STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

by

Dr. G. Appa Rao

Professor of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Chennai 600036, India.
• Concrete: composite material composed of
a. Coarse aggregate,
b. Sand and
c. Hydrated cement.

Fig. 1. Petrographic section of hardened concrete

(Ref. Portland Cement Association, Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures)
Aggregate
• Coarse aggregate: Granular material obtained from rock and crushed stones.
• Also from synthetic materials like slag, shale, fly ash and clay for use in light-
weight concrete.
• Sand obtained from river bed or quarry is used as fine aggregate.
• Fine aggregate along with hydrated cement paste fills space between coarse
aggregate.
Aggregate
• Important properties of aggregate.
1. Shape and Texture
2. Size Gradation
3. Moisture Content
4. Specific Gravity
5. Unit Weight
6. Durability and
7. Deleterious Materials
• Requirements of aggregate is covered in IS:383-1970.
• Nominal maximum coarse aggregate size is limited by the lowest of.
1. 1/4 times minimum thickness of member
2. Spacing between bars/tendons/strands minus 5 mm
3. 40 mm.
• Deleterious substances like clay lumps, wood, coal, chert, silt, rock dust (material finer than 75
microns), organic material, unsound and friable particles should be limited in aggregate.
Cement
• Cement: mixture of lime stone and clay heated in a kiln up to 1400 - 1600ºC.
• Types of cement permitted by IS:1343-1980 (Cl. 4.1) for prestressing applications and
also as per IS:456-2000: Plain and Reinforced Concrete- Code of Practice.
Cement
• Ordinary Portland cement confirming to IS:269–1989: Ordinary Portland Cement-33
Grade–Specification.
• Portland Slag Cement confirming to IS:455–1989: Portland Slag Cement – Specification,
but with not more than 50% slag content.
• Rapid-hardening Portland cement confirming to IS:8041-1990: Rapid Hardening
Portland Cement–Specification.
Water
• Water should satisfy the requirements of IS:456 - 2000.
• “Water used for mixing and curing shall be clean and free from injurious
amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, salts, sugar, organic materials or other substances
that may be deleterious to concrete and steel”.
Admixtures
• Code allows use of admixtures conforming to IS:9103-1999: Concrete Admixtures–Specification.
• Admixtures can be broadly divided into two types: Chemical Admixtures and Mineral Admixtures.

Admixtures
• Common chemical admixtures are.
1. Air-entraining Admixtures
2. Water Reducing Admixtures
3. Set Retarding Admixtures
4. Set Accelerating Admixtures
5. Water Reducing and Set Retarding Admixtures
6. Water Reducing and Set Accelerating Admixtures
Common mineral admixtures
1. Fly Ash
2. Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag
3. Silica Fume
4. Rice Husk Ash
5. Metakoline
These are cementitious and pozzolanic materials.
 Properties of Hardened Concrete
• Concrete has to be of good quality and requires following attributes.
1. Adequate strength with appropriate water-to-cement ratio
2. Durability with low permeability, minimum cement content and proper mixing,
compaction and curing
3. Minimum shrinkage and creep by limiting cement content.
• Following are important properties of concrete
a. Strength
b. Stiffness
c. Durability
d. Performance
e. Allowable stresses
Strength of Concrete
• Strength of Concrete is required
1. to sustain high stresses at certain regions.
2. to have higher resistance in compression, tension, shear and bond.
3. to have higher stiffness for reduced deflection.
4. to have reduced shrinkage cracks
Compressive Strength
• Compressive strength of concrete is expressed in terms of characteristic strength (on
150 mm cubes tested at 28 days, fck).

• Characteristic strength is defined as the strength of concrete below which not more
than 5% of the test results are expected to fall.

• This assumes normal distribution of strengths of concrete samples.

• Sampling and strength test of concrete as per code.
• Grades of concrete are explained in the Code.

Fig. 2. Idealized normal distribution of concrete strength

• An idealised distribution of comp. strength for a sizeable number of test cubes.

