the form of cavities. bores, countersinks, or performs Power Hacksawing
some other task. A sawing process that uses the back-
Planer and-forth motion of a short, straight
See planing machine. Polar Additives toothed blade to cut the workpiece.
Animal, vegetable, or synthetic oils Hacksawing machines are generally
Planing that, when added to a mineral oil, electrically driven, and may not
Machining operation that creates improve its ability to penetrate the provide for application of cutting
flat surfaces. The workpiece is tool/workpiece interface. fluid to the saw blade or workpiece.
reciprocated in a linear motion
against one or more single-point Polishing Precision Machining
tools. Also used to create contours Abrasive process that improves Machining and measuring to
or irregular configurations. surface finish and blends contours. exacting standards. Four basic
Abrasive particles attached to considerations are: dimensions, or
Planing bit a flexible backing abrade the geometrical characteristics such
Cutting tool similar in appearance workpiece. as lengths, angles, and diameters
to a turning tool, but with a longer of which the sizes are numerically
shank. Polishing Attachment specified; limits, or the maximum
Abrasive grinding device that and minimum sizes permissible for
Planing machine mounts on a contour bandsaw and a specified dimension; tolerances,
Machines flat surfaces. Planers uses fine-grit belts to grind and or the total permissible variations
take a variety of forms: double- polish. in size; and allowances, or the
housing, open-side, convertible prescribed differences in dimensions
and adjustable open-side, double- Powder Metallurgy (PM) between mating parts.
cut, and milling. Large multi-head Processes in which metallic
(milling, boring, drilling, etc.) particles are fused under various Precision Measurement
planers and planer-type milling combinations of heat and pressure See precision machining.
machines handle most planing work. to create solid metals.
Preheating
Point Angle Power Brushing Heating before some further
The included angle at the point Any process that uses a power- thermal or mechanical treatment.
of a twist drill or similar tool; driven, rotating industrial brush to
for general-purpose tools, the deburr, clean, or finish a metal part. Probability Theory
point angle is typically 118°. Depending on the application, the Discipline based on the likelihood
brush fibers, collectively known as of any given event happening;
brush fill material, may be metal mathematical techniques built
wires; fiberglass-coated, abrasive- around sampling methods,
filled plastics; synthetics such as combinations, and permutations.
nylon and polypropylene; natural Key to understanding statistical-
animal hairs such as horsehair; or process-control systems. See
vegetable fibers such as tampico and statistical process control (CPC).
bahia.
POINT ANGLE Process Annealing
Power Hacksaw An imprecise term denoting
Point-to-point System Machine fitted with serrated blade various treatments used to improve
Numerical control (NC) system held taut in a reciprocating frame workability. For the term to be
normally used for drilling and other that cuts in one direction, either on meaningful, the condition of the
operations where center-point
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Glossary
cut.
Shaper Tool
Fatigue Limit
Single-point tool that traverses the Shop Air
workpiece in a reciprocating fashion Pressurized air system that cools the
to machine a desired shape. workpiece and tool when machining
Number of Cycles, N
dry. Also refers to central pneumatic
STRESS/NUMBER DIAGRAM
Shaping system.
Using a shaper primarily to produce
flat surfaces in horizontal, vertical, Sintering Soluble Oil Cutting Fluid
or angular planes. It can also include The bonding of adjacent surfaces in Fluid in which oil is suspended in
the matching of curved surfaces, a mass of particles by molecular or water. Since water is a superior heat
helixes, serrations, and special work atomic attraction on heating at high removal agent, this fluid is primarily
involving odd and irregular shapes. temperatures below the melting used when lubrication is desirable,
Often used for prototype or short- temperature of any constituent in but cooling is the key consideration.
run manufacturing to eliminate the the material. Sintering strengthens The ratio of oils and other additives
need for expensive special tooling or and increases the density of a to water varies with the application.
processes. powder mass and recrystallizes For milling, the ratio of water to
powder metals. oil/additives runs 20:1 to 25:1. For
sawing and other work, where a
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can exceed twice the speed of sound. Wheel Flange Work-squaring Bar
The small nozzle opening ranges Metal plate inside the grinding- Mounts to the table of a contour
0.004″ – 0.016″ (0.10 mm – 0.41 wheel hole that allows the wheel to band machine and automatically
mm), producing a very narrow kerf. be mounted on a spindle. squares the work to the blade.
See abrasive waterjet (AWJ).
