Soil mechanics 1 1

CHAPTER THREE

HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Hydraulic properties of soils are the properties that soils show in response to the water in it. Hydraulic properties are important
engineering properties of soils.

Permeability

A material is said to be permeable if it contains continuous voids. The permeability of soils is the ease with which water can flow
through soils. Sandy soils, which have large pores, are more permeable and clayey soils, which have very small pores, are less
permeable. Therefore for a soil to be highly permeable, it should have large pores through which water can flow.

Factors Affecting Permeability

 Porosity
 Particle size distribution
 Shape and orientation of soil particles
 Degree of saturation
 Viscosity of water
 Thickness of adsorbed water

3.1. Hydraulic head

The total head at any point in a flowing fluid is equal to the sum of the elevation head, the pressure head and the velocity head. The
elevation head (z) is equal to the vertical distance of the point above the datum. The pressure head (p/ ƴw) is equal to the head
indicated by a piezometer with its tip at that point. The velocity head is equal to v2/2g. However, for flow of water through soils, as
the velocity (v) is extremely small, the velocity head is neglected. Therefore, the total head of water in soil engineering problems is
equal to the sum of the elevation head and the pressure head. The line joining the piezometric level at various points is called a
piezometric surface. The piezometric surface also represents the hydraulic gradient line (HGL). The sum of the pressure head and
the elevation head is known as the piezometric head. The figure below shows vessels A and B containing water at different levels
and connected by the a small tube containing soil sample. Let the length of the tube be L. The flow takes place from vessel A with a
high head to the vessel B with a low head through the tube. With datum at the water level in the vessel B,

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The elevation head, the pressure head and the total head at three points 1, 2, and 3 are also shown in the figure. The total head at
point 1 is h and at point 3 is zero. The head h is known as the hydraulic head. It is equal to the difference in the elevation of water
levels at the entry and exit points in a soil mass. Obviously, it is equal to the loss of head through the soil. The hydraulic head is also
known as effective head.
The loss of head per unit length of flow through the soil is equal to the hydraulic gradient (i),
i=h/L
where, h hydraulic head, and L= length of the soil specimen.
The variation of head at various points is represented by the line CD, known as the hydraulic gradient line (HGL) or pressure
gradient line. If a piezometer is inserted at any intermediate point 2, the water will rise up to the level of the hydraulic gradient line
at that point. The line CD, therefore, represents the piezometric surface. It is generally assumed that the loss of head over the length
of the soil sample is uniform and, therefore the variation of head is linear.

Darcy’s Law – One dimensional flow through soils

- Darcy proposed that flow of water through soils can be expressed by the equation

V = k.i where V = velocity of low through soils.

K = Coefficient of permeability
i = hydraulic gradient

Velocity of flow through soils is given by

Q
V  where Q = discharge (m3/sec)
A
A = X –sectional area of the soil (m 2)
H
i 
L
Thus the flow through the soil (discharge) is expressed as

Q = A x V = AKi

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The equation V = K.i is known as Darcy’s law and it is a very important equation in soil mechanics.

The coefficient of permeability (K) is the velocity of flow through soils under a unit
H
Hydraulic gradient. (ie i = 1)
L

Determination of coefficient of permeability (K)

In the laboratory, coefficient of permeability (K) is determined by

a) Constant head permeameter test

b) Variable head permeameter test

In the constant head permeameter test, the head remains constant where as in variable head permeameter test; the head decreases
(falls) during the test. The constant head permeameter test is used for determination of (k) for relatively more pervious (permeable)
soils such as coarse sand and gravel where as the variable head permeameter test is used for determination of (k) for relatively less
pervious soils such as silt and clay.

1. Constant- head permeameter test

Procedure

In the constant head permeameter test, the water is allowed to flow through the sample for some time till the steady state is reached
(discharge is constant). During the test the water level in the reservoir is kept constant. The constant head chamber is also filled with
water so that the water level remains constant.

