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Handout 6 of 14

(Topic 2.1)

Earth’s Crust and Interior

Seafloor topography around Iceland in the North Atlantic Ocean

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:N-Atlantic-topo.png). Iceland has formed
above the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, on the boundary between the North America
and Eurasian plates. Iceland is located above a plume of anomalously hot
rock near the core-mantle boundary.
 Global Patterns
The Earth’s Crust and the Earth’s Interior
Key Ideas
The Earth’s Crust
Continental crust is different from oceanic crust.
Continental crust consists of shields, orogenic
belts, and sedimentary basins.
The Earth’s Interior
Evidence for the nature of the Earth’s interior
can be obtained from seismic waves.
Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior
Intended Student Learning
With the aid of maps and sectional diagrams,
compare continental crust and oceanic crust in terms
of their:
• global distribution;
• thickness;
• composition and density;
• topographical features;
• age.
Describe the typical ages, processes of formation,
and topographic features of, and the rock types
associated with, shields, orogenic belts, and
sedimentary basins.
On a map of Australia, mark the locations of the
Western Australian, Gawler, Adelaide, Tasman, and
Eromanga crustal elements.
State the ages of each of the crustal elements listed
above.
List the distinguishing rock types in each crustal
element listed above.
Identify the tectonic crustal type in each crustal
element listed above.
Use the information above to explain how the
Australian continent has developed.
Explain the meaning of the terms ‘focus’ and
‘epicentre’ as they apply to an earthquake.
Describe the properties of P-waves and S-waves.
State the relative arrival times of P-waves and S-
waves as shown by a typical seismogram.
Explain how the different arrival times of P-waves
and S-waves can be used to find the epicentre of an
earthquake.
Explain how the presence of shadow zones provides
information about the layered structure of the Earth.
Using a diagram, describe the structure of the
Earth’s interior, showing the crust, mantle, outer
core, and inner core.
Describe the relative thickness, composition, and
state of each layer.
Page 2 of 28
2.1 - Global Patterns
EARTH’S CRUST
The crust is Earth’s outermost layer. It is a thin skin of relatively cool, brittle
rock on which we live.

Continental and Oceanic Crust

Continental crust and oceanic crust are very different in nature. Continental
crust has a very complicated structure and variable composition, whereas
oceanic crust has a simple layered structure and uniform composition.
Differences between continental and oceanic crust are summarised in the table
below.

COMPARISON BETWEEN CONTINENTAL & OCEANIC CRUST

Feature Continental Crust Oceanic crust
35% of Earth’s surface - mainly in the 65% of Earth’s surface - mainly in
Global distribution
northern hemisphere. the southern hemisphere.

Average thickness 35 km 5 km

Maximum thickness 70 km 12 km

Fold mountain ranges, extensive areas of Mid-ocean ridges, abyssal plains,

Topographical features
low relief trenches

Composition Sial (Silicon and aluminium) Sima (Silicon and magnesium)

Average density (gcm-3) 2.7 3.3

Age Up to 3800 Ma Up to 250 Ma

NB: The terms sima and sial are generic terms which describe the overall
composition of continental and oceanic crust.

Sima - Silicon and magnesium - is the material of the oceanic crust and
upper mantle.
Sial - Silicon and aluminium - is the material of the continental crust.

Global Distribution

The map of Earth’s landmasses on the left shows that oceanic crust occupies
the majority of Earth’s surface, and that most of the continental crust lies in
the northern hemisphere

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 3 of 28

The diagram below shows the
relationship between oceanic and
continental crust. The following points
should be noted:
• Continental crust (sial) is much
thicker under mountain ranges
than beneath flat areas High
mountains have deep roots!
• Oceanic crust (sima) is thought to
lie beneath the continents as well
as forming the ocean floors.

Continental Shelves
All continents are surrounded by continental shelves - regions of submerged
continental crust where the water is comparatively shallow. Continental
shelves extend seawards from the shoreline to the upper edge of the continental
slope, where the depth of the water is usually about 200 metres. The shelf
usually has a seaward slope of less than 1°. At the outer edge of the continental
shelf there is an increase in slope which marks the beginning of the continental
slope. The continent-ocean boundary is half-way down the continental slope.

