Field Problems of Vegetable Crops

DISEASES
NURSERY DISEASES OF VEGETABLE

Vegetables such as tomato, chillies, brinjal, onion, cauliflower, sweet paper, curcurbits
tec. Ate raised through nursery. Damping off a commonly occurring disease of nursery of
vegetable appears usually in poorly managed nursery beds sown with infected seed with
pathogen and by adopting wrong cultural practices. Damping off is the cause for poor
germination and gappy stand of the seedlings in nursery beds. The disease become more
severe when pre disposing factors are favourable. The disease may be physiogenic due to
water scarcity/excess watering.
Symptoms :
Symptoms of the disease occur in two phases, (i) pre-emergence and (ii) post-
emergence.
Pre-emergence phase :
There is a failure of seedling emergence from the soil due to seed rot or killing of
sprouting seedlings before emergence from the soil which results in patchy appearance of
seedling stand in the nursery. Since this disease occurs under the soil surface, the farmers
normally do not recognize this condition of the crop as it is not visible.
Post-emergence phase :
Post-emergence phase is visible to the farmers due to conspicuous killing of seedlings.
Disease is characterized by toppling over of infected seedlings. Infection usually (Pic. 1)
occurs at ground level and the infected tissue appears as water soaked tissue near the
ground level and with the advancement f the disease stems become constricted at the base
and the plants may collapse. The seedlings with apparent healthy appearance one day
may collapse in the next morning. The disease is most severe when there is a more
moisture and the temperature is comparatively high. Sometime killing of seedlings may
occur completely under favourable disease development conditions. Major loss generally
of nursery is pre-emergence damping off.
Causal organism :
The most common fungi reported to be responsible for damping off of seedlings are
species of Pythium,Phytophthora, sclerotinia, Botrytis, Fusarium, Phoma, Glomeralla,
and Rhizoctonia. These organisms become more severe in ill-aerated and ill-drained soil
especially in heavy soil. Loose soil having good proportion of sand exhibits less disease.
Over crowding of seedlings are more attacked by the disease.
Control measures :
Pre-emergence damping off is easily controlled by treating seed with chemicals like
Bavistin, Captan, Vopper compounds, Thiram, organo mercurials. A fungicide has to be
chosen with the knowledge of the exact cause of the disease. Soil sterilization of the
nursery beds can be done by foamaline by diluting 1:50 of water and sprinkle on loose
soil making it wet to the depth of 4”. One gallon of such solution would be required for 2-
3 sq. ft. of the soil. Sowing should be done after many days when there are no flumes of
formalin. Drenching with fungicide for control of post-emerging damping off can be one
with broad spectrum fungicides like Bavistin, Captan, Thiram and Copper Oxdycloride.
Such chemicals can be applied to the soil surface with fungicide solution (0.2 – 0.5 %).
Important precautions :
1. Do thin sowing and avoid over crowding.
2. Grow nursery in light soil.
3. High fertility soil should be used for nursery raising.
4. Manure applied to the nursery soil should be well composed.
5. Give light irrigation at frequent intervals.
6. Raised nursery beds should be used for growing nursery.
OKRA (BHINDI)
ROOT ROT
Rhizoctonia bataticola
The disease appears in very serious form in spring season crop. The rainy season crop
shows less incidence.
Symptoms :
The symptoms start appearing in early stage of the seedling. The first attack may start
on any underground portion and seedling may collapse at early stage. Sometimes the
infection starts at soil level and the stem is girdled due to attack of the fungus. The
affected plants are stunted and show wilting. The leaves droop initially (Pic. 2) and
finally dry up. Shredding of the bark is the common feature. The black round minute
fungal structures called sclerotia are produced underneath the bark of the stem.
Conditions for disease development :
Plant mortality increases under soil moisture stress conditions. During rainy season
this disease remains in low proportion due to high soil moisture.
Control :
Seed treatment with Captan @ 3 g per kg seed reduce the incidence of the disease.
CERCOSPORA LEAF SPOT

Cercospora habisci
The disease is quite serious during August-September when there is high humidity
in the atmosphere. Crop kept for seed purpose is more prone to the attack of the disease.
Symptoms :
Dark, olivaceous, brown spots appear on the lower leaves first. The spots turn (Pic. 3)
ashy in the centre and with the advancement of the disease they coalesce with one another
and nearly cover the entire lamina. On the under surface of the leaves there is sooty, black
mouldy growth of the pathogen. The infection results into premature defoliation. The
mature pods are also attacked and show blackish spots. It is sometimes associated with
other fungi also.

The disease is favoured by cloudy and rainy weather with temperature in the range of
25° to 29° C.
Control :
Spray the crop with Bavistin @ 200 g in 200 litre of water per acre or Bordeaux
mixture (2:2:250) at 14 day intervals from the appearance of the symptoms. Three sprays
are enough.
YELLOW VEIN MOSIAC

Yellow vein mosaic virus
This is a serious disease of okra, especially in rainy season. There is total yield loss
if the plants are affected at the early stage.
Symptoms :
The characteristic symptoms of the disease are vein clearing followed by chlorosis of
leaves (Pic. 4). The veins and the veinlets become yellow and thickened. In severe cases,
there is complete yellowing of the leaf. The fruit set is reduced on the infected plants and
the fruits become yellow, malformed and comparatively smaller in size.
Transmission:
The disease is transmitted through white fly (Bemisia tabaci). The disease is
particularly serious in rainy season.
Control :
1. Spray the crop with 560 ml of Malathion 50 EC in 250 litres of water per acre to
knock out white fly.
2. Always grow resistant verieties of okra Punjab 7, Punjab 8, and Padmani.
3. Remove the weeds susceptible to yellow vein mosaic from near by fields.
BRINJAL
PHOMOPSIS BLIGHT AND FRUIT ROT
Phomopsis vexans
It is common disease wherever brinjal is grown, however, it occurs in a severe form
in Punjab causing 50-60 % loss in yield. The pathogen causes leaf spot, wait and fruit rot.
The fruit rot phase of the disease causes heavy damage in the field and during transmit.
Symptoms :
The pathogen causes damping off in nursery. In the field, the pathogen attacks leaves
and fruits. On leaves, small circular spots appear which become cinnamon-buff coloured
with irregular blackish margin and light coloured centres. The old spots show numerous
back dots called pycnidia. The affected leaves turn yellow and die. Lesions may also
develop on petioles and stems. The girdling of the stems due to infection leads to
yellowing of leaves, wilting and drying of the shoots above the infection point. The
infected portion is sparsely covered by pycnidia. On the fruits, the disease appears as
minute, sunken dull and dusky spots which later on merge to form rotten areas. In severly
infected fruits the entire fruit may rot. In advances cases numerous pycnidia develop on
the affected parts of the fruits (Pic. 5), which are scattered or arranged in concentric rings.
The lesions may appear at any place on the fruit but more often near the stem end.

The fungus is seed borne and can survive on plant debris. The organism is
disseminated as water borne spores but they can also be disseminated by tools and
insects. The fungus requires wet weather and temperature range of 22-25° C for the fruit
rot infection. The over wintering of the pathogen takes place in infected plant debris and
on seeds.
Control :
1. Always take seeds from disease free fruits.
2. Treat the seed with Thiramof Captain @ 3 g per kg seed before sowing.
3. Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 @ 200 g in 100 litres of water at weekly
intervals after transplanting.
4. Crop rotation can delay the initial appearance of the disease.
SCLEROTINIA DISEASE
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
Sclerotinia is a serious disease of brinjal. The damage to brinjal is mainly through

partial or complete wilting of the plant. The pathogen attacks the fruit also. The disease
appeared in epidemic form in 1996 causing yield loss upto 60-70%. The disease is severe
under low temperature and high moisture.
Symptoms :
The infection can occur on any part of the foliage, stem/branches or fruits.
Leaves : The disease appears as characteristic pink or redish-brown water-soaked
areas which become covered with white mycelium under humid conditions. The infection
on the leaves is normally through the senescent buds/flowers, which are covered by white
mycelial growth (Pic. 6). Of the pathogen.
Stem rot/wilt : Stems develop pale or dark brown lesions, first at the base but later on
any where n the stem. Lesions are covered by white cottony growth of fungal mycelium.
The sclerotia of fungus can be formed either internally in the pith of the stem, giving no
outward signs of their appearance, or they can be formed on the outside of the stem where
they are apparent (Pic. 8). Rapidly, the fungus invades and spreads through the stem, as a
result, the plant collapses and wilts.
Fruit infection : The fruits are attacked either through their closest point to the ground
or through their senescent flower parts. The fungus causes a wet rot-which spreads and
causes the fruit rot. The infected portion completely rots and disintegrates. The white
mycelium and black sclerotia are visible externally (Pic. 7). The fruit can be attacked in
all the stages of its development.

The pathogen survives in the form of sclerotia in the soil or, plant debris.
Ascospores formed from sclerotia either directly infect the host or they fall on the fallen
flowers and grow on them and produce mycelium. This mycelium is a primary source of
infection. High soil moisture and low temperature (15-20°C) is necessary for infection.
The pathogen can attack a number of vegetable crops like pea, cauliflower, tomato, bean
etc.
Control :
1. The plant debris should be collected and burnt.
2. Deep summer ploughing should be done in such a way that surface soil is buried
deep.
3. Crop rotation will help in reducing the disease.
4. Use of farm yard manure reduces the disease.
ALTERNARIA LEAF SPOT

Alternaria melongenae
Several leaf spots occur on brinjal but most common under Punjab conditions is
Alternaria leaf spot.
Symptoms :
The spots on leaves are brown irregular in shape with concentric rings. Several spots
may coalesce to form larger necrotic patches. (Pic. 9). The disease normally starts from
the margin of the leaves. Severely infected leaves may drop off. The fruits are also
infected. Large, necrotic sunken spots develop on the fruits which turn yellow and drop.

The disease initiates in the months of late Oct. to early Nov, however, is severe during
Nov to December. The disease is more in the humid conditions. Frequent rains or heavy
dew favours the disease development.
Control :
1. Always take the seed from the disease free fruits.
2. Treat the seed with Captain, Thiram @ 3 g or Bavistin @ 1 g per kg of seed before
sowing.
3. Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 or Indofil Z-78@500 – 700g/acre at 15 day
intervals. Start the sprays in the month of November.
LITTLE LEAF
Mycoplasma – like organism (MLO)
Little leaf of brinjal is a serious problem in brinjal cultivation. The disease becomes
more pronounced when the crop starts flowering. It reduces the cop yield drastically.
Symptoms :
The characteristic symptom is the smalling of leaves. The leaves on the affected plants
are clustered together and the newly formed leaves are much shorter. The inter-nodes of
the stem are also shortened. Auxillary buds get enlarged but the petiole and leaves remain
short. This gives a bushy appearance to the plant (Pic. 10). Diseased plants fail to produce
flower and fruits.
Transmission :
The disease has several other hosts and it occurs in nature in Datura fatuesa and Vinca
rosea. The disease is transmitted by jassids.
Control :
1. Spray the crop with Malathion or Metasystox @ 250 ml in 100-125 litre of water
in nursery and the field.
2. Rogue out the affected plants as soon as observed.
MOSAIC DISEASE
Mosaic viruses
This disease occurs on al varieties of brinjal cultivated in the state. On this crop
atleast five different viruses cause mosaic symptoms either individually or in
combination.
Symptoms :
Field infected brinjal plants show a pronounced mosaic mottling of younger leaves,
which are visible clearly (Pic. 11) against transmitted light. Older leaves show only mild
mottling. Leaves of diseased plants are reduced on size and are also malformed. The
infected plants remain dwarf and bear less fruits.
Transmission :
All viruses are sap transmissible and one of them is also transmitted by aphids. Virus
can infect tobacco, tomato, pepper, datura plants and many weeds.
Control :
1. Clean cultivation and destroying of all infected material and weeds before
cultivating the crop is recommended.
2. Spray the crop with Metasystox or Rogor @ 1 ml/litre at ten day intervals.
3. Avoid unnecessary contact with infected plants and remove them as soon as
observed.
CHILLI
ANTHRACNOSE, DIE BACK AND RIPE FRUT ROT
Colletotrichum dematium, Colletotrichum piperatum
This is one of the worst diseases of chillies and is severe during the rainy season.
The disease is mainly a problem on mature fruits. However, the symptoms on immature
fruits have also been found. The pathogen also causes die back disease of chilli plants.
The pre and post-harvest fruit losses are upto 50%. The fruit rot phase of the disease can
cause heavy damage in the field and also during transit. The disease is more in Shahkot,
Sangrur and Ludhiana one as of the northern plains.
Symptoms :
Die back. The disease cause necrosis of the tender twigs from the tip backwards (Pic.
12). The entire branch or the entire top of the plant may wither away. The twigs are water
soaked to brown, becoming greyish white or straw coloured in advance stage of the
disease. Large number of black dots called acervuli are formed on the affected twigs.
Ripe fruit rot. The disease usually occur on mature fruits as circular to elliptical
sunken spots with black margins and marked with concentric rings (Pic. 13). Badly
diseased fruits turn straw coloured from normal red. On this discoloured area, numerous
black dots (acervuli) are present. The diseased fruit may drop off prematurely.

The fungus is externally seed borne and the secondary spread is through air borne
inoculum. The disease development and spread is favoured by moist weather and
temperature between 28-35°C. The disease is severe after rains normally during July-
August. The pathogen survives on crop debris in the field which serve as a source of
primary inoculum.
Control :
1. Obtain seeds from healthy fruits.
2. Treat the seed with 2g of Thiram per kg of seed before sowing.
3. Spray the crop with 750g of Indofil M-45 Blitox 50 WP 250 litres of water/acre at
10 day interval. Give first-spray in the 1st week of July followed by 3-4 more
sprays.
WET ROT
Choanejphora ccurbitarum
The wet rot is one of the important fungal diseases of chillies which is severe
duging the month of August and September.
Symptoms :
The pathogen attacks flower, buds and tender young shoots. The infected portion
shows the tendency of wet rot with luxuriant growth of fungus on the infected portion
which appears as black pin heads. The infection spreads downwards and the infected
portion becomes limpy, resulting in the death of the distal parts. The disease also appears
on fruits causing soft rot with luxuriant growth of the pathogen with characteristic bead
like black conidial heads. (Pic. 14).

The disease is favoured by warm and humid weather conditions. The optimum
temperature for disease development is 28 – 30°C with high relative humidity
Control :
Same as in die back disease and ripe fruit rot.
LEAF CURL
Tobacco leaf curl virus (TLCV)
The leaf curl of chillies is very common wherever the crop is grown. It is a major
limitation in successful cultivation of both hot and bell pepper.
Symptoms :
The most characteristic symptoms are the curling of leaves, their small size (Pic. 15)
shortened internodes and general dwarfing of the plant which assumes a bushy
appearance. Leaves are of pale yellow colour and roll downwards. Fruiting is stopped, if
fruit are formed, they are small and deformed.

The disease is transmitted by white fly, Bemisia tabaci. This vector spreads the
maximum disease during the months of August to October.
Control :
1. Rogue out the virus infected plants as soon as visible and destroy them.
2. Protect the crop in the nursery beds from insect vector (white fly) by spraying
Metasystox or Rogor @ 1 ml.litre of water at 10 days interval and Spray the crop
with 400 ml Malathion 50 EC in 100-125 litres of water per acre at 15-20 day
intervals.
3. Spraying should be stopped at least 20 days before plucking the fruits.
4. Collect seeds from disease free plants.
CHILLI MOSAIC
Chilli mosaic viruses
It is attacked by number of viruses and various types of symptoms are produced.
Symptoms :
Characteristic symptoms are appearance of dark green and yellow areas on the leaf
surface. These may be sunken or raised (puckering). Sometimes the leaves are greatly
reduced in size and filamentous or shoe string like (Pic. 16). Diseased plants produces
less flowers and fruits.
Transmission :
The chilli mosaic virus is sap transmissible and can be easily transmitted through
contact during cultivation. Natural transmission of virus occurs through aphids. Disease
crop refuse left in the field is also a source of inoculum.
Control :
1. Rogue out the affected plants.
2. Collect the seeds from virus free plants.
3. Avoid unnecessary touching of plants.
4. Spray with 400 ml Malathion 50 EC in 100-125 litres of water per acre.
5. Use virus free seedlings.
COWPEA
CERCOSPRA LEAF SPOT
Cercospora canescens, Cercospora cruenta
The disease generally appears after flowering and results in defoliation. Both
organisms are prevalent in the Punjab State.
Symptoms :
Roughly circular, cherry red to dark red spots, variable in size are (Pic. 17) formed by
C. canescens. In case of C. cruenta black mats due to mouldy growth of the fungus are
caused. Defoliation occurs in both the cases. At maturity, infected pods show black
sporulation of the fungus.

The disease is serious during rainy season under high temperature conditions.
Varieties having dense foliage show more disease.
Control :
Spray the crop with 0.2 percent Indofil M-45 at 10 day interval, soon after the
appearance of the disease.
COWPEA MOSAIC
Cowpea mosaic virus
It is prevalent on all the commercial varieties and appears in more severe from
during rainy season.
Symptoms :
The leaves develop a typical mosaic of broad and raised patches along with chlorific
streaks or spots (Pic. 18). The diseased plants bear a distinctly pale appearance.
Transmission :
The virus is readily transmitted through sap inoculation and is also carried in seed to
the extend of 4-22 percent. In nature the virus is spread by aphids. It is able to infect
many other hosts such as beans, sunhemp etc.
Control :
1. Since the disease is seed borne, it is essential that seed free from virus should be
used.
2. Rogue out infected plants as soon as observed.
3. Spray the crop with Rogor or Metasystox @ 1 ml/litre of water at 15 day intervals.
CRUCIFERS
SCLEROTINIA STALK ROT OF CAULIFLOWER
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
Symptoms :
The earliest symptoms are loss of turgidity of leaves during day time but recovering
during night. The bright green shine of the affected plants is replaced by dull whitish
green colour which becomes pale yellow. The yellowing starts from the tip of older
leaves downwards till the whole leaf becomes yellow and shed prematurely. Mid-rib and
petioles of lower leaf touching the ground show dark brown to black soft rot and fluffy
growth of the fungus. Rotting from the petiole advances to the stalk where dark brown to
black spots are formed which girdle the stem at the ground level. In pith of the stem
fluffy mycelium and sclerotia (Pic. 19) of the fungus are produced. The curds also get
infected, showing brown to dark rotting which generally starts from the centre.

The disease is favoured by cool humid conditions. The fungus survives in soil and
plant debris.
Control :
1. The plant debris should be collected and burnt.
2. Deep summer ploughing should be done in such a way that surface soil is buried
deep.
3. Addition of farmyard manure reduces the incidence of stalk rot.
4. Practise crop rotation without host crop e.g. wheat etc.
BLACK ROT
Xanthomonas pv. Campestris
This is one of the wide spread diseases of crucifers, where rainfall or heavy dews
are plentiful. If the pathogen becomes established in the early growing season it becomes
extremely destructive.
If the favourable conditions prevail cabbage plants are unable to produce
marketable heads. The pathogen can attack cabbage, cauliflower, turnip, radish etc. There
are different strains of the bacterium attacking different groups of these crops.
Symptoms :
The plant may be affected at any time during its growth from the yongest seedlings
until it matures. The disease appear as chlorotic lesions near the leaf margin, which
progress towards the centre in the form of “V” shaped yellow spots. In the affected
portions, the veins and the veinlets turn brown and finally black which is a characteristic
of the disease. The vascular blackening of petiole and stem causes systemic spread of the
causal organism. Bacterial ooze may also be seen on the surface of the diseased tissue.
Curds also get infected and rot (Pic. 20).

The organism survives in diseased plant debris for sometime but mainly survives in
seed. The disease is severe where rainfall or humidity is high and average temperature is
between 15 to 22°C. The secondary spread of the pathogen is y irrigation water, rain,
wing and by cultural operations.
Control :
1. Take the seed from the bacterium free areas and from the plants free of disease.
2. Treat the seed before sowing with hot water at 50°C for 30 minutes and dry, then
treat with Thiram or Captain @ 3 g per kg of seed.
3. Destroy the diseased debris in the field after harvesting.
4. Spray the crop with 20 gm of Streptocycline and 100 gm of copper oxychloride in
100 litres of water/acre. 2-3 sprays are required depending upon the intensity of
the disease.
ALTERNARIA BLIGHT
Alternaria brassicae & A. brassiciola
Both the species of Alternaria attack cruciferous including cabage cauliflower,

redish and turnip etc. When too many spots are formed on the leaves they die pre-
maturely, affecting the plant stand and in addition, the spots pre-dispose the heads to
various types of rots during transit and storage.
Symptoms :
The disease appears as small dark coloured areas which spread rapidly and from
circular spots with concentric rings (Pic. 21). In humid weather the fungus appears as
bluish black growth in the centre of spots.
The cauliflower curds are also infected which show browning, beginning at the
margin of the individual flower or flower clusters and later on the whole curd may get
brown and rot. Brown to black spots appears on pods in the seed crop of cruciferous
vegetables.