- The water, which flows through the sample, spills over the chamber and is colleted in the graduated jar for some
convenient time. The head that causes flow of water through the soil sample is ‘h’ and is equal to the difference in water
level in the constant head reservoir and constant head chamber. The x – sectional area of the sample is designated as ‘A’.
Then the total flow (discharge) through the soil sample is:

Q = A x V = A. K (i) = A. K. (h/L) - - - - (i)

Volume W
Also Q =          (ii )
time time
Equating (i) and (ii), we have:

h w
A.K    Akht  WL
L t

WL
K 
Aht
wL
K 
Aht
Where W = total volume of water collected in the graduated jar in time t, (cm 3, ml)

L = length of specimen (cm)

A = cross –sectional area of sample (cm2)
H = head causing flow (cm)
T = time period (sec)
K = Coeff. of permeability (cm /sec)

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Example: In a constant head permeameter test the following observations have been made. Determine K.

- Length of specimen (L) = 80 mm

- Diameter of sample = 80 mm
- Head causing flow (h) = 50 mm
- Quantity of water collected in 250 sec = 320 ml / cm3).

Solution:
wL 320 x8.0
 K  
Aht 50.26 x 5.0 x 250
d 2 x (8.0) 2
X – sectional area of sample =  = 50.26 cm2  K  0.041 cm / sec
4 4
 147.6 cm / hour
2. Variable Head Permeameter Test

For less permeable soils, the quantity of water collected in the graduated jar of a constant head permeameter test is very small which
cannot be measured accurately. The variable head permeameter test is more useful for such cases.

The vertical graduated standpipe (burnette) of known diameter is filled to the top of the permeameter cylinder. The sample is then
placed b/n the porous discs. The cylinder is placed in a constant head chamber filled with water to the brim. The valve at the
drainage base is closed and vacuum pressure is applied slowly through the drainage cap to remove air from the soil. The sample is
then saturated by allowing water to flow up ward from the drainage base. The stop cock is opened to remove air, when the sample is
fully saturated both top & bottom drainage are closed, the standpipe is filled with water.

The test is started by allowing water to flow through the sample to the constant head chamber from which it overflows and spills
out. As the water flows, water level in the pipe faces.

Let us consider the instant when the head measured with reference to the level of water in the constant head chamber is h. For
infinitesimal time ‘dt’, the head falls by ‘dh’. Let the discharge through the sample be ‘q’.

From continuity equation by equating volumes

- adh = qdt - - - - - (a)

Where a = x –sectional area of standpipe

Q = A * V = A. K. I - - - - -(1)

Where A = x –sectional area of sample

K = coeff, of permeability
I = hydraulic gradient = h/L
L = Length of sample

From (a) and (b),

h
- adh = Ak * * dt
L

AKdt dh
   , integrating, we have
aL h

AK t2 h2 dh h1 dh
aL  t1
dt   
h1 h
 
h2 h

AK  
  t 2  t2  log e  h1  , Let t 2  t1  t  time period
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AKt h 
  log e  1   aL h 
aL  h2  K = log e  1 
At  h2 

Example: -
A variable head permeameter test was conducted on a soil sample of 4 cm diameter and 18 cm length. The head dropped from 1.0 to
0.40 m in 20 minutes. Area of burrette (a) = 1 cm2, determine K.

Solution: -

 h1 
aL d 2  * ( 4) 2
K   , A 
log e   12.57 cm 2
At h2  4 4
1 * 18  100 
 K  * log e  
12.57 * 20 * 60  0.40 

 K  1.09 *10  3 cm / sec  1.09 *10  5 m / sec

3. Hazen’s formula for coefficient of permeability

K = C (D10)2 where c = coefficient = 100 to 150. the smaller values are for fine sand & larger values for coarse sand.

D10 = effective size (cm) from 0.01 to 0.30 cm)

K = coeff, of permeability (cm/sec)

This formula gives approximate value of K for soils.

Example:
A sandy soil stratum is sand witched b/n two impermeable layers of soil. The difference in water levels in two observation wells at a
horizontal distance of 60 m is 5 m. The discharge through the aquifer is found to be 0.169 * 10 -3/3/sec. The depth of the aquifer
normal to the direction of flow is 2.95 m. What is the permeability ‘K’ of the sand stratum. The aquifers is inclined at 10 0 to the
horizontal.

