Date : ____________

EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment : To verify ‘ Bernoulli’s Theorem ’.

Apparatus : Bernoulli’s apparatus, Controlling valve at inlet and outlet,

Discharge Measuring Tank, Scale, Stopwatch etc.

Formula : P / W + V22 + 2 = constant

Where,
P / W = Pressure energy
V2 / 2g = Kinetic energy
Z = Potential energy

Theory : The Bernoulli’s theorem states that the total energy / N of

flowing, non Viscous in compressible fluid in a steady state
of flow, remains constant along a stream line Daniel
Bernoulli’s enunciated in 1738 that is “ In any stream flowing
steadily without friction, the total energy contained in a given
mass is some at energy contained in a given mass is some
at energy point in its path of flow.” This statement is called
Bernoulli’s theorem with reference to section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2
along the length of steady flow in the stream tube shown in
fig. The total energy at section 1 – 1 is equal to the total
energy - at section 2 – 2 as stated in Bernoulli’s theorem.
With usual notations, the expression for total energy contained
in a unit wt of fluid at section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2 is given by

Total energy at Section 1 – 1 = P1 / W + V12 / 2g +Z1

Total energy at section 2 – 2 = P2 / W + V22 / 2g +Z2
Where,
P1 / W = pressure energy at section 1 – 1
V12 / 2g = Kinetic energy at section 1 – 1
Z1 = Potential energy at section 1 – 1
P2 / W = Pressure energy at section 2 – 2
V22 / 2g = Kinetic energy at section 2 – 2
Z2 = Potential energy at section 2 – 2

Thus applying Bernoulli’s theorem between section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2 we find

P1 / W + V12 / 2g + Z1 = P2 / W + V22 / 2g + Z2

In MKS system the pressure energy, kinetic energy and

potential energy measured in meter of fluid column per unit wt
of fluid equation is modified by taking into loss of energy due
to friction between section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2 is written as

P1 / W + V12 / 2g + Z1 = P2 / W + V22 / 2g + Z2 + ( ∆H )1 / 2

Where ( ∆H ) 1 / 2 represents the loss of energy between section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2

 Procedure : Open the measuring tank valve fully, to keep the tank empty.
Close the outlet valve. Open the inlet valve and let water rise to
some height ‘h’ in the inlet tank. Measure this height on the
piezometer. Now open the outlet valve slightly. If water level in
the tank falls, close the outlet valve slightly and vice-verse.
Thus adjust the outlet valve fill the water level remains constant
at ‘h’, and also readings on each of the piezometer.
Check if reading is correctly written. Close the measuring
tank valve. Measure the discharge, i.e. note rise in water
level in 5 or 10 sec., write these and also measure and note
length and breath of the tank. This completes on run. Take
at least three runs by changing the discharge.
1) Note down the area of the conduit at various gauge points.
2) Open the supply valve and adjust the flow so that the water level
in the inlet tanks remains constant.
3) Measure the height of water level (above an arbitrarily selected
suitable plane) in different remains constant.
4) Measure the discharge of the conduit with the help of measuring
tank.
5) Repeat steps 2 to 4 for two more discharges.
6) Plot graph between total energy and distance of gauge points
starting from u/s side of conduit.

Observation :
1) Area of collecting tank = A = L x B = cm2
2) Difference in water level in collecting tank = ∆h
3) Time required for rise of water level by 10 cm = ∆t
4) Discharge = Qact = Volume of water cm3/sec
Time

Observation Table :

Piezometric Duct Velocity-

Sr.
head = area (a) V = Q/a V2/2g cm P / W + V2/2G + Z
No.
P/W+Z cm. cm/sec
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
Sample Calculation : 1) Discharge = Qact = A x ∆ h cm3/sec
∆t
2) Duct area = a = 4 x L cm2
3) Velocity = V = Q/a cm/sec
4) Velocity head = V2/2g cm
5) Total head = P / W + V2/2G + Z
6) Draw the graph - a) No. of tubes to –
P/W+Z
b) No. of tubes to -
V2/2g cm
c) No. of tubes to -
P / W + V2/2G + Z

Result : The total energy of a streamline, while the particle moves

from one point to another. Bernoulli’s theorem for an
incompressible fluid flow is verified.
 Date : ____________

EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment : To determine the Friction Factor ‘ F ’ for a
pipe.

Apparatus : U – tube manometer connected across a pipe line, Stop

Watch, Collecting tank etc.

Formula : Head loss due to friction in pipe

hf = 4flv2 OR Flv2
2gd 2gd
Where : F = friction factor = (4f)
l = length of pipe
V = Velocity of flow through pipe.
d = Diameter of pipe.
g = Acceleration due to gravity.
f = Coeff. of friction

Theory : The experimental set up consists of a large number of pipes

of different diameters. The pipes have tapping at certain
distance so that a U – Tube manometer is connected in
between them.
The flow of water through a pipeline is regulated by
operating a control valve which is provided in main supply
line, for measuring the head loss. The length of the pipe is
considered as a distance between the two pressure tapping,
to which a U – Tube mercury manometer is fitted.
Actual discharge through pipeline is calculated by collecting
the water in collecting tank and by noting the time for
collection.
∴ Velocity of flow = V = Q = ( A
H ) / t
a a
Where :
A = Area of tank.
H = Depth of water collected in tank.
t = Time required to collect the water up to a height “H” in
the tank.
a = Area of pipe.
Q = Discharge through pipe.

