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DISPOSITIONAL THEORIES

Allport, Eysenck, Cattell,

Costa & McCrae

GORDON ALLPORT

Themes in Allport’s work B. The Concept of the Self

A. Consistency of Personality
• Allport argued that humans are consistent
(“remarkably recognizable”) in personality
even though they may vary from situation to
situation.
• Some research supports Allport’s view;
other studies suggest situations make
people change their behavior (Mischel,
1984a).
• Allport argued for the idea of self as a major
focus of personality growth.
• Today, a good deal of research in clinical &
social psychology focuses on the idea of the
self (e.g., self-concept, self-esteem, self-
efficacy).

C. Interaction of Personality & Social

Influences
• Although Allport focused on personality
traits, he did recognize the importance of
social factors & how they influence
individuals.
Traits
• Allport felt that our personality was made
up of traits.
• If you know a person’s traits, you can
provide a description of their personality.

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Can we all be described by the

What are traits? same traits?
• A trait is a • Do we each have different traits or do we all
consistent, long- have the same traits in varying amounts?
What do you think?
lasting tendency
in behavior.
• Allport wasn’t willing to rule either of these
out, although most researchers agree we
• E.g., shyness, have the same traits in different degrees.
hostility,
gregariousness • If a studious person decides not to study for a
particular exam, does this nullify his
studiousness?

Individual Vs. Common Traits How do we know what traits

a person possesses?
• Allport argued we have
both individual traits & 1. Inferring traits from language
common traits. (Dictionary Study).
• Individual traits --
possessed by only 1 • Allport & Odbert identified 17,953 trait
person. names, from the dictionary (4.5% of total
words).
• Common traits --
possessed by all people
to a varying extent.

2. Inferring traits from behavior 3. Inferring traits from

Personality measurement
• Allport argues that what people do, is a
great clue as to their personality traits. • We can also infer traits from personality tests.

• If people like to run, hike, & ride bikes • Allport examined people’s values, because
we can infer they are athletic (a trait). he felt that you could understand people’s
motivations from their value systems.

• By observing others either in naturalistic

settings or through experiments, we can • He along with other colleagues developed the
infer some of their traits. Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values.

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Allport-Vernon Lindzey
Study of Values
• Self-report questionnaire-- 60 questions. Scores have
norms based on 1960. Looks at who scores high on
which values.
• Allport reported that college students who entered
different occupations had different value scores.
• Recently, Huntley and Davis (1983) found that scores on
the study of values taken during college were associated
with occupations of male students 25 years later.
Allport’s Disposition Theory
• Allport suggested that each individual has
a unique set of personality traits
–He called these personal dispositions
–Like the DNA, but even the identical twins have
different dispositions
–Allport divided traits into three categories:
•Cardinal
•Central
•Secondary
B. Secondary traits
• These are characteristics that
effect behavior in fewer
situations & are less influential
than central or cardinal traits.
• Less conspicuous, less
generalized, less consistent, but
still part of you that others rarely
see
• Usually elicits reactions like, ”I
can’t believe you did/said that!”;
• Traits that are relatively easier to
change (e.g. a religious person
telling green jokes)
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How pervasive is the influence of a
trait?
• It varies with the trait.
• Allport argued we have three categories of
traits: cardinal, secondary, & central.
• Cardinal traits are most pervasive;
secondary traits least pervasive.
A. Central traits
• Central traits are the major
characteristics of an individual.
• These usually number from 5 to
10 in any one person (e.g.,
honesty, sociability).
• building blocks of personality
• traits that people usually write
when you request for a
recommendation letter
• If a medicine/pill will be created
based on your body fluids, what
traits will the person acquire if
he/she takes that pill?
C. Cardinal traits
• This is a single characteristic that
directs most of a person’s activities.
• One that tends to be dominant in the
individual’s personality.
• If being industrious is the cardinal of
an individual, industriousness is
shown in everything that the person
does.
• your name can already be used as a
trait or adjective like quixotic (from
Don Quixote), sadistic or Don Juan.
• If your name will be in the dictionary,
what will be the definition?
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FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY
• Allport also disagreed with Freud on the
relationship between childhood and adult
personalities.
• According to Freud, the roots of adults
personality are planted during childhood.
• Allport argued that childhood behavior’s may
resemble adult behaviors, but they don’t
necessarily represent the underlying motives.
PROPRIUM
• The aspects of personality forming
the integrated unity that constitutes
the individual’s uniqueness and
sense of individuality.
• Most adults talk about a “self” and
recognize our identity separate
from others. But how is this notion
developed?
• Allport agreed with Neo-Freudians, who
argued that the development of
personality continues long after the first
few years of life.
• He was well aware of the difficulty in
defining and measuring personality
something as conceptually fuzzy as a
self.
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• For example, many children who read frequently
because their parents insist on it become avid
readers as adults.
• But this does not mean the adults read for the
same reasons they did in childhood. The
behavior that was once a means to an end
(pleasing the parents) has become
FUNCTIONALLY AUTONOMOUS, that is,
reading is now enjoyable for its own sake.
• Children have no concept of themselves as
distinct from their environment. Gradually, they
come to sense that their bodies are somehow
different from other objects in the world. Babies
soon discover that, unlike other parts of the
environment, they can control the movement of
their bodies and sense when a part of their
body has been touched. Child develops a
sense of self-identity and self-esteem, until
finally the full sense of control.
OTHER TRAIT THEORIES
EYSENCK, CATTELL, COSTA &
McCRAE
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Factor Analysis
Factor Analytic Theories
 A statistical produce based on correlation,
• Factor analytic theories that is used to examine factor analytic
strive to summarize the theories.
relationships among a
large number of  A correlation coefficient provides an index of
variables into fewer, the relationship between two or more
more general patterns. variables.

