Index

TOPICS :
INTRODUCTION OF ADITYA BIRLA WHITE GROUP

1) PROCESS OF CEMENT PLANT

2) INTRODUCTION

INSTRUMENTS:

A) TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCER:
a) THERMO COUPLE
b)RTD

B) PRESSURE TRANSDUCER:
a) CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER

C) LEVEL MEASUREMENT
a) CAPACITANCE LEVEL SENSOR

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 D) WEINGHING MEASUREMENT
a) LOAD CELL
b)STRAIN GAUGE TYPE LOAD CELL
c) INDUCTIVE TYPE LOAD CELL

E) NO MOTION SENSOR

F) NOISE MEASUREMENT:
a) ELECTRONIC EAR

G) GAP SENSOR

H) OPACITY MONITOR

3) U P S (UN INTRRUPTED POWER SUPPLY)

2.1) RECTIFIER / CHARGER

2.2) BATTERY
2.3) INVERTER
2.4) STATIC BY SWITCH
2.5) MANUAL BY SWITCH

4) AC DRIVES

5) DC DRIVES

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6) COMPARISION BETWEEN AC & DC
DRIVES

7) INSTRUMENT CONTROL SYSTEM.

8) PACKING PLANT

9) THERMAL POWER PLANT (TPP)

Introduction of Birla White

Cement Plant
BIRLA WHITE, the White Cement Division of Indian
Rayon and Industries Ltd, was established in 1988 And
started commercial production in April 1988. The first Unit
was set up with a rated capacity of 80,000 MT per annum
with technology from M/s Onoda Engineering Co. Ltd ,
Japan . The capacity was further increased to 150,000 MT
per annum in 1991-92.Unit II was commissioned in January
1997 with technology From M/s Nihon cement Co., Japan
with a capacity of 210,000 MT per annum.
The BIRLA WHITE plant is located at Kharia Khangar,
Dist. Jodhpur about 90 Km from Jodhpur city. The nearby
towns are Gotan (9 KM). Pipar (35KM), Merta city
(35KM}. Due to location it has an advantage of being near
to the raw material source.

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BIRLA WHITE having their own two limestone mines. Both
the mines are appro.10Km away from factory site.
Limestone is transported from mines to factory by trucks.
They are the largest producer of White Cement in India with
plant capacity of 1000 MT per day and their plant is one of
the largest plants in the world. We have a market share of
approximately 50%. Balance 50% being shared by M/s
J.K.White cement and M/s T RAVANCORE cement, only
two other manufactures of White Cement in India

Portland cement is manufactured in three mainly following

stages:

1. Grinding of Raw Mix (Lime Stone with china clay)

2. Pre Heating of Raw Mix in 5 stages Pre Heaters
3. Grind the Clinker with Gypsum

In first stage the raw Material ground in Vertical mill &

storage in Raw Mill Silo. In II stage the fine raw mix is
extracted & transported to 5 stages Pre heater for pre heating
& calcined the Material up to 80 %. After pre heating the
calcined material comes in 42 Mtr Long horizontal rotating
Kiln where clinker is to be formed & cooled the Clinker in
Decolorized to maintain whiteness. Finally clinker is ground
with Gypsum to produce the White Portland Cement.

Process in cement industry

A Brief Description on Cement Process

4
For the manufacture of White Cement the major required of
“RAW MATERIAL” are: -

1. Lime Stone – High Carbonate & Low Iron.

2. China Clay.

The process of making cement is performed with the help of

various sections as follows:

1. Crusher
2. Stacker
3. Re claimer
4. Intermediate Hoppers (Raw mill section)
5. Raw Mill/VRM
6. Blending Silo
7. Pre Heater
8. ESP
9. Oil Firing &
10. Rotary Kiln
11. Decolorizer
12. Clinker Transportation
13. Intermediate Hoppers (Cement Mill Section)

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 14. Roller Press
15. Cement Mill
16. Cement Silo
17. Automatic Packing of Cement in Different Capacity
18. Wagon /Truck Loading

For Lime Stone Birla White having own two mines,

situated near Gotan. Limestone from mines to site is carried
by the trucks and unloaded to lime stone crusher hopper by
hydraulic truck UN loader. After crushing in specific size
(+40 & +50) conveying of limestone is carried through belt
conveyor and piles are made by equipment known as stacker
for homogeneous mixing.
Average material is transported to storage hopper by re
claimer. Re claimer is a basically a process in which pile is
horizontally cut from top to bottom of one side and average
material is taken on the belt conveyor. Crusher, Stacker and
Re claimer are separately operate & controlled by PLC
(Programmable Logic Control).

1. CRUSHER SECTION:
Limestone from mines to site is carried by the trucks
and unloaded to limestone crusher hopper by hydraulic
truck UN loader. After crushing the limestone in
specific size (+40 &+50 mm) is conveyed through belt
conveyor for making of piles by the stacker for
homogenous mixing.

