CENG 25 – MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES

Mechanics of Materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the behavior of solid
bodies subjected to various types of loading. Other names for this field of study are strength of
materials and mechanics of deformable bodies.
STRESS – has units of force per unit area and is denoted by the Greek letter σ (sigma). In
general, the stresses s acting on a plane surface may be uniform throughout the area or may
vary in intensity from one point to another.

NORMAL STRESS – This force acts perpendicular to the area. It is developed whenever the
external loads tend to push or pull on the two segments of the body. When the bar is stretched
by the forces P (or in other words “pulls”), the stresses are tensile stresses; if the forces are
reversed in direction, causing the bar to be compressed (or “pushed”), we obtain compressive
stresses. In as much as the stresses act in a direction perpendicular to the cut surface, they are
called normal stresses. Thus, normal stresses may be either tensile or compressive.

𝑃
σ=
𝐴
σ = average normal stress at any point on the cross-sectional area.
P = internal resultant normal force, which acts through the centroid of the cross-sectional area.
P is determined using the method of sections and the equations of equilibrium.
A = cross-sectional area of the bar where s is determined.

SHEAR STRESS – The shear force lies in the plane of the area, and it is developed when the
external loads tend to cause the two segments of the body to slide over one another. It is also
defined as a kind of stress that acts tangential to the surface of the material. The average shear
stress distributed over each sectioned area that develops this shear force is defined by:

𝑉
τavg =
𝐴

τavg = average shear stress at the section, which is assumed to be the same at each point
located on the section.
V = internal resultant shear force on the section determined from the equations of equilibrium
A = area at the section
σz = normal stress

τzx = shear stress zx

τzy = shear stress zy

UNITS - Since stress represents a force per unit area, in the International Standard or SI
system, the magnitudes of both normal and shear stress are specified in the basic units of
newtons per square meter (N/m2). This unit, called a Pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m2) which is rather
small, so prefixes are used such as kilo = k = 103, mega = M = 106, giga = G = 109 are used to
represent larger values of stress. Engineers also express stress in pound per square inch (psi)
or kilopounds per square inch (ksi), where 1 kilopound (kip) = 1000 pound.

STRAIN
Strain is the geometrical quantity that is measured using experimental techniques. Once
obtained, the stress in the body can then be determined from material property relations.

DEFORMATION - whenever a force is applied to a body, it will tend to change the body’s shape
and size. These changes are referred to as deformation, and they may be either highly visible or
practically unnoticeable. The deformation of a body will not be uniform throughout its volume,
and so the change in geometry of any line segment within the body may vary substantially along
its length.

In engineering the deformation of a body is specified using the concepts of normal and shear
strain.

NORMAL STRAIN - is a measure per unit length of the elongation or contraction of a small line
segment in the body. If an object is in tension, the strain is called a tensile strain, representing
an elongation or stretching of the material. If the object is in compression, the strain is a
compressive strain and the object shortens. Tensile strain is usually taken as positive and
compressive strain as negative. The strain ε is called a normal strain because it is associated
with normal stresses. Strain is given by the equation:

𝛿
𝜀=
𝐿
As an example, consider a steel bar having length L equal to 2.0 m. When heavily loaded in
tension, this bar might elongate by 1.4 mm, which means that the strain is:

𝛿 1.4𝑚𝑚
𝜀= = = 0.0007 = 700 𝑥 10−6 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚
𝐿 2.0 𝑚

SHEAR STRAIN – Deformations not only cause line segments to elongate or contract, but they
also cause them to change direction. If we select two line segments that are originally
perpendicular to one another, then the change in angle that occurs between them is referred to
as shear strain. This angle is denoted by 𝛾 (gamma) and is always measured in radians (rad),
which are dimensionless. Shear strain is given by the equation:
𝜋
𝛾𝑛𝑡 = − 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝜃 ′
2
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

The strength of a material depends on its ability to sustain a load without undue deformation or failure.
This property is inherent in the material itself and must be determined by experiment.

The Tension and Compression Test

To perform a tension or compression test a specimen of the

material is made into a “standard” shape and size.

Apply loads under computer control.

Log voltage readings from load cell and extensometer (or

crosshead/actuator) to computer.
Extensometer – a mechanical or optical device that measures the
elongation during loading

Output plots of force versus extension, but slope of curve,

maximum values, etc depend on specimen size

The Stress – Strain Diagram

Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-compression-testing machine. As the axial load is
gradually increased in increments, the total elongation over the gauge length is measured at each
increment of the load and this is continued until failure of the specimen takes place. Knowing the original
cross-sectional area and length of the specimen, the normal stress σ and the strain ε can be obtained.
The graph of these quantities with the stress σ along the y-axis and the strain ε along the x-axis is called
the stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram differs in form for various materials.