The disease is favoured by hot moist weather. The conidia and mycelium persists in
diseased crop debris and the conidia formed on the debris come in contact with leaves
causing primary infection. The secondary infections occurs through conidia disseminated
by wind or insects etc.
Control :
1. Treat the seed before sowing with 3 g of Captan or Thiram per kg of seed.
2. Destroy the disease debris after harvest.
3. Spray the crop with Dithane M-456 at 500 g per acre at 7 day intervals.
4. If black rot and Alternaria blight occur together, add 30 g Agrmycin 100 to the
solution of Indofil M-45 before spraying.
DOWNY MILDEW
Peronospora parasitica
Downy mildew disease is of wide prevalence. In addition to cauliflower and

cabbage, the disease occurs on radish also. The disease is quite common in young plants.
It causes heavy losses to the seed crop.
Symptoms :
The disease is characterized by the appearance of purplish brown spots on the under
surface of the leaves. The upper surface of the leaf on the lesion is tan to yellow. (Pic.
22). Fungal growth appears on the under surface of these lesions. (Pic. 23). The stem
shows dark brown and depressed lesions or streaks. In cabbage, the infection exposes the
heads to soft rot during transit. The affected cauliflower curds turn brown at the top and
the severely infected curds rot and fail to produce seeds.

The fungus thrives well in a cool, moist environment. The disease development and
spread takes place between 15 to 24°C.
Control :
1. Always use seeds from healthy crop.
2. Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 (500g/acre at 7 day intervals start spray before
the appearance of the disease.
3. Destroy the disease debris after harvest.
RADISH SCAB
Streptomyces spp.
The radish scab has been noticed in sandy soils on all the varieties. It is more
commonly observed in the months of May- June on the off season crops.
Symptoms :
The disease symptoms are recognized only at the harvesting time. Two types of scab
i.e surface scab and pitted scab are observed in the roots. Shallow scab lesions appear as
eye shaped spindles with long ends and run parallel to each other horizontally along the
root girth (Pic. 24). Initially they are smaller in size but later on the size increases. In the
pitted scab, the distinct black coloured corkey and sunken lesions of variable size are
present on the radish roots. Pits and tunnels on the roots coalesce and cover large surface
area of the roots. The top root portion uncovered by the soil remain free from scab.

The organism survives for long periods on decaying plant parts in the soil or probably
on roots of living plants. Dry soil conditions favour disease development.
Control :
1. Do not sow the crop in infested fields.
2. Maintain proper moisture in the field to reduce the disease build up.
3. Avoid cultivation of radish n sandy soils.
CUCURBITS
COLLAR ROT / PYTHIUM ROT
Rhizoctonia solani / Pythium spp.
Both collar rot and phythium rot are serious diseases of cucurbits in Punjab. The
affected field, due to mortality of plants, give patchy appearance of the crop. Due to
mortality of vines, the crop stand is greatly affected thus resulting in poor yields. The
incidence is high at fruit formation stage young plants also die just after emergence and
rottening of roots takes place in early stages. Wilting of plants at fruit formation is mainly
due to the attack of Fusaium sp.
Symptoms :
The disease is characterized by dark brown water soaked lesions, girdling the base of
the stems at the soil level which ultimately results in the death of the plants. The disease
manifests its symptoms at fruit stage of the vines also. Both types of rots sometimes
occur n the same field and result in heavy losses (Pic. 25).
Control :
1. Treat the seed with Thiram @ 3 g per kg of seed before sowing.
2. Drench the vines with Ridomil Mz (0.2 per cent) when the disease is noticed in the
field and for wilt apply 0.1 % Bavistin at the root zone of the plants.
3. Avoid flood irrigation in the field.
4. Grow the crop on raised beds.
POWDERY MILDEW
Sphaerotheca fuliginea
The fungus attacks all the cucurbits but is more destructive on pumpkins, bottle
gourd and squashes.
Symptoms :
The characteristic symptom is the appearance of white to dirty grey spots, which
become powdery as they enlarge. This white powdery coating (Pic. 26) cover leaves,
stem and other succulent parts of the plant. Severe infection may lead to premature
defoliation and death of vines.

The pathogen can cause infection in dry as well as wet atmosphere. The optimum
temperature is 26 to 28 °C. 16 t 23 days old leaves are highly susceptible.
Control :
Spray the crop with Karathane 50-80 ml per acre as soon as the disease appears.
Repeat the spray at 10 day intervals. Three to four sprays are required depending upon
the disease intensity.
DOWNY MILDEW
Pseudoperonospora cubensis
Downy mildew of cucurbits is a limiting factor for successful cultivation of various
cucurbits in Punjab especially muskmelon.
Symptoms :
Disease first appears as small water soaked lesions on the underside of the leaf. Such
lesions when viewed from the upper side of the leaf, appear as angular spots and greyish
spore mass (Pic. 27) of the fungus is clearly visible on the under side of these spots. The
lesions subsequently become necrotic. The severely infected leaves become dry and curl
upwards giving blighted appearance to the vines.

The disease appears in epiphytotic form during the months of April to June. Low night
temperature (less than 20°C) and long dew periods are the most important determinant
factors for the onset and development of downy mildew under local conditions. The
fungus perpetuates on off-season vines.
Control :
1. Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 @ 300-600 g in 100-200 litresof wter per acre
depending upon the growth stage. Start first spray in 2 nd week of April before the
appearance of the disease followed by six more sprays at weekly interval. Give
spray promptly after rains. Under heavy disease risk give two sprays of Ridomil
Mz @ 500 g or Allette @ 600 gm/am 10-day intervals instead of 3rd and 4th spray
of Indagil M-45.
2. Destroy over wintering vines of cucurbits.
3. Avoid flood irrigations.
ALTERNARIA BLIGHT
Alternaria cucumerian
It is not a very serious disease in the state, however, at times, it occurs in greater
proportions under humid conditions.
Symptoms :
The characteristic symptom is the appearance of yellow spots on the leaves which turn
brown and finally black with age. They usually start from the margin and produce
concentric rings. Severly infected vines look like burnt charcoal (Pic. 28). This disease is
more severe on watermelon and bottle gourd.

The disease is favoured by high temperature and high humidity conditions. Dense
planting favours the disease. Free irrigation to the flat sown crop increases the incidence.
Control :
Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 @ 300 g in 100 litres of water per acre at an interval
of 10-15 days. First spray should be given only when the disease is observed.
ANTHRACNOSE
Colletotrichum lagenarium
Almost all the cucurbits are attacked by the anthracnose pathogen. It is more
destructive on watermelon, bottle gourd and cucumber under Punjab conditions.
Symptoms :
The pathogen produces different types of symptoms on leaves, petioles, tendrils, stems
and fruits, symptoms on young fruits appear in the form of numerous, water soaked
depressed, oval, circular to elongated spots (Pic. 29) which coalesce covering large areas.
In the centre of these spots, black pin headed bodies called acervuli bearing pink masses
of spores can be seen in humid weather. Pinkish gummy exudates may appear on the
lesion which is due to exudation of spores. The lesions first appear on vines as brownish
specks, which grow into angular to roughly circular spots with or without distinct
borders. Lesions on petiole and stem are elongated and depressed, thereby girdling the
affected portions and produce general blight symptoms. On bottlegourd fruits, depressed
black lesions are formed.

The disease occurs in epidemic form only when there is more than average rainfall.
Disease development occurs at 20-30°C with 100 per cent relatives humidity for atleast
18 hours. The left over plant debris serves as source of inoculum.
Control :
1. Treat the seed with Bavistin (2.5/kg seed) before sowing.
2. Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 (-0.3 per cent) or Blitox 50 or Bavistin (0.1 per
cent) at ten day interval.
MOSAIC
Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV)
A variety of mosaic symptoms occur on different curcurbits. The nature of
symptoms depends upon the host and strain of the virus associated with the disease. The
losses are high when the young plants are attacked Maximum losses occurs on squashes,
bottle gourd, muskmelon, pumpkin and cucumber under Punjab conditions.
Symptoms :
The characteristic symptom is yellowing of cotyledons and ultimately wilting of the
seedlings when the plant is attacked soon after emergence. In older plants, there are
alternate green and yellow patches (Pic. 30) on the leaf. The spots are irregular in shape
and enlarge rapidly. The diseases leaves are mottled, deformed, small and sometimes
curled downwards, the veins and veinlets also turn yellow. Young fruits formed are
rough, mottled, deformed and smaller in size.
Transmission :
The virus is seed borne and transmitted by aphids. The disease can also be transmitted
through sap and mechanical methods. Some weed hosts serve as source of inoculum.
Control :
1. Collect the seeds from virus free plants.
2. Spray the crop with insecticides viz. Rogor or Metasystox @ one ml/litre of water
at 10 – day intervals.
3. Weeds around the fields should be removed.
ONION AND GARLIC

PURPLE BLOTCH
Alternaria porri
Purple blotch is a common disease of onion both on seed and bulb crops. Losses
due to the disease are heavy on seed crop. It also attacks garlic crop.
Symptoms :
Small, water soaked areas develop on the leaf or the seed stalk, which turn brown. As
the spot enlarges, it becomes zonate and more or less purplish (Pic. 31 A & B) in colour
with a purplish or red margin and is surrounded by yellow halo. In moist weather, the
surface of the spot is covered with the brown or almost black sporulation of the fungus.
The affected leaves or seed stalks fall down in a continuous moist weather the seeds
remain shrivelled.

The pathogen requires the presence of rain or persistent dew for sporulation and
infection. The optimum temperature for sporulation and infection is 25-28°C. Infestation
of thrips pre-dispose the plants to disease.
Control :
1. Treat the seed with Captan or Thriam @ 3 g per kg of seed before sowing.
2. Spray the crop with 600 gm Indofil M-45 mixed with 200 ml Malathion and 200
ml of Triton (Sticker) or linseed oil in 200 litres of water per acre as soon as the
disease appears. This should be followed by three or more sprays at 10 – day
intervals.
PEA
WILT AND ROOT ROT
Fusarum oxysporum f. pisi
Root rot is a common disease of peas, especially in early sown crop. Severe root rot
is caused by a complex of Fusarium. Pythium and/or Rhizoctonia spp.
Symptoms :
The diseases chiefly occurs on the undergrounds parts of the plants or on the stem at
the soil level forming reddish brown, slightly sunken lesions. The lesions may extend to
root system and completely decay them, which results in poor growth of the plant,
yellowing of leaves and finally wilting of the plant. (Pic. 32)

Disease may develop at any temperature above 18°C but the optimum is 27-30°C. the
early season crop which grows at relatively higher temperature and under high soil
moisture conditions suffers the most. Disease inciting fungi survive in the soil.
Control :
1. Avoid early sowing in badly infested areas.
2. Treat the seed of early sown crop with 1 gm Bavistin 50 WP in 15 ml of water per
kg of seed before sowing.
3. Grow only recommended varieties in the early season.
POWDERY MILDEW
Erysiphpe polygoni
This disease causes heavy losses on mid season or late maturing varieties. Early
sown varieties escape the attack of powdery mildew in the state.
Symptoms :
The disease first appears on leaves and then on the other green parts of the plant
including the pods. The characteristic symptom is the formation of white floury patches
on both the sides of the leaf, tendrils, stems and pods. These patches originate as minute
discoloured specks from which a powdery mass radiates on all sides. In the advance
stages of infection, all the aerial parts of the plant are found covered with white floury
patches which consists of mycelium and spores of fungus (Pic. 33). Seeds shrivel and
loose taste.

The disease normally appears in the end of January and starts its development as soon
as the season warms up. Dry weather at 24-32°C favours the disease. The pathogen is an
obligate parasite and the disease perennates through Cleistothecia is the soil.
Control :
1. Practise field sanitation.
2. Destroy disease debris.
3. Grow early maturing varieties for vegetable purposes.
4. Spray the crop with karathane 40 EC @ 80 ml or Sulfex 600 gm acre during the
end of January or first week of February. Give 3-4 sprays at 10 days interval.
RUST
Uromyces fabae
Rust of pea is very destructive disease in the north and north-western parts of the
State. In cool and wet weather it becomes very serious, often killing the entire plant. It is
more serious on mid season or late maturing varieties. The symptoms of the disease
appear in the month of December – January.
Symptoms :
The most characteristic symptoms is the appearance of yellowish to reddish-brown,
spherical raised pustules, mainly on the lower side (Pic. 34) of the leaves. Disease also
appears on the stem, tendrils, stipules and even pods. During March-April reddish
spherical small pustules of different types appear on aerial parts. In hot days, third type of
raised blackish pastules appear which are covered with epidermis initially and rupture in
the centre subsequently.

The rust completes its life cycle on the host itself. The hosts such as Lathyrus aphaca
(mattri) and Vicia hirsute (Rewari) are the hosts of this rust and provide inoculum to the
crop. Mild temperature and humid climate favours the disease development.
Control :
1. Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 @ 400 g in 200 litres of water during December.
Give 3-4 sprays at 10 days interval. Alternatively other fungicides namely
Bayleton (0.05 percent) and Calixin (0.2 percent) are known to be effective against
rust.
2. Destruction of the diseased crop debris is important for minimising the losses from
this disease.
3. Keep the field free from Rewari and Mattri weeds which serve as a source of
inoculum.
4. Long crop rotations avoiding legume crops should be followed.
5. For controlling powdery mildew and rust together Karathane @ 80 ml or Sulfex @
600 g and Indofil M-45 @ 400 g per acre can be sprayed in combination.
ASCOCHYTA BLIGHT AND POD ROT
Ascochyta pisi
The disease occurs on leaves as well as on pods. The early sown crop suffers more
from this disease as compared to the main season crop.
Symptoms :
The lesions on leaves are tan coloured with dark brown margins. These spots may
remain small and not well demarcated or may increase in size, turn brown to black, and
become zonate with definite margin. Such leaves soon dry and hang down still clinging to
the plants. The leaf blight usually starts on lower leaves and spreads to upper leaves.
Stem infection becomes apparent as a browning or blackening of the basal portion of the
stem. On pods, the spots are circular, sunken, tan coloured with dark brown margins.
Black pin-point size pycnidia are often conspicuous. (Pic. 35).

The pathogen is carried in infected seed and over winters in infected plant debris.
Control :
1. Seed treatment with thiram or captan.
2. Production of seed in areas of low rainfall during the growing season.
3. Practice field sanitation.
POTATO
EARLY BLIGHT
Alternaria solani
Early blight is less serious disease of potato in the Punjab state. It appears in minor
proportion towards maturity of the crop. The crop with poor health is more prone to the
attack of early blight.
Symptoms :
The disease appears on lower older leaves as small scattered dry spots. These spots
turn brown-black and circular to avoid as they expand and later show concentric rings
which give them a black target board appearance. Elongated, black lesions sometimes
appear on stem (Pic. 36).
Disease development and spread :

Warm and humid weather is favourable for the disease development. The disease is
often more severe when the host has been pre-disposed by injury, poor nutrition or other
type of stresses.
Control :
1. Proper fertilization helps to reduce the disease to a larger extent by maintaining
the vigour of the plants.
2. Spray the crop with copper oxychloride 50 WP @ 750 g to 1 kg or Indofil M-45
@ 500-700 g per acre. Repeat the spray at 15 day interval if the disease continue
to appear.
LATE BLIGHT
Phytophthora infestans
Late blight is the most destructive of potato in the state and causes significant
losses in potato yield, which can go as high as 80 % in late sown crop in epidemic years.
In the past years, severe epidemics of the disease have appeared during 2985-86, 1989-
90, 1992-93 and 1997-98 in the state.
Late blight has been occurring frequently in the districts of Hoshiarpur, Jalandhar,
Nawanshahar, Kapurthala, Amritsar and Ropar. It is usually observed first incertain
pockets of Hoshiarpur notably Mehtiana, Phuglana, Sham Chaurasi and Tanda areas and
spreads further to adjoining areas under favourable weather conditions.
Symptoms :
Smaller water soaked spots develop on the tips, margins or any other part of the leaves
which enlarge to from irregular dark brown lesions. During morning hours, a whitish
cottony growth of the fungus is visible around the dark brown lesions o the under surface
of leaves especially when weather remains sufficiently humid. If the weather turns dry,
the lesions dry up. Under favourable environmental condition (low temperature, high
humidity) the lesions grow rapidly killing the entire leaflets and spread to the stem killing
the entire plant. The brown elongated lesions may appear on the stem near the growing
point or at the nodes and extend both up and down the stem. Infected tubers show
irregular shallow or sunken reddish brown patches. The underlying infected tissue is
spongy and rusty brown to varying depths. Initially, the lesions on tuber surface are firm
and dry but later on these are often invaded by secondary pathogens resulting into soft
rot. If humid climate continues the whole crop may be killed within 7-10 days giving
blighted appearance and a distinctive odour comes out from the severely affected fields.

The infected seed tubers serve as a main source of the disease. Early sown crop
(September sown), which is harvested in early November, generally escapes the attack of
late blight due to high soil and air temperature. It generally appears in first and second
week of November when the main season crop is 40-45 days old. When winter rains
occur in Nov. – Dec. raising the humidity to more than 90% and cloudy or foggy days
persist for 6-7 days with atmospheric temperature in the rang of 10-20°C, late blight
develops rapidly with multiple infections on adjoining plants and then on entire field
through spread by the air borne sporangia of the fungus. Sporangia washed by rain cause
infection on tubers in the soil. Partially exposed tubers stored in the cold storage unit
along with healthy tubers serve as the main source of disease for the crop of next year.
Control :
1. Disease free certified seed should be used. Infected tubers and cull piles stocked
near cold stores should be destroyed.
2. Follow high ridge cultivation and proper earthing up to prevent tuber infection
and restrict irrigation during cloudy days.
3. Grow late blight tolerant varieties like Kufri Jyoti, Kufri Badshah, Kufri Jawahar,
Kufri Satluj etc.
4. Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 or Kavach @ 500-700 gm/acre as prophylactic
sprays in the 1st week of November before the disease appearance and repeat 5
times at 7 day intervals. Under heavy disease risk situation, give 3rd and 4th spray
of Ridomil MZ @ 700 gm/acre at 1 day interval and then give 5 th spray of Indofil
M-45 kavach.
5. Avoid the use of self made mixtures of Metalaxyl with Indofil-45 as mixtures in
improper ratio may cause development of resistance in the pathogen.
BLACK SCURF
Rhizoctonia solani
It is a common disease of potato tubers and is observed both in hills and plains.
Black scurf does not cause significant loss in yield but it results into qualitative damage
as it decreases the market value of the tubers both for table as well as seed purpose. The
disease is more prevalent in those areas of the state where potato is sown after rice crop
as the same fungus also causes sheath blight of rice. The pathogen is soil borne in nature
and is widely distributed in all the soils.
Symptoms :
The most prominent symptoms of black scurf is the presence of black rough
encrustations on tubers which are infact the sclerotia of the fungus (Pic. 38). These may
be flat and superficial or large, irregular lumps resembling soil that will not wash off.
These sclerotia are normally seated on the skin and do not cause any damage to the tuber
inside. (Pic. 39A). Stem canker phase in which sunken circular or elongated brown
necrotic spots appear on the developing stem often causing girdling and collapsing of
stem is less common in India (Pic. 39 B).

