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ARTICLEINFO ABSTRACT
Keywords: Topography is one of the key factors affecting soil organic carbon (SOC) distribution and soil redistribution (erosion
Topographic wetness index or deposition) because it influences the gravity-driven movement of soil by water flow and tillage operations. In this
Topographic relief study, we examined impacts of sixteen topographic metrics derived from Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)
SOC distribution data on SOC distribution in agricultural fields. We adopted the fallout radionuclide 137Cesium (137Cs) to estimate soil
Principal component redistribution rates and patterns of SOC distribution across 560 sampling locations at two field sites and a larger
Topography-based model
scale for the Walnut Creek watershed in Iowa. Then, using stepwise ordinary least square regression (SOLSR) and
stepwise principal component regression (SPCR), topography-based models were de- veloped to simulate spatial
patterns of SOC density and soil redistribution rates. Results suggested that erosion and deposition of topsoil were
regulated by topography with soil gain in lowland areas and soil loss in sloping areas. Topographic wetness index
(TWI) and relief were the most influential variables controlling SOC density and soil redistribution rates,
respectively, and were of primary importance in SOLSR models. All topography- based models developed through
SPCR and SOLSR demonstrated good simulation performances, explaining > 62% variability in SOC density and
soil redistribution rates across two field sites with intensive samplings. However, the SOLSR models showed lower
reliability than the SPCR models in predicting soil properties at a watershed scale. Results of this study highlighted
the topography-based SPCR model as an effective and a promising tool allowing for scaling of in situ SOC density
and soil redistribution rates at crop sites to a large-scale watershed, and provided valuable insight into the spatial
patterns of SOC distribution.
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: greg.mccarty@ars.usda.gov (G.W. McCarty).
Recibido 4 Mayo 2017; Recibido y revisado para 19 Septiembre 2017; Aceptado 26 Setiembre 2017
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Fig. 1. a) Location of study sites and sampling plots in the Walnut Creek Watershed (WCW); b) topographic relief (relief90 m) and sampling plots at field Site 1 (z axis 15 × elevation); and
c) topographic relief (relief90 m) and sampling plots at field Site 2 (z axis 15 × elevation).
estimado de los sitios de referencia fueron 2657 Bq m-2 para los Sitios 1
amoladora de rodillos. El contenido total de C en el suelo se determinó
y 2 y 2526 Bq m-2 para la WCW. Cuando el inventario de 137Cs en un
mediante combustión seca en un analizador elemental LECO CNS
sitio de muestreo es menor que el 137Cs basal estimado de los sitios de
2000 (LECO Corp., St. Joseph, MI) a una temperatura de 1350 ° C. El
referencia, la tasa de redistribución del suelo derivada de 137Cs tuvo un
carbonato de calcio (CaCO3) se midió mediante la cocción de materia
valor negativo y el sitio de muestreo se determina como un sitio
orgánica del suelo en un horno (420 ° C durante 16 h) y el C que
erosionado. En contraste, un sitio de muestreo con mayor inventario de
permanecía en CaCO3 se analizó a partir de la muestra de ceniza por
137Cs en comparación con el 137Cs basal se considera un sitio
combustión seca a 1350 ° C. El contenido de SOC (SOCcontent,%) se
depositario con una tasa de redistribución positiva del suelo.
estimó como la diferencia entre el contenido total de C y C en CaCO3
y se convirtió a densidad SOC (ρSOC, kg m-2) usando la siguiente
ecuación:
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Slope, G (radian) An angle between a tangent and a horizontal planes at a Las métricas topográficas se derivaron de los 3m DEM.Para reducir
given point ruido causado por la variación local, los DEM fueron filtrados dos veces
G = arctan p2+ q 2 usando un 3bkernel low passfilter. Doce de las dieciséis métricas
(excluyendo flujo acumulación (FA), apertura positiva (POP) y relieve
topográfico componentes (RePC1 y RePC2)) se obtuvieron de los DEM
filtrados utilizando el Sistema para el Análisis Geocientífico
Automatizadov.
Aspect, A (radian) An angle c from north to the horizontal
Topographic relief, RF Difference between the highest point over an and a given
(m) location (hi)
RF = hmax − hi
Table 2
Significances of selected topographic metrics.