Solution: - Length of aquifer b/n two observation wells

L = 60/cos 100 = 60.92 m.

h 5.0
Hydraulic gradient I =   0.082
L 60.928

From Darcy’s law, Q = discharge per unit length

Q = kiA

 0.169 * 10-3m3/sec = K * 0.082 * (2.95 * 1)

 K = 0.70 * 10-3m/sec = 0.70 mm/sec

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4. Field determination of Coeff. of permeability (K)

The value of ‘k’ determined may not be a representative value of the coeff of permeability of the soil, b/c the soil is disturbed & do
not represent the insitu structure of the soil.

- In the field, ‘k’ can be determined by drilling a well and pumping out the water.

Aquifer: - is a pervious strata (deposit) which contains water and is highly permeable (deposit of sand & gravel)
Aquitard : is a deposit which is porous but has low permeability (Ex clay deposit)

Aquiclude:- is an impervious stratum or stratum having very low permeability & water cannot flow through it.

A) Determination of ‘k’ from unconfined Aquifer

Confined Aquifer: - is an aquifer which has an impervious stratum (aquiclude) from bottom but there is no aquiclude at the top of
the aquifer

A tube well is drilled in the aquifer and water is pumped till steady state is reached. Then the water in the well drops below the
original water table. This drop in water level is called draw down.

Assumption made (Dupuit’s assumption)

1) The flow is laminar & Darcy’s law is valid

2) The soil is homogenous & isotropic
3) The flow is steady
4) The flow is radial & horizontal
5) The slope of the hydraulic gradient line is small so that

Sin i= tan i= dz/dr.

Let us consider the flow through a cylindrical surface of height ‘Z’ and radial distant ‘r’ from the center of the well.

- Flow area of cylinder = 2rZ

From Darcy’s law
 dZ 
q = KiA = K   (2rZ )
 dr 

dr 2kZdZ
 
r q

r2 dr 2k z2
integrating, r1 r

q 
z1
zdz

 log e  r2 / r1  
2k Z 2
2
 Z1
2

q 2

q  r2  2.30 * g
 K    

 Z 2  Z12
2

* log e
 r1   ( Z 2 2  Z12 )
log e 10 ( r2 / r1 )

The approximate value of k can be determined by estimating the radius of influence (R). This is the distance upto which the effect
of draw down is observed. It commonly varies b/n 200 to 300 m.

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R dr 2k D
Thus,  rw r

q h
ZdZ where rw = radius of well

R = Radius of influence
h = depth of water in well
D = Height of original water level above
aquiclude

Integrating and solving for k, we have

q
K  * log e ( R / rw)
 ( D  h2 ) 2

B) Determination of ‘K’ from confined Aquifer

There also pumping is done until the steady state is reached.

Consider the discharge through a cylindrical surface at a radial surface ‘r’

- Area of flow = 2rb

Discharge, of KiA = K (dZ/dr) * 2rb

2kb
Z2
r2
Integrating, r1
dr / r  
Z1 q
dz

2kb q
 log e r2 / r1  ( Z 2  Z1 )  K  * log e ( r2 / r1 )
q 2b( Z 2  Z1 )

Taking R = radius of influence = 3000 d K (from 200 – 300)

Where d = drawdown (m)

K = Coeff of permeability (m/sec)
R = radius of influence (m)

And rw = radius of the well,

q log e
K  ( R / rw)
2b( D  h)

Example

A confined aquifer 8 m thick was penetrated by a tube well having a diameter of 20 cm diameter. After steady discharge is attained
the draw down is 4 m and the depth of piezometric surface from the bottom aquiclude is 14 m. the steady state discharge is 20
lit/sec.& R = 200 m , find K.

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Solution: for a confined aquifer,

q log e ( R / rw)
K =
2b ( D  h)

h= 14 –4 = 10 m = D – drawdown
rw = dw/2 = 20/2 = 10 cm = 0.10 m
q = 20 * 10-3 m3/sec
20 * 103 * log e
 K  ( 200 / 0.10)
2 * 8 * (14  10)

K = 0.000756 m/sec = 0.0756 cm/sec

Stresses (pressures) in soil:

1) Total stress (δt)

The total stress at any point in a soil is the weight of the soil above that point divided by the cross – sectional area of the plane
passing through that point.