• This is done to describe  It may range from –1.00 to +1.00, where the
the fundamental sign indicates the direction & the #
dimensions of individual indicates the magnitude of the relationship.
differences.

 Many correlation coefficients are computed during Imagine we administer intelligence tests. We
the course of a factor analysis. would find that:

Tests of verbal ability would be positively

 The correlations among all pairs of variables are correlated (vocabulary, grammar, & spelling),
computed to form a correlation matrix. but have lower correlations with tests of
mathematical abilities.

 Patterns of correlations often disclose redundant Tests of math ability would be positively
information, which may be systematically correlated (geometry, algebra, calculus), but
described. have lower correlations with tests of verbal
ability.

 Factor analysis allows the personality researcher Factor analysis of these variables would
to identify a smaller number of dimensions reveals two factors: mathematical ability and
verbal ability.
(factors) that the variables fit into.

CATTELL
• Cattell’s factor analytic theory made use of
an inductive method and gave importance to
the biological aspects of personality

• Traits, which are derived from factor

analysis, are relatively stable reaction
tendencies.

• Traits can be classified into 1) common or

unique traits, 2) source or surface traits and
RAYMOND CATTELL 3) temperament, motivation or ability.

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CATTELL
• Cattell studied 35 personality traits, 23 normal primary source
traits and 12 abnormal primary source traits.
• Cattell’s popular 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)
is in its 5th edition
• In order to apply factor analysis to personality, Cattell believed
it was necessary to sample the widest possible range of
variables. He specified three kinds of data for comprehensive
sampling, to capture the full range of personality dimensions:
• The types of data are L-data (life reports), Q-data (self-report
questionnaire) and T-data (objective tests).
Types of data
2. T-data (objective test data) –is obtained by
asking people to take various tests (projective,
physical, reaction times) in which the purpose of
the test isn’t obvious.
• Pros-this should reduce impression managing;
provides objective data.
• Cons-objective tests may be of limited use.
Surface traits
Refers to those traits that seem readily
apparent.
 E.g., you encounter a friendly, gregarious
librarian who is very helpful & you infer she
possesses the trait of sociability.
 However, surface traits are based on people’s
perceptions of personality; they don’t
necessarily provide the best description of
underlying personality dimensions.
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Types of data
1. Q-data (questionnaire data) –is obtained
by asking people to describe themselves in
response to a set of standard questions
(Multiple choice, true/false).
 Pros—easy to administer & quick access
to information.
 Con– people may impression manage
(e.g., lie to make themselves look good).
Types of data
3. L-data (life record data) – is obtained by
gathering life history of person (personal
records), such as grade point average,
driving history, letters of recommendation,
etc.
 Pros—information can be obtained with
requiring subjects to fill out questionnaires.
 Cons– provides limited information about
the individual.
Source traits
 Refers to the deeper patterns underlying personality.
 Basic traits that make up the human personality.
 These source traits emerge despite differences in
testing situations, questionnaire methods, & so forth.
 Cattell used factor analysis to identify 16 source traits.
Using these 16 source traits he developed the 16PF.
 The set of scores on all factors is the profile of the
individual.
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Second-Order Factors Three types of traits

 There may be correlations among the 16 1. Ability traits- define intelligence.
factors. That is, there is some redundancy
in the 16 source traits Cattell identified.
• Cattell argued that we have 2 types of
 We can reduce this number down, by intelligence: Fluid & crystallized.
doing another factor analysis on the 16
personality factors.
• Fluid intelligence-the innate ability to
learn
 This second-order analysis, often yields 5
second-order factors. • Crystallized intelligence-what has been
learned from education.