Now applying Bernoulli’s equation between two pressure

tapping, we have.
 PA + Z = PB + ( Z – hm ) + hmρm
g ∵ W = weight of water
w w w = ρwg
=> PA – PB = hm ρ m
g – hm Z = Z
ρw
g / ρw
g
ρw
g ρw
g ρw
g
=> PA – PB = hm ρm – 1 Z – hm = ( Z – hm ) ρw
g
ρw
g ρm ρw
g

=> hf = hm ρm – 1 h f = P A – PB
ρm ρw
g

Procedure :

1) Note down the diameter of pipe (d).

2) Note the density of manometric liquid (ρm) and that of fluid
(water) flowing through a pipe i.e. (ρm).
3) Connect the U – tube manometer to the pipe in between two
pressure tappings.
4) Start the flow and adjust the control valve in pipe line for
required discharge.
5) Measure the pressure difference at two points A & B of a
pipe by means of a U – tube manometer.
6) By collecting the water in collecting tank for a particular
period of time.
7) Determine the velocity of flow (V) and frictional head loss (hf)
by using appropriate equations.
8) Determine the friction factor (f) in pipe by using Darcy –
Weisbach formula.
9) Change the flow rate by adjusting the control valve & repeat the
process for at least five times.
10) Find out the mean friction factor (f) mean of the pipe.
11) Plot a graph of velocity of flow (V) on y – axis verses frictional
head loss (hf) on x – axis which shows a straight line.

Observation :
5) l = Length of Pipe = cm
6) d = Dia of Pipe = cm
7) Size of collecting tank = _______ x _______ cm2
8) ρm = Density of mercury = 13600 kg / m3
9) ρw = Density of water = 1000 kg / m3
 Observation Table :

Sr. Frictional Head Actual Velocity

Manometic Reading Tank Reading
No. Loss Time Discharge of flow
Left Right
Diff. hf=hm ρm – 1 Initial Final Diff t
(hB - frict-
Limb Limb
hA)
ρw height height H2-H1
Qac= AH V = Qac ion
f
HA HB hm t a factor mean
hf = P A – PB
cm cm cm F
ρw .g H1 H2 H
M3/Sec M/Sec
Meter
cm cm cm
Sec
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.

Sample Calculation : 1) a = c/s area of pipe

= π (d)2 = π ( )2 = ______ M2
4 4
7) A = Area of tank = _______ x _________

For Reading No. 1

Frictional head loss = hf = hm ρm – 1

ρw
= ______ 13600 – 1
1000
Actual Discharge
Qac = AH = ____x_____
t
= ______ M3 / Sec
Velocity of flow
V = Qac / a = _____
= _____ m / Sec
Friction factor
F = 2hf.g.d
lv2
OR Coeff. of friction
f = 2hf.g.d = hf.gd
4.l.v2 2lv2
Mean friction factor
fmean

Result : The friction factor “ F ” for the pipe is found to be ________.

 Date : ____________

EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment : To study the Impact of Jet i.e. verify the
momentum equation.

Apparatus : Scale, Measuring wts., collecting tank, impact of jet

apparatus, (i.e. nozzle vane, transparent cylinder etc.)

Formula : F = PQ2
a

Where : P = Mass density of water.

Q = Discharge in tank.
a = Area of nozzle.

Theory : Momentum equation is based one Newton second law of

motion which states that the algebraic sum of external force
applied to central volume of fluid in any distance. The
external forces included the component of wts. of the fluid
and of forces exerted externally open the boundary surface
of the control volume.
If a vertical water jet moving with velocity ‘V’ is made to
strike a target which is free to move in vertical direction then
the force will be exerted on the target by the impact of jet.
According to momentum equation this force (which is also
equal to the force required to bring back the target in its
original position) must be equal to the rate of change of
momentum of the jet flow in the direction.
Applying momentum equation in x – direction.
– Fx = PQ [ Vx out – Vx in ]
= PQ [ V cosβ β-V]
Fx = PQV [ 1 - cosβ β]
For flat plate β = 900
Fx = PQV
For hemispherical cup, β = 1800
Fx = 2 PQV
Here P is the mass density, Q is the discharge through
nozzle, V is the velocity at exists of nozzle and ‘a’ is area of
nozzle.
∴ Fx = PQ2
a
While for curved hemispherical Vane the forces
∴ Fx = 2PQ2
a
Procedure :

1) Note down the dimension as area of collecting tank. Toss

density of water and diameter of nozzle.
2) The flat plate is inserted.
3) When the jet is not running, note down the reading of upper
disc.
4) The water supply is admitted to the nozzle and the flow rate
adjusted to its max valve.
5) As the jet strikes the vane, position of upper disc is changed.
Now place the wts. to bring back the upper disc to its original
position.
6) The procedure is repeated for each valve of flow by reducing
water supply.
7) The procedure is repeated for 4 to 5 reading.

Observation :
1) Dia. of nozzle = 10 mm = 0.01m
2) Mass density of water, ρ = 1000kg / m3.
3) Area of collecting tank = _______ x _______ cm2
4) Area of Nozzle, a = π c/s area of pipe
4
5) When jet in not running position of upper disc = 11.4 cm

Observation Table :

Sr. Discharge Measurement Balancing T Practical % error

No. Force = F- F1 x100
Intial Final Time Q W F ρQ2 (N)
F= 2ρ F
cm cm Sec cm3/S (gm) (N) a
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.