Both soil and infected seed tubers serve as primary source of inoculum. The pathogen
survives as sclerotia in the soil and as mycelium on plant debris in the soil and its
viability is greatly reduced by exposure to hot summer temperatures. Sclerotia germinate
under favourable environmental conditions and invade emerging potato sprouts of stem
especially through wounds. Low temperature and high soil moisture are conducive for
infection on sprouts and stems this phase is not common on early autumn crop in the state
as the temperature remain high. The more common phase is black scurf on tuber surface
where the sclerotia formation is favoured at temp. of 28°C. The number of sclerotia on
tubers vary with soil temperature and moisture. Black scurf on tubers is more common in
crops grown in sandy to sandy loam and moderately wet soil. Pathogen has wide host
range having both solanaceous and non solanaceous plants such as rice, sunflower, maize,
cucurbits, moong etc.
Control :
1. Planting of healthy and disease free tubers is helpful in reducing the incidence of
the disease.
2. The increase in organic matter content of the soil helps in reducing the population
on the fungus to enhance activity of the antagonists.
3. Disinfect the tubers to be used for sowing by dipping in 0.5% Agallol (5 gm/litre
of water) or 0.25% Emisan-6 (2.5 gm/litre of water) for 10 minutes.
COMMON SCAB
Streptomyces scabies
Common scab of potato was introduced into the state through infected seed
potatoes from hills in early seventies and is more widely prevalent in district of
Hoshiarpur and Jalandhar. Although the disease dose not cause much direct loss in yield
but it reduces the quality of potatoes and thereby lowering the market values due to rough
and blemished skin, storing ability is not affected.
Symptoms :
Symptoms of scab are generally seen on tubers as circular 5-8 mm in diameter but
may be irregular in shape and larger when infections coalesce (Pic. 40). The lesions may
be shallow or deep pitted. In shallow scab the affected tubers show superficial roughened
areas sometimes raised above but often slightly below the skin of the tubers. In deep
pitted scab the lesions are dark brown corky and may join together involving entire
surface of the tuber.

The Pathogen can survive in soil for several years. The infected tubers play major role
for its carry over from one season to other. The pathogen has been introduced virtually
into all potato soils by infected seed potato. It can survive for many seasons on diseased
plant debris and infested soils which also help in initiating disease in succeeding crop of
potato. The pathogen is active at temperature range of 20-30°C and pH range of 5.2-8.0.
The pathogen is active in dry soils and is suppressed by watering.
Control :
1. Use healthy and disease free seed tubers in order to reduce primary source of
inoculum.
2. Green manuring before sowing potato reduces the disease by increasing the
activity of certain microbes antagonistic to the pathogen.
3. Treat the seed before sowing as in black scab.
4. Prevent drying of soil by regular irrigation from tuberization to maturity.
LEAF ROLL
Leaf roll Virus
Potato leaf toll virus (PLRV) is a serious virus disease of potato and is of great
economic importance. It reduces the tuber yield significantly in case of severe infection.
Symptoms :
There are two types of symptoms caused by this virus. Potato plants infected due to
virus in the current season show rolling of the upper leaves especially of the leaflet base.
The infected leaves tend to remain upright and turn pale yellow in colour. Plants
produced from infected tuber show rolling of lower leaves and stunting of plants, upright
habit and paleness of upper leaves. (Pic. 41). The rolled leaves are leathery, stiff, brittle,
pink or brown pigmented on their underside. Infected plants remain stunted, chlorotic and
make rattling noise when shaken. Sometime stunting is very severe. Marginal interveinal
chlorosis of leaflets is visible on the upper leaves.

PLRV is transmitted through infected tubers and spreads by several species of aphids.
The disease is more severe under warm conditions.
Control :
1. Always use disease free certified seed from reliable source.
2. Rogue out infected plants as soon as these are observed.
3. Spray recommended insecticides regularly to check the further spread of aphid
vectors.
4. Apply 5 kg of Thimet 10G (Phorate)/acre to the soil at the time of the first
earthing up. There is no need of any insecticidal spray after the application of
thimet. (Phorate).
MOSAIC
(Potato virus X (PVX), Potato virus Y (PVY) and Potato virus S (PVS)
Mosaic disease caused by various viruses is more common in the areas where
healthy seed is not used. PVX and PVY are more damaging in nature than PVS.
Considerable level of yield reduction can occur if the incidence and severity of these
viruses attain high proportion. This is the most wide spread viral disease of potato and is
prevalent in most of the potato growing areas.
Symptoms :
Different types of symptoms are produced on the potato crop depending on the
cultivar of the crop and the virus strain. PVX induces interveinal or faint mosaic causing
mild or barely perceptible mosaic symptoms with light and dark green patches, mottling
with strunting and often crinkling with virulent strains. There is considerable dwarfing or
plants and reduction in leaflet size (Pic. 42). PVY induces severe or rugose mosaic. Mild
to severe mosaic and veinal necrosis occur, plants remain stunted. Severe mosaic causes
rugosity, bunching or twisting of leaves, stunting and necrosis in some cultivars. Only
some veins develop necrosis. Older leaves collapse and drop with premature death.
Rarely some tubers also show ring spots at harvest. Symptoms caused by PVS are barely
perceptible as mottle or faint vein bending.
Transmission :
Mosaic disease is transmitted by infected tubers, cutting knife and aphid vectors.
Many plants of solanaceae, chenopadiaceae and leguminoceae act as alternate host of this
disease.
Control :
1. For the effective control of the disease, only virus free certified seed should be
sown.
2. Rogue out infected plants as soon as they are observed in the field in early crop
period.
3. Keep the aphid population under check by spraying insecticides like Rogor or
Metasystox @ 250 ml/acre.
4. Cut the haulms in 3rd or 4th week of December when aphid infestation starts (20
aphid/100 leaves) and leave the tubers in soil to mature till the end February. These
tubers will be considered free from virus.
5. Apply 5 kg of Thimet 10G (Phorate) as mentioned in case of leaf roll.
TOMATO
EARLY BLIGHT
Alternaria solani
The disease is common wherever the tomato crop is grown and the pathogen can
attack the crop at any stage of the growth, however, it is more destructive at the maturity
of crop. The disease initiates in the month of April but is severe in the end of May.
Severe epidemics can result in 78% loss in yield.
Symptoms :
The most characteristic symptoms are produced on the other lower leaves as circular
to angular, dark brown to black, concentric ringed spots (Pic. 43B) surrounded by
chlorotic halos. Severe infection leads to pre-mature leaf senescence, withering, dropping
and eventually abscission. If there are may lesions, the whole leaf turns yellow and dries
up. The infection also takes place on the leaf petioles and stems as dark black lesions.
Symptoms on fruits occur at stem end as dark, leathery, sunken lesion with characteristic
target board appearance (Pic. 43A).
The disease occurs during warm rainy or humid weather conditions. The optimum
temperature for the disease development is 28-30°C with high relative humidity of 96 per
cent. Frequent rains or heave dew is essential for sporulation. Less vigorous crop is more
prone to the attack of the pathogen. The pathogen remains viable for more tan a year in
dry infected leaves. The over wintering of the pathogen takes place in infected plant
debris and on tomato seeds.
Control :
1. Always take the seed from disease free fruits for next crop.
2. Threat the seed with Captan or Thiram @ 3 g per kg of seed before sowing.
3. Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 500-700 g/acre at an interval of 10-15 days.
Start spraying the crop after transplanting.
LATE BLIGHT
Phytophthora infestans
The disease initially starts in the sub-mountainous districts of Punjab State and
becomes serious on tomato crop wherever it is cultivated in the state. During favourable
conditions, it causes completed failure of the crop. The disease appeared in a epidemic
from during 1987, 1991 and 1997.
Symptoms :
The first symptom of the disease is bending down of the leaf petiole. Lesions
produced on the leaves and stems are large, irregular, greenish black water soaked
patches. As these patches enlarge they turn brown and paper like. During wet weather,
the lesions on the under surface of the leaves (Pic. 44) have fine white mass around them.
Blightening of the entire foliage may occur during moist conditions within a short period
and can cause heavy losses. Green fruits are also attacked and infected fruits are firm
which have large, irregular, brownish-green blotches. The surface of the fruit lesion has a
greasy rough appearance. In moist weather white Mycelial growth of fungus develops
over the infected parts which is later on followed by rot of the fruit (Pic. 44).

The disease is favourable by temperature between 15-20°C accompanied by heavy
dew, rain or cloudy weather. The spread of the disease is through sporangia or zoospores
which are dispersed by rain, irrigation water, contact among the leaves and wind. Under
these conditions, the disease progresses rapidly and can ruin the crop within a few days.
Control :
1. Spray the crop with fungicides, copper oxychloride, Indofil M-45, @ 500-700 per
acre during Feb-March at 10-15 day intervals. Depending upon the intensity of the
disease, 4-6 sprays can effectively control the disease. While spraying, care
should be taken to cover the foliage on both the surfaces.
2. Under heavy disease risk situation in mid February spray the crop @ 500 gm/acre
with Ridomyl MZ.
3. Do not use infected frits for seed extraction as it can carry the fungus on seed and
can cause seedling mortality in the nursery.
LEAF CURL
Tobacco leaf curl virus (TLCV)
The tomato curl disease is very common in the State on rainy season crop. It can
cause heavy losses in the crop when infected in the early stage.
Symptoms :
The leaf curl is characterized by sever stunting of the plant with downward rolling and
crinkling of the leaves. The young leaves show chlorosis while older curled leaves
become (Pic. 45) leathery and brittle. There is stunting of the plant and the diseased plant
produces more lateral branches resulting in bushy growth. Plants bear few flowers and
fruit and sometimes the crops fails totally.
Transmission :
The leaf curl of tomato is transmitted by whit fly, Bemisia tabaci Even a single
viruliferous whit fly is able to transmit the virus and the virus is persistent in the vector
and is retained for more than 12 days or whole life of it. Many hosts are attacked by this
virus.
Control :
1. Rogue out the affected plants as soon as noticed in the field.
2. Protect the crop in the nursery beds and field from insect vectors (white fly) by
spraying insecticides like Rogor or Metasystox @ 1 ml/litre of water at 10 - day
intervals.
MOSIAC
Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
The disease is common in most of vegetable and field crops. It is more severe in
rainy season crop than winter crop.
Symptoms :
The characteristic symptoms are the downward curling of leaf with slight turning
down at margins. Surface of the leaf is rough, wrinkled or corrugated. Chlorosis starts as
small points of yellow areas and gradually spreads. In extreme cases almost the entire
surface of the old or new leaves become pale yellow (Pic 46) with scattered islands of
dark green which stand up as blisters. The growth of the plant is retarted and there is low
fruiting.
Transmission :
TMV is easily sap transmissible and is principally transmitted by man during
cultivation or by implements. Diseased crop refuse left in the field is source of primary
inoculum. TMV is also seed borne and has wide host range which can serve as source of
inoculum.
Control :
1. Use virus free seedlings for planting.
2. Rogue out the affected plants.
3. Avoid unnecessary touching of plants.
4. Spray with insecticides viz., Rogor or Metasystox @ 1 ml/litre of water at 10 days
interval from the nursery onwards.
5. Raise nursery away from the source of inoculum.
COLOCASIA
PHYTOPHTHORA BLIGHT
Phytopththora colocasiae
This is the most serious disease of colocasia. It appears every year and affects crop
yield. Survey conducted during 1999-2000 reveals that the disease incidence was higher
in Hoshiparpur (70%) and Jalandhar (40%) areas. The disease is minimum in the crop
sown between 15th February to 15th March.
Symptoms :
The disease appears from August to September. The earliest symptoms are the
appearance of small, dark roundish spots on the leaf. These spots enlarge become
circular, oval or irregular, gradually very large part of the lamina in involved (Pic. 47).
Often, drops of a yellow liquid ooze out of the affected areas. Later the spots dry and
affected portions drop out leaving shot holes in the leaf. The periphery of the spots is
zoned in different shades of brown, green and yellow and may contain a delicate haze of
sporalgial growth of fungus causes rooting of corms (Pic. 48, 49).

Disease survives as myceolium on the infected corms. Disease spreads fast at 21°C
and 100% relative humidity. RH less than 90% totally inhibits sporulation of the fungus
on the host. Practice of storing seed corms at farm house was found to be the best as in
this treatment both disease severity and percentage of corm decay was less.
Control :
1. Use disease free corms.
2. Practise field sanitation and destroy infected plants.
3. Five sprays of Indofil M-45 @ 0.3% at 10 day interval or 3 sprays of Ridomil
MZ, Acrobatt MZ or Patafol each @ 0.2% at 5 day interval starting at the
appearance of the disease will check the disease. Addition of sticker like linseed
oil or Triton to the spray material in crease the efficacy of fungicides.
NEMATODES
ROOT-KNOT
Root-knot nematodes
The root know nematode is a minute round worm which causes typical galls on the
roots of most of the vegetable crops like tomato, brings, okra (Pic. 50)O and cucurbits
etc.
Symptoms :
Above ground symptoms caused by damage to the root system are very general, non
specific and generally appears as clearly defined patches in the field. Symptoms includes
those associated with premature leaf fall, wilting, decline in fruit production and loss in
yield. When associated with fungal pathogens, the damage is much more severe. Yield
loss of 40-60 percent is usual in vegetables and is more pronounced in lighter sandy soils.
Infected nursery seedling are the major source of spread of this nematode.
Life cycle :
Infective second stage larvae penetrate the host roots and settle there, where they feed
on giant cells which develop around the head. Three moults occur with the larvae
developing into the adult male or female. Reproduction is parthenogenetic and the life
cycle is normally completed in 23-30 days. Moderate temperature of 16°C to 27°C
favours development of the nematode.
Control :
1. Once a field is infected it is virtually impossible to eliminate the nematode. Using
resistant varieties provides the most effective control. Tomato variety Punjab NR-
7 and hybrids like TH-2312 and TH 802 are highly resistant to this nematode.
2. Rotations with non-host crops like wheat, rice, corn etc. provided satisfactory
level of control.
3. Successive deep ploughing during hot weather and soil solarization with
polyethylene sheets gives very good control.
4. Treating nursery beds with carbofuran 3G @ 3.0 gm/m2 reduces the damage due
to these nematodes..
INSECT PESTS
CUCURBITS
RED PUMPKIN BEETLE
Aulacophora foveicollis
Red pumpkin beetle is a pest of pumpkin, ashgourd, spongegourd, tinda, melon and
cucumber. However, muskmelon is the most preferred host.
Identification:
The beetle is oblong and 7 x 2.5 mm in size. The dorsal surface of body is pubescent
with brilliant orange red while ventral surface is black. The grub is creamy yellow with
brown head and possesses slightly dark oval shield at the back.
Damage :
The beetles eat leaf lamina, cause perforation, irregular holes or complete defoliation
and damage is severe, particularly at cotyledonary stage of the crop (Pic. 51 & 52). The
grubs feed on the underground stem and root portion of the host plant forming
holes/galleries (Pic. 53 & 54) leading to drying up of branches or whole plant. They may
also attack the fruits touching the ground surface by making holes.
Life History :
The adults hibernate among dried creepers, weeds and grasses. Beetles appear in
February and remain active up to October, with peak period during March-April. The
female lays 150-300 eggs in soil around the bases of host plants during their life span of
60-85 days. The grubs bore into the roots and underground parts of plants. They pupate in
soil. The life cycle is completed in 26-37 days. It has five generation in a year.
Control :
1. Sow the crop early in November to avoid the damage.
2. After harvesting the cucurbits, the fields should be deep ploughed to expose and
kill the grubs in soil.
3. Spray 75-150 g of Sevin/Hexavin 50 WP (carbaryl) in 50-100 litres of water per
acre. Repeat the sprays at an interval of 10 days. Or Apply only once just after
germination, 2.75 kg of Furadan 3 G (carbofuran) per acre 3-4 cm deep in soil
near the base of the plants followed by light irrigation.
APHID
Aphis gossypii
The pest feeds on cucurbits, cotton, potato, okra, brinjal, tomato, chilli, colocasia,
celery, etc.
Identification :
The adults are yellow to dark green in colour and of about 1.25 mm size possessing
two cornicles near the posterior end of the abdomen. They are normally wingless, but
winged forms appear during summer near the maturity stage of cucurbits. The nymphs
are green to brown in colour.
Damage :
Both adults and nymphs suck sap from the underside of the young leaves in the early
growth stage of cucurbits leading to curling and yellowing of leaves (Pic. 55). They also
secrete honeydew on which black sootymould develops which hinders the photosynthetic
activity of the leaves. Besides, they transmit mosaic viruses in muskmelon, watermelon,
cucumber, vegetable marrow, chillies and tomatoes due to which plants remain stunted
and fail to bear normal fruits. Maximum damage to cucurbits is done during February-
March.
Life History :
The pest starts its activity from the over-wintering eggs in the months of February
when the wingless nymphs and adults are in abundance. Wingless females reproduce
without mating and give rise to 2-3 generation on cucurbits in a period of one month.
During March-April, the winged forms appear which finally migrate to secondary host
plants and remain there till late December. There are several over-lapping generations of
the pest in a year.
Control :
Spray 250 ml of Malathion 50 EC using 100 litres of water per acre as and when the
pest is noticed. If necessary, repeat the spray after 10 days.
FRUIT FLY
Bactrocera cucurbitae
Cucurbit fruit fly is a major pest of all cucurbitaceous vegetables. Besides, it also
infests guava, citrus and peach.
Identification :
The fully developed maggot is 9-10 mm in length, pale white and tapers at one end.
The fly has reddish brown body with transparent and shining wings bearing yellow-
brown streaks. It is 12-15 mm long and possesses a conical abdomen. The eyes and head
are dark brown.
Damage :
The maggots cause serious damage to vines (Pic. 56) and the developing fruits. The
attacked branches dry up as a result of its attack. The attacked fruits, get distorted and
even drop from the creepers. The larvae tunnel the fruit contaminating them with frass
and providing entry points for fungal and bacterial pathogens which causes the fruit to
rot. Infested fruits show mass of white maggots in the pulp of fruit, if dissected (Pic. 57).
Life History :
Adult fly hibernates under the creepers and dry leaves. It become active in March and
starts breeding with the outbreak of rains. The shiny white eggs are laid singly or in
clusters of 4-12 into the flowers, stems of mature/ripening fruits with the help of sharp
ovipositor of female. The eggs hatch in 2-9 days. The young maggots feed on the internal
contents of fruits and become full grown in 3 to 21 days. They come out of the infested
fruit and drop to the ground where they pupate at a depth of 1.5 to 15 cm for 5 to 28 days.
The life cycle is completed in about 15 to 90 days depending upon weather. There are
several generations in a year and the peak period is during June-July.
Control :
1. Collect and destroy infested fruits by burying them deep in the soil.
2. The bait spray of 0.05% Malathion containing 20 ml of Malathion 50 EC plus 200
g gur or sugar dissolved in 20 litres of water should be sprayed at weekly intervals.
Spraying the bait on lower surface of the leaves of maize plants/grown in rows at a
distance of 8-10 meters in cucurbit field is effective as the files have the habit of
resting on such tall plants.
RED SPIDER MITES