Structural Units of Continental Crust

Earth’s continents consist essentially of three structural units - shields,
orogenic belts and sedimentary basins.

Shields
Shields are the oldest regions of continents. They are stable areas of thick
continental crust - landmasses which have been severely folded and
metamorphosed, and have eroded for hundreds of millions, even thousands of
millions of years. At least two thirds of Australia became a shield area by 1000

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 4 of 28

Ma. The oldest rocks in Australia are in the Pilbara and Yilgarn Blocks of
Western Australia where there are sedimentary strata as old as 3800 Ma.

In contrast to the mountainous nature of orogenic belts, shields are areas of low
relief (essentially flat by world standards), possessing a thin surface cover of
unfolded sediments of terrestrial or marine origin.

The western part of Western Australia (i.e. Pilbara and Yilgarn Blocks), and
the Eyre Peninsula area of South Australia (Gawler Craton) are examples of
shields.

Predominant rock types in shields are schists, gneisses and granites.

Orogenic Belts (also called Fold Belts, or Geosynclines)

An orogenic belt is a long linear area of Earth's crust which is undergoing, or
has undergone, intense deformation (i.e. folding) accompanied by seismic and
volcanic activity.

These are areas of fold mountain ranges, which may include both intrusive and
extrusive igneous activity.

Such an orogenic belt may be formed when two continents collide and very high
fold mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas, are formed.

The Mount Lofty and Flinders Ranges in South Australia, and the Great
Dividing Range of eastern Australia are examples of linear orogenic belts,
although they are much older and more eroded than the fold mountain ranges
found on other continents. Other orogenic belts include the Himalayas, the Alps
of Europe and the Andes of South America.

Ages of orogenic belts vary considerably from late Proterozoic, such as the
Mount Lofty and Flinders Ranges; to Cainozoic such as the Himalayas, Alps
and Andes (Earth’s highest mountain ranges are its youngest!).

A wide variety of rock types may be found in orogenic belts, including:

• sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, shale, and limestone.
• rocks produced by regional metamorphism - slate, schist, and gneiss.
• igneous rocks - granite and basalt.

Sedimentary Basins
Sedimentary basins are regions where thick layers of sediments have been
deposited on an older, eroded, 'basement' and where there has been no
significant orogenic activity.
Most of the Australian continent consists of sedimentary basins, which vary in
age from late Proterozoic to Cainozoic.

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 5 of 28

All the rocks are sedimentary and include varieties of sandstone, shale and
limestone.
The map below shows the approximate locations of some of the most important
crustal elements of the Australian continent.

Important Crustal Elements of the Australian Continent

The table below summarises the significant features of the crustal elements
shown on the map:

Tectonic crustal
Crustal element Age Distinguishing rock types
type
Late Proterozoic to
Eromanga (Basin) Sandstone, limestone, shale Sedimentary basin
Cainozoic
sandstone, shale
limestone, slate,
Tasman (Fold Belt) Palaeozoic
schist, gneiss Orogenic belt
granite, basalt.
Adelaide
Late Proterozoic
(Geosyncline)
Gawler (Craton) Early Proterozoic schist, gneiss
Shield
Western Australian
Archaean granites
(Shield)

Development of the Australian Continent

1. The Australian continent is one of Earth's
oldest and most stable land masses - the most
recent, significant orogenic activity ended by
the beginning of the Mesozoic era (i.e. at 250
Ma).
2. For most of its history, the Australian continent
was part of a much larger land mass. At around
200 Ma the supercontinent Pangaea began to

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 6 of 28

 break apart into Laurasia and Gondwana. The shape of the present-day
Australian continent did not finally come into existence until around 60
Ma, when Australia and Antarctica began to move apart.
3. (The western and central parts of) Australia once formed part of
landmasses which existed even before the formation of Pangaea.
4. There is evidence that Australia moved extensively across the surface of
the globe since 3800 Ma. Palaeomagnetic studies show that some rocks
were formed when the continent was near the North Pole, others when it
was in the tropics and others when it was near the South Pole.
5. There is evidence that, during the Permian period, much of what is now
southern Australia was covered by a huge ice sheet, like the one that
covers the Antarctic continent today.
6. In the Cretaceous Period and again during the Palaeogene and Neogene
Periods (formerly known as the Tertiary Period), the sea invaded large
areas of inland Australia, resulting in the deposition of marine
sedimentary strata and the formation of sedimentary basins.