Sample Calculation :
1) Area of nozzle = Q = π x (0.01)2 = ______
4
2) ∆H = Final - Initial = _______
3) Q = l x b x h = __________
∆t
4) Balancing weight (W) = ______
5) Force, F = W x 9.81 = ______
1000
6) T practical Force, ‘F’ = 2ρQ2 = ______
a

Result : While verifying the law of momentum it is observed that

analytical and experimental values of force are
approximately equal.
 Date : ____________

EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment : Determination of coefficient of discharge,
coefficient of contraction, coefficient of
velocity on orifice.

Apparatus : Intel tank which is fed from on overhead tank through a pipe
network sharp edge orifice, hock gauge attached to the inlet
tank, Stop watch, Scale etc.

Formula : Qtn = a x √ 2gh

Qac = V = A . ∆H
t t
Where : a = Area of orifice.
Q = Constant head of water in inlet tank.
V = Volume of water collected in tank.
A = C / S area of tank.
∆H = Depth of water collected in tank.
t = Time require to collect the water in collecting
tank.

Theory : Orifice is a small opening of any U / S such as circular,

triangular, rectangular, on a side or on the bottom of the
tank, through which a fluid flows. Orifices are used for
measuring he rate of flowing fluid.
The water is allowed to flow through an orifice fitted to tank
and a constant head ‘H’. The water is collected in
measuring tank for known time ‘ t ‘. The height of water in
the measuring tank is noted.
Then the actual discharge through the orifice.
Qac = A x ∆H
t
Qtn = a x √ 2gh
Cd = Qac
Qtn
Coefficient Velocity = Actual Velocity
Theoretical Velocity
Consider a liquid particle which is at vena contract at any
time status the position along the jet at P. Jet
x = horizontal distance traveled by paticles
y = vertical distance by particle.
v = actual velocity of jet.
∴ Horizontal distance, x = v x t -- 
2
Vertical distance g = ½ g t -- 
∴ from  and 
g = ½ g x2 / V2
∴ = V2 = gx2 / 2g
 ∴=V = gx2
2g
But theoretical velocity, Vtn = 2gh
∴ Cv = V
Vtn
∴ Cv = gx2 x 1 = x2
2g 2g 4gH
Cc = Cd
Cv
Procedure :

1) The dia of the orifice, dimension of measuring tank, and dia of

pipeline were noted.
2) The x and y movement of the pointer was checked to be jerk free
and smooth.
3) The inlet controlled valve was opened. The inlet tank was
allowed to fill the over flow started. The inlet valve was from
adjusted till the water level in the tank becomes constant as
checked by piezometer reading.
4) After 3 to 5 min, when steady of flow acquired, it and valve of x
and y were measured open pointer was kept at center of jet.
5) The discharge was measured and head ‘h’ was calculated again.
The procedure was repeated for a set of 4 different reading.

Observation :

1) Diameter of Orifice, d = ______

2) c/s area of an orifice = π (1)2 / 4 = _______
3) Area of Collecting Tank = ______

Observation Table :

Sr. Qact H Qtn = a √ 2gH X Y

Cd = Qact Mean
∆H ∆t (cm) (cm3/s) Qtn Cd
No. (cm3/s) (cm) (cm)
01.
02.
03.
04.
Sample Calculation :

1) Qact = l x b x h =________
∆t
2) Qtn = a √2gH = _______
3) Cd = Qact = ________
Qtn
4) Cv = Vact = x = ______
Vtn √4gH
5) Cc = Cd = _____
Cv

Result :
1) The mean values of hydraulic coefficients are as follows :
a) Coefficient of discharge, Cd = _____
b) Coefficient of Velocity, Cv = _______
c) Coefficient of Contraction, Cc = _______
 Date :______________

EXPERIMENT NO :

Name of the Experiment : To determine the coefficient of discharge ( Cd )

for an Orificemeter.

Apparatus : An Orificemeter fitted across a pipeline leading to a collecting tank,

Stop Watch, U-Tube manometer etc.

Formula : Actual discharge through Orificemeter

Q ac = C.a1.a0(2g.h)1/2 / [a12 – a02]1/2

Where:
C : Constant i.e. Coefficient of Orificemeter.

C = Cd .{1 – (a02 / a12)}1/2 / {1 – Cd2(a02 / a12)}1/2

Cd : Coefficient of discharge for Orificemeter.

a1 : Cross section area of pipe at inlet i.e. entry section.
a0 : Cross section area of Orifice.
h : Pressure head difference in terms of fluid flowing through
pipeline system.

Again,
Actual discharge through Orificemeter

Q ac = V / t = (A.∆H) / t
V : (A.∆H) i.e. Volume of water collected in collecting tank
A : Cross section area of collecting tank.
∆H : (H2 – H1) i.e. Depth of water collected in collecting tank.
t : Time required to collect the water up to a height ∆H in the
collecting tank.

Theory : An Orificemeter is used to measure the discharge in a pipe. An

Orificemeter in it’s simplest form consists of a plate having a sharp
edged circular hole known as an orifice. The plate is fixed inside the
pipe as shown in figure.

A mercury U-tube manometer is inserted to know the difference of

pressure head between the two tapping.