Tetranychus spp.
Most common mites which infest vegetable crops in Punjab are two spotted red
spider mite (Tetranchus cinnabarinus Boisd) and red vegetable mite (T. neocaledonicus
Ander). The pest is polyphagous and attacks a wide variety of plants but cucurbits,
brinjal, okra and beans are the most preferred ones.
Identification :
The adult of two spotted mite is light brown or yellowish brown with two dark lateral
spots on the oval body and possesses four pairs of legs as in nymph. However, the newly
hatched larva is slender in shape, straw coloured having only three pairs of legs. The
adult of red vegetable mite is reddish, greyish green or light brown without dark spots.
Nymphs are light brown and have two eye spots and four pairs of legs.
Damage :
Larvae, nymphs and adults of these mites lacerate the leaves from the lower surface
and suck sap resulting in the production of white patches at feeding sites between main
veins (Pic. 58). The infested leaves become yellow and severely mottled which fall of
prematurely. In case of severe attack, intense webbing occurs that invites trapping of dust
particles giving dusty appearance underside of the leaves. The growth of the plant is
hindered and fruit setting reduced.
Life History :
After passing winter as gravid females, mites resume their activity in March and
continue to cause damage till October. In March, the females start laying eggs under
webs. The eggs are hatched in 2-6 days. The larvae are of light green brown colour and
are transformed into nymphs in 3 to 4 days. They are fully fed within 4-9 days after
passing through two stages. The life-cycle is completed in 9-20 days in two spotted red
spider mite and 4 to 10 days in the red vegetable mite. The pest has 32 generations in a
year in Punjab.
Control :
The mites can be controlled by spraying 200 ml of Metasystox 25 EC (oxydemeton-
methyl) or Rogor 30 EC (dimethoate) in 100-125 litres of water.
LEAF MINER
Liriomyza trifolii
This is a polyphagous pest which has earliar limited distribution but now
considered as cosmopolitan pest, known to infest numerous ornamental and vegetable
cops with a host range of 400 plants over the past ten years.
Identification :
The larva (maggot) is pale or yellow coloured cylindrical and changes to brown colour
in the last instar. The anterior end of maggot tapers and the posterior end is truncated. Its
tiny fly adult has a pair of transparent and shining wings.
Damage :
Leaf miner causes heavy leaf mining in leaves (Pic. 59 & 60). Mine location may
vary on upper or lower side of the leaf mesophyll. Mines start from the margins of leaves
and progress towards the base/centre of leaf. Mines are initially narrow and gradually
enlarge often twisting through leaf. Stippling of young seedlings occur. Severe leaf
mining slows down the plant growth and accelerates the leaf drop. Excessive leaf mining,
reduces the photosynthetic activity of foliage and ultimately reduces the crop yield. In
cucurbits and tomato, old leaves gets infested first, dry up and fall down.
Life History :
This pest is active throughout the season. Pupa and adult are able to survive the
freezing temperatures. The mated female punctures leaves either for oviposition or for
feeding. It lays white translucent 100-600 eggs singly or in close proximity in the tubular
leaf tissues on abaxial or adaxial leaf surface. Maximum oviposition occurs at 20-27°C.
Eggs are hatched in 2-8 days. After hatching larvae start feeding in palisade mesophyll of
leaves till their emergence from leaf. The larvae move via peristaltic action of their
hydroskeleton. There are four moults/instars. In case of over crowding, larvae are forced
to complete for resources and they may enter to leaf stalk or main stem of plant. Larval
duration can be as shot as 4-6 days. When larva is ready to pupate, it cuts a semicircular
slit on leaf surface. Larva emerges with characteristic locomotic action and fall down on
ground. Rolling motion forces larva to fall from leaf to the ground surface. Pupation also
occurs on leaf surface, or at base of leaves, stems or stalks. This is more common on
plants with large curled leaves like squash plants. Larvae emerge from leaves during early
day lights before 0800 hrs. Prepupal stage is about 2-4 hrs. Pupal duration varies from 8-
11 days. Adults emerge from dorsal anterior end of puparium and change to adult in
about 45 min. to 3.20 hrs. Adult female flies are larger than males. Females live for 15-20
days and males 10-15 days.
Control :
1. Adults are known to be attracted to yellow cards and with application of adhesive,
those may be very effective monitoring tools. Trap location with respect of crop
influences the number and species of flies captured.
2. The movement and dispersal of adults may be affected by aluminium foil mulches
around tomato and squash plants. This has been shown to reduce the population of
leaf miner, presumably by repelling adult flies.
Minor pests :
The other minor pests on cucurbits are jassids (see under okra), American bollworm
(see under tomato) (Pic. 61), termites and cutworms (see under polyphagous pests).
TOMATO
TOMATO FRUIT BORER
Helicoverpa armigera
It is a polyphagous pest. Besides tomato, it also attacks gram, cotton, peas, chilli,
okra, maize, groundnut, pigeonpea, bean, soybean and large number of ornamental plants.
Identification :
Adult moths are medium sized, stout, brown in colour with a wing span of about 30-
44 cm (Pic. 62). Forewings are live green to pale brown in colour with a dark brown
circular spot in the centre and indistinct double waved antemedial lines. Hind wings are
pale smoky with a broad blackish outer border. The stout caterpillars are greenish or
brownish with longitudinal bands alternatively dark and pale, the pale bands on the lateral
side of the body are conspicuous (Pic. 63). The full grown larva is 40 mm long and has
short fine hair on its body.
Damage :
In the pre-fruiting stage, the caterpillar feeds on tender foliage including leaves,
flowers and buds and the crop gives a perforated look. After fruiting, they bore large,
clear, circular holes into fruits and feed on the pulp (Pics. 64 & 65). Infested fruits
become unfit for consumption. The granular frass of caterpillar is easily seen on the plant
or on the ground.
Life History :
The moths start emerging during February. The female lays about 1000 or more eggs
singly on the tender parts of the host plants (Pic. 66 & 67). Young larvae feed on the
foliage for sometimes and ultimately bore into the fruits. After getting full grown in the
14-24 days, they descend into the soil and pupate (Pic. 68). Life cycle is completed in 4-6
weeks. The pest has 8 generations in year and remains inactive during severe hot and cold
months.
Control :
Give three alternate sprays with any of the following pesticides at fortnight intervals
starting from the initiation of flowering, using 100 litres of water per acre. Use Thiodan
35 EC (endosulfan) 800 ml; Sevin/ Hexavin 50 WP (carbaryl) 800g; Sumicidin 20 EC
(fenvalerate) 100ml; ripcord 10EC (cypermethrin) 200 ml; Decis 2.8 (deltamethrin) 160
ml.
WHITEFLY
Bemisia tabaci
Whitefly is reported from many wild and cultivated host plats in India. In Punjab, it
is a vector of tomato leafcurl virus. It is responsible for the failure of autumn crop of
tomato in the State. It becomes extremely serious during dry season.
Identification :
The adults are tiny winged insects having light yellow body of 1 mm length dusted
with a white waxy bloom (Pic. 69). They have 2 pairs of pure white wings and 3 pairs of
prominent long legs. The nymphs are louse like sluggish creatures, which cluster together
in the under surface of leaves (Pic. 70). The last instar nymph (called pupa) is about 4-7
mm long and red eyes of the adult can be seen through the transparent integument during
this stage (Pic. 71).
Damage :
Both nymphs and adults suck sap from the leaves of the host plants and lowers their
vitality. Tiny white scale like creatures on the underside of leaves are visible. Once the
plant is disturbed, a cloud of tiny adults flutter out and resettle rapidly. Black sootymould
develops on the honeydew excreted by whiteflies on the affected leaves and thus
whiteflies infested plants look sick. It is a vector of viral diseases in okra, tomato, chilli,
etc.
Life History :
This pest breeds throughout the year. The female lays about 100 eggs singly on the
underside of the leaves. The nymphs on emergence move for sometime but soon fix their
mouth parts in the plant tissue and suck the cell sap. Once settled, they do not move. All
nymphal instars are greenish white, oval, scale like and some what spiny. On getting full
grown, they transform into pupae at the same site which ultimately give rise to adults in
about 2-4 weeks. The total life cycle is completed in 14-122 days depending on the
season and there are about 11 generations of the pest in a year.
Control :
Spray 400 ml of Malathion 50 EC in 80-100 litres of water per acre. Repeat the spray
at 10 days interval.
Minor pests :
The other minor pest of tomato is cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover (see under
cucurbits).
BRINJAL
SHOOT AND FRUIT BORER
Leucinodes orbonalis
Brinjal shoot and fruit borer is the most serious pest of brinjal and is also known to
feed on some other solanaceous plants like night shade (Solanum nigrum), shamak
namoli (Solanum xanthocarpum), datura (Datura stramonium) etc. in Punjab.
Identification :
Full grown caterpillar appears light pink from dorsal surface, and measure 18-23 mm
in length (Pic. 72). Head is brown and the forewings of white coloured moth are
ornamented with a number of black, pale and light brown spots (Pic. 73). Apical and anal
margins of wings are fringed with pubescent hair. Thorax and abdomen of moth are also
covered with brown or black spots.
Damage :
The larvae bore into the petioles, mid-ribs of fully grown leaves and tender shoots.
The shoots infested with borer droop downward and dry up causing dead heart like
condition (Pic. 74). With the onset of fruiting, they bore into flower buds and fruits.
Flower buds are normally shed, whereas infested fruits have a varying number of holes.
(Pic. 75).
Life History :
The caterpillars hibernate in the winter and pupate early in the spring (Pic. 76). The
adults emerge in March-April and lay 80-120 creamy white eggs, singly or in batches of
2-4 on the underside of leaves, on stems, flower buds, etc. the young larvae bore into
tender shoots near the growing points and developing fruits. It completes its life cycle in
20-43 days. There are five overlapping generations of this pest in a year. The maximum
activity of pest is during July-September.
Control :
1. Destroy the borer infested shoots and fruits.
2. Avoid rationing and grow tolerant varieties- Punjab Barsati, Punjab Sada Bahar
Baigan, Punjab Jamni Gola, BH - 1 and BH – 2.
3. Transplant crop early in March-April or late in July.
4. As soon as attack starts, give 3-4 alternate sprays with any of the following
insecticides belonging to different groups at 14 days interval using 100-125 litres
of water per acre : 800 ml of Thiodan 35 EC (endosulfan); 800g of Sevin 50 WP
(carbaryl); 200 ml of Ripcord 10 EC (cypermethrin); 160 ml of Decis 2.8 EC
(deltamethrin); 100 ml of Sumicidin 20 EC (fenvalerate); 40 ml of Ambush 50 EC
(permethrin); 800 ml of Ekalux 25 EC (quinalphos); 550 ml of Monocil 36 SL
(monocrophos); 500 ml of Hostathion 40 EC (triazophos).
5. A waiting period of 4 days in case of Ekalux and Hostathion and 7 days for
Monocil should be observed after the spray.
6. Insecticides of the same group should not be used repeatedly in order to avoid the
development of insecticide resistance and appearance of secondary pests.
STEM BORER
Euzopertha perticella
Brinjal stem borer is widely distributed in India. Besides brinjal, it attacks chilli,
potato, tomato and Solanum aviculare.
Identification :
Forewings of moth are pale straw yellow, whereas, the hind wings are whitish. Full
grown caterpillar is creamy white with a few bristles having tapering body towards the
posterior end.
Damage :
The caterpillars attack the main stems at the ground level and tunnel them as a result
of which the affected branches or plants completely wither and dry up (Pic. 77).
Generally infestation can be spotted out only at the fag end of the season.
Life History :
The pest passes winter in larval stage in the stem of old brinjal plant. The moths start
emerging by last week of March and lay 104 to 363 creamy scale-like eggs on the
underside of young leaves, petioles and branches. The young larvae after feeding for a
few minutes on exposed parts of plants, bore into the stems wherein they make
longitudinal tunnels feeding on the pitch. Full grown larvae pupate in silken cocoons
either within the feeding galleries or in cracks and crevices in the soil. The life cycle is
completed in 35-76 days and the pest has 5-6 overlapping generations in a year.
Control :
1. Ratoon crop of brinjal should be avoided.
2. The withered plants should be uprooted and destroyed.
3. Spray insecticides as recommended for the control of shoot and fruit borer.
HADDA BEETLES
Epilachna dodecastigma
E. vigintioctopunctata
E. dumerillii
Hadda beetles feed on brinjal, tomato, potato and cucurbits in vegetable growing
areas of Pujnab.
Identification :
Dark yellow coloured grubs are about 6 mm long, having six rows of strong branched
spines (Pic. 78). Adults of E. dodecastigma are deep copper-coloured and have six spots
on each elytron (Pic. 79). E. vigintioctopunctata are deep copper-coloured and have 14
black spots on each elytron (Pic. 80) E. dumerillii beetles are light copper coloured and
each elytron is provided with six black spots.
Damage :
Both the adults and the grubs are destructive to the crop. The adults feed on the upper
surface of leaves. And eat out regular area of leaf tissues, whereas the grubs feed on
lower surface of leaves. In attacked leaves, all green tissues are eaten away leaving the
epidermis intact, the leaves, thus, present a lace like appearance. They turn brown, dry up
and fall off (Pic. 81 and 82).
Life History :
Beetles pass winter as hibernating adults among heaps of dry plants or in cracks and
crevices in the soil. Beetles resume activity in March-April and lay cigar shaped eggs in
cluster on the underside of leaves (Pic. 83). Eggs hatch within a few days to produce
yellow spiny grubs which feed on green matter of plants and ultimately transform into
dark coloured pupae. The life cycle is completed in 17 days in summer and 50 days in
winter. The pest passes through seven broods from March to October and its peak
infestation is noticed during May-June.
Control :
During early stages of crop growth, spray 250 ml of Malathion 50 EC in 100 litres of
water, at 10 days interval. Later during fruiting stage of crop, the pesticides sprayed
against borers shall also control the Hadda beetles.
LACE-BUG
Urentius hystricellus
Lace-bug is found on brinjal crop in plain areas of north-western parts of India.
Identification :
The nymphs are pale ochraceous and are stoutly built, with grey prominent spines.
The straw coloured bugs measure about 3 mm in length and are black on ventral side. On
the pronotum and the wings, there is a network of markings of the veins.
Damage :
Both adults and nymphs suck the sap from the leaves and the young nymphs can be
seen feeding gregariously on the lower surface of leaves (Pic. 84). The feeding of nymphs
cause yellowish spots and mottling on infested leaves which is conspicuous on the upper
surface of leaves. The kind of mottling is produced as a result of toxic saliva injected by
bugs. Pest is serious during August-September.
Life History :
The pest hibernates in adult stage from November to March in cracks and crevices in
the soil. Hibernating adults become active in April and lay 35-44 shining whit nipple
shaped eggs singly on the underside of the leaves. The eggs hatch in 3-12 days. The
nymphs become adults in 10-23 days which may live for 40 days. The insect produces 8
overlapping generations in a year.
Control :
Spray 250 ml of Malathion 50 EC at 10 days interval as soon as the attack appears
using 100 litres of water per acre. The pesticides used for the control of borers during
fruiting stage shall also control this pest.
LEAF ROLLER
Eublema olivacea
Brinjal leaf roller mainly attacks the brinjal crop in the vegetables growing areas of
the Punjab. Besides, it infested other wild solanaceous plants.
Identification :
The moths are medium sized having a wing span of 4 cm and forewings are white with
olive-green tinge. The caterpillars when full grown, are beautiful purple brown with
yellow spots and are usually found in rolled up leaves (Pic. 85).
Damage :
Brinjal leaves wither and dry up as result of severe feeding by caterpillars. The larvae roll
up the leaves and feed on green matter while remaining inside the folds, ultimately the
folded leaves also wither (Pic. 86).
Life History :
The female lays eggs on leaves. The eggs hatch in 3-5 days. After emerging, the
young caterpillars fold the leaves from the tip upwards and feed on the green matter by
remaining inside the folds. Full grown caterpillars pupate inside the folds of the leaves
and ultimately adults emerge out.
Control :
Remove rolled up leaves and destroy them. Chemical control measures are same as in
brinjal shoot and fruit borer.
Other pests :
The other pests which attack brinjal are jassid, where plants become pale and finally
bronze (Pic. 87) (see under okra); aphid (see under cucurbits); whitefly (Pics. 88 & 89)
(see under tomato) and spider mites (Pic. 90) (see under cucurbits).
OKRA (BHINDI)
JASSID
Amrasca biguttula biguttula
In Punjab, jassid is most destructive pest of many plants including okra, brinjal,
potato, cotton, castor and wild malvaceous plants.
Identification :
The adult is wedge shaped and pale green (summer)/reddish brown (winter) and is of
about 3 mm length having a black dot on the posterior end of each semi transparent
forewing. The wings generally extend beyond the abdomen. Adults hop and fly quickly.
The nymphs are wingless, pale green, wedge shaped and possess wing pads extended up
to fifth abdominal segment (Pic. 91). Nymphs walk diagonally when disturbed.
Damage :
Both nymphs and adults suck plant sap and inject phyto-toxic saliva into leaves.
Initially the feeding results in marginal yellowing of the leaves followed by curling
(cupping) and reddening (Pic. 92). Finally, due to intense hopperburn, defoliation occurs
and the plant may totally be denuded of leaves.
Life History :
The pest is active throughout the year, but in winter only adults are found on plants
such as tomato, brinjal, potato, etc. in spring, they migrate to okra. The female lays 60
eggs on the underside of the leaves embedded in one of the large leaf veins or leaf stalks.
The nymphs hatching out of the eggs, suck cell sap and transform into winged adults after
passing through five nymphal instars. The life cycle is completed in 15-45 days
depending on the season and there are 10-12 generations in a year.
Control :
1. In early stages before flowering, spray the crop once or twice at fortnightly
interval with 500 ml of Malathion 50 EC in 100-125 litres of water per acre. After
flowering, apply the insecticides as recommended for the control of fruit borer.
2. For seed crop apply 8 kg of Thimet 10 G (phorate) per acre at sowing or give 2
sprays at fortnightly interval starting 15 days after sowing with 250 ml of Rogor
30 EC (dimethoate) in 100-125 litres of water and thereafter (45-days-old crop),
use insecticides as given under fruit borer.
FRUIT BORER
Earias insulana
E. vittella
Both the species of fruit-borer are serious pests of okra in Punjab. They also feed
on cotton, hollyhock and many ornamental plants and weeds.
Identification :
The adults of E. vittella have white forewings with a greenish wedge shaped band in
the middle, 19-24 mm wing span and yellow head and thorax (Pic. 93). The adult of E.
insulana larva is greenish, spindle shaped, hairy, and black spotted. Prothorax has orange
tinged spots. Abdominal and the posterior two thoracic segments bear two pairs of
tubercles per segment due to which it is also called spiny bollworm. Distinct yellow spots
at the base of thoracic tubercles are prominent, whereas, in the larva of E. vittella, there is
a brownish and white mid dorsal stripe but without finger like stout tubercles (Pic. 94).
Damage :
In the pre-fruiting stage of the crop, the caterpillars bore into the soft terminal shoots
which wither and droop downwards (Pic. 95). When the flowers, buds and fruits appear,
the caterpillars eat out conspicuous holes into them (Pic. 96). These holes are generally
filled with excretory pallets. The attacked fruits become distorted, deform and are
rendered unfit for human consumption.
Life History :
The pest is active from April to October. The moths appear in April and lay eggs
singly on flower buds, brackets, tender leaves, fruits and other plant parts. Newly hatched
caterpillars bore into tender shoots, flower buds of fruits where they feed in concealment.
The pupation takes place under fallen buds, leaves, or in soil at 5-25 cm depth (Pic. 97).
The life cycle is completed in 17-19 days depending on the season. There are 7-8
generations of the pest in a year. The peak population is during July-August.
Control :
1. Edible crop : At initiation of flowering, give three sprays with 500g of
Sevin/Hexavin 50WP (carbaryl) or 350 ml Thiodan 35 EC (endosulfan) or 100 ml
Sumicidin 20 EC (fenvalerate) or 80 ml of Cymbush 25 EC (cypermethrin) or 160
ml of Decis 2.8 (deltamethrin) in 100-125 litres of water per acre.
2. Seed crop : After 45 days of sowing, give two sprays at 15 days interval of 425
ml Sumithion/Folithion/Accothion 50 EC (fenitrothion) or 400 ml of Nuvacron 36
SL (monocrotophos) or 80 ml of Cymbush 25 EC (cypermethrin) or 100 ml of
sumicidin 20 EC (fenvalerate) or 160 ml Decis 2.8 EC (deltamethrin) in 100-125
litres of water per acre.
Minor pests :
The other minor pests of okra are aphid (see under cucurbits); Whitefly (see under
tomato) and mites (see under cucurbits).
CHILLI & CAPSICUM