Woodruff Cutter
Wear Resistance Milling cutter used for cutting Y
Ability of the tool to withstand keyways.
stresses that cause it to wear during Yield Point
cutting; an attribute linked to alloy Work Hardening The first stress in a material, usually
composition, base material, thermal Tendency of all metals to become less than the maximum attainable
conditions, type of tooling and harder when they are machined stress, at which an increase in strain
operation, and other variables. or subjected to other stresses and occurs without an increase in stress.
strains. This trait is particularly Only certain metals exhibit a yield
Web pronounced in soft, low-carbon point. If there is a decrease in stress
On a rotating tool, the portion of steel or alloys containing nickel and after yielding, a distinction may be
the tool body that joins the lands. manganese, nonmagnetic stainless made between upper and lower yield
Web is thicker at the shank end, steel, high-manganese steel, and the points.
relative to the point end, providing super-alloys Inconel and Monel.
maximum torsional strength. Yield Strength
The stress at which a material
Wheel-balancing Stand exhibits a specified deviation
Used to ensure that a grinding wheel from proportionality of stress
is balanced before mounting it on and strain. An offset of 0.2%
the machine. is used for many metals.
Compare with tensile strength.
PSI
Force
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Index
Cutoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103, 104, 105 Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38, 39, 108 Gun drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Cutoff blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Fatigue failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Cutter compensation . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 H
Cutter path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Fatigue resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Cutting fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Fatigue strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Hacksaw blade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Cutting tool materials . . . . . . . . . . 105 Feather burr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Hard chromium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Cutting-velocity vector . . . . . . . . . 104 Feather edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Hardenability . . . . . . . . . 48, 108, 112
Cyaniding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109 Ferrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Hardening . . . . . . . . . 30, 97, 109, 122
Cylindrical-grinding attachment File bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 68, 69,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Filing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71, 74, 112, 115
Filing attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Head-changing machine . . . . . . . . 113
D Fillet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Heat treating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Film strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Heeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Decarburization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Finish cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Helical cutter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Deionization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Finish feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Helix angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Diamond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96, 105 Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109, 115 High-carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Diamond bandsawing . . . . . . . . . . 105 Finishing tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 High-speed milling attachment . . 112
Die-casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Fixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Hob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Flame hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Hobbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Disc grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Flank wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Hobbing machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
Dish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 109 Hold-down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Dividing head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Flood application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Holemaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Dressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Fluorescent penetrant inspection Honing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Honing tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Drilling . . . . . 102, 106, 111, 125, 129 Flushing hose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Hook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Drilling machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Flutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Hot-working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Driving dog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Follower rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Hydrodynamic machining . . . . . . 113
Ductile cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Form cutter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Ductility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38, 106 Form-rolling machine . . . . . . . . . . 110 I
Fracture stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
E Free-machining steels . . . . . . . . . . 110 Inclination angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Friction sawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Indexable insert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Economies of scope . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Fungicide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Indicator drop measurement . . . . 113
Edge finder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 Induction hardening . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 G Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Elastic limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37, 106 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . 110, 114, 119
Elongation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Galling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Interchangeable parts . . . . . . . . . . 114
Embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Gang cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Endmill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Gear cutter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Interrupted cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Endurance limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Gear shaper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Investment casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Gray cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Izod test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 56, 102,
F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104, 105, 111, 113 J
Grinding machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 109 Grinding ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Jig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Face-mill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Grinding wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Jig bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Face-milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Grit size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Jig boring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Face plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Grooving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Facing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Group technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Family of parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Gun drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
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Purveyors of a Way of Life ™
F rom the Old Tin Shed
T
he Old Tin Shed houses the story of
G.L. Huyett. According to newspaper
accounts, a German immigrant named
Guy Lamson Huyett bought the
hardware stock of the Globe Department Store
in 1899 and moved it to a location on Main Street
in Minneapolis, Kansas. He incorporated the
business in 1906 which is the date that we trace
to our founding over 100 years ago.
HANDBOOK
A C M M
A
B
A
K
C
C Y
A
Steelmaking: Materials, Attributes,
K
and Manufacturing Processes
B
H
A
C
B A A B C
H A
B
A F
Df C
B C M
B A
PINS E A
F S Max
RETAINING RINGS G
L
MACHINE BUSHINGS S Min
B D
A
A
BEARINGS
KEYSTOCK
B X
A
MACHINE KEYS L
A H SHAFTING/SHAFT COLLARS C
GREASE FITTINGS
A B
C L
A
SHIMS
B
E
E H
E
B
C
A
B
X
A
B
B
C
OD
ID A H
m
ØA
o
T
t . c
H
uye t
.h
Y
w
A
w w