Orificemeter works on the same principle as that of Venturimeter i.e. by

reducing the area of flow passage a pressure difference is developed
between the two section and the measurement of pressure difference is
used to find the discharge.

By applying Bernoulli’s equation between inlet of pipe & throat i.e. orifice section.

(p1 / w) + (v 12 / 2g) + z1 = (p2 / w) + (v 22 / 2g) + z2

When Orificemeter is connected in horizontal pipe, then z1 = z2

Therefore (p1 - p2) / w = (v 22 / 2g) - (v12 / 2g)

h = (v 22 / 2g) - (v 12 / 2g) -------------------------------------------- 1.

Further if a1 & a2 be the cross section area of Pipe at inlet & that of jet
respectively, then by continuity equation

Q = a1v 1 = a2v 2
a2 = a1v 1 / v2 ------------------------------------------------------- a

If Cc = Coefficient of contraction = a2 / a0
Cc = Area of jet at vena contracta / Area of orifice
a2 = Cc a0 ------------------------------------------------------- b
v 1 = Cc v2 (a0 / a1)
From equation 1; v 2 = ( 2gh + v 12 )1/2 in this equation losses has not been
considered and gives theoretical velocity.
v 2 = ( 2gh + v 12 )1/2

If Cv= Coefficient of velocity = Actual velocity / Theorotical velocity

∴Actual velocity of jet at vena contracta i.e. at section 2
v 2 = Cv ( 2gh + [Cc v 2 (a0 / a1)] 2 )1/2
v 2 = Cv {(2gh )1/2 /(1- [Cc Cv (a0 / a1)] 2 )1/2 }

But Coefficient of discharge Cd = Cc Cv

By continuity equation Q = a2v 2
Q = Cc a0 v 2
Q = Cc Cv a0 {(2gh )1/2 /(1- [Cc Cv (a0 / a1)] 2 )1/2 }
Q = Cd a0 {(2gh )1/2 /(1- [Cd (a0 / a1)] 2 )1/2 }

If C= Constant of orificemeter, then

C = Cd {1 – (a02 / a12)}1/2 / {1 – Cd2(a02 / a12)}1/2

Q ac = C.a0(2g.h)1/2 / {1 – (a02 / a12)}1/2

Q ac = C.a1.a0(2g.h)1/2 / (a12 – a02)1/2

Procedure :

* Note the diameter at the inlet of pipe (d1) and the diameter of an orifice (do).
* Note the density of manometric liquid i.e. mercury (ρm) and that of fluid flowing
through pipeline i.e. water (ρw).
* Connect the U-tube manometer to the pressure toppings of orificemeter, one
end at the inlet section and the other end at the section where jet of water
leaves from orifice forming a vena contracta.
* Start the flow and adjust the control valve in pipeline to get the required
discharge.
 * Measure the pressure difference (Hm ) between two sections of orificemeter by
using U - tube mercury manometer.
* Convert the pressure head difference in meters of fluid flowing through
pipeline ( i.e. water ) by using the equation h = Hm [(ρm / ρw) -1]
* Measure flow rate i.e. actual discharge (Qac) through Venturimeter by means
collecting the water in collecting tank for a specified period of time.
Q ac = V / t = (A.∆H) / t
* Change the flow rate by adjusting the control valve and repeat the process or
at least five times.
* Determine the constant (C) of orificemeter and then calculate coefficient of
discharge (Cd) for each flow rate and find the mean value of coefficient of
discharge (Cd) mean.

Observation :

Diameter of pipe, d1 = ______ m

Diameter of orifice, do = ______ m
Area of collecting tank, A = ______x______ = ________ m2
Area of pipe at entry, a1 = [(л/4) d12] = [(л/4) ( )2] = ________ m2.
Area of orifice, ao = [(л/4) do2] = [(л/4) ( )2] = ________ m2.
Density of mercury, ρm =13600 kg / m3.
Density of water, ρw =1000 kg / m3

Observation Table :

Manometric Pressure Tank Actual Constant of

Reading Head Diff. Reading Discharge Orificemeter
Time Coefficient
Sr. of
t C= Discharge
No.
Left Right Diff. h= Diff. Q ac = Qac [a12 – a02]1/2
Initial Final
Limb Limb h2 - h1 Hm[(ρm/ρw) -1] H2 - H1 (A.∆H) / t Cd
[a1.a0( 2g.h )1/2]
h1 h2 Hm H1 H2 ∆H
m sec m3 / sec
m m m m m m
1

5
Sample Calculation : For Observation No. ___.

* Pressure head difference,

h = Hm [(ρm /ρw) – 1]
= ______ [(13600 /1000) – 1]
= ______ [12.6]
= ______ m.

* Actual discharge,
Qac = (A.∆H) / t
= (______ x ______) / ______
= _______ m3 / sec.

* Constant of Orificemeter,

C = Qac [a12 – a02]1/2 / [a1.a0( 2g.h )1/2]

= ______ [ _____2 – _____2 ]1/2 / [ _____ x _____( 2 x 9.81 x ______ )1/2]
= ___________ / __________
= __________

* To Find Coefficient of Discharge (Cd),

By Using Relation
C = Cd .{1 – (a02 / a12)}1/2 / {1 – Cd2(a02 / a12)}1/2
_______ = Cd .{1 – ( _____2 / _____2)}1/2 / {1 – Cd2(______2 / _______2)}1/2
∴
Cd = _________

* Mean Constant of Orificemeter,

(C) mean = ( ____ +_____+_____+_____+______ ) / 5.
= _______.