MITE
Polyphagotarsonemus latus
This pest is observed feeding and breeding on 44 plant species including chillies.
Identification :
Younger female mites are initially transparent and then turn yellow, dusky white strip
appears on mid dorsal surface of idiosoma. Males are elongated and light yellow in
colour. Adult females are comparatively larger than the males. Posterior end of female is
broader while in males, it is pointed. Larvae are oval shaped and milky white in
appearance and have three pairs of legs. The full grown larvae are lighter in colour.
Quiescent stage of mite is transparent, shinny and pointed at both ends.
Damage :
Mites prefer to feed and breed on the underside of young growing leaves. As a result
of feeding, leaves became elongated, strap shaped and curled downward and lower
surface appears slivery shinny (Pic. 98 & 99). Whereas, the upper surface of leaves look
more dark green as compared to healthy ones.
Life History :
Female lays eggs preferably on underside of leaves, tender twigs and flower buds of
chilli. Eggs hatched out in about 2 days at 22-27° C. Larval stage lasts for about 1-2 days.
Subsequently, the larvae enter quiescent stage which normally lasts for 18 hrs. to 1-2
days. Development of mite is faster at 27.5°C. Fecundity is maximum at 22.5°C.
Unfertilized females produce only male off springs, but fertilized female produce both
males and females. Mite population appears from March to September.
Control :
Same as in cucurbit mites.
CHILLI THRIPS
Scirtothrips dorsalis
This is a polyphagous pest having a wide range of host plants. Two other trips viz.
groundnut thrip, Caliothrips indicus (Bagnall) and blossom thrip Frankliniella schultzei
(Trybom) have also been reported infesting the leaves and flowers of chilli, respectively.
Both the species are polyphagous.
Identification :
Nymphs and adults are tiny, slender, fragile, yellowish straw coloured. Adults have
heavily fringed wings that are uniformily grey in colour.
Damage :
Both nymphs and adults of chilli thrips lacerate the leaf and imbibe the oozing sap.
Some times even buds and flowers are also attacked. Tender leaves and growing shoots
are preferred for feeding, while the older leaves are rarely attacked. The infested leaves
start curling and crumbling and ultimately shed (Fig. 100). Whereas, buds become brittle
and drop down. If there are no rains, the entire plant may dry up and wither away. A
severe infestation by groundnut thrips results in the formation of silvery sheen on
underside of the leaves while the infestation by blossom thrips causes drying and
premature shedding of flowers.
Life History :
Minute and dirty white eggs are laid on or just under the leaf tissues. A female, on an
average lays 100 eggs @ 2-4 eggs per day. On emergence, nymphs and adults start
feeding by lacerating leaf tissues. Reproduction is both sexual and parthenogenetic. In
case of sexual reproduction, oviposition period lasts for a month. Life cycle is completed
in 14-17 days. There are 25 overlapping generations of this pest in a year.
Control :
Control measures are same as in Chilli mite.
APHIDS
Many aphid species like Aphis gossypii (Pic. 101 A) Glover, A spiraecola (Patch,)
A. craccivora (Koch), A. fabae (Scopoli), A. tumbrella, Myzus persicae (Sulzer),
Acyrthosiphum pisum (Harris), Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) and Rhopalosiphum
padi, suck plant sap (for control see under cucurbits).
The other pests which attack chilli/capsicum are Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Pic. 101 B)
(see under tomato), Cut worms, Agrotis spp, (see under polyphagous pests), Termites,
Microtermes spp (see under polyphagous pests), Pod borers, like tobacco caterpillar and
tomato fruit borer (Pic. 101) (see under tomato and polyphahous pests.).
ONION
THRIPS
Thrips tabaci
The onion thrips attack mainly onion and garlic but may also appear on other crops
such as Brassica, cucurbits, peas, tomato, potato, cotton, sugarbeet and tobacco, etc.
Identification :
The adult are yellow brown with dark transverse bands across the thorax and abdomen
and about 1 mm long. The males are wingless while females have long narrow strap like
wings, which have long hairs on the hind margins. The nymphs, which in general
resemble the adults, are wingless and slightly smaller.
Damage :
Both nymphs and adult rasp the epidermis of tender leaves and imbibe the oozing sap.
As a result of rasping of sap, the leaves develop numerous white specks (Pic. 102).
Heavily infested leaves curl up and get distorted and ultimately the top of attacked plants
wither away – a condition called as silver top (Pic. 103). The pest is also serious at
flowering stage of seed crop and impairs seed formation. Maximum damage is caused
during February-May.
Life History :
The pest is active throughout the year but appears on onion and garlic during
November. The maximum population of onion thrips is found during February-May. The
female lays 50-60 eggs singly in slits that are cut in the leaf tissues with the help of
ovipositor. After hatching, white or yellow nymphs moult twice in about five days.
Nymphs are present in large numbers at the bases of leaves. Pupation takes place in the
soil and insect remains in pupal stage for 4-7 days. The life cycle is completed in 2-3
weeks. There are 5-10 generations of this pest in a year.
Control :
Spray 250 ml Malathion 50EC in 80 litres of water per acre as soon as the pest
appears. Repeat the application if necessary after 15 days.
MAGGOT
Delia antique
Onion maggot attacks onion, okra, muskmelon and spongegourd.
Identification :
The greyish-body coloured slender fly measures about 6 mm in length. Its maggots are
white legless, tapering at one end and 8 mm long.
Damage :
The attacked plants become flabby and yellowish. The leaves of the infested plant turn
brown from tip downwards. The bulb and the base of the leaves become flaccid and
watery and contain maggots (Pic. 104). The maggots eat out the small bulbs completely
leaving only outer sheath, whereas the larger bulbs are attacked by many larvae which
make cavities in them. The infested bulbs rot in storage due to bacterial infection.
Life History :
The fly appears in serious from in onion fields during January-February. The female
lays eggs at the base of plant or in cracks in the soil. The white maggots enter inside leaf
sheath and bore through the underground stem into the bulb. These maggots become fully
within 14-21 days. Pupation takes place in the soil. Total life cycle is completed in 4-6
weeks. There are 2-3 generations of this pest in a year.
Control :
Apply 4 kg of Sevin 4G (carbaryl) or Lindane 6 G (gamma-BHC) or Thimet 10G
(phorate) in soil as the attack appears. Give light irrigation immediately after application
of granules.
Other pests :
Cut worms also cause damage to onion by making feeding holes into bulbs and
leading to wilting of crop (see under polyphagous pests).
STEM FLY
Ophiomyia phaseoli
Pea stem fly causes serious damage to early sown pea crop in Punjab. In addition to
peas, this pest also feeds on soybean, green gram, black gram and cowpea.
Identification :
Metallic blackfly measures 2 mm in length. Its wings are almost transparent. Full
grown white maggot is 4 mm long.
Damage :
The infested plants turn yellow, stunted and often completely wilted. In the initial
stage, firs two leaves turn yellow and drop, often mistaken with nitrogen deficiency
Subsequently stem just above soil surface are thickened and usually cracked. (Pic. 105).
Life History :
Stem fly resumes its activity from mid – February. During May and June, the
population of pea stem fly decreases. Again, its number increases in monsoon and is
highest during August-September, decreasing in the winter months. The female lays 14-
70 eggs usually on the lower surface in the tissues of the leaves and stems with help of its
ovipositor. The newly hatched larva mine the leaf, side branch of the stem of the plant.
The full grown larva makes an exit hole in the stem for emergence of adult. The pupation
occurs in the underground portion of the stem or a side branch. There are 8-9 generation
of the pea stem fly in a year. The winter is passed in pupal stage.
Control :
1. Sow the crop in the second fortnight of October to escape the attack of pea stem
fly.
2. Remove and destroy the affected branches during the initial stage of attack.
3. Apply 3 kg of Thimet 10 G (phorate) or 10 kg of Furadan 3G (carbofuran)
granules per acre in furrows at sowing.
LEAF MINER
Chromatomyia horticola
Pea leaf-miner has been recorded on more than 105 host plants but is a pest of pea,
mustard, cauliflower, cabbage, knolkhol, turnip, radish, safflower, lentil, berseem,
hollyhock, barley, carrot, potato, linseed, poppy, etc.
Identification :
The full grown larva is yellowish green in colour and measures 3 mm in length. It
tapers towards the anterior end and bluntly rounded from the posterior end. Tiny fly is
greyish black with a pair of transparent shining wings.
Damage :
The larvae feed on epidermis by making prominent whitish zig-zag tunnels in the
leaves (Pic. 106 & 107). Usually, the mine starts from the periphery and terminates
towards mid-rib and harbours one larva. The attacked leaves wither and dry up. The
flowering and fruiting of the infested crop is reduced as the tunnels interfere with
photosynthesis. Maximum damage is done between December to March.
Life History :
The pest is generally active from December to May. The mated female fly
punctures the leaf with the ovipositor either for feeding on the plant juice or for
oviposition. It lays 329 to 360 oval elongated eggs close to one another into the leaf
tissues. The eggs are hatched in 2 to 3 days. The larval period ranges form 5 to 12 days. It
pupates in the larval mine for 7 to 15 days (Pic. 108). The summer and autumn are passed
in the pupal stage. Pea leaf miner has 4 to 5 generations in a year.
Control :
Pea leaf-miner can be checked by spraying 400 ml of Rogor 30 EC (dimethoate) in
80-100 litres of water per acre as soon as attack starts Repeat spray at 15 days interval, if
necessary.
LINTIL POD BORER

Etiella zinckenella
It is a serious pest of green pea, cowpea, pigeonpea, lima bean, horse gram and
lentil in Northern India. It also feeds on a variety of other pulses.
Identification :
The moth is greyish brown with a pale white band on each of the forewings. Head
possesses downwardly deflected snout. Besides, the forewings have dark marginal lines
and are interspersed with scales. The full grown larvae are rosy, with a purplish tinge.
Damage :
The greenish caterpillars enter the pods and eat away the young developing seeds (Pic.
109). There could be 1-2 larvae in a pod. The larvae feed on blossoms causing them to
drop on the soil.
Life History :
The moths emerge in February-March and are nocturnal. The eggs are laid both singly
and in clusters on various parts of the plant including the developing pods. The eggs
hatch in 5 days. The newly emerged larvae feed on floral parts and then bore into the
pods. The larval stage is completed in 10-27 days. Pupation takes place in soil and is
completed in 10-15 days. The total life cycle is completed in 22-24 days during active
season. The pest breeds throughout the year and passes through 5 generations.
Control :
Spray 300 ml Thiodan 35 EC (endosulfan) or 900 g Sevin 50 WP (carbaryl) in 80-100
litres of water per acre at two weeks intervals stating from intiation of pod formation.
Note : Some other species like tomato fruit borer Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Pic.
110 & 111) and pea blue butterfly Lampides boeticus (Linn) also attack peas and can be
controlled as in case of pea-pod borer.
Minor pests
Other minor pests of peas are Thrips, Caliothrips indicus (Bagnall) and aphid,
Acyrthosiphom pisum.
POTATO
APHID
Myzus persicae
During winter and spring season, the potato crop is attacked by various aphid
species like M. persicae, Aphis gossypii and A. fabae. Of these, M. persicae, causes
serious damage to potato crop by transmitting viral diseases.
Identification :
Both nymphs and wingless adults are agile and shining green in colour. Winged adult
has black body with transparent wings.
Damage :
Aphids suck sap of plants, as a result of which leaves curl and dry up (Pic. 112).
Aphid excrete shoneydew on which black sootymould develops which reduces the
photosynthetic activity of plants. The pest also transmits various viral disease like leaf
roll virus, virus Y and virus A to potato plants. These viruses may cause heavy reduction
in the yield, besides the degeneration of the seed stocks.
Life History :
The pest passes winter in egg stage under the bark of Prunus spp. (peach, plum,
apricot, etc.). During flowering season, the nymphs come out of eggs and are transformed
into wingless adults within a few days. They breed for two generations on the same host
plants and in December, the aphids start appearing on potato crop and remain there till
ends of march. With the rise of temperature, winged forms are produced which migrate
again to primary host plants.
Control :
1. Spray 300 ml of Metasystox 25 EC (oxydemeton methyl) or 200 ml of Rogor 30
EC (dimethoate) in 100 litres of water per acre.
2. In case of seed crop, apply 5 kg of Thimet 10G (phorate) in the soil at the time of
first earthing up.
JASSID
Amrasca biguttula biguttula
For identification and life history (see under okra)
Damage :
Both nymphs and adults of jassid suck plant sap as result of their severe attack, the
leaves curl, turn pale, bronze and dry up (Pic. 113) resulting in hopper burn.
Control :
Spray the crop with 300 ml of Rogor 30 EC (dimethoate) or Metasystox 25 EC
(oxydemeton methyl) in 80-100 litres of water per acre. If necessary, repeat the spray
after 10 days.
CRUCIFERS
HEAD BORER
Hellula undalis
This pest is commonly found infesting on early grown cruciferous vegetables like
cabbage, cauliflower, radish, knol-khol, turnip, mustard and beet in Punjab.
Identification :
The full grown larva is 14-16 mm long creamy yellow with a pinkish tinge and
possesses five distinct pinkish brown longitudinal stripes. The moth is greyish brown,
forewings have many grey markings and hind wings pale dusky.
Damage :
The young larvae mine the leaves mostly by side veins. The mines are whitish in
colour having larval excreta. The older larvae bore into the central shoot and growing
point of the plant is killed rendering it unable to bear the flower-head. (Pic. 114). A badly
damaged plant show many tunnels in cauliflower head and stem. The infested heads rot
and produce foul smell. The pest is serious on young plants in the nursery and field.
Life History :
The stem borer is serious on cauliflower and cabbage during July-August. Adult lays
125-150 pinkish oval eggs mostly on the under surface of leaves and occasionally on the
shoots and tender stems. The larvae hatch from eggs in 2-3 days. The larvae are fully fed
in 7-12 days. The larva pupates generally in the soil and sometimes also within the stem.
The adults emerge in 6 to 10 days. Total life-cycle is completed in 21-28 days.
Control :
Stem borer can be controlled by spraying 100 ml of Thiodan 35 EC (endosulfan) or
150 g of Sevin/Hexavin 50 WP (carbaryl) in 50-60 litres of water per acre. Repeat the
spray after 10 days, if necessary. Avoid transplanting nursery plants with killed central
shoots by the borer.
DIAMOND BACK MOTH

Plutella xylostella
The pest is widely distributed in India and attacks food plants like cauliflower,
cabbage, mustard, rapeseed, radish and turnip.
Identification :
Larva is greyish-green with spindle shaped body (tapering at both ends) covered with
black scattered airs all over. Larva either wriggles actively or drops down with a silken
thread produced from the mouth, when disturbed. The adult moth has light-brown
forewings. Each of these wings has three conspicuous yellowish-white spots on the
forewings which appear like diamond pattern, when in repose. These patterns are bright
in males and appear dusky in females.
Damage :
Young larvae feed in mines on lower surface of leaves of cruciferous plants and later
on found exposed on the leaves. The larval feeding on the leaves leave intact parchment
like epidermis. Besides, they produce shot holes in leaves (Pics 115 & 116). The growth
of the young plants is greatly inhibited. Maximum damage is caused during August-
September.
Life History :
Diamond back moth is active throughout the year. Yellowish eggs of the size of pin-
heads are laid singly or in batches of 2-40 on the underside of leaves. The larva becomes
full grown in 8-17 days. They pupate in silken cocoons attached to the leaf surface. The
life cycle is completed in 5-18 days during September-October. It passes through 8-12
generations in a year and is most serious in August-September and again during
February-March.
Control :
Spray the crop with 200-400 ml of Ekalux 25 EC (quinalphos), or Thiodan 35 EC
(endosulfan), or Diptrex 50 EC (trichlorophon) or 125-250 ml of Basudin 20EC
(diazinon) or 100 ml of Sumicidin 20 EC (fenvalerate) in 80-100 litres of water per acre.
Repeat the spray after 10 days.
CABBAGE CATERPILLAR
Pieris brassicae
The cabbage caterpillar is a serious pest of cabbage, cauliflower, knoll-khol, turnip,
sarson, raya, radish and toria.
Identification :
Full grown larvae are greenish yellow and measure 40-50 mm in length. The head is
black and the dorsum is marked with black spots (Pic. 117). The wings of butterflies are
pale white, with a black patch on the apical angle of each forewing and a black spot on
the coastal margin of each hind wing. The females have tow black circular dots on the
dorsal side of each forewing. The males have back spots on the underside of each
forewing (Pic. 118).
Damage :
The young caterpillars scrape the leaf surface, whereas older larvae eat up leaves from
the margins inwards, leaving intact the main veins (Pic. 119 and 120). They also bore
holes into cabbage heads and foul them with excretory pallets.
Life History :
The pest is migratory in habit, summer is passed in hills (April-October) while in
winter it causes damage to cabbage crop in plains. The pest appears in October and
remains active up to April. Yellow conical eggs numbering 200 are laid in clusters on the
leaf. The eggs hatch in 3-17 days. The larval period is complete in 15-40 days. Pupation
occurs on the adjoining hedges, bushes and trees but rarely on a plant (Pic. 121) the
cabbage butterfly has four generations during its active period in plains and the pest is
serious during December-April.
Control :
1. The leaves having egg masses and larvae in the gregarious phase can be plucked
and destroyed.
2. Chemical control measures are same as for diamond back moth. Spot application
can be done, in case the attack is localized on isolated plants.
CABBAGE SEMI LOOPERS
Thysanoplusia orichalcea
Autographa nigrisigna
Identification :
The adults of T. orichalcea are light brown with a large golden patch on each of the
fore-wings. The moth of A. nigrisigna are darker and have dark brown dirty-white
patches on the forewings. The larvae are plump and pale green (Pic. 122). They move by
forming semi-loops.
Damage :
The caterpillar is the destructive stage. They feed on leaves by biting holes of varying
sizes. The complete defoliation of plant is possible during severe infestation.
Life History :
The pest remains active during winter and spring seasons, whereas it is unknown how
they survive the heat of summer. The moth lays about 400 eggs on the leaves. After
hatching, the semi-loppers feed voraciously and pupate inside the folded eaves or in the
debris lying on the ground. During its active period, the life cycle is generally completed
in 30 days, but it may be prolonged depending upon the weather conditions. The pest is
serious during February-March.
Control :
Control measure are same as for cabbage caterpillar.
PAINTED BUG
Bagrada hilaris
The painted bug attacks cruciferous crops and vegetables in the Punjab.
Identification :
The nymphs are black with a number of brown markings on the body, whereas, the
adults are about 7 mm long appear typically shield shaped with a mixture of black, white
and orange markings (Pic. 123).
Damage :
Both the nymphs and adults suck cell sap from the foliage. Whitish marking appear on
the infested leaves (Pic. 124). The leaves wilt and dry up. Young plants often die
completely.
Life History :
The pest is active throughout the year from February to December except May-June
when the bugs aestivate in the cracks and crevices of soil. It passes winter in the adult
stage under harvested heaps of dried oilseed plants lying in the fields. The female lays
more than 100 pale-yellow eggs singly or in groups of 3-8 eggs in the soil or on leaves.
There are five nymphal instars, which take 2-3 weeks for development the life-cycle is
completed in 19-54 days in the active season. There are 9 generations of this pest in a
year and the pest is more serious during February-March in field and July-August in
nursery.
Control :
The bugs can be checked by spraying 400 ml of Malathion 50 EC in 80 litres of water
per acre immediately on the appearance of this pest.
MUSTARD APHID
Lipaphis erysimi
There main species of aphids i.e. Brevicoryne brassicae, Lipaphis erysimi and
Myzus persicae are found attacking cruciferous vegetables including cabbage,
cauliflower, knol-khol, chinese cabbage, radish and turnip, etc. of these, L. erysimi is the
most common and has world wide distribution.
Identification :
Both nymphs and wingless adults are louse like and pale-green in colour. Besides,
adult aphid (apterous) is olive green and plumpy, dorsum with two longitudinal rows of
coarsely reticulated shining areas. Cornicles on of 5-6 abdominal segment are present.
Whereas, in a late adult, had and thorax are black, abdomen is provided with blackish
lateral areas and transparent wings.
Damage :
The damage is caused by nymphs and adults by sucking cell-sap from the leaves,
tender shoots, stems, inflorescence or the developing pods (Pics. 125 & 126). Leaves
acquire a curly appearance, the flowers fail to form pods and the developing pods do not
produce healthy seeds.
Life History :
L. erysimi is most abundant in winter from December to March on its various host
plants. During summer, it is believed to emigrate to the hills and also survive on
cruciferous weeds in the plains. The pest breeds parthenogenetically and the female gives
birth to 26-133 nymphs. Nymphs attain the adult status in about 7-10 days. About 45
generations are completed in a year.
Control :
Spray 250-500 ml of Malathion 50EC or 100-350 ml of Thiodan 35 EC (endosulfan)
in 80-100 litres of water. Repeat the spray at 10 days interval if necessary.
Other insect pests