2. Temperament traits
Intelligence
These traits determine the general way a
• Cattell believed that 80% of the variance in person behaves (high-strungness, speed,
intelligence was the result of heredity; the energy, etc.).
remaining 20% due to experience.
****Thought to be largely inherited.
• This position supported both the Eugenics
movement & the Nazis.

3. Dynamic traits
 Dynamic traits—are motivational. These
guide us in our behaviors & interactions
with others.

 Cattell felt some of these are inherited,

others learned.

HANS EYSENCK

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EYSENCK
• Eysenck believed that personality had biological
bases. This is supported by genetic and cross-
cultural studies
• He used a hypothetico-deductive approach that
yielded the three personality dimensions or
superfactors of Psychoticism, Extraversion, and
Neuroticism.
• These superfactors are bipolar and should be able to
predict behavior.
• For Extraversion-Introversion, Extraversion is related
to being sociable, lively, active, sensation-. seeking,
carefree, dominant, surgent and venturesome.
EYSENCK
• Extraversion is associated with low cortical arousal while
introversion is associated with high cortical arousal.
Introverts are more sensitive to sensory stimulation and
pain.
• For Neuroticism-Emotional stability, neuroticism is related
to being anxious, emotional, moody, shy, irrational,
tense, depressed, and having low self-esteem and guilty
feelings.
• Both normal and non-normal people can score high in
neuroticism. However, high scorers require a lower level
of stress to precipitate a neurotic disorder. Eysenck
accepted the diathesis-stress model.
• High N scorers have greater biological reactivity in the
sympathetic autonomic nervous system.

EYSENCK
• For Psychoticism-Superego Function,
Psychoticism is associated with being tough-
minded, aggressive, cold, egocentric, impersonal,
impulsive, antisocial, and unempathetic. This was
the last and weakest superfactor.

• Both normal and non-normal people can score

high in psychoticism. However, high scorers are
more vulnerable to developing psychotic illnesses
when faced with stress.

• Psychoticism has been linked with creativity.

McCRAE & COSTA

The Big Five: McCRAE & The Big Five: McCRAE &
COSTA COSTA
• Based on Cattell’s model of factor Five broad factors have been identified to describe
personality. They are:
analysis, five factors have been identified
that may describe the full spectrum of Extraversion
personality. Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Conscientiousness
• The proponents of the Big Five are Paul Openness
Costa Jr. & Robert McCrae, who are
interested in describing personality. (They spell “OCEAN”)

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1. Extraversion
 People high in extraversion are
often talkative, passionate,
active, dominant, & sociable.
 Those scoring high have more
interactions with others than
those scoring low.
 Extraverts tend to develop more
social relationships during
college, are more likely to fall in
love, & are more responsive to
pleasure.
3. Neuroticism
 Describes people who frequently
are troubled by negative emotions
such as worry & insecurity.
 People high on neuroticism can be
described as those who worry,
those who emotionally unstable,
they are often anxious, & have low
self-esteem.
 People who score low on this factor
report being much happier than
people scoring higher on this
dimension.
5. Openness To Experience
• Refers to how cultured,
intelligent, & receptive a
person is to new ideas,
places, & interests.
• Those who score high in
openness are more likely
to be artistic, curious,
imaginative, insightful,
and intuitive.
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2. Agreeableness
 Agreeableness refers to how
“likable” we are.
 People scoring high on
agreeableness tend to be good-
natured, soft-hearted, and
trusting. Those low on the
factor are irritable, ruthless, and
suspicious.
 People who score high on this
factor report little conflict in their
relationships. They are less
likely to assert power when they
do experience conflict as well.
4. Conscientiousness
 Describes someone who is
hardworking, dependable,
ambitious, responsible, & is
tenacious.
 People scoring high on this
dimension value cleanliness, &
ambitiousness.
 They tend to be organized,
punctual, do well academically,
are well liked by their superiors,
& dedicated to their significant
others.