• Horizontal axis represents comp. strength and vertical axis number of samples for a particular
compressive strength. This is also termed as frequency.
• Average compressive strength is represented as fcm.
• Characteristic strength (fck) is the value on x-axis below which 5% of total area under curve falls.
• fck is lower than fcm by 1.65σ, where σ = standard deviation of the normal distribution.
• Minimum grades of concrete for structural applications
• 20 MPa for plain
• 25 MPa for reinforced concrete
• 30 MPa for post-tensioned members (30yrs ago)
• 40 MPa for pre-tensioned members. (30 yrs ago)
• Since at the time of publication of old codes, properties of higher strength concrete were not
adequately documented. Hence, a limit was imposed on maximum strength.
• Maximum grade of concrete is 100 MPa.
• Now, 60 MPa concrete and above is considered as high strength concrete.
• Increase in strength with age is not observed in the present day concrete that gains substantial
strength in 28 days.
• Hence, age factor should not be used. It has been removed from IS:456 - 2000.
Tensile Strength
Tensile strength of concrete can be expressed as
1. Flexural Tensile Strength: measured by testing beams under two-point or
four-point loading.
2. Split Tensile Strength: measured by testing cylinders under diametral line
compression loading.
3. Direct Tensile Strength: measured by testing rectangular specimens under
direct tension.
• In the absence of test results, code recommends the following relationship.

Here,
fcr = flexural tensile strength, N/mm2
fck = characteristic compressive strength of cubes, N/mm2.
Stiffness of Concrete
• Stiffness of concrete is to estimate deflection of members, which is represented by Modulus of
Elasticity
• For a non-linear stress (fc) vs. strain (εc) response of concrete, modulus can be initial, tangential or
secant.
• IS:1343 recommends secant modulus at a stress level of about 0.3fck.
• Modulus is expressed in terms of char. compressive strength
 Fig. 3 a) Concrete cube under compression,
b) Compressive stress-strain curve for concrete

• Short-term modulus of elasticity (neglecting the effect of creep) is

Here,
Ec = short-term static modulus of elasticity , N/mm2
fck = characteristic compressive strength of cubes, N/mm2.
Durability of Concrete
• Durability of concrete is important regarding life cycle cost of a structure. “Life cycle cost includes not
only initial cost of materials and labor, but also cost of maintenance and repair”.
• In recent years emphasis has been laid on durability of concrete, which is reflected in enhanced
section on durability (Sec. 8) in IS:456-2000.
• Durability of concrete is defined as “its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion,
or any other process of deterioration”.
• Common durability problems in concrete are.
1. Sulphate and other chemical attacks of concrete
2. Alkali-aggregate reaction
3. Freezing and thawing damage in cold regions
4. Corrosion of steel bars or tendons
• Durability of concrete is intrinsically related to its water tightness or permeability.
• Concrete should have low permeability with adequate cover to reinforcing bars.
• Selection of proper materials and good quality control are essential for durability of concrete.
• Durability is addressed in is 456.
• Specifies maximum water-to-cement (w-c) ratio, and minimum cement content
for different exposure conditions.
• Maximum water-to-cement (w-c) ratio, and minimum cement content for
moderate exposure conditions.
• Min. cement content : 300 kg per m3 of concrete
• Max w-c ratio* : 0.50
(*is updated as per Table 5 of IS:456-2000.)
• Provides values for above quantities for concrete exposed to sulphate attack.
• To limit creep and shrinkage, code specifies a maximum cement content of 530
kg/m3.
High Performance Concrete (HPC)
• With advancement of concrete technology, high performance concrete (HPC) is getting popular in
Civil Engineering applications.
• Attributes of high performance concrete are as follows.
1. High Strength
2. Minimum Shrinkage and Creep
3. High Durability (performance)
4. Easy to Cast (high flowability)
5. Cost Effectiveness