* Mean Coefficient of Discharge for Orificemeter,

(Cd) mean = ( ____ +_____+_____+_____+______ ) / 5.
= _______.
 Result :

* Constant of orificemeter ( C ) is found to be ________

* Coefficient of discharge for orificemeter (Cd) is found to be ________

 Date : ____________

EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment : To determine coefficient of discharge
through Rectangular Notch.

Apparatus : Channel with Rectangular Notch, Point gauge, Collecting

tank, Stop watch, Scale etc.

Formula : 1. Qact = V = l x b x ∆h
t ∆t

2. Qtn = 2/3 ( b √ 2g ) ( H )3/ 2

Where : V = Volume of water collected in tank.

b = Width of Notch.
H = Head of water over still.

Theory : A Notch is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a

liquid through a small channel or a tank.
It may be defined as an opening in the side of a tank or a
small channel in such a way treat the liquid surface edge of
the opening.
Consider a rectangular notch provided in channel or tank
carrying water.
Let H – Head of water of still or crest.
b – width of notch.
For finding the discharge of water flowing over notch,
consider an elementary horizontal strip of water of thickness
‘dh’ and length surface of water.
The area of strip = b x dh
Vtn = √ 2gh
Discharge through strip
aQ = Cd x Area of strip x Vtn
dQ = Cd x L x dh x √ 2gh
Where Cd – Coefficient of discharge.
∴ the total discharge Q
Q = o ∫ H Cd L √ 2g √ hdh
Q = Cd L √ 2g o ∫ H √ hdh
Q = Cd b √ 2g H3/2 / 3/2
Q = 2/3 Cd b √ 2g H3/2
 Procedure :

1) The tank dimensions were measured.

2) The flow in the off was started.
3) The flow was kept constant.
4) The head of water in piezometer of constant time interval for
collecting tank was noted.
5) Open slightly the valve without increase the rotation suddenly after
fixed time interval.
6) Also note the head over the still after each interval.

Observation :

1) Volume of tank =
2) Width of rectangular Notch = b =
3) Time ∆ t = constant =

Observation Table :

Point Gauge Reading Discharge measurement Cd

Sr. Diff. Qact = v = Qact
Initial Final ∆R ∆t
No. (H) t 2 / 3 (b √ 2g )(H 3) / 2
(cm) (cm) (cm) (sec) 3
(cm) (cm / s)
01.
02.
03.
04.

Sample Calculation :

1) V=
2) Qact = V/t =
3) Qtn = 2 / 3 (b √ 2g )(H 3) / 2
4) Cd = Qact =
2 / 3 (b √ 2g )(H 3) / 2

Result : Coefficient of discharge for rectangular notch was found to

be _________
 Date : ____________

EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment : To determine the type of flow by using
Reynold’s number.

Apparatus : Reynold’s experimental arrangement, Collecting tank, Stop

watch, Scale, colour dye ( Potassium Permagnet ) etc.

Formula : Re. = ρ VD
µ

Where : Re = Reynold’s Number ( dimensionless ).

V = Average Velocity cm / S.
D = Diameter of pipe cm.
ρ = Mass density of fluid ( Kg / m3 )
µ = Dynamic Viscosity ( N – S / m3 )

Theory : The classification of flow is based mainly on viscosity of a

fluid or liquid. The viscosity that is seen earlier depends
upon velocity gradient (dx, dg) is considered through
Reynolds Number defined as below.
Re. = VD ρ
µ
Reynolds carried out experiments to decide limiting values of
Reynolds number to quantifiably decide wheeler the flow is
laminar, turbulent or transition. The flows con visualize by
passing a streak of dye and observing its motion.
Laminar flow : A flow is said to be laminar when the various fluid
particles moves in layer with one layer of fluid living
smoothly over on adjacent layer. A laminar flow is one in
which the fluid particles moves in layers or laminar with one
layer sliding over the other. Therefore there is no exchange
of fluid particles from one layer to theather and hence no
transfer of later of momentum to be adjacent layers. The
particles, in the layer having lower velocity, obstruct the fluid
particles in the layer with higher velocity. This obstruction
force is called viscous resistance or viscosity. The laminar
flow is one in which fluid layers glide over each another. It
has low velocity and high viscous resistance.
Turbulent flow : There is a continuous transfer of momentum to
adjacent layers. Fluid particles occupy different relative
position at different places. It is one in which, the particles
get thoroughly mixed on (called turbulence). The turbulent
flow has higher velocity. The flow in canals, pipes and rivers
is usually turbulent flow.
Transition flow : The transition flow has intermediate properties
between the laminar and turbulent flow. In laminar the
forces should be considered to calculate the friction loss and
in the turbulent flow only the internal forces are considered
 because the effect of viscous force is negligible as compared
to internal forces. Reynolds carried out experiments to
decide limiting values of Reynolds number to quantifiably
decide whether the flow is laminar, turbulent or transition.
These limits are as below.

Sr. No. Type of Flow Reynolds Number

01. Laminar Flow < 2100
02. Transition Flow 2100 – 3000
03. Turbulent > 3000

The flow can be visualized by passing a streak of dye and

observing its motion. In the laminar, low velocity flow the
streak line is only slightly zig – zag. In the turbulent flow, the
dye thoroughly mixes up in the flow. Thus passing through a
glass pipe and observing the velocity at different mixing
stages of the dye is the principle on which Reynolds
apparatus is based.