Processes in the Growth of the Continent

The land which makes up the present-day Australian continent has been
accreted (built-up) from the west. At the same time a series of orogenic belts
has been eroded to form shields, and sediments were deposited in long narrow
troughs (sometimes referred to geosynclines, e.g. the Adelaide Geosyncline).
Eventually orogenesis turned these sediments into fold mountain ranges which
were 'welded' onto the older continental nucleus in the west. In turn, these
mountain ranges have been eroded to form younger shields (e.g. the Gawler
Craton).
The oldest rocks on the continent are found in the Pilbara and Yilgarn Blocks,
which together comprise the Western Australian Shield, the nucleus of the
Australian continent.
The diagrams on the next page show the sequence of events by which the
Australian continent has, since 3800 Ma, 'grown' (accreted) progressively from
the west by means of a succession of mountain ranges eroding to shields.
The most recent orogenic activity began early in the Palaeozoic Era (~ 530 Ma)
and continued until the end of the Triassic Period (~ 180 Ma). It resulted in the
formation of the Great Dividing Range from sediments deposited in the
Tasman Geosyncline. Essentially, there has been no orogenic activity within
the Australian continent for since 180 Ma (i.e. the landmass has been
tectonically stable), and consequently it has gradually eroding to form a
relatively flat topography.

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 7 of 28

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 8 of 28
EARTH’S INTERIOR
The Nature of Earth's Interior
We know more about outer space than
we do about the interior of our own
planet. All our knowledge about Earth's
interior comes from indirect evidence,
such as seismic waves and the
composition of meteorites. The adjacent
diagram shows that Earth consists of
four major layers.
The diagram below shows the internal structure of the Earth in more detail,
including the approximate depths of the boundaries between the layers.

The following table summarises the essential properties for each of Earth's
layers.

Physical
Name of Layer Thickness (km) Composition
state

Crust: Continental 25 - 40 solid granitic (sial)

Oceanic Average 12 solid basaltic (sima)

Mantle 2900 solid peridotite

Outer core 2100 liquid alloy of Fe & Ni

Inner core 1400 solid same as outer core.

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 9 of 28

Earthquakes
The passage of earthquake waves through Earth provides valuable information
about the nature of its interior.

Earthquakes occur in areas where rocks

are subject to directed pressure, which
causes stress in the rocks. The
lithosphere (Earth’s solid outer layer)
may bend until the stress exceeds the
strength of the rocks.

The lithosphere then breaks, or 'snaps'

into a new position. In the breaking
process, vibrations generated at the
fracture travel through the rocks as
earthquakes.

The focus of an earthquake is the location inside Earth of the fracture or

faulting which caused the earthquake.

The epicentre of the earthquake is the point on the surface of Earth situated
directly above the focus.

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 10 of 28

Earthquake Waves
The waves produced by earthquakes may be divided into two groups. They are:

1. Body waves travel through Earth’s interior. There are two types of body
waves:
a. Primary, or push-pull waves (P-waves).
b. Secondary, or shear waves (S-waves).

2. Surface waves or L-waves, which travel around Earth’s surface. These are the
waves which cause earthquake damage.

Primary Waves
These are the fastest waves produced by the earthquake. They travel through
Earth's interior, and reach recording stations first. They are longitudinal
waves, in which the particles of the medium (the material through which the
wave is travelling) vibrate backwards and forwards along the line of
propagation of the wave forming a series of compressions and rarefactions.
Compressions are regions of the wave in which the particles of the medium are
close together.
Rarefactions are regions of the wave in which the particles of the medium are
further apart.
The diagram below shows the behaviour of the particles of a medium as a P-
wave passes through the medium.

Secondary Waves
Secondary waves also travel through Earth’s interior. These are transverse
waves in which the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave. A transverse wave consists of a series of
crests and troughs, as shown in the diagram below.