The other insects which attack cruciferous vegetables include tobacco caterpillar and
cutworms (see under polyphagous pests).
POLYPHAGOUS PESTS
CUTWORMS
Agrotis ipsilon
Agrotis segetum
Cutworms are serious pests of potato crop but may also appear on tomato, okra,
brinjal, chilli, cucurbits, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, mustard, peas, turnip, onion and
any other cruciferous vegetables.
Identification :
The dark brown larva with a red head has a smooth and greasy skin and measures 25-
30 mm in length (Pic. 127). Forewings of adult moth are dirty brown with a characteristic
marking. The hind-wings are usually whitish and semi transparent (Pic. 128).
Damage :
Larvae cause damage by cutting the young plants at the ground level or by making
feeding holes into the tubers of potato, onion, etc. (Pics. 129 & 130). The larvae may
carry the cut portion of plants into their burrows. It inflicts heavy damage to the spring
sown potato crop. They are more active during night.
Life History :
The pest breeds on potato and gram from September to March. The female moth lays
35-1775 eggs singly or in batches of up to 30 eggs on the underside of lower leaves. The
eggs hatch in 2 to 13 days. The larva becomes full grown in about a month. It pupates in
the soil in an earthen cell and the adult emerges in 10-30 days. The life cycle is completed
in 42-70 days and there are 3-4 generations in a year in the plains. This pest is reported to
aestivate as a moth during summer and the attack is most serious during February-March.
Control :
Drench the soil with a sprinkling cane around the plant and the ridges with
chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 1 litre/acre in 400 litres of water on the appearance of this pest in
January-February
TOBACCO CATERPILLAR
Spodoptera litura
This pest is wide spread in India. Besides tobacco, it feeds on cabbage, cauliflower,
pea, cowpea, potato, tomato, cotton, groundnut, legumes, millets, soybean, maize, chilli
and castor.
Identification :
The caterpillars are stout, cylindrical, velvety black, 35-40 mm long with yellowish
green dorsal stripes and lateral white bands (Pic. 131). The moth is dark coloured with
white-wavy markings on the forewings. Hind wings are whitish in colour with brown
margins. It measures about 22 mm in wing expanse.
Damage :
The young larvae first feed gregariously and scrape the leaves (Pic. 132) and later on
they spread out in the field and may completely defoliate plants (Pic. 133). The pest
causes maximum damage during August to October.
Life History :
The pest breeds throughout the year, but its activity is reduced during severe winter.
The female moth lays 300 eggs in clusters on the underside of the tender leaves which are
covered with a tuft of brown hairs. These eggs hatch in about 3-5 days. Larval period is
completed in 15-30 days. Pupation takes place in the soil for 7-15 days. The life cycle is
completed in 32-60 days. The pest has eight generations in a year.
Control :
The leaves having egg masses and larvae in the gregarious phase can be plucked and
destroyed. Spray 200-400 ml of Ekalux 25 EC (quinalphos) or Thiodan 35 EC
(endosulfan) or Dipterex 50 EC (trichlorophon) in 80-100 litres of water per acre. Spot
application can be done, in case the attack is localized in isolated plants.
TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS
Microtermes obesi
Odontotermes obsesus
Trinvervitermes biformis
Termites, also commonly called white ants, are soft-bodies social insects. There are
sub-terranean and mound forming species of termites. In a colony, there are numerous
workers, soldiers and a queen, a king and a good number winged sexual of both sexes
formed seasonally
Identification :
The queen (5-10 cm in length and about 1 cm in the thickness) is the biggest in size of
all members of the colony. Head is oval, wings are shed off, abdomen large with
transverse dark brown stripes (terga) and the whitish area uniting the terga is the stretched
inter segmental membrane. The king is much smaller than the queen, but is bigger than
the soldiers and workers. In king, the abdominal sterum backwardly protruded to form the
subgenital plate which covers the vestigial genitalia. Soldiers may be mandibulate with
long and sickle shaped mandibles or nasutiform with syringe like mouth used for defense
by spraying defensive chemicals. On the other hand, worker has oval head, whitish
moniliform antennae and thin and soft cuticle (Pic. 134). Workers normally avoid light
and their body shrivel up quickly when exposed outside.
Damage :
Damage is caused by the feeding and foraging activities of the workers which cut
tunnel into plants, especially seedlings. In chillies and peas, the workers of termite feed
on roots, and make galleries into the underground portion of stems. As a result of which
the plants wilt, leaves turn yellow, and ultimately dry up (Pic. 135). If such plants are
completely uprooted, the soil will be found filled in channels/galleries.
Life History :
Termites are social insects and live in colonies. Eggs are laid by the queen in the royal
chamber and, in many cases, are removed by the workers and placed in the fungus grown
in the colony for food. A queen may lay eggs at the rate of 30,000 eggs per day during the
life span of 6-9 years. In the summer, the eggs may hatch in about a week and within 6
months, the nymphs develop to form soldiers or workers. The reproductive castes when
produced are winged. During the evenings after the first showers of rain, the winged
males and females fly up in the sky in thousands, fall down as pair on the ground where
they mate, burrow a new nest and start new colonies.
Control :
1. Keep fields clean of all refuse vegetation.
2. Avoid the use of green or farm yard manure in partially rotten conditions.
BIHAR HAIRY CATERPILLAR

Spilosoma obliqua
The bihar hairy caterpillar is a sporadic pest and causes serious damage particularly
to cruciferous vegetables, sesamum, mash, mung, linseed, mustard, etc.
Identification :
Newly hatched larva has bright brown head, yellowish body covered with numerous
hair and measures about 40-45 mm in length. Legs are brownish in colour, whereas, older
larvae are much darker and have numerous dark brown hairs of almost uniform length.
The ventral side of body and head are dull yellow in moths. The eyes, thorax and
antennae are black. Abdomen is bright red with dorsal median series of black dots.
Forewings with redish tinge and hind wings are provided with dark brown spot. Antennae
are bipectinate in male and pectinate in female moth.
Damage :
Caterpillars eat leaves and soft portions of stems and branches (Pic. 136). In case of
severe infestation, the leaves are skeletonized and the plants may be completely
defoliated.
Life History :
The pest breeds from March to April and from July to November. It passes cold winter
months and the hot summer months in the pupal stage hidden in plants debris or in the
soil. The moths emerge in March and start laying 400-1500 light green spherical eggs in
clusters on the underside of leaves. The eggs hatch in 8-13 days. The young caterpillars
feed gregariously on leaves. Later, they disperse and feed voraciously. After feeding for
4-8 weeks, they pupate for 7-15 days. The life cycle is completed in 35-42 days during
the summer and 70-84 days during the winter. The pest has 3-4 generations in a year.
Control :
1. Collect the leaves infested with young gregarious caterpillars and destroy them.
2. Young caterpillars can be killed by applying 10 kg of Malathion/Trichlorophon
5% dust per acre.
3. The grown up caterpillars should be destroyed by spraying 500 ml of Thiodan 35
EC (endosulfan) or 375 ml of Diptrex 50 EC (trichlorophon) or 200 ml of Nuvan
100 EC (dichlorovos) using 80-125 litres of water per acre.
WEEDS
Vegetables are the integral part of the human diet. These crops are cultivated on a
sizeable area in the state and being slow-growing during the initial stages of growth are
badly infested by the weeds which inflict heavy losses in the yield. Moreover, the
growing conditions especially wider two spacing, frequent irrigation and the addition of
farm yard manure/compost add to the intensity of different categories of weeds growing
in association with these crops. Some of the weeds species develop a specific association
with the vegetable crops because of their continuous cultivation over years. Since last
many decades, the removal of weeds in these crops with the manual weeding/hoeing has
become a common practice with the vegetable growers. Because of the prevailing field
conditions, particularly soil moisture, most of the weeds escape removal and produce
enormous seeds and hence continue to appear in the same field year after year. In some of
the vegetable crops weeds not only reduce the yield but also affect the quality of these
crops. Hence the timely removal of weeds in vegetable crops is quite important in order
to produce the desired quantity and the quality of these crops. The use of herbicides has
become quite popular with the farmers because of cost-effectiveness and the timely
control of weeds in vegetable crops. The following weed management practices are
recommended in different vegetable crops to attain the potential yield of these crops.
Weed management in Kharif vegetables with the use of herbicides :

Okra :
This crop being a rainy-season crop is badly infested with different weeds including
Madhana (Eleusine aegyptiacum), Chirian da dana (Eragrostis tennela), Chulai
(Amaranthus viridis), Bhakhra (Tribulus terrestris), Itsit (Trianthema portulacastrum),
Tandla (Digera arvensis), Motha (Cyprus rotundus) etc. These weeds if not controlled
timely, cause heavy loss in the yield. Pre-emergence application of Lasso (alachlor) at 5
L/ha in 500 litres of water sprayed with knap sack sprayer fitted with flat fan/flood jet
nozzle can help controlling the weeds from the corp. Also the pre-plant application of
Basalin (fluchloralin) at 2.5 L/ha in 500 litres of water can be used to control annual
weeds in this crop. In order to ensure good control of weeds uniform application of the
herbicide may be ensured.
Onion (rabi) :
This crop is infested by various type of weeds flora including Maina (Medicago
denticulata), Bathu (Chenopodium album), Ghuien (Poa annua) Chirian da dana
(Eragrostis tenella), Lunak (Portulaca oleracea) and in latter stages even It sit
(Trianthema protulacartrum). Weeds appear in a rank growth slow growing in nature and
cannot withstand the weed competition and thus sometimes the crop is completely
smothered by the weeds if not timely removed. The rabi crop of onion can be sprayed
with Stomp 30 EC (pendimethalin) at 1.0 kg/acre or 750 ml as pre-emergence. After the
transplanting of the seedling in the field followed by irrigation. Stomp can be sprayed by
dissolving the field is having proper moisture in 150-200 litres of water/acre when the
field is having proper moisture (watter). In order to get uniform spray over the entire field
it is necessary to use flat fan or flood jet nozzle. In case the weeds appear in the later even
after the application of Stomp, a hoeing may be done to check any loss in the yield of this
crop.
Peas :
Vegetables peas are infested by both autumn and winter annual weeds namely,
Itsit/chupati (Trianthema portulacastrum), Bathu (Chenopodium album), Maina
(Medicago denticulata), Maini (Trigonella polycerata), Khandi (Melilotus alba), Bili
Booti (Anagallis arvensis), Matri (Lathyrus apheca), Wild hallon (Cornopus dydimus)
and Ghuien (Poa annua). When the pea crop is grown after rice, it is badly infested by
phalaris minor as well. In order to control weeds in this crop, pre-emergence application
of Stomp 30 EC (pedimethalin) at 1.0 litre/acre can be made by dissolving it in 200 litres
of water. This crop when sown on ridges the application of this herbicide may be made
after first irrigation which is generally given immediately after sowing on ridges.
Uniform application of the herbicide may be ensured by spraying with either flat fan or
flood jet nozzle fitted with knap-sack spray pump. When there is good stand of the crop
and normal growth is taking place, the later flushes of weeds, if emerge, can be
smothered by the crop. In case the crop stand is patchy, the later flushes of the weeds are
likely to emerge and hence a hoeing at later stages of the crop can help eliminating the
weed competition successfully.
Cauliflower and cabbage :

These crops are grown from June to April and are badly infested by the weeds of the
different season. During rainy season the weeds like Itsit/chupati (Trianthema
portulacastrum) Madhana (Eleusine aegyptiacum), Chulai (Amaranthus viridis), Motha
(Cyperus rotundus) appear in these crops. While in the main crop, Ghuien (Poa annua),
Bathu (Chenopodium album), Jangli dhania (Spergula arvensis), Jangli palak (Rumex
dentatus) Jangli halon (Cornopus dydimus) and sometimes Phalaris minor are the weeds
which appear in a rank growth in these crops. The use of Stomp 30 EC (pendimethalin) or
Basalin 45 EC (fluchloralin) can be made to eliminate these weeds. The pre-emergence
application of Stomp at 1.0 litre or 750 ml/acre may be done after first irrigation, which is
done immediately after transplanting of the seedlings in the field. The herbicide should be
dissolved in 150-200 litres of water and the spraying may be done with flat fan/flood jet
nozzle fitted with knap sack spray pump. Alternately, weeds can be controlled by giving
pre-plant (before transplanting) application of Basalin at 750 ml/ac. The herbicide should
be sprayed in a well prepared seed bed and afterwards be incorporated in the soil by
running disc harrow. After doing these operations, the transplanting of the seedlings may
be done, followed by irrigation. Sometimes weeds may appear in the later stages of the
crop which may be removed by giving a hoeing so as to check the weed competition, if
any.
Potato:
Potato crop is infested by different categories of weeds which appear in different
seasons. The crop which is sown in the month of September or early October faces a lot
of competition due to the appearance of Itsit (Trianthema portulacastrum), Chirian da
dana (Eragrostis tennella), Madhana (Eleusine aegyptiacum), Chulai (Amaranthus
viridis), Tandla (Digera arvensis). The crop which is shown in winter i.e. after October
has the infestation of Bathu (Chenopodium album), Maina (Medicago denticulate), Bili
buti (Anagallis arvensis), Jangli palak (Rumex dentatus), Jangli halon (Cornopus
dydimus), Ghuien (Poa annua) and sometimes Guli danda (Phalaris minor) when crop is
grown after rice. To control weeds effectively the following herbicides can be used in this
crop.
Name of the herbicide Dose/acre Time of application

Pre-emergence but after first
Stomp 30 EC (pendimethalin) 1.0 litres
irrigation to potato crop
Isoproturon 500 g - do -
Sencor 70 WP (Metribuzin) 200 g - do -
Lasso 50 EC (Alachlor) 2.0 litre - do -
Atrataf (Atrazine) 200 g - do -
When 5-10 percent emergence of
Gramaxone 20 EC (Paraquat) 500 ml – 750 ml potato takes place and weeds
have emerged completely.
In case of Gramaxone the lower does (500 ml) may be used when the weeds have a
less growth (1-2 leaf stage) whereas higher does may be used when weeds grow little
more (2-3 leaf stage). In field where Ghuien (Poa annua) is a problem avoid the use of
Gramaxone as it does not kill this weed because of the later emergence of this, weed
while the other herbicide because of their soil residue help controlling this weed even if
emerges later on.
In field where musk melon or another crop of cucurbits is to be sown after potato,
don’t spray Atrazine to potato crop as it kills the seedling of musk melon due to its soil
carry over.
Tomato
This crop is mainly infested with winter weeds such as Bathu (Chenopodium album),
Maina (Medicago denticulate), Jangli dhania (Spergula arvensis), Khandi (Melilotus
alba), Jangli halon (Cornopus dydimus), Jangli palak (Rumex dentatus) and Ghuien (Poa
annua). During initial stages of crop growth, these seeds may over grow the cop if not
controlled timely. These can be controlled by spraying Stomp 30 EC (pendimethalin) or
Basalin 45 EC (fluchloralin) or Sencor 70 WP (Metribuzin). Of thses, Stomp at 1.0 litre
or 750 ml/acre or Sencor 300 g/acre can be sprayed by dissolving in 200 litre of water on
a well prepared seed bed 3-4 days before transplanting of seedling. After spraying,
transplanting of seedlings of tomato crop may be done followed by light irrigation. In
case Basalin is to be used, it may be sprayed at 1.0 litre or 750 ml/acre before sowing by
mixing it in 200 litres of water. After spray, it should be thoroughly incorporated in the
soil by running a disc harrow and after this the transplanting of tomato crop seedlings
may be done as per recommendation. In case the weeds appear in the later stages of the
crop (before flowering) a hoeing may be given to eliminate weed competition.
Precautions for herbicide spray
• Ensure uniform spray which can be done by making use of flat fan/food jet
nozzles.
• While making solution of herbicide in water, make use of rubber hand gloves to
prevent the contact of body parts with herbicide.
• Before start spraying, caliberate the spray pump for the quantity of water to be
used for the area to be sprayed.
• Ensure that the whole field is sprayed by one spray man otherwise second person
engaged may not be able to spray in the same manner because of change in speed
etc.
• Spray the herbicides on a calm day so as to check air drift of the spray solution.
• In case the whole solution of the herbicide in water is made at a time in a big
container, it is very necessary to stir the solution each time before filling the tank
of the spray pump. This is more important for wettable formulation as the material
settle downs at the bottom of the container.
• Keep the herbicide out the reach of the children and destroy the empty tins/packs
of the herbicide after use.
KHABBAL (Barmudagrass)
Cynodon dactylon
Identification :
A perennial grass with creeping stem. It tightly holds the soil through adventitious
roots (Pic. 137). Flowers throughout the year propagates through stolons and root stocks.
It is a serious wed in uncultivated fields, kharif crops, orchards and appears from April to
September. It is also used as lawn grass and pasture grass. Once gets established
continues its infestation over a longer period till the crop cycle is changed.
Control :
1. Prevent the movement of farm implements from field until thoroughly cleaned of
weed parts.
2. Deep and frequent ploughing during hot months (May and June). Collection of
root stock from the infested fields and burning.
DILA OR MOTHA (Nutgrass or Nutsedge)

Cyperus rotundus
Identification :
It is most persistent common abnoxious perennial weed grows in summer, rainy
season and early winter vegetable crops (Pic. 138). Its infestation is more serious in
sugarcane, cotton, maize and other field crops and kharif vegetables. This weed
propagates through tubers and rhizomes. It is a very prolific weed and a single parent
plant produces large number of secondary plants, rhizomes and tubers in a single season.
New tubers are formed within 3 weeks and remain viable over years. It flowers form May
to October. Most of the tuberization takes place from August to October when the day
length shortens.
Control :
1. Preventing this weed to intrude new fields through the cleaning of implements from
tubers before any operation in the new field will check its spread.
2. Repeated fallow cultivation during hot and dry months of April, May and June can
kill the rhizomes and tubers and basal bulbs.
3. Application of Glyphosate as post emergence in between the rows of the wider row
sown crops may prove better to eliminate this weed.
TACKRI GHAS (Crab ghas)

Digitaria sanguinalis
Identification :
Annual, sometimes, perennial, when growing in a perennial crop. It is usually tall
growing and attains the height varying from 90 to 100 cm. Well branched from the base
but during initial stages of growth remains spreading and assumes upright growth in the
later stages (Pic. 139). Rooting from the nodes and sometimes forming extensive mats. It
flowers during the months of September to November and propagation by seed and
runners (stems rooting at lower nodes). Grows actively during rainy season but can also
grow well in semi dry regions. It is found in okra, brinjal, chillies, early radish, peas and
potato.
Control :
1. Repeated cultivations during growing period particularly before and after rainy
season.
2. Pre-emergence application of pendimethalin in okra, potato cabbage, cauliflower
and pre-emergence application of atrazine/paraquat in potato, metribuzin in potato
and tomato.
3. Post-emergence spray of paraquat of glyphosate in wider row vegetable crops.
MAKRA MADHANA (Wiregrass/crow foot grass)

Eleusine indica
Identification :
There are two species of Eleusine.
(i) Elusine aegyptiacum (Madhana) has tufted erect stem 30-60 cm high, leaves
7-10 cm long and flat, leaf sheath loose and overlapping leaf blades 7-10 cm
long. Has spikes 3-7 at the top of the stem. It flowers and fruits from August
to October and produces numerous seeds and propagate through seeds (Pic.
140 A).
(ii) The other species E. indica (Makra) has soft stem, fibrous roots which form a
mat like structure at the ground when more in number. Propagation is through
seeds (Pic. 140 B). Both species are found in all summer, rainy season and
early winter vegetables.
Control :
1. In case, the field remains fallow for a short period, a hot weather
cultivation may be helpful in reducing its intensity.
2. Two hoeings (3 & 6 weeks after sowing) in case of closer row vegetable
crops and two inter-culture operations in wide row crops can help
eliminate this weed especially cucurbits, brinjal and chillies.
3. Use of pendimethalin in okra, early potato and cole crops and also
atrazine/paraquat/metribuzin in potato crops can give good control of this
weed.
CHIRYA DA DANA
Eragrostis Tenella
Identification :
It is a shade loving grass, about 40 cm. high with many slender stems. It makes its
appearance in summer season and grows in abundance in rainy season but continue its
growth up to early winter period also. It is found common in about all vegetable crops,
like okra, brinjal, cucurbits, beans, onion, potato and cole corps (Pic. 141). Inflorescence-
spikelets are not very strongly compressed and are rather held very loosely. Seeds are
pale brown in colour. It is profilic in nature and propagation through seeds.
Control :
1. Clean cultivation so that the plant is not allowed to shed seeds.
2. Hoeing in solid drill vegetable crops while interculture in crop sown at wider
distance as cucurbits.
3. Use of chemicals like pendimethalin in okra, potato, early cole crops, tomato and
onion; atrazine/metribuzin/isoproturon in potato, metribuzine in tomato.
CHULAI (Pigweed)
Amaranthus Viridis
Identification :
An annual glabrous (without hair smooth) much branched herb usually 25-50 cm. all
Grows abundantly from July to October in fields, on bunds of fields and moist places.
Stem is grooved, often tinged with purple colour. Leaves are deep green, simple, ovate,
alternate with long stalks (Pic. 142). It flowers during August-September. Seeds are
minute, black and shining, prolific in nature and propagate by seeds. It is commonly
found in okra, cucurbits, early cauliflower, potato and peas.
Amaranthus spinosis : An annual herb, with hard stem having spines, it is found
growing on farm yard manure pits, lands and in field crops also.
Control :
1. in heavily infested fields, allow the weed to grow with a pre-sowing irrigation and
then plough the field before sowing the crop.
2. In chillies and cucurbits this weed can be controlled with tow hoeings. Use of
pendimethalin in okra, early cauliflower and onion while atrazine metribuzin and
paraquat in potato can eliminate this weed.
DODHAK (Spurge)
Euphorbia hirth
Identification :
It is an annual erect herb growing to a height of 100-150 cm. it is found in kharif
season and may keep on growing till late fall. The plant contains white milky juice. Stem
is (Pic. 143) hairy, leaves opposite and in pairs, elliptic with oblique bases, oblong, green
or reddish above and pale beneath. Flowers are minute, present in terminal cluster in axis
of leaves producing large number of seeds. Seeds reddish brown in colour. It is a very
common weed of lawns and grassy play grounds. This weed is commonly found in
summer vegetables like chillies, okra, early cauliflower etc. it also grows in early crop of
potato under certain situations especially in field where organic matter content is high.
Control :
1. Give tow hoeings before seed setting.
2. Application of pendimethalin may be used in okra and early cauli-flower, while in
early crop of potato, atrazine/metribuzin/paraquat may be used for controlling this
weed.
BHAKHRA (Puncture vine)