Procedure :

1) Dia of pipe, size of measuring tank at room temperature was noted

down.
2) The tank was filled to some height by opening inlet valve and
closing control valve.
3) Dye was filled in Dye tank.
4) Control valve was open slightly and also the inlet valve such that the
water level in the tank remains constant. This happens when in
coming discharge is equal to the out going discharge.
5) The discharge was measured.
6) The whole procedure is repeated for 3 times.

Observation :

1) Diameter of pipe = D =
2) Area of pipe = G = π / 4 (25)2 =
3) Area of Collecting Tank = A =
4) Viscosity µ = 10 – 5 m2 / S =

Observation Table :

Time Discharge Velocity Re = ρ VD

Sr. H1 H2 ∆H (Sec) Q = A x ∆H V = Q µ Type of Flow
No. (mm) (mm) (mm)
∆t a
01.
02.
03.
04.
Sample Calculation :

1) ∆H = H2 - H1 =
Q = L x B x ∆H =
∆t
V = Q/G =
Re = ρ VD =
µ

Result : For the first discharge the Reynold’s number is found to be

______ therefore the _______
For second discharge the Reynold’s number found toe be
_______ therefore the ______
For third discharge the Reynold’s number found toe be
_______ therefore the ______
 Date : ____________
EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment : To determine loss of head & power Loss
due to Sudden Expansion and Sudden
Contraction.

Apparatus : Pipe of smaller diameter connected to larger diameter, inlet,

outlet valves, collecting tank, stopwatch etc.

Formula : Losses due to

1. Sudden Expansion
he = (V1 – V2)
2g
Where : he = Loss of head due to sudden expansion.
V1 = Velocity of flow at smaller section.
V2 = Velocity of flow at larger Section.

2. Sudden Contraction
hc = 0.5 V22
2g

Where : hc = Loss of head due to sudden contraction.

Theory : Loss of energy duet to change of velocity of the flowing fluid

in magnitude or direction is called as minor loss of energy.

Loss of head due to Sudden Expansion :

Consider a fluid flowing through a pipe line which has
sudden enlargement. Consider two section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2
before and after enlargement.
Let; P1 = Pressure intensity at section 1 – 1.
V1 = Velocity of flow at section 1 – 1.
A1 = Area of pipe at section 1 – 1.
P2, V2 and A2 = Corresponding at section 2 – 2.
Due to sudden change of diameter, the liquid flowing from
smaller pipe is not able to fallow abrupt change of boundary
and turbulent eddies are formed, since the flow separates
from the boundary.
Let P1 = Pressure intensity of the liquid eddies on Area
A2 – A1,
he = Loss of head due to expansion.

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2.

P1 + V12 + Z1 = P2 + V22 + Z2 + he
W 2g W 2g
But Z1 = Z2
 ∴ he = P1 - P2 + V12 - V22 --

W W 2g 2g

Consider the control volume of liquid between 2 sections.

Fx = P1 A1 + P1 (A2 - A1) P2 A2 = ( P1 - P2 ) A2 -- 
Momentum of liquid / Sec at Section 1 –1
= mass x Velocity
=  A1 V1·V1
=  A1 V12

Similarly at section 2 – 2 =  A2 V22

∴ Change of momentum / Sec =  A2 V22 –  A2 V2 x V12
=  A2 (V22 – V1 V2) -- 
Net force acting on the control vol. in the direction of flow
must be equal to the rate of change of momentum per
second. Hence equating  and .
( P1 - P2 ) A2 =  A2 (V22 – V1 V2)
∴ P1 - P2 = V22 – V1 V2

Dividing throughout by g
P1 - P2 = V22 – V1 V2 OR P1 - P2 = V22 – V1 V2
 g g W W g

Substituting in equation

he = V22 - V1 V2 + V12 - V22
g 2g 2g

On solving
he = ( V12 - V2 )2
2g

Loss of head due to Sudden Contraction :

Consider a liquid flowing in a pipe which has a sudden

contraction in area. Consider tow section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2,
before and after contraction. As the fluid flows from larger
pipe to smaller pipe, the area of flow goes on decreasing
and becomes minimum at section C – C. This section is
called venacontract. After section C – C sudden
enlargement takes place. The loss of head duet to sudden
enlargement from Vena-contract to smaller pipe.
Let; Ac = area of flow at Vena-contract
Vc = Velocity of flow at Vena-contract
A2 = area of flow at section 2 – 2
V2 = Velocity of flow at section 2 – 2
 hc = Loss of head due to sudden expansion.

Now,
hc = actually loss of head due to enlargement from Vena-
contract to section 2 – 2 and is given by

hc = (Vc – V2 )2

= V2 Vc – 1

2g V2

From continuity equation; AC VC = A2 V2 i .e.

VC = AC = 1 = 1

V2 = A2 = AC/A2 = CC

Substituting in equation -- 1

hc = V22 1 – 1

2g CC

If valve of CC is not given, then the head loss due to

contraction is given as

hC = 0.5 V22

2g
Procedure :

1) Arrange and check the apparatus as shown in fig.