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 12 of 28

Refraction of Earthquake Waves
The speed at which a wave travels depends on the medium through which it is
travelling. As a wave passes from one medium to another its speed changes,
and the direction in which it travels also changes. All kinds of waves undergo a
change in direction, or refraction, as they pass from one medium to another.
For example water waves are refracted as they pass from deep water into
shallow water, since their speed is less in shallow water. Light waves are
refracted as they pass from water into glass.
The density of Earth's mantle increases with depth, so that earthquake waves
are gradually refracted towards Earth's surface as they travel through the
mantle.

Shadow Zones
Wherever an earthquake occurs, there are always some seismic stations around
the world which receive no waves at all from that earthquake. There are also
stations which receive only P-waves. This is because of the behaviour of the
waves as they pass from one of Earth's layers to the next one.

The P-Wave Shadow Zone

As well as being gradually refracted as they pass through the mantle, P-waves
undergo refraction at the boundary between the mantle and the outer core. For
this reason, no P-waves are received by seismic stations in a band around
Earth extending between 103° and 145° from the earthquake's epicentre. This
region is known as the P-wave shadow zone.
Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 13 of 28
The diagram below shows how P-waves are refracted at boundaries between
Earth's layers to produce the P-wave shadow zone.

The adjacent diagram shows the P-wave shadow zone

produced by an earthquake which occurred at the North
Pole.
The extent of the P-wave shadow zone - between 103° and
145° from the earthquake's epicentre - enables the depth of
the boundary between the mantle and the outer core to be
calculated.

The S-Wave Shadow Zone

The S-wave shadow zone is much more extensive than the corresponding P-
wave zone. This is because S-waves are unable to travel through liquids and
are therefore absorbed by the liquid outer core. The S-wave shadow zone
therefore extends from 103° on one side of the earthquake
to 103° on the other. Existence of the S-wave shadow zone
provides evidence that Earth's outer core is liquid.

The diagram below shows the paths of the S-waves

through Earth's interior, and hence the S-wave shadow
zone.

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 14 of 28

The adjacent diagram shows the S-wave shadow zone produced by an
earthquake which occurred at the North Pole. It is much larger than the P-
wave shadow zone produced by the same earthquake.

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 15 of 28

 EXERCISES
EARTH’S CRUST
Continental and Oceanic Crust
1. Compare the essential features of continental and oceanic crust by
completing the table below.

Feature Continental crust Oceanic crust

Global distribution

Average thickness

Maximum thickness

Topographical features

Composition

Average density (gcm-3)

Age (Ma)

2. Explain the meanings of the terms sima and sial.

3. The diagram below shows the relationship between oceanic and

continental crust. On the diagram, label the following features:
continental shelf, continental slope, abyssal plain, continental crust,
oceanic crust.

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 16 of 28

4. Describe the essential features of a continental shelf.

Structural Units of Continental Crust

1. In the table below, summarise the essential features of the principal
structural units of continental crust.

STRUCTURAL TYPICAL PROCESS OF TOPOGRAPHIC PREDOMINANT

UNIT AGES FORMATION FEATURES ROCK TYPES

2. On the map of the Australian continent shown below:

a. Identify the tectonic crustal types indicated in the key.
b. Name the five crustal elements which make up the continent.

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 17 of 28

3. The diagram below contains a blank stratigraphic column. Complete this
stratigraphic column to show the periods of rock formation on the
Australian continent, and name the features which were formed.

Ma Era Period FEATURES OF AUSTRALIAN CONTINENT

0
Neogene
Cainozoic
24
Palaeogene
65
Cretaceous
145 Mesozoic Jurassic
210
Triassic
250
Permian
300
Carboniferous
350
Devonian
Palaeozoic
400
Silurian
440
Ordovician
500
Cambrian
540
Ediacaran
600

Proterozoic

2500

Archaean

STRATIGRAPHIC CRUSTAL ELEMENTS

COLUMN FORMED

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 19 of 28

4. In the space provided below, write the names of the crustal elements in
order of their ages.

YOUNGEST

OLDEST

5. Use the table below summarises the significant features of the crustal
elements shown on the map:

Crustal element Age (Ma) Distinguishing rock Tectonic crustal

types type

Development of the Australian Continent

1. When did the most recent major orogenic activity on the Australian
continent end?

2. Explain why the Australian continent is one of Earth's most stable land
masses.

3. Name the super-continent which once encompassed all of Earth's land

masses.