Variables Significance
Slope (radian) Runoff velocity, soil water content (Afshar et al., 2010; Li et al., 2014)
Aspect (radian) Soil-water balance, vegetation distribution and abundance (Rezaei and Gilkes, 2005)
Profile curvature (m− 1) Flow acceleration, soil erosion, deposition rate (Troch et al., 2002; Ritchie et al., 2007)
Plan curvature (m− 1) Flow convergence and divergence, soil water content (Troch et al., 2002)
General curvature (m− 1) Runoff velocity, soil erosion, deposition (Li et al., 2014)
Flow accumulation Soil water content, runoff volume (Gessler et al., 2000)
Topographic relief (m) Landscape drainage characteristics, runoff velocity and acceleration (Tucker and Bras, 1998; Montgomery and Brandon, 2002)
Positive openness Landscape drainage characteristics, soil water content (Seijmonsbergen et al., 2011)
Upslope slope (m) Runoff velocity (Moore et al., 1991; Kirkby, 2014)
Flow path length (m) Sediment yield, erosion rate (Sharpley and Kleinman, 2003)
Downslope index (radian) Soil water content (Hjerdt, 2004)
Catchment area (m2) Runoff velocity and volume (Moore et al., 1991; Kasai et al., 2001)
Topographic wetness index Soil moisture distribution (Afshar et al., 2010; Lang et al., 2013)
Stream power index Soil erosion, convergence of flow (Conforti et al., 2011)
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137
SOC (kg m− 2) Cs (Bq m− 2) SR (t ha− 1 year− 1) Baseline 137Cs
(Bq m− 2)
3. Resultados
Table 3
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Table 4
Spearman's rank correlation (N = 560) between selected topographic metrics and soil organic carbon (SOC) density, cesium (137Cs) inventory, and soil redistribution rates (SR)
over the watershed.
Slope Aspect P_Cur Pl_Cur G_Cur FA RePC1 RePC 2 POP Upsl FPL DI (°) CA TWI SPI LS
(radius) (radius) (m−1) (m−1) (m−1) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m2)
SOC −0.687 −0.09 −0.159 −0.333 −0.288 0.204 0.698 −0.171 −0.451 −0.315 0.500 0.413 0.587 0.735 0.165 −0.593
*** *
7 ** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
137Cs −0.646 – −0.210 −0.277 −0.286 0.192 0.686 −0.095 −0.437 −0.209 0.490 0.366 0.568 0.640 0.160 −0.559
*** *** *** *** *** *** * *** *** *** *** *** *** ** ***
SR −0.650 – −0.205 −0.274 −0.282 0.193 0.687 −0.099 −0.427 −0.217 0.487 0.361 0.565 0.647 0.156 −0.564
*** *** *** *** *** *** * *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
P_Curva, Pl_Curva, and G_Curva are profile curvature, plan curvature and general curvature, respectively; RF is topographic relief; POP is positive openness; Upsl is upslope
slope; FPL is flow path length; DI is downslope index; CA is catchment area; TWI is topographic wetness index; SPI is stream power index; and LS is slope length factor.
The value in bold is correlation coefficient > 0.5 and value in red and bold indicates the highest correlation coefficient for each soil property.
⁎
P < 0.05, ⁎⁎ P < 0.005, ⁎⁎⁎ P < 0.0001.
componentes fueron DI (-0.656), SPI (0.461) y Pl_Cur (0.350). Pl_Cur se
correlacionó significativamente negativamente con DI y SPI con
3.3. Desarrollo del modelo para densidad SOC y tasas de redistribución del coeficientes de correlación de -0.178 y -0.480, respectivamente.
suelo
Los primeros cinco mapas de componentes principales se obtuvieron en
base a la suma de todas las métricas topográficas estandarizadas que
El análisis de componentes principales (PCA) se utilizó para generar fueron ponderadas por las cargas estimadas de WCW (figura 3). Las PC
variables no correlacionadas (componentes principales) a partir de los principales mostraron una variabilidad espacial similar entre los Sitios
parámetros topográficos subyacentes. El aspecto se eliminó del 1 y 2. Los altos valores de PC1 se observaron en las tierras altas y las
conjunto de datos topográficos porque el aspecto se correlacionó de áreas de cresta y se encontraron bajos valores de PC1 en las áreas
forma insigni fi cante con el inventario de 137Cs y las tasas de deposicionales en ambos sitios (Fig. 3a yb). Por el contrario, las áreas de
redistribución del suelo basadas en el análisis de correlación de rangos cresta tenían valores bajos en PC2 (Fig. 3c yd). Se observaron valores
de Spearmen (Tabla 4). Se seleccionaron ocho componentes principales altos de PC2 en las áreas inclinadas. Los aumentos bruscos en la cima y
(PC) con una varianza acumulada del 92% para un análisis posterior. las posiciones de la pendiente del dedo se encontraron en los valores de
Los primeros cinco componentes en el PCA con valores propios PC3, pero no se encontró un patrón obvio en otras posiciones
mayores que 1 se enumeran en la Tabla 5. Las cargas indicaron la topográfica en posiciones convexas y en áreas de zanjas,
importancia variable en cada componente (Tabla 5). En este estudio, se respectivamente.