Tribulus terrestria
Identification :
It is a serious annual weed which spreads very quickly due to its nature, produces
large number of fruits. Stem is prostrate, round much branched, with hairs, especially on
the terminal regions. Its leaves are opposite and compound. Flowers are small and light
yellow. Fruit is five angled bearing four hard pointed spines – two of which are larger
than the rest. Flowering and fruiting season is during June-September (Pic. 144). It grows
commonly in summer vegetable, uncultivated light sandy-loam soil and along roads.
Control :
1. Plough fields infested with this weed early before flowering seed setting
especially where winter vegetable crops are sown.
2. Two hoeings or mechanical removal with wheel hoe can control this weed before
the plants set seed. Hoeing must be done before fruit and seed setting, otherwise it
becomes difficult to control this weed.
3. Use pendimethalin in okra, potato and early cauliflower. This weed can also be
controlled with the application of atrazine/metribuzin/paraquat in early crop of
potato.
TANDLA (Digera)
Digera arvensis
Identification :
It is a common pot herb 25-50 mm high. The plants are erect and slender. The lower
branches are prostrate. Leaves are simple, alternate; flowers are red and small. Flowers
and fruits appear during July to September. It propagates through seeds and grows
abundantly in fallow and cultivated fields. It is commonly found growing in summer and
spring vegetable crops grown on light textured soils. It is also used as pot herb.
Control :
1. Plough field infested with this weed early before flowering/ seed setting
especially where winter vegetable crops are sown.
2. Two hoeings in crops may be done where this weed grows abundantly.
3. Use pendimethalin in okra, potato and early cauliflower. This weed can be
controlled with the application of atrazine/metribuzin/paraquat only in potato.
DICOT WEEDS
ITSIT/CHUPATI (Horsepurslane)
Triantheme portulacastrum
Identification :
It is a weed of high organic matter soil. An annual rainy season succulent herb with
prostrate forked branches 20-40 cm long. Leaves are opposite or sub-opposite, unequal
broadly ovate and oblong 12-15 mm, inflorescence’s solitary, flowers sessile, white or
pinkish from the forks of the branches, sepals 5, coloured, stamens 15-24 (Pic. 146) Five
to seven seeds are produced in a capsule which is present in the leaf or branch axil. Seeds
are black with concentric lines. It flowers and fruits from March to October. This weed is
found growing in all the vegetables crops grown during the summer season including
cucurbits, okra, chillies, early sown cauliflower and potato.
Control :
1. Use well rotton farm yard manure free from the seeds of this weed.
2. By giving 2 to 3 hard hoeings/inter-cultures, the population pressure of this weed
can be reduced.
3. It can be controlled very effectively by spraying pendimethalin in okra,
cauliflower/cabbage and onion whereas, in potato the use of
atrazine/metribuzin/paraquat /pendimethalin can help elimintinating this weed.
MATRI (Meadow pea)

Lathyrus aphaca
Identification :
A non-serious little herb, leaves being reduced to tendrils at the base of which the
large hastate ovate foliaceous stipules perform the function of leaflets. Flowers are
yellow, pods 25 mm sub-falcate, seed black/dark green, smooth compressed (Pic. 147)
the flowering time is from December to April and propagations by seed only. It is weed
of winter vegetable crops.
Control :
1. One or two hoeings can easily eliminate this weed from different crops.
2. Pre-emergence application of pendimethalin in peas, potato, cauli-flower; pre-
emergence application of Atrazine/Metribuzin in potato and Metribuzin in tomato.
KHANDI/WILD SENJI (Sweet clover)
Melilotus sp.
Identification :
Wild senji is a common weed of rabi vegetable cops but more prevalent in areas
where crops are grown with moisture. There are two species of this weed (i) Melilotus
alba with white flowers is erect growing, 30-60 cm high. Leaflets 2.5 mm (Pic. 148).
Clovers generally white in recemes 7-10 cm long, Pod 3 mm long. Melilotus indica with
yellow flowers is somewhat spreading but in other respect quite similar to M. alba. The
infestation of this annual weed is more common in vegetable crops grown on light to
medium textured soils. Can be fed to cattle as fodder after removal.
Control :
1. Use clean seed for sowing.
2. Uproot the plants with the help of two hoeings-first hoeing 4 weeks after sowing
and second, there weeks after the first hoeing. Dry hoeing is more useful.
3. Pre-emergence application of Atrazine/Metribuzin/Pendimethalin, in potato and in
peas, tomato and onion can provide good control of this weed.
BILLI BOOTI (Blue pimpernel)

Anagalis arvensis
Identification :
It is very fast growing weed in all the vegetable crops grown during winter season.
Stem is erect or procumbent with 4 angled branches 12-25 cm long and sessile ovate or
oblong ovate or lanceolate leaves 10-20 mm in length. Flowers are very pretty blue on
slender peduncles. (Pic. 149). Capsule are about 5 mm in diameter. Seeds is trigonous
and can grow and produce seeds in partial shade.
Control :
1. Give hand hoeing-first dry hoeings before irrigation and second after irrigation if
required.
2. In tomato, cauliflower, potato and pea, this weed can be controlled with the use of
Pendimethalin. Metribuzin can also be used in tomato and potato while Atrazine
may be used only in potato crop to control this weed.
MAINA (Bur clover)
Medicago denticulata
Identification :
It is a small prostrate plant with trailing branches. Leaves are alternate, compound,
trifoliate typical of clovers, ovate, touched with broad tips. Flowers are small, bright
yellow in colour, in clusters and appear from January to March (Pic. 150). It propagates
through seed and germinates usually after the first irrigation. Fruits are coiled, spiny,
containing minute seeds which are dispersed by canal water, sheep, goats, dogs, etc. this
weed is generally found in all winter vegetable crops.
Control :
1. Irrigate the field and let the seeds germinate and then plough up the young plants.
2. Use clean seed of crops in order to prevent its infestation in the fields.
3. Give two hoeings first hoeing three weeks after sowing and followed by second,
three weeks later.
4. In tomato, cauliflower and onion crops, pre-emergence application of
pendimethalin can control this weed. In potato, pre-emergence application of
atrazine/metribuzin/isoproturon and early post-emergence application to paraquat
can control this weed.
BATHU (Lambs quarter/goose foot)

Chenopodium album
Identification :
A common weed found abundantly in all winter vegetable crops. It also appears in
rain fed winter crops. It is an erect annual herb, with smooth, leaves which are somewhat
fleshy and alternate and upper surface is dark green. Stem are angled, variegated (striped
green, red and purple). Flowers are in clusters, green, very minute and appear during
March-May (Pic. 151). Seed are numerous, minute and shiny. The plants have a strong
and deep tap root system. Seed shed during pervious year germinate in October-
November. Its seeds are generally mixed in the seeds of different vegetable crops
especially which are grown for seed purpose.
Control :
1. Irrigate the field and let the seeds germinate and then plough up the young plant.
2. User clean seed of crops in order to prevent its infestation in the new fields.
3. Give two hoeing-first 3 weeks after sowing and followed by second 3 weeks later.
4. In tomato, cauliflower and onion crops, pre-emergence application of
Pendimethalin can control this weed effectively, whereas, in potato,
atrazine/metribuzin/isoproturon/paraquat can be applied for the control of this
weed.
CHOTTI SWANK (Little bran yard grass)
Penicum colonum l.
Identification :
An annual tuft grass, it is well tillered from the base and branching from the nodes.
Stem sometimes bends towards the base. Leaves are glabourous and 10-15 cm long and
2-3 cm wide are grows actively during season but remains stunted if the season is dry
(Pic. 152). Prefer to grow on moist heavy textured soils. Flowering head a panicle.
Flower during July to November and propagation is by seeds. It is a common weed of
okra, brinjal and chillies and sometimes may appear in early sown cauliflower and potato.
Control :
1. Clean cultivation, hoeing/inter-culture of infested fields before seed formation,
especially in brinjal and chillies.
2. Pre-emergence application of pendimethalin in okra, early sown potato and pre-
emergence application of atrazine/metribuzin in potato.
JANGLI PALAK (Deck)

Rumex dentatus
Identification :
It is an erect, deep-rooted glabrous annual weed, 30-100 cm tall Roots are deep and
are of red-colour while stem are ribbed. Radical leaves are much longer and oblong.
Flowers are green (Pic. 153) and grow luxuriantly in moist fields having more organic
matter. Flowering and fruiting is during February to April.
Control :
1. Use clean seeds for sowing to prevent infestation.
2. Give two hoeings at 3 and 6 weeks after sowing of winter vegetable crops.
3. Pre-emergence spraying of Atrazine/Metribuzin/Isoproturon in potato;
Metribuzin/Pendimethalin in tomato; Pendimethalin in cabbage, cauliflower and
onion will check this weed.
GULLIDANDA / SITTI / KANKI / MANDUSI (Canary grass / bird seed grass)

Phalaris minor
Identification :
A robust weed associated with wheat crop especially in dwarf varieties. Its infestation
is common in fields where winter vegetables are grown after rice, especially peas,
cauliflower, potato etc. Stem is erect with distinct nodes and internodes; leaves are long,
ligule exceptionally long (about 1 cm) (Pic. 154) and clasps the stem. Panicles are
cylindrical, erect; seeds are small, shining and resemble those of linseed. Panicles
commence maturity about 2 weeks before wheat harvest.
Control :
1. Use clean seeds free of this grass seeds.
2. Dab system also gives some relief form this weed. To stimulate weed seeds by
irrigating the field in first week of November followed by another irrigation. After
this prepare seed bed and sow late potato/tomato. This practice though delays
sowing by about 2 weeks but population pressure of this weed is reduced.
3. By using herbicides namely isoproturon, atrazine, metribuzin in potato and
tomato, pendimethalin in potato, cauliflower, peas, tomato and onion.
4. Change of rotation – sowing of other crops in fields badly infested with this weed
can help providing great relief from this weed.
NUTRITIONAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS

Physiological disorders can be defined as the disturbance in the physical process in
the plants due to deficiency or excess of certain nutrient elements, cold and hot weather
effects and lack of water supply etc. Sixteen elements are essential for normal growth and
development of a plant. The major nutrients required by the plats are carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur. In addition,
some elements like iron, managanese, copper, zinc, boron, molybdenum and chlorine are
required by plants in very small amounts. Nutritional problems must be considered in
relation to all the conditions in which plant grows and not merely in terms of the amount
of plant nutrients contained in or added to the soil. The availability of different nutrients
may be affected by conditions of light, temperature, water supply and by other general
environmental factors. Soil conditions also greatly complicate the problems of nutrient
supply to crops. The deficiency of nutrients can lead to the manifestation of characteristic
symptoms. Here an efforts has been made to explain the diagnostic symptoms of nutrients
deficiency and other environmental factors which use physiological disorders in
vegetable crops.
NITROGEN DEFICIENCY
Symptoms :
Nitrogen is one of the nutrients that plant can readily translocate from older to
growing parts. The symptoms of its deficiency, therefore, always appear first on older
leaves as yellow discoloration which start from the tip and later extend toward the base of
the leaf. With time, the whole of the affected leaf turn yellow, wither and finally die. The
younger leaves remain green during initial stages of its deficiency (Pic. 155 radish, Pic.
156 carrot). As the deficiency advances these symptoms may also appear on younger
leaves too and the entire crop gives a pale look. The crop shows stunted growth with poor
branching, flowering and fruiting. Succulence, which is an important parameter of
vegetable quality, will be less in nitrogen deficient plants. Almost all the crops have
similar symptoms of nitrogen deficiency.
Conditions for development :

Most of the Indian as well as the Punjab soils are low in nitrogen and the deficiency
symptoms are very common where sufficient quantities of nitrogenous fertilizers and
decomposed organic manure is not applied. The deficiency of nitrogen is however, server
in sandy soils which are low in organic matter.
Remedial measures :
Use the recommended dose of nitrogenous fertilizers.
PHOSPHORUS DEFICIENCY
Symptoms :
The symptoms of phosphorus deficiency appear on older leaves. Initially the older
leaves become dark green and later turn to purplish from the tip toward the base and start
drying (Pic. 157) cabbage, Pic. 158 carrot). As the deficiency increases the stem of the
plant also turn purple. Such plants have very poor growth. Generally, in all the vegetable
crops these symptoms are identical. In cauliflower sometimes, the head also shows
intensive purple shade.

The availability of phosphorus is generally affected by the amount of iron and
aluminium ions in acidic soils and calcium in alkaline soil, as these ions form some
complex with phosphate ions which have low solubility. The coarse textured soils low in
organic matter as well as soils high in sesquioxides are generally low in phosphorus
supply. Its deficiency is common on such types of soils where phosphorous fertilizer are
not used in adequate quantity.
Remedial measures :
Use recommended dose of phosphatic fertilizers at the time of sowing/planting. It is
advisable to place the fertilizer in close proximity of the seed/root, as the mobility of
phosphorus in soils is negligible.
POTASSIUM DEFICIENCY
Symptoms :
Deficiency of potassium appear as chlorosis at the tip and along the margin of older
leaves followed by necrosis. With progress in time, the necrotic region turn brown and
brittle because of scorching. According to crop the scorched margins may curl up or
downward (Pic. 159, turnip, Pic. 160 A bhindi). As the deficiency increases, these
symptoms may appear on younger leaves too. In potato, symptoms of potassium
deficiency are exhibited on both recently matured as well as older leaves (Pic. 160
Potato). The leaves ban downwards and the up rolled margins give them ladle like
appearance. The foliage wilts and dies with signs of scorching. In cauliflower and
cabbage, yellowish to whitish brown blotches with dark edges appear on margins of the
older leaves. These later unite, leading to scorching of the leaf margin, which roll inward.
In case of peas the margins of affected leaves bend downwards.

Potassium deficiency is encountered on coarse textured soils which are low in organic
matter; acid soils with a low cation exchange capacity or; on soils with high content of
three-layered clay minerals that have lost much of their potassium owing to intensive
cultivation. Since potassium uptake by plants largely depends upon mass flux, its
availability is reduced in dry period. Plants may consequently exhibit sign of potassium
deficiency after long dry spell even on soils with a good potassium status.
Remedial measures :
Since the mobility of potassium in soil is very low hence, top dressing of potassium
fertilizer may not be fully effective. Therefore, recommended dose of potassium fertilizer
must be applied at the time of sowing to soils low in this nutrient.
SULPHUR DEFICIENCY
Symptoms :
Contrary to nitrogen, the symptoms of sulphur deficiency first appear on younger
leaves. Which become chlorotic leaving the tip slightly green. As the deficiency increases
the entire leaf turns yellow. Sulphur deficient plants are poor in growth than normal
plants. They are stunted and have a rigid appearance (Pic. 161) chilli. In cauliflower,
leaves develop interveinal chlorosis starting from the margin and extending towards the
base of the leaf and curve inward (Pic. 161 B cauliflower). The leaves have prominent
mid-rib and narrow lamina.

Crops grown on coarse textured soils, low in organic matter, irrigated with canal water
and far from industrial areas may exhibit sulphur deficiency symptoms.
Remedial measures :
Use sulphur containing fertilizers or 50-100 kg gypsum per acre at the time of sowing.
One can apply gypsum in standing crop on the appearance of deficiency symptoms but to
achieve proper response gypsum must be mixed in the soil by hoeing followed by light
irrigation. Gypsum should not be applied on wet foliage as it will cause burning.
MAGNESIUM DEFICIENCY
Symptoms :
Magnesium is relatively mobile in plant system therefore, the deficiency symptoms
first appear on older leaves as interveinal chlorosis. The deficient plants give a mottled
appearance. In extreme causes, the chlorotic tissues dies and turn brown in colour.
Cabbage, cauliflower, muskmelon, tomato and beans have high magnesium requirement
(Pic. 162 cabbage).

Heavy doses of potash depresses magnesium uptake and enhances its deficiency. Soil
compactness, water logging/stress aggravate this problem. The deficiency symptoms
mostly appear as the crop maturity approaches, on sandy soils and in wet weather.
Remedial measures :
Fortnightly spray of 2.0 per cent magnesium sulphate (2 kg. in 100 litre of water) is
recommended.
MANGANESE DEFICIENCY
Symptoms :
Manganese deficiency symptoms are similar to those of magnesium deficiency except
that these first appear on the younger leaves, while in case of magnesium, it first appear
on the older leaves. Initially chlorotic spots appear between the veins of the fully mature
new leaves. Later, depending upon crop, these spots turn to brown, radish brown,
brownish black and some time pinkish gray. In cauliflower and cabbage chlorosis spread
form the margins of the middle leaves. The leaves are relatively smaller in size. As the
deficiency increases with to whitish brown necrotic spots appear in the increasingly pale
chlorotic patches. (Pic. 163 radish, Pic. 164 cauliflower). In potato the light chlorotic
patches appear between the veins of the younger leaves, and are immediately followed by
numerous brown, dot like necrotic spots. These spots are mainly concentrated in the basal
part of leaves while tips remain relatively unaffected.

Managanese deficiency is fairly common on coarse textured calcareous soils. Alkaline
soils, low in reducible manganese may also exhibit manganese deficiency.
Remedial measures :
Spray the crop with 0.2-0.5 per cent manganese sulphate (200-500 gm. in 100 litre of
water) solution at weekly interval. Depending upon the deficiency two to four sprays are
required.
BORON DEFICIENCY
Symptoms :
Due to its deficiency, cracked corky areas are developed on stems and midribs. The
death of growing point, distortion & blackening of new leaves with consequence loss of
apical dominance and outgrowth of side shoots takes place. Cauliflower is relatively more
susceptible to boron deficiency and symptoms are more visible at curd formation stage.
Curd formation is delayed and browning of curd takes place. The trouble first appears as
water soaked areas in the stem and curd surface and later the curd becomes brown in
colour (Pic. 165 & 166 cauliflower). It is also called as brown rot or red rot of the curd.
The curd becomes bitter in taste, which is undesirable for marketing. The symptoms are
also associated with thickening, brittleness, downward curling of lower leaves and hollow
stem of cauliflower.

Boron deficiency is fairly common in areas of high rainfall especially on light soils of
pH above 6.5. Symptoms often occur soon after the end of a drought. Deficiency
symptoms are more acute in neutral or alkaline soils.
Remedial measures :
The application of common borax (sodium tetraborate) controls browning and other
symptoms in cauliflower. The quality of borax needed to control the trouble depends on
the characters of soil, the soil reaction and extent of deficiency. On acidic soils 5 -7.5 kg
borax per acre is sufficient while on neutral or alkaline soils, large quantity may be
necessary.
IRON DEFICIENCY
Symptoms :
The symptoms of iron deficiency are alike in almost all the crops and their species.
Younger leaves show a faint interveinal chlorosis under conditions of mild iron
deficiency. In case f moderate iron deficiency, visual symptoms initially appear as typical
interveinal chlorosis in younger leaves. Later, green veins also turn yellow (Pic. 167
chilli). The older leaves remain green. With an increase in the severity of iron deficiency,
the whole leaf blade turns pale yellow to white in colour and the emerging leaf loses its
green colour and becomes bleached. In most severe cases plants become with and
eventually die.