4. When did this super-continent begin to break up?

5. Name the two land masses which were formed.

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 20 of 28

6. When and how did the present-day Australian continent come into
existence?

7. Is it true to say that Pangaea represents the distribution of land and sea
on Earth's surface from the formation of Earth until about 200 Ma?
Explain your answer:

8. Has Australia always occupied its present position on Earth's surface?

Explain your answer.

9. What are palaeomagnetic studies?

10. During which period did a large ice sheet cover much of southern
Australia?

11. Name some South Australian locations where there is evidence of

glaciation.

12. Name two periods in which the sea invaded large areas of inland
Australia.

13. What features are the results of these incursions?

14. Describe, in general terms, the processes by which the Australian

continent has developed since 3800 Ma. Use diagrams to illustrate your
answer.
Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 21 of 28
15. Give the geological and geographic names of the feature which is a result
of the most recent orogenic activity on the Australian continent.

16. Name the periods during which this activity began and ended.

17. The adjacent diagram shows the

structural features of an imaginary
continent Walfordaria. It comprises a
fold mountain range and an eroded
region of low relief, where the rocks
are mainly schists and gneisses.

In the space below, draw a series of

diagrams showing the geological
history of Walfordaria.

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 22 of 28

18. Connect the appropriate pairs of words or phrases from the two lists
below.

Pilbara and Yilgarn

A range of fold mountains
Blocks

Pangaea Great Dividing Range

A very long period of

Late in the Triassic Period
erosion

Show no signs of orogenic Cretaceous and Tertiary

activity Periods

Provides evidence for the

The 'ancestor' of a shield
'wandering' of the continent

The Tasman crustal

Sedimentary basins
element

When much of inland Leads to formation of

Australia was under the sea shields

The most recent orogenic

Palaeomagnetic studies
activity in Australia

The 'nucleus' of the Formed by all the

Australian continent continents joined together

The Nature of Earth's Interior

1. The diagram below shows a section through Earth. Give the names of the
layers numbered 1 to 4.

1:

2:

3:

4:

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 23 of 28

 2. The diagram below shows a section through Earth's interior. Draw the
boundaries between the major layers in the appropriate places, and name
the material of which each layer is made.

3. Use the following table to summarise the essential properties of each of

Earth's layers.

Name of layer Thickness (km) Physical state Composition

Crust: Continental

Oceanic

Mantle

Outer core

Inner core

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 24 of 28

Earthquakes

1. The adjacent diagram shows an

area of Earth’s surface where
rocks are being subjected to
directed pressure causing stress
to build-up.

a. In what way are rocks

reacting to the applied
pressure?

b. Explain, with the aid of a second

diagram, what happens when
the applied force exceeds the
strength of the rocks.

2. Explain, with the aid of a

diagram, the difference between
the focus and the epicentre of an
earthquake.

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 25 of 28

2. Use the table below to summarise the properties of P and S-waves.

TYPE OF MOVEMENT OF
PARTICLES DIAGRAM
WAVE

P-waves

S-waves

3. The diagram below shows a typical seismogram. Label it to show the

arrivals of the different types of earthquake wave, and give the arrival
time of each wave type.

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 26 of 28

4. Explain why earthquake waves are refracted as they pass through Earth’s
mantle.

5. Use the diagram of a part of Earth’s interior below to indicate the paths
of some of the body waves produced by an earthquake as they travel
through the mantle.

6. Show on the diagram below the refraction of an earthquake wave passing

from one of Earth’s layers to another.

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 27 of 28

7. Use the two diagrams of Earth's interior provided below to show how the P
and S-wave shadow zones are formed.

P-wave shadow zone S-wave shadow zone

5. On the diagrams below, indicate the extent of the P and S wave shadow
zones associated with an earthquake which occurred at the North Pole.

P-wave shadow zone S-wave shadow zone

6. What information is provided by the P-wave shadow zone?

7. What do we learn from the S-wave shadow zone?

Topic 2.1 Earth’s Crust and Interior Page 28 of 28