Consider a prism of soil having X –sectional area A. Let the height of the column be h.

Then, the weight of the soil column is

W =  * v =  x A x h =  Ah

Where  = unit weight of the soil

weight W Ah
Total stress t     h
Area A A
If the total stress is required at a depth above which two layers of soils with different unit weights (1) and (2) are found, then,

t = 1h1 + 2h2

If the soil mass is saturated,

t = sat. h.

2) Pore water pressure (U)

This is nothing but the pressure due to the water filling the voids of the soils.

U=γw.h Where W = unit weight of water.

h = height of water column

3) Effective stress ( )

The effective stress is the net pressure or stress excluding the pore water pressure.

Thus,  = t - U = γ.h - γw.h

For a saturated soil mass:

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δ = γsat. h -γw.h =( γsat- γw).h = γsub .h

For a condition where the soil above the point is not saturated all, but saturated for only h 2 height,

 = Total pressure- pore water pressure

t = 1h1 + Sat . h2
U = W. h2

    1 h1   Sat , h2   W . h2

= 1h1 + (Sat - W) . h2 = 1h1 + Sub. h2

The total stress is the total pressure acting downwards. The pore water pressure acts in all directions in a soil.

Thus the effective portion of the total pressure is the (t) acting downwards minus the (U) acting up wards at section Z – Z
above.

Example 1
Determine the total stress
at point A.

Solution: t = 1h1 + 2h2

= 18.4 x 2m + 19.20 x 2 m = 75.2 KN / m2

Example 2

Determine the
Effective stress at
Point B.

Solution: - Total stress, t = stress in all the three layers.

Gw 2.70 x 9.81
d    13.24 KN / m3
1 e 11

  
(G  Se)
W 
 2.70  1x1 x9.81  18.15 KN / m 3
Sat 1
1 e 11

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Hence t =  d h1   Sat1.h2   Sat 2 , h3

= 13.24 x 1.50 + 18.15 x 2m + 19.20 x 3m

t = 113.76 KN / m2

U = W (h2 +h3) = 9.81 (2+3) = 9.81 x 5 = 49.05 KN/m2

    t  U  113 .76 KN / m 2  49.05 KN / m 2  64.71 KN / m

2

Seepage and Flow nets

The flow of water through a soil mass due to difference in head is called seepage. The flow or seepage of water through the soil is
because of a property called permeability. Superficial velocity or Darcy velocity is the flow velocity through the whole of the X –
section of the soil. But seepage velocity is the flow velocity through the pores (less than total x –sectional area of soil). Thus Darcy
velocity is less than seepage velocity. Seepage pressure is the pressure due to the flowing water.

Assume the flow of water through the soil as shown above. The head causing flow is ‘ h’ which is the difference b/n the water
levels.

Seepage pressure (Ps) = head causing flow (h) x W

Ps = h. W =,W . h/L. L = W. i. L

Seepage force (J) is a force acting in the direction of the flow of water,
J = seepage pressure x Area of soil
= W. h . A

Flow Nets:-

Assume the flow of water through a soil sample of length ‘ L’

The water flows through the soil from the point of high head to the point of lower head. The path taken by the water as it flows
through the soil is represented by flow lines.

- At some points on the flow lines, the total head is the same. The lines connecting the points of equal total head are known as
Equipotential lines.

The total head at A = piezometric head + potential head

= H+L=h
The total head at B = 0 + 0 = 0
Of course there are an infinite no of flow lines, but for convenience only few flow lines are drawn. In the figure above there are 5
flow lines and five equipotential lines.

The flow lines and Equipotential lines together form what is known as flow net. Hence a flow net consists of flow lines and
equipotential lines. The flow of water through the soil takes place along the steepest hydraulic gradient. Therefore the equipotential
lines cross the flow lines at right angles to each other.
For two-dimensional flow (say in x & y directions), through homogeneous soils, the flow is represented by Laplace Equation.