Iron deficiency generally appear in coarse textured calcareous soils. It is also induced
by water logging and excess of copper, zinc and phosphorous in the soil.
Remedial measures :
For correcting the deficiency symptoms of iron in calareous soils, the pH may be
lowered by application of sulphur compounds to ensure adequate supplies of iron to
plants. Two to three sprays of 0.2 – 0.5 per cent (200-500 gm in 100 litres of water)
ferrous sulphate are recommended at weekly interval.
MOLYBEDNUM DEFICIENCY
Symptoms :
Molybdenum deficiency causes chlorostic interveinal mottling of the older leaves.
Leaf blade fails to expand and flower formation is inhibited. In acute deficiency, necrosis
of leaf tissues occurs. Cauliflower is relatively sensitive to molybdenum deficiency. the
leaf blades do not develop properly and remain narrow strap like and severely savoyed.
When the deficiency is severe, only the midribs develop. This disorder is commonly
known as ‘whitptail disease’ (Pic. 168 cauliflower) the growing point is severely
deformed and the plants do not produce a marketable head.

Its development is more in acid soils due to non-availability of molybdenum under
acidic conditions.
Remedial measures :
Liming of the acidic soils to pH 6.5 should be done. The malady can be corrected by
application of sodium or ammonium molybedate solution (0.03%) as foliar spray.
SUNSCALD IN CHILLI
Symptoms :
Fruits exposed to the sun side loose their lustre and green colour. The affected fruits
turn white (Pic. 169) and skin becomes papery. The affected fruits are sometimes invaded
with fungal organisms and they rot in severe cases. The fruits affected by sun injury
cannot synthesize pigment as a result of which ripening of fruits does not occur. The
premature fruit drop is also noticed in may cases.

The cultivars with longer fruit size are more prone to this type of injury. The plants
with less foliage cannot protect the fruits from sun heat as a result fruits scorch. The
cultivar Punjab Surkh is likely to be affected by this type of injury.
Remedial measures :
1. Plants or cultivars with enough foliage should be preferred for cultivation
Cultivars like Punjab Lal and hybrids CH – 1 and CH – 3 are less affected by this
injury.
2. Plant spacing between the rows should be reduced to dilute the effect of sun heat.
BRANCHING OR FORKING IN CARROT
Symptoms :
The carrot roots are produced with multiple roots. The carrots become thick and
fibrous which cannot be sent for market for sale as the roots loose their shine and develop
improper colour. (Pic.170).

Major cause of this disorder is the application of un-decomposed farm yard manure to
the crop as the manure contains uric acid which causes forking. Wrong selection of the
variety is another reason which leads to forking of roots.
Remedial measures :
It is better not to apply farm yard manure to carrot crop. If needed then apply well
decomposed farm yard manure, or apply manure to the preceding crop grown in rotation
with carrot. Get the seed or selected variety form reliable source.
BLOSSOM END ROT IN TOMATO

Symptoms :
Fruits at the blossom end show brown discolouration. The spots enlarge and become
darker till they cover one third to half of total portion of the fruit. The tissue shrinks and
skin becomes dark and leathery. After sometimes soft rot develops but it develops only
when the spots are invaded by bacteria causing soft rot (Pic. 171).

The disorder is brought about by unfavourable weather conditions and is followed by
dry spell. Under such conditions, a water deficit develops inside the plant and cells at the
blossom end fail to receive sufficient water for their growth and breakdown of tissues
occur. The trouble can also occur under periods of abundant rainfall, when soil remains
saturated for considerable time. In such cases rootlets are killed and uptake of water is
reduced. In case of calcium deficiency the cells of the blossom end fail to receive
sufficient calcium as a result of which breakdown of tissues occurs.
Remedial measures :
1. Any cultural practice that conserves soil moisture and maintains uniform soil
moisture supply helps in control of blossom end rot.
2. Application of calcium sulphate at the rate of 400 gram per acre in the form of
foliar spray helps check the problem of this disorder.
CRACKING IN POTATO
Symptoms :
The tubers of potato under high fertility conditions loose their integrity and (Pic. 172)
show cracks. The cracks are few in number and are attacked by fungal organisms if stored
in refrigerated stores. These tubers are unfit for human consumption.

The major cause of this problem is the choice of variety. Variety Kufri Jyoti is more
prone to such cracks if grown under high fertility conditions. High fertility of the soil is
another factor which leads to abrupt increase in the size of the tubers which causes cracks
in the tubers.
Remedial measures :
1. Do proper selection of the variety. Always choose crack resistant variety.
2. Over irrigation of the tubers should be avoided.
3. Dig the potatoes before they ripe fully.
KNOBINESS IN POTATO
Symptoms :
The developing tubers become uneven in shape. Tumours are visible on the surface of
the tuber (Pic. 173). Sometimes these tumours are several in number, as a result the
tubers are unattractive and thus unfit for market.

The problem is more prevalent if the crop is raised in uneven soil. The presence of
concrete and clods present in the soil develop conditions more favourable for the
formation of off shaped tuber. Potatoes grown in heavy soil are more likely to be affected
by this disorder. Uneven soil moisture in the field also contributes to knobbiness.
Remedial measures :
1. The soil particularly heavy soil should be well prepared with pre sowing tillage
operations. Deep ploughing of the soil is usually recommended.
2. Always prefer to raise potato in light soil.
3. Maintain proper and even soil moisture.
RODENTS
Most of the vegetables are highly preferred food of rodents and suffer extensive
damage by their burrowing, gnawing and feeding activities. Moreover, during lean
periods when there is little crop in the surrounding fields, vegetable crops are attacked for
shelter and food. Rodent problem in vegetable crops can not be solved by taking it in
isolation because some of the vegetables and melons are so preferred by rodents that they
completely avoid rodenticide baits. Waves of rodent attack from the adjoining fields
increase the problem many fold. Often such immigration of rodents form surrounding
fields, specially at the maturing stage, result in complete failure of melon crop.
Species and distribution :

The species of rodents inhabiting or attacking vegetable crops in Punjab are the lesser
bandicoot rat, (Bandicota bengalensis), the Indian gerbil, (Tatera indica), the soft furred
field rat, (Rattus meltada), the house mouse, Mus musculus, the field mous. Mus
booduga, the brown spiny mouse, Mus platythrix and the striped palm squirrel,
Funambulus pennanti. The lesser bandicoot rat, has become predominant in almost all the
vegetable crops representing more than 80% of the total rodent population Indian gerbil
is restricted to sandy soil and often attack vegetable crop from surrounding sandy
uncultivated land and road side forestry. Problem of striped palm sequirrel is restricted to
the fields near trees and kitchen gardens.
Important features :
Sense of smell, taste, touch and hearing are highly developed in rodents. The hair on
muzzle and the body serve as structures of touch. Rodents can perceive even faintest
sound and can distinguish unusual notes. They are good swimmers and divers which
enable them cope with the temporary water flooding during irrigation and rains. They are
capable of making complex burrows with the help of limbs and chisel-shaped cutting
incisors. Incisors of rodents are made up of so hard material that they gnaw even hard
material coming in their way. Striped palm sequirrel is well adapted for arborial life and
make nests on the branches of trees and crevice of the buildings. Rodents are omnivorous
as they eat grains, vegetables, fruits, weeds, insects, fish, meat etc. Although they like
fresh food material but in unfacourable conditions they can subsist on decaying material,
spoiled food and even garbage, they are prolific breeders having extremely high
reproductive potential. The high re-build up rate of their population defeats all efforts of
their control. Rodents on an average have a gestation period of 21-28 days, a litter size of
3-15 and maturation period of 8-12 weeks.
Damage :
Rodents cause considerable damage to vegetable crops, through the intensity of the
problem depends upon their population density. They cause damage to a variety of
vegetables such as bottlegourd (Pic. 174a, b), long-melon (Pic. 175), cucumber, pumpkin,
ridge-gourd, muskmelon, squashmelon, tomatoes and peas. Damage is caused from
seedling to ripening stages. Among vegetables, the cucurbits suffer severe rodent
damage. Even a small cut on vegetable leads to spoilage. Rodents are fond of peas
causing severe damage to seedlings. They damage and hoard their pods in their burrows.
The lesser bandicoot rat by its extensive soil digging activity often damage the root
system of vegetable crops. Often seedlings and saplings get buried under soil.
Methods of control
Since performance of different control methods vary in different situations and often
single method is not sufficient to give desirable results, adopt the integrated approach
using a combination or sequence of several methods. Vegetable crops cover
comparatively small areas, therefore, control operations must be extended to adjoining
cultivated and uncultivated fields and road side forestry covering large areas.
A. Chemical Control :
There rodenticide concentrates, zinc phosphide (80% black powder), Bromadiolone
(0.25% white powder) and Racumin (0.75% sky blue powder) have been
recommended for the control of field rodents in Punjab.
Bait preparation : The acceptance of rodenticide baits by rodents depends upon the
qyality, texture, taste and odour of the baiting materials. It has been found that good
quality cereal baits are most suitable for baiting rodents in field conditions.
1. Zinc phosphide bait : Smer 1 kg of bajra or sorghum or cracked wheat or their

mixture with 20 grams of vegetable oil and mix it throughouly with 25 grams of
zinc phosphide. Never add water in zinc phosphide bait. Always use freshly
prepared bait.
2. Bromadiolone bait : Mix 20 g of 0.25% bromadiolone powder, 20 grams of
vegetable oil and 20 grams of powder sugar in 1 kg of any cereal flour.
3. Racumin bait : Mix 50 g of 0.75% racumin powder, 20 grams of vegetable oil and
20 grams of powdered sugar in 1 kg of cracked wheat of bajara.
Bait placement : When fields are vacant or crop is small the rodent burrows can
easily be located in the fields, on bunds and water channels. Close all the burrows in
the evening and on the next day insert a paper boat containing about 10 g of poison
bait of zinc phosphide or bromadiolone or 20 g bait of racumin about 6 inches deep in
each live burrow. In case of lesser bandicoot rat remove the fresh soil from the
burrow opening with the help of a spade to locate the tunnel and then put the
rodenticide bait deep inside it.
When the crop is dense and it is difficult to locate rodent burrows, place about 10
grams of zinc phosphide or bromadiolone bait or 20 grams of racumin bait at 40
baiting points per acre on dry sites and inside the crop throughout the field covering
run way and activity sites of rats.
Pre-baiting : Pre-baiting is essential when zinc phosphide baiting is to be done. Bajra

or sorghum or cracked wheat or their mixture smeared with vegetable oil be laid on
pieces of paper at 40 baiting points per acre and about 10 grams of bait at each point
for 2-3 days.
Safety measures : Since the rodenticides are highly toxic to humans, domestic
animals, pets and birds, the following safety measures must be adopted.
1. Keep the rodenticides and their baits away from the reach of children, domestic
animals and pets.
2. Mixing of rodenticides in the baiting material should be done with a stick, spade
or by wearing rubber gloves. Avoid inhaling of poison. Wash exposed skin and
hands after mixing.
3. Collect and burry the left over poison bait and dead rats from the fields.
4. Zinc phosphide is an acute poison and there is no antidote for it. In case of its
accidental ingestion induce vomiting by inserting fingers in the throat and then
rush to a doctor. Vitamin K is the antidote for bromadiolone and racumin which
can be given to the patient under medical supervision.
B. Mechanical control :
a. During the irrigation of vacant harvested fields rat coming out of flooded
burrows should be killed with sticks.
b. Use double chambered multi-catch trap with runnel type entrance. Before
use wash the traps. Before setting the traps for trapping do pre-baiting by placing
10-15 grams of plain millet or cracked wheat containing 2 % sugar and 2 %
vegetable oil for 2-3 days and leave the door of the trap open. After pre-baiting
close the traps by placing 10-15 g of the plan bait on a piece of paper in the main
chamber and a pinch of bait on a smaller piece of paper in the tunnel. Trap the rats
for 3 consecutive days. Kill the trapped rats by drowning in water and the interval
between two trappings in the same location should not be less than 30 days.
C. Environmental control :
Weeds, grasses and bushes should be removed as these provide shelter and food to
rodents. Highly infested bunds, water channels and field pavements should
periodically be rebuilt to destroy permanent rodent burrows.
D. Biological control
Owls, kitcs, hawks, falcons, eagles, snakes, cats, mongoose, jackals and monitor
lizards are the natural predators of rodents. These should be protected.
BIRDS
Birds are important component of out agroecosystem and play multivariate role such
as pollination, predation of insects and rodents and some species tends to be pests of
vegetable crops. Bird species inflicting losses to vegetable crops include mainly house
crow (Corvus splendens), house sparrow (Passer domesticus), blue rock pigeon
(Columba livia) and rose-ringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri). Common myna
(Acridotheres tristis) is both useful and harmful as in addition to causing damage it also
eat insects. Besides these some useful birds like bank myna (Acridotheres ginginianus),
pied myna (Sturnus contra), red vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafter), Purple sun bird
(Nectarina asiatica), Indian robin (Saxicoloides fulicata), common babbler (Turdoides
caudate), red wattled lapwings (Venellus indicus) are also seen frequently venturing and
feeding on insects in vegetable fields. Rich vegetative cover of the vegetable fields some
time results in rodents infestation which often are seen picked away by predatory birds
like kites hawks, owls etc. Purple sun bird and Indian Robin help in cross pollination of
flowers of vegetable crops.
Birds visit vegetable crop fields during the morning and evening burs. They make
their nests on trees and are seen resting and perching on poles and overhead electricity
cables. The vegetable fields situated near dense tree plantations and below overhead
cables are more prone to bird damage.
Breeding and population :

The rose-ringed parakeet make nests in natural holes in old trees, crevices in walls,
earthen mounds etc. and breed in the month of March to June with clutch size of 3-5
eggs. The house crow makes nests in upper canopy of trees using twigs, rag and wire
pieces. It breeds from April to August with clutch size of 4-5 eggs. Sparrows make nests
using grass, straw, twigs, rags, feathers etc. in middle canopy of trees, crevices in wall,
ceilings, terraces of buildings and breed twice first in the months of February to May and
from September to October with clutch size of 2-5 eggs. Pigeons make loose nests using
few straw pieces on terraces, poles, branches of trees of lower canopy and breed twice
first during April to June and second during September to December with clutch size of
3-5 eggs.
Damage :
The pattern of damage to vegetable crops by birds is variable. Sparrows, piegeons and
parakeets attack the crop in flocks which occasionally inflict severe damages. Whereas,
the crows may attack singly or in groups. Parakeets cause damage by pecking, cutting,
tearing and puncturing the vegetables like chillies, peas and bell pepper (Pic. 176). Crows
and sparrows uproot the seedlings and at maturity peck and nibble fruits and eat seeds of
vegetables like peas, musk melon, water-melon (Pic. 177), bitter-gourd and tomatoes
(Pic. 178 a, b). Piegeons generally cause damage to pods of peas and beans at maturity
stages.
Management of harmful birds
(A) Mechanical control :

1. Scare away birds by sling shots, drum beating or gun fires.
2. Hanging of dead crow or dummy of crow on a stick is effective in scaring the birds
from the damaging sites. The height of stick should be at least one meter above
from the crop height and the position should be changed after a gap of 7 days to
increase its effectiveness.
3 . Fixing of scare crows i.e. a discarded earthen pot painted to stimulate like head
supported with wooden sticks and clothed in human dress to give a human like
appearance is one of the most effective technique to keep birds away. Position,
direction and the dress of the scare crow should be changed atleast at 10 days
interval. The height of the scare crow should be at least one meter above from the
crop height.
4. Use automatic bird scarer (Pyrivox) by shifting its position periodically. Use
crackers by tying them at different gaps on a rope and igniting the rope on the end
so that the crakers fire at different intervals. It is cheaper and equally effective in
scaring away the birds. Tie rope crackers on a stick and fix it in the centre of the
nursery beds or in the fields with growing vegetable crops whereas in the maturing
crop fix it in the periphery of the field.
(B) Cultural practices :
i) Prepare the nurseries of vegetable crops at right and recommended times and keep it
covered with thorny bushes or nylon net.
ii) The tree in the vicinity of vegetable nursery and crop should be pruned so that birds
may not perch or establish their nests on them.
iii) Prevent the birds from establishing the nests on the nearby trees. Destroy the already
established nests before the start of breeding season of the birds.
iv) The vegetable crops and their nurseries can be covered with nylon nets with mesh size
of 2.5 to 5.8 cms to prevent birds damage.
v) Grow the less costly crops like Daincha or Millet in two or three lines around the
vegetable fields particularly those which are isolated or scattered ones. These
boundary crops are most preferred by the birds and even prevent them from sitting in
the inner vegetable crop due to the fear of predators.
vi) Preferably select the sites of vegetable crop fields away from the trees or cluster of
trees and no electricity wire should pass above the fields which serve as perching sites
for birds from where they attack the vegetable crops.
C. Reflective tape
Use reflective tape to scare the birds from vegetable nursery beds and vegetable fields.
Tie the ribbon with poles erected around the field and inside the fields with a gap of 10
meter each. The ribbon should be loosely tied with the sticks with 4-5 twists to ensure
maximum reflection of sunlight and its wavering effects. The height of the ribbon should
be at least 1-3 feet high from the crop. By using the ribbon in this way, the rays of rising
sun from east and setting sun from west fall on the ribbon, due to which, the ribbon
reflects the light and produces wavering voice with the blowing wind. The reflected light
appears as fire which terrifies the birds and scare them.
D. Alarming calls
Playing of cassettes of recorded distress and flock calls of parakeets and crows
respectively in a tape-recorded at peak volume for ½ hrs. twice each in the morning
between 7.00 to 9.00 a.m. and in the evening at 5.00 to 7.00 p.m., respectively, with a
pause of 1 hours, scare the birds or halt their activities for full-day in the vegetable
nursery or crop fields. Use of distress or flock calls remain effective for 15-20 days.
Better results can be obtained by using this technique in sequence or in combination with
other methods as integrated pest management. For covering larger area amplifier and
additional speakers as per requirements can be used. The recorded cassettes are available
from Communication Centre At PAU, Ludhiana.
Conservation of useful birds

Predatory birds like owls, falcons, hawks, eagles, kites, etc. eat a large number of rats
and mice. A single owl normally eats 4-5 rats a day. Insect eating birds like drongos,
babblers, shrikes, lapwings, mynas and many other small birds eat away numerous insect
pests. Even granivourous birds like sparrows and weaver birds feed a large number of
insects to their youngs. A single pair of house sparrow feed insects to their youngs about
150 times a day. Therefore, useful birds should not be killed.

Field Problems of Vegetable Crops

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Field Problems of Vegetable Crops

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DISEASES

NURSERY DISEASES OF VEGETABLE

CERCOSPORA LEAF SPOT

Conditions for disease development :

YELLOW VEIN MOSIAC

Conditions for disease development :

Sclerotinia is a serious disease of brinjal. The damage to brinjal is mainly through

Conditions for disease development :

ALTERNARIA LEAF SPOT

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

Both the species of Alternaria attack cruciferous including cabage cauliflower,

Conditions for disease development :

Downy mildew disease is of wide prevalence. In addition to cauliflower and

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

ONION AND GARLIC

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

Disease development and spread :

Disease development and spread :

Disease development and spread :

Disease development and spread :

Disease development and spread :

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

RED SPIDER MITES

CHILLI & CAPSICUM

LINTIL POD BORER

DIAMOND BACK MOTH

CABBAGE SEMI LOOPERS

Other insect pests

TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS

BIHAR HAIRY CATERPILLAR

Weed management in Kharif vegetables with the use of herbicides :

Cauliflower and cabbage :

Name of the herbicide Dose/acre Time of application

DILA OR MOTHA (Nutgrass or Nutsedge)

TACKRI GHAS (Crab ghas)

MAKRA MADHANA (Wiregrass/crow foot grass)

BHAKHRA (Puncture vine)

MATRI (Meadow pea)

BILLI BOOTI (Blue pimpernel)

BATHU (Lambs quarter/goose foot)

JANGLI PALAK (Deck)

GULLIDANDA / SITTI / KANKI / MANDUSI (Canary grass / bird seed grass)

NUTRITIONAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS

Conditions for development :

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :

Conditions for disease development :