• Traditionally, HPC is implied by its high strength (HS) with high cement content at low water-to-
binder (cementitious) ratio.
• Higher cement content causes autogenous and plastic shrinkage and thermal cracking.
• Some special high performance concretes are:
1) High Strength Concrete
2) High Workability Concrete
3) Self-compacting Concrete
4) Reactive Powder Concrete
5) High Volume Fly Ash Concrete
6) Fiber Reinforced Concrete
 Properties of Hardened Concrete
Stress-strain Curves for Concrete

Curve under uniaxial compression

1. Stress vs. strain response of concrete under uniaxial compression is linear i.e.
stress is proportional to strain and elastic (i.e. strain is recovered at
unloading) initially.

2. After formation of micro-cracking, stress-strain behavior of concrete becomes

nonlinear and inelastic.

3. After reaching peak stress, resistance decreases with increase in strain.

Fig. 12: Stress-strain variation in concrete with different compressive strengths (ACI 363)
1. However, IS:456 recommends a parabolic characteristic stress-strain curve,
proposed by Hognestad for concrete under uniaxial compression.

Fig. 1 a) Concrete cube under compression,

b) Design stress-strain curve for concrete under compression due to flexure
• Equation for design curve under compression due to flexure

For εc ≤ ε0

For ε0 < εc ≤ εcu fc = fck

Here,
fc = compressive stress
fck = characteristic compressive strength
εc = compressive strain
ε0 = strain corresponding to fck = 0.002
εcu = ultimate compressive strain = 0.0035
• For concrete under uniaxial compression, ultimate strain is limited to 0.002.

• From characteristic curve, design curve is obtained by multiplying stress with a size effect factor of
0.67 and dividing stress by a material safety factor of γm = 1.5.

• Design curve is used in the calculation of ultimate strength.

Fig. 2. Stress-strain curves for concrete under compression due to flexure

• For calculating deflection at service loads, linear stress-strain curve is assumed up to allowable
stress.
• This curve is given by following equation.
fc = Ecεc
• Size effect factor and material safety factor are not used in elastic modulus Ec.
• For high strength concrete (say M100 grade and above) under uniaxial compression, ascending
and descending branches are steep.

Fig. 3. Stress-strain curves for HSC under compression

• Equation proposed by Thorenfeldt, Tomaxzewicz and Jensen is appropriate for high
strength concrete.

• Where
fc = compressive stress
fck = characteristic compressive strength, N/mm2
εc = compressive strain
ε0 = strain corresponding to fck
k = 1 for εc ≤ ε0 = 0.67 + (fck / 77.5) for εc > ε0, “k” should be greater than1.0.
n = Eci / (Eci – Es)
Eci = initial modulus
Es = secant modulus at fck = fck / ε0.

• Above equation is applicable for both ascending and descending branches.

• Parameter “k” models the slope of descending branch, which increases with characteristic strength,
fck. Value of ε0 can be considered to vary with the compressive strength of concrete.
 Curve under Uniaxial Tension
1.Stress vs. strain response of concrete under uniaxial tension is linear elastic
initially. Close to cracking, nonlinear behaviour is observed.

Fig. 4 a) Concrete panel under tension, b) Stress-strain curve for concrete

• In calculation of deflections of flexural members at service loads, nonlinearity is
neglected and a linear elastic response fc = Ecεc is assumed.
• Tensile strength of concrete is usually neglected.
 Tension Softening Curve
A typical stress-strain curve in concrete is shown.
 Creep of Concrete
• Creep of concrete: increase in deformation with time under constant load.
• Creep of concrete reduces prestress in tendon with time. Hence, creep affect should be considered
to calculate the loss in prestress and deflections of beams.
• Creep occurs due to two causes.
• Rearrangement of hydrated cement paste (i.e. layered products)
• Expulsion of water from voids under load
• Under slow compressive loading, stress vs. strain response is elongated along strain axis compared to
that of fast loading. This is very similar to creep.
• If load is sustained, increase in strain due to creep will lead to a shift from fast loading curve to slow
loading curve (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Stress-strain curves for concrete under compression

• Creep is quantified in terms of strain in addition to elastic strain due to applied loads.