Elastic Behavior – If the stress slightly

exceeds the proportional limit, the curve
tends to bend and flatten out as shown.
This continues until the stress reaches
the elastic limit. Upon reaching this
point, if the load is removed the
specimen will still return back to its
original shape.

Yielding – A slight increase in stress

above the elastic limit will result in a
breakdown of the material and cause it to
deform permanently. This behavior is
called yielding.

The stress that causes yielding is called the yield stress or yield point. Yield point is also the point at
which the material will have an appreciable elongation or yielding without any increase in load.
Ductile Material – Any material that can be subjected to large strains before it fractures is called a
ductile material. One way to specify the ductility of a material is to report its percent elongation or
percent reduction in area at the time of fracture. The percent elongation is the specimen’s fracture strain
expressed as a percent.

The percent reduction in area is another way to specify ductility. It is defined within the region of
necking as follows:

Brittle Materials – Materials that exhibit little or no yielding before failure are referred to as brittle
materials.

HOOKE’S LAW

The stress–strain diagrams for most engineering materials exhibit a linear relationship between stress
and strain within the elastic region. Consequently, an increase in stress causes a proportionate increase
in strain. This fact was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1676 using springs and is known as Hooke’s law.
It may be expressed mathematically as

Here E represents the constant of proportionality, which is called the modulus of elasticity or Young’s
modulus , named after Thomas Young, who published an account of it in 1807.

As an example of its calculation, consider the stress–strain diagram for steel. Here σpl = 35 ksi and εpl =
0.0012 in./in., so that

POISSON’S RATIO

When a deformable body is subjected to an axial tensile force, not only does it elongate but it also
contracts laterally. For example, if a rubber band is stretched, it can be noted that both the thickness and
width of the band are decreased. Likewise, a compressive force acting on a body causes it to contract in
the direction of the force and yet its sides expand laterally. Equation for longitudinal and lateral
elongations are:

In the early 1800s, the French scientist Simeon D. Poisson realized that within the elastic range the ratio
of these strains is a constant , since the deformations d and d! are proportional. This constant is referred
to as Poisson’s ratio, v (nu), and it has a numerical value that is unique for a particular material that is
both homogeneous and isotropic. Stated mathematically it is
The Shear Stress – Strain Diagram

Hooke’s law for shear can be written as

Here G is called the shear modulus of elasticity or the modulus of rigidity, where

AXIAL LOAD

Axial loading occurs when a force or pressure is applied parallel and on the centroid axis of an object.
Structural components subjected only to tension or compression are known as axially loaded members.
Solid bars with straight longitudinal axes are the most common type, although cables and coil springs
also carry axial loads. Examples of axially loaded bars are truss members, connecting rods in engines,
spokes in bicycle wheels, columns in buildings, and struts in aircraft engine mounts.

Elastic Deformation of an Axially Loaded Member

When calculating the stress due to an axial load the stress would be constant when the cross-sectional
area remains the same. However, if the cross-sectional area changes than the stress will change
accordingly. The stress will get lower for larger cross-sectional area and in comparison, the stress will
higher for smaller cross-sectional areas.

Now there is a certain case where the stress will vary even though the above equation states that it
should be uniform through the part for a constant cross-sectional area. This happens when the end of the
object is fixed. This is known as Saint Venant’s principle and can only be seen when an FEA is ran as
seen in the image below.
(Saint-Venant's principle, named after Adhémar Jean Claude Barré de Saint-Venant, a French
elasticity theorist, states that both the localized deformation and stress which occur within the regions of
load application or at the supports tend to “even out” at a distance sufficiently removed from these
regions.)

Now remember from the Hooke’s Law section that the deflection can be calculated if the Young’s
Modulus of the material is known. To calculate the deflection of a part caused by an axial load the
equation below would be used.

δ = deflection
P = internal axial force at the section
L = original length of the bar
A = cross-sectional area of the bar
E = modulus of elasticity
Statically Indeterminate Axially Loaded Member

Consider the bar shown in a which is fixed supported at

both of its ends. From the free-body diagram b
equilibrium requires

This type of problem is called statically indeterminate ,

since the equilibrium equation(s) are not sufficient to
determine the two reactions on the bar.

In order to establish an additional equation needed for

solution, it is necessary to consider how points on the
bar displace. Specifically, an equation that specifies the
conditions for displacement is referred to as a
compatibility or kinematic condition. In this case, a
suitable compatibility condition would require the
displacement of one end of the bar with respect to the
other end to be equal to zero, since the end supports are
fixed. Hence, the compatibility condition becomes

This equation can be expressed in terms of the applied loads by using a load – displacement
relationship, which depends on the material behavior. For example, if linear-elastic behavior occurs,
δ = PL/AE can be used. Realizing that the internal force in segment AC is +FA , and in segment CB the
internal force is -FB , diagram c , the above equation can be written as

Since AE is constant, then FA = FB(LCB/LAC) , so that using the equilibrium equation, the equations for the
reactions become