The simple method of flow net explained above cannot be used for soil engineering problems in which the flow is generally two
dimensional. The flow & equipotantial lines in this case are curved and not straight lines. Let us consider an element of soil of size
dx by dy through which flow takes place.

Let Vx and Vy be the velocity at inlet and

vx dVy
Vx  .dx and Vy  . dy at the exit
x y

For steady flow inflow = outflow

 vx   vy 
 Vxdy  Vy .dx   vx  .dx  ( dy )  
 vy  .dy 
 ( dx)
 x   y 

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Considering unit length perpendicular to paper.

vx vy
Vx.dy  Vy .dx  Vxdy  .dx, dy  Vy .dx. . dy.dx
x y
 vy vy 

 x  y  dx.dy  0
 

vx vy
   0 (i )  Continuity equation for two-dimensional flow.
y y

Let ‘h’ be the total head at entrance,

h h
Then, ix = iy 
x y

From Darcy’s low, V = ki

h
Vx = Kx ix = Kx.
y
h
Vy = Ky, iy = Ky.
y

Substituting in equation (i),

  h    h 
 Kx.   
 ky. y 
 0
x  x  y  

kx1 2 h  2h
  ky. 0
x 2 y 2
For isotropic soils, Kx = Ky

 2h  2h
  0 Laplace Equation
x 2 y 2

The Laplace equation represents two sets of lines (curves), flow lines and equipotential lines. The graphical solution of Laplace
equation is thus a flow net.

Fig. Flow net for a weir having upstream sheet pile.

Procedure for drawing Flow nets

1) Draw to scale the soil mass through which seepage takes place
2) Identity the equipotential lines at entrance and exit of seepage. Identity the top and bottom flow lines.
3) Draw 3 to 5 flow lines b/n the boundaries, which are approximately parallel to each other.
4) Draw equipotential lines to form approximately squares with the flow lines. They should cross each other at right angles.
Readjust the flow net until the entire flow net consists of approximate squares.

- The discharge b/n two adjacent flow lines (Δq) is constant. The space (passage b/n two adjacent flow lines) is called flow
channel (Nf)
- The drop in head b/n any two adjacent equipotential lines is constant and is given by.

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h = h / Nd Where h = Total seepage head at u /s.

Nd = No of equipotential drops.

Uses of Flow net

(1) Discharge determination

h
From Darcy’s law, q  KiA  K x x (n x1)
s

h
 q  K x n
S

but s  n ( Square flownet )

h
 q  Kh  K x
Nd

Total discharge

h
q  K * * Nf
Nd

h Total flow per unit length.

q  Kx x Nf
Nd

(2) Determination of pore water pressure

Assume the flow (seepage) of water through a soil mass. If the flow net has been drawn for the mass through which seepage takes
place, then at every point in the soil mass the piezometric head can be determined. This piezometric head represents the pore water
pressure at that point. In the figure above, let the total seepage head be 4 m. There are four equipotential drops in the flow net. The
4m
drop per filed is = 1 m. This implies that the pore water pressure along the first equipotential line = 4 m – 1m = 3 m.
4
(3) Exit gradient determination: Exist gradient is the hydraulic gradient at
d/s end of flow line. It is determined by

h
ic = Where h = potential drop of last field
s
s = length of the last field

Example:

For the seepage flow net drawn above find

a) The height up to which the water rises in piezometers installed at point O.

b) The total seepage through the formation (q) per meter length.

Take K = 5 x 10-4 m/sec

Solution :

(a) In the flow net drawn above, there are three flow channel (Nf) and six equipotential drops (Nd)

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Total seepage head = U/s water level - d/s water level

H = 1.50 m – 0.30 m =1.20 m

1.20 m
Loss of head per drop =  0.20 m
6
Point O is located on equipotential line marked by 3. Therefore the total head loss (drop) in 3 drops = 3 x 0.20 = 0.60 m.