destacaron las cargas superiores a 0,35 y se utilizaron para la
interpretación del componente principal. TWI y pendiente fueron las Utilizando la regresión por pasos del componente principal (SPCR) y la
métricas más importantes y tuvieron las mayores cargas de -0.419 y regresión por mínimos cuadrados ordinarios por pasos (SOLSR),
construimos modelos con densidad SOC transformada
0.396 en el primer componente, respectivamente. Las dos variables logarítmicamente, inventario 137Cs y tasas de redistribución del suelo
estaban altamente correlacionadas negativamente entre sí (-0.745, Tabla
como variables dependientes (Tabla 6). Las calibraciones de los modelos
A.1). Para el segundo componente, Upsl (0.371) tuvo las mayores
se realizaron con mediciones de campo de los Sitios 1 y 2. Para SPCR,
cargas. CA, FA y SPI fueron métricas importantes en el tercer
los componentes primero, tercero, quinto, séptimo y octavo (PC1, 3, 5, 7
componente con valores de carga de 0.512, 0.412 y 0.392,
y 8) fueron seleccionadas como combinaciones variables
respectivamente. Se encontraron correlaciones altamente positivas
entre CA y FA (0.725), así como CA y SPI (0.814). G_Cur (0.434), P_Cur independientes para modelar la densidad SOC y las tasas de
(0.413), RePC1 (0.402) y FPL (0.356) fueron importantes en el cuarto redistribución del suelo. El primer, tercer, séptimo y octavo
componente. Las correlaciones entre G_Cur y P_Cur, RePC1 y FPL componentes (PC1, 3, 7 y 8) se estimaron para simulaciones de
fueron 0.800, -0.391 y -0.182, respectivamente. Las principales métricas inventarios de 137Cs. Los modelos de SPCR explicaron 70%, 65% y 63%
con altas cargas en el quinto de variabilidad en la densidad de SOC, el inventario de 137Cs y las tasas
de redistribución del suelo, respectivamente. Específicamente, PC1 fue
Table 5 la más relacionada con las tres propiedades del suelo con poderes
Variable loadings in the principal components (PCs) calculated for topographic metrics explicativos del 62% (densidad SOC), 57% (inventario 137Cs) y 54%
(N = 460) in Walnut Creek Watershed.
(tasas de redistribución del suelo). El SOLSR exhibió un modelo similar
de rendimiento en simulación de densidad SOC pero eficiencias
ligeramente mayores en el inventario de 137Cs y simulaciones de tasa
PC1(27%) PC2(23%) PC3(12%) PC4(10%) PC5(7%) de redistribución del suelo mediante la evaluación de la determinación
ajustada de coeficiente (Radj2), NSE y RSR. Las variables contenidas en
Slope 0.396 0.262 0.028 0.198 −0.066
P_Cur 0.115 −0.307 0.338 0.413 −0.169
los modelos SOLSR (8 variables para SOC, 8 variables para 137Cs y 7
Pl_Cur 0.227 −0.252 − 0.222 0.197 0.350 variables para las tasas de distribución del suelo) fueron más que
G_Cur 0.188 −0.334 v0.245 0.434 −0.132 modelos SPCR (5 variables para SOC, 4 variables para 137Cs y 5). TWI
FA −0.222 0.167 0.412 − 0.002 −0.257 fue la métrica topográfica más influyente que influyó en la densidad
RePC1 −0.281 0.230 − 0.272 0.402 0.067
SOC.
RePC2 0.132 0.339 − 0.044 − 0.256 −0.080
POP 0.202 −0.298 0.258 − 0.329 0.096 Aunque los modelos SOLSR tenían una eficiencia ligeramente
Upsl 0.292 0.371 − 0.057 0.152 −0.051 superior en la simulación de las propiedades del suelo en comparación
FPL −0.202 0.078 − 0.100 0.356 0.257 con los modelos SPCR en los sitios de campo, los últimos modelos
DI −0.237 0.040 − 0.086 0.104 −0.656
tenían un mejor rendimiento en la escala de cuencas hidrográficas
CA −0.251 0.220 0.512 0.034 0.133
TWI −0.419 −0.142 − 0.162 0.114 0.105
(Figura 4). Específicamente, r2 para comparar simulaciones de densidad
SPI −0.132 0.237 0.392 0.058 0.461 SOC con mediciones del modelo SOLSR fue 0,43; mientras que el r2
LS 0.344 0.327 0.035 0.222 −0.017 llegó a 0.60 cuando se usó el modelo SPCR (Fig. 4a).
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Fig. 3. Spatial variability of the first five major components at field Sites 1 and 2 (z axis 15 × elevation). a), c), e), g), and i) are the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth components at
Site 1, respectively; and b), d), f), h), and j) are the first, second, third, fourth and fifth components at Site 2, respectively.
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positivas entre esta variable y las propiedades del suelo medido en este
Table 6
estudio indicaron que la densidad de SOC tendía a ser mayor en las áreas
Models of soil organic carbon (SOC) density, cesium ( 137Cs) inventory, and soil redis-
tribution rates (SR) for agricultural fields based on topographic variables at field Sites 1 and de mayor TWI. Un aumento en la densidad de SOC con alta humedad
2. del suelo es parcialmente atribuible a la producción mejorada de la planta
Model Radj2 NSE RSR
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Fig. 5. Soil property maps obtained from the stepwise principal component analysis model a) soil redistribution rate (t ha−1 year− 1) map within the Walnut Creek Watershed, b) soil
redistribution rate (t ha−1 year− 1) map along two transects, c) SOC density (kg m−2) map within the Walnut Creek Watershed, and d) SOC density (kg m−2) map along two transects (z axis
15 × elevation).
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4. Conclusiones
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