2) Measure diameter of pipe and dimensions of measuring tank and
record.
3) Open the inlet valve, keeping the outlet valve opened.
4) Connections of the manometer sudden talings to one of the pipes /
pipe fittings and check that there is no air bubble entrapped.
5) Open partially the outlet valve, keeping the common inlet valve fully
open.
6) Let the flow become constant and take the readings.
7) Open both the valves, slightly about 2 mins. Open the pressure
tappin and wait till mercury surface in both limbs of the manometer
becomes constant or still. Take readings of each limb, record and
check.
8) Collect the discharge and measure the time require to fill up to 5 cm.
9) Simultaneously take manometer reading. Repeat procedure up to 6
to 7 times.
 Observation :

1) Ac = Area of flow at Vena contracta.

2) Vc = Velocity of flow at Vena contracta.
3) A2 = Area of flow at section 2 – 2.
4) V2 = Velocity of flow at section 2 – 2.
5) hc = Loss of head due to sudden expansion.

Observation Table :

Manometer hc = (V1 V2)2

Sr. Reading (cm) hw=12.6 ∆V ∆t 2g Power Power
Q V1 V2
No. hm= x hm cm3 (Sec) ρ.Q.g.hw Meon
P=ρ
h1 h2
h2 - h1
01.
02.
03.
04.

Sample Calculation :

1) hm = h2 – h1 =
2) hw = 1.23 x hm =
3) Q =lxdxd =
T
4) V1 = 4Q
Π (D1)
2
5) V2 = D1 . V1
D2

6) hc = 0.5 V22

7) P = ρ .Q . g .hw =

Result : Head loss due to sudden expansion was found to be _____

and power loss is __________.

Head loss due to sudden contraction was found to be _____

and power loss is __________.
 Date : ____________

EXPERIMENT NO :
Name of the Experiment : To determine coefficient of discharge ( Ca )
through triangular Notch.

Apparatus : Channel with triangular Notch, Point gauge and Collecting

tank, Stop watch, Scale etc.

Formula : 1. Qact = V = l x b x ∆h
t ∆t

2. Qtn = 8 √ 2g ( tan θ ) / 2 ( H 5 ) / 2
15

Where : V = Volume of water collected in tank.

θ = Angle of Notch.
H = Pressure head in the notch.

Theory : In hydraulics engineering, notches are commonly used to

regulate flow in rivers and other open channels. The relation
between water level up stream of the notch and the
discharge over it is generally known as θ that the discharge
at any time may be found by observing the up stream water
liquid. Notches usually have sharp edges so that the water
springs clear of the plate as it passes through the notch. It
is provided in the side walls of a tank, near top edge. These
have small dimensions. Notches are use for emptying tank
or for discharge measurement. The discharge equation
depends upon the shape and thickness of wall. A triangular
weir is on ordinary weir is having a triangular or ‘V’ shaped
opening or notch provided in its body so that water is
discharged through this opening only.
Let ‘H’ be the head above the crest of the weir consider a
horizontally elementary strip of thickness ‘∆ ∆h’ at a depth ‘h’
below the water surface. It ‘X’ is width of strip then
X = 2 ( H +h ) tanθ θ/2
The area of strip is ( X  ∆h ) or { 2 ( H +h ) tanθ / 2 } and the
technical velocity of the water flowing through the strip will
be √ 2gh.
Thus if d θ is the discharge through the strip then

θ = Cd x 2 ( H +h ) tanθ
dθ θ / 2 dh √ 2gh

The total discharge ‘q’ for the entire triangular notch may be
integration above expression within limit O to H. Then

Q = a ∫ H Cd x 2 ( H +h ) tan θ / 2 dh √ 2gh
 Assuming coefficient Cd to be constant for entire notch were
obtain.
Q = Cd x 2 ( H +h ) tan θ / 2 a ∫ H h1/2dh

Q = Cd x 2 ( H +h ) tan θ / 2 [ 2/3 H h3/2 – 2/5 h5/2 ]HO

Q = 8/15 cd √ 2g tan θ / 2 H5/2

If the vector angle θ equal to 900 then for θ/2 = 450 and θ/2 = 1
Q = 8/15 cd √ 2g H5/2
For Cd assumed to be 0.6 then, Q = 1.418 H5/2
For discharge it is simplified as Q = KH5/2
Where K is constant for Notch
K = 8/15 Cd √ 2g tan θ / 2
Procedure :

1) Length and breadth of measuring tank is measured, also angle of

triangular Notch is measured.
2) Waste valve of the opening is open, then the inlet valve is slightly
open, were the flow over the still just starts, the inflow is stop. When
this overflow stops fully, the initial gauge reading is measured.
3) The inlet valve is slightly open with the jerk. When the constant
level is a acquired final gauge reading is recorded.
4) The discharge is then measured in the collecting tank.
5) The same procedure was repeated for at least 5 times.

Observation :

Angle of Notch = Q/2 = tan-1.

Volume of tank =
Time ∆ t = constant =

Observation Table :

Point Gauge Reading Discharge measurement Cd

Sr. Diff. = Qact
Initial Final Qact = LxBx∆∆h
No. (H) ∆R ∆t 8 / 15 ( tan θ) / 2 ( H5 ) / 2
(cm) (cm) t
(cm)
01.
02.
03.
04.
Sample Calculation :

1) V =
2) Qact = V / t =
3) Qtn = (8/15) √2g tan θ/2 H5/2
4) Cd = Qact =
Qtn

Result : Coefficient of discharge for triangular notch was found to be

_________
 Date :______________

EXPERIMENT NO :

Name of the Experiment : To determine the coefficient of discharge ( Cd )

for Venturimeter.