Seepage head (piezometric head) at O = 1.20 m – 0.60 m = 0.60 m

Thus, water sizes in a piezometer at O to a height of 0.60 m. above the ground surface.

h
(b) q  K . Nd  6 and h  1.20 m
Nd

1.20 m
q  5 x10  4 m / sec x = 1x 10-4 m3 /sec /meter length.
6
No of flow channels, Nf = 3

h
 q  q x Nf  K . . Nf
Nd
= 1 x 10-4 x 3 = 3 x 10-4 m3 /sec / meter length of formation.

If the length of the weir perpendicular to paper = 30 m, then

Total seepage in 30 m length = 3 x 10-4 x 30 m

= 9 x 10-3 m3 / sec.

Effective stress when downward seepage through soil

Consider the above figure in which seepage takes place downwards through the soil under a seepage head of ‘h’

- Total pressure at C-C = wh1 + sat L

- Pore water pressure at C-C=whw = 0
- Effective stress ,  = t – u

= wh1 + (sub +w) * L = wh1 + subL + w.L

 = sub.L + w (h1 +L)

  sub.L  wh

Thus due to the downward seepage the effective stress has increased by an amount w.h
= w * seepage head.

Quick Sand Condition

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We know that the effective stress reduces due to an upward seepage (flow) through the soil. Eventually, a stage reached where
the effective stress becomes zero, and the hydraulic gradient so obtained is known as critical hydraulic gradient (ic)

- Quick sand condition is a hydraulic condition developed when the effective stress becomes zero.
 sub
- At quick sand condition  = sub.L + wh = 0  ic =
w
- The shear strength of cohesion less soils is given by
S =  . tan  where  = angle of internal friction

For quick sand condition to occur the  = 0 and thus the shear strength S = 0, when ic is exceeded the soil particles
move upward and the soil surface appears to be boiling. The particles suspend in the flowing water and they touch each
other with no frictional or shear strength.

- When a soil becomes quick, it cannot support a load. Man and animals cannot stand on such sands. They will sink down
into the sand.

Critical Hydraulic gradient and Piping

In the figure, water flows from the reservoir under a seepage head of h.

Let us consider the stresses developed at section A- A.

Total stress at A –A = Sat .L = (Sub + W). L

Seepage pressure at section A – A that acts in the direction of flowing water is

Ps = head causing flow * unit weight of water

  PS   W .h   W . h. / L.L   W . i.L

Effective stress at A –A is then:

   Sat . L u where U = pore water pressure

U = Seepage pressure + W.L = W. h + W.h = W (h + L)

  ( Sub   W ) .L   W ( h  L )

  
 Sub .L   W h    Sub . L   W i.L

The hydraulic gradient (i) at which the effective stress becomes zero, is known as critical hydraulic gradient (ic)

Thus, for  0
 Sub
 Sub.L   W . i.L or ic 
W
Submerged unit weight in terms of void ratio (e)

 Sub 
 G  1 W
1 e
Substituting this for the above, we have:

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ic 
(G  1)  W
 i.c 
 G  1
1  e ( ) e 1
w

Piping failure of Hydraulic Structures

Piping failure occurs in hydraulic structures such as dams, weirs etc when a subsurface flow (seepage flow) occurs under
a high hydraulic gradient. A pipe shaped channel will be formed under the hydraulic structure when particles are first
eroded at the exit. The resistance to flow then deceases as more and more soil particles are eroded and the gradient at exit
increases.

This erosion process gradually progresses upstream and a hollow channel is formed below the structure. As the pipe
reaches the u/s end of the structure, tremendous flow takes place under the structure through this pipe (channel). Thus,
finally the hydraulic structure fails due to piping.

 Piping failure occurs when the exit gradient exceeds the critical hydraulic gradient.

Fig Piping failure of hydraulic structures

Control of Piping

The following methods can be adopted

1) Increase the path of seepage (percolation). This can be done by increasing the base width of the structure by providing
additional impervious floor for the structure or by providing cutoffs.

Fig. Increasing seepage length to control piping.

2) Provide drainage Filter

For an earth dam, drainage filters change the direction of flow away from the d/s face. The graded filter then prevents the
movement of soil particles with the flowing water. For the filter to be effective, it should be well – graded with the finer
particles under and the coarser particles over the fine particles.

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Fig. Graded filter for controlling piping

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