• If applied loads are close to service loads, creep strain increases at a decreasing rate with time.

• Ultimate creep strain is proportional to elastic strain.

• Ratio of ultimate creep strain-to-elastic strain is called creep coefficient, θ.

• For stress in concrete less than about one-third of characteristic strength, ultimate creep strain is
given as.

εcr,ult = θεel
• Variation of strain with time, under constant axial compressive stress, is represented below.

Fig. 6. Strain with time for concrete under compression

• If load is removed, elastic strain is immediately recovered.

• Recovered elastic strain is less than initial elastic strain, since elastic modulus
increases with age.
• There is a reduction of strain due to creep recovery which is less than creep
strain.
• There is some residual strain which cannot be recovered (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Strain with time showing the effect of unloading

• Creep strain increases with increase in the following variables.
1. Cement content (cement paste-to-aggregate ratio)
2. Water-to-cement ratio
3. Air entrainment
4. Ambient temperature.
• Creep strain decreases with increase in the following variables.
a. Age of concrete at the time of loading.
b. Relative humidity
c. Volume-to-surface area ratio.
• Creep strain also depends on type of aggregate.
• A simplified estimate, where only one factor i.e. age of loading of concrete
structure is very important.

• Creep coefficient “θ” is provided for three values at different ages of loading.

Table 1. Creep coefficient, θ, for three different ages of loading

Age of loading Creep Coefficient

7 days 2.2
28 days 1.6
1 year 1.1
• If structure is loaded at 7 days, creep coefficient is 2.2. This means that creep
strain is 2.2 times elastic strain. Thus, total strain is more than thrice elastic
strain.
• Hence, study on effect of creep on deflection of flexural members is required.
• Even if load is applied at 28 days, creep strain is substantial, which implies larger
deflection.
• Proper curing and delayed application of load improve durability, reduce
deflection.
• In special cases, detailed calculations may be necessary to monitor creep strain
with time.
• Specialized literature or international codes can provide guidelines for such
calculations.
• Shrinkage occurs due to two causes.
1. Loss of water from concrete (voids)
2. Reduction of volume during carbonation
• Shrinkage strain increases at decreasing rate with time.
• Ultimate shrinkage strain (εsh) is estimated to calculate deflections.
• Fig. shows shrinkage strain vs. time. t0 is time at commencement of drying.

Fig. Variation of shrinkage strain with time

• Shrinkage strain increases with increase in.
1. Ambient Temperature
2. Temperature Gradient in Members
3. Water-to-Cement Ratio
4. Cement Content
• Shrinkage strain decreases with increase in.
1. Age of concrete at commencement of drying
2. Relative Humidity
3. Ratio of Volume-to-surface area
• Shrinkage strain also depends on type of aggregate.
• A simplified estimate of the ultimate shrinkage strain (εsh).

• For pre-tension εsh = 0.0003

• For post-tension

• Here, t is the age at transfer in days.

• For post-tension, t is the age (in days) at transfer which approximates curing time.
• With increasing age at transfer, shrinkage strain reduces.
• Proper curing of concrete and delayed application of load ensure long-term benefits on
durability.
• In special situations detailed calculations may be necessary to monitor shrinkage strain
with time.
• Specialized literature or international codes can provide guidelines for such calculations.
• Grout is a mixture of water, cement and optional materials like sand, water-reducing
admixtures, expansion agent and pozzolans.
• Water-to-cement ratio is around 0.5.
• Fine sand is used to avoid segregation.
• Desirable properties of grout are.
1. Fluidity
2. Minimum Bleeding and Segregation
3. Low Shrinkage
4. Adequate Strength after Hardening
5. No Detrimental Compounds
6. Durable

• Following specifications are important.

1. Sand should pass 150 μm Indian Standard sieve.

2. Compressive strength of 100 mm cubes of grout shall not be less than 17 N/mm2 at 7 days.