Apparatus : Venturimeter fitted across a pipeline leading to a collecting tank,

Stop Watch, U-Tube manometer connected across entry and
throat sections etc.

Formula : Theoretical discharge through Venturimeter

Q th = [A1.A2(2g.H)1/2] / [A12 – A22]1/2

Actual discharge through Venturimeter

Q ac = V / t = (A.∆H) / t

Where:
A1 : Cross section area of Venturimeter at entry section.
A2 : Cross section area of Venturimeter at throat section.
H : Pressure head difference in terms of fluid flowing through
pipeline system.
V : (A.∆H) i.e. Volume of water collected in collecting tank
A : Cross section area of collecting tank.
∆H : (H2 – H1) i.e. Depth of water collected in collecting tank.
t : Time required to collect the water up to a height ∆H in the
collecting tank.

Theory : Venturimeter is a device consisting of a short length of gradual

convergence and a long length of gradual divergence. Pressure tapping is
provided at the location before the convergence commences and another
pressure tapping is provided at the throat section of a Venturimeter. The
Difference in pressure head between the two tapping is measured by means of a
U-tube manometer. On applying the continuity equation & Bernoulli’s equation
between the two sections, the following relationship is obtained in terms of
governing variables.

Q th = [A1.A2(2g.H)1/2] / [A12 – A22]1/2 ------------------------------------------------------- 1.

Where, H = H m [(ρm /ρw) – 1]
ρm & ρw be the densities of manometric liquid & fluid (water) flowing through
pipeline system.

In order to take real flow effect into account, coefficient of discharge (Cd ) must be
introduced in equation 1 then,
Q ac = Cd.A.(2g.H)1/2
Therefore, Cd = Q ac / Q th

Theoretical discharge is calculated by using equation 1. Actual discharge is

calculated by collecting water in collecting tank & noting the time for collection.
Q ac = A.(H2 – H1) / t = V / t = (A.∆H) / t

Procedure :

* Note the pipe diameter (d1) and throat diameter (d2) of Venturimeter.
* Note the density of manometric liquid i.e. mercury (ρm) and that of fluid flowing
through pipeline i.e. water (ρw ).
* Start the flow and adjust the control valve in pipeline for maximum discharge.
* Measure the pressure difference (Hm) across the Venturimeter by using U –
tube manometer.
* Measure flow rate i.e. actual discharge (Qac) through Venturimeter by means
of collecting tank.
* Calculate the theoretical discharge (Qth) through Venturimeter by using the
formula.
* Decrease the flow rate by adjusting the control valve and repeat the process
for at least five times.
* Determine the coefficient of discharge (Cd) for each flow rate and find the
mean value of coefficient of discharge (Cd) mean.
* Plot a graph of (Qac) on y-axis versus (Qth) on x- axis.
* Calculate the slope of graph of (Qac) versus (Qth), it gives the mean value of
coefficient of discharge (Cd) mean graphically.
Observation :

Diameter of pipe, d1 = ______ m

Diameter of throat, d2 = ______ m
Area of collecting tank, A = ______x______ = ________ m2
Area of pipe at entry, A1 = [(л/4) d12] = [(л/4) ( )2] = ________ m2.
Area of pipe at throat, A2 = [(л/4) d22] = [(л/4) ( )2] = ________ m2.
Density of mercury, ρm =13600 kg / m3.

Density of water, ρw =1000 kg / m3

 Observation Table :

Manometric Pressure Tank Actual

Reading Head Diff. Reading Discharge Q th =
Time Cd =
Sr. t A1A2(2gH)1/2
No. Left Right Diff. H= Diff. Q ac = Q ac
Initial Final
Limb Limb h2 - h1 Hm[(ρm/ρw) -1] H2 - H1 (A.∆H) / t [A12 – A22]1/2
Q th
h1 h2 Hm H1 H2 ∆H
m sec m3 / sec m3 / sec
m m m m m m
1

Sample Calculation : For Observation No. ___.

* Pressure head difference,

H = Hm [(ρm /ρw) – 1]
= ______ [(13600 /1000) – 1]
= ______ [12.6]
= ______ m.

* Actual discharge,
Qac = (A.∆H) / t
= (______ x ______) / ______
= _______ m3 / sec.

* Theoretical discharge,
Q th = [A1.A2(2g.H)1/2] / [A12 – A22]1/2
= [ ______ x ______(2 x 9.81 x ____ )1/2] / [( _____ )2 – ( _____ )2]1/2
= _______ m3 / sec.

* Coefficient of discharge
Cd = Q ac / Q th
Cd = _____ / ______
Cd = ______.
* Mean coefficient of discharge,
(Cd) mean= ( ____ +_____+_____+_____+______ ) / 5.
= _______.

* From graph,
(Cd) mean = (∆Y) / (∆X)
= ______ / ______
= _______.

Result : Coefficient of discharge ( Cd ) for Venturimeter is found to be ________

experimentally & _________ graphically.
Experimental Setup :

From Storage
Flow Control Valve
Convergent Cone
Throat
Divergent Cone
Pipeline

d1 d2

Hm
h2
h1

∆H
U -Tube Manometer H2
H1

Collecting Tank

Experimental Setup To Determine

Coefficient Of Discharge ( Cd ) For Venturimeter