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2. STACKER SECTION:
Crushed lime stone comes over belt conveyor from
crusher and make a stock pile by the “Chevron layer
system” stacker is moving to and fro over a particular
length to store the material in the separate layer till the
total height of 7m is reached and whole operation is
done by PLC of M/s Allen Bred lay for automatic and
sequence operation and to avoid extra man power.

3. RECLAIMER SECTION:
This section reclaims the raw material and passes it to
the raw mill section through the conveyor belts. It is
also an independent section and has a separate control
room to operate the reclaiming process. There is also a
scraper chain to collect the crushed raw material before
the Re claimer cuts the heap of raw material and
average raw material is collected by scraper chains.
Thus scupper chain is collected to the conveyor belts,
which carries and supplies the raw material to hoppers.
The control room helps in maintaining the speed of
scraper chain in order that uniform level of material
should be maintained in the conveyor belts and it can
be happened only by making the speed (constant) of
scraper chain coast. Otherwise no uniform level of the
material will occur and create further problems. The
speed control is AC variable control.

4.RAW MILL HOPPER:

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 This section consists of three hoppers out of which one
for limestone and another for high grade and low-grade
clay. The main function of hopper is to collect the
limestone and pass it to “weigh feeder.”

5.PROPORTIONING, WEIGHING AND

FEEDEING SYSTEM:
Just below of the storage raw material hopper the
microprocessor based Weigh feeder is installed. The
electronics weigh feeders can be set to feeding a desired
proportionate quantity of each material and can regulate
the desired quantity of feed rate .The electronic weigh
feeder can be accept set point from DCS control system
as well as controlled through QCX (Quantity
Controlled by X-Ray analyzer).

6.RAW MEAL GRINDING IN VRM

(VERTICAL ROLLER MILL):
The VRM is an air swept vertical roller mill having
constructional components as Mention Mill and
Classifier .The VRM also having three stationary grinding
rollers which roll on slowly rotating grinding plate (all
three rollers are mounted on a common pressure frame
with cool rods). Each grinding roller is flexible Connected
to the pressure frame by means of pressure yoke, which
allow internal rocking moment of the grinding roller.

8
 The material (lime stone + clay) is transported through
belt conveyor &crushed between grinding roller and
grinding plate .The forces required for grinding are
produced by pressing grinding roller on grinding table by
hydraulic pressure .The pressure can be changed by
operator as per their requirement. The final material is
ground and conveyed to storage silo.

7.BLENDING, EXTRACTION AND KILN

FEEDING SYSTEM:
The raw mix blending is commenced in the plant in
the two stages. The first pre grinding stage while stacking
and reclaiming of limestone is carried in storage yard.
Secondly the blending takes place in post grinding stage
during storage of the ground raw mix in blending silo
after grinding in VRM.

The ground raw mix is called raw meal enters in the

blending silo from top for further blending, further
blending takes place at the time of extraction of the raw
meal For extraction the automatic operation of gates is
carried out by dedicated PLC based panel.

8.KILN FEED SYSTEM:

The kiln feed system consisting of storage bin (100 MT
Capacity), Solid flow meter (Micro processor based
measuring equipment) and bucket Elevator (mechanized

9
raw meal lifting equipment). The pre blended raw meal
extracted from silo is stored in weigh bin.

The two dosing valve are installed at discharge of bin

known as main and standby. The discharge of both dosing
valve commonly connected to solid flow meter. The solid
flow meter controlled and accurate measure raw meal that
is known as kiln feed to pre heater stage and which
controlled and monitor by Central Control room
operator .The discharge of the solid flow meter
transported and Lifted to top cyclone of pre heater.

9.PRE HEATING AND SINTERING:

The pre heating section consists of a single string and fine
stage type with in line calciner is called as DDF (Dual De
Nitration Furnace). Normally the kiln feed (raw meal)
enter in the pre heater at cyclone 1 where it is again lifted
by counter current draught of flue gases and passes to
cyclone 2 and like wise it passes through all cyclone and
reaches to the kiln inlet. The material travels always
vertically downward and the flue gases travels upward in
counter current with the draught of the flue gases. During
this process the gases exchange heat and heated up the
material. The whole process from raw meal entering at
cyclone top and reaches to kiln inlet heat transfers takes
place from 50-60 degree centigrade to approx 1000-1100
degree centigrade.

The material travel through the inlet to Calcin Zone in

kiln is further heated before enters transition zone. In
sintering zone the feed is heated to sintering temperature

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in the range of 1350-1600 degree centigrade resulting in
formation of cement clinker with all the essential
compounds and the clinker is discharged in Decolorizer
for water Quenching.

10. ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPIRATOR

(ESP):

This is used to restrict any dust particle entering into the

atmosphere. Thus to avoid the air pollution. In this, there
are two electrodes one is at zero volts & is at –ve. In this
chamber, very high potential is maintained i.e. around
50Kv. The –ve electrode is negatively charge the dust
particles. These –ve charged dust particles get deposited at
zero potential. Rapping is done to this electrode. These
dust particles are feedback to silo as it contains a fine
powder of cement & remaining gas is pass trough
chimney. Opacity monitor is used to detect the dust
particles passing through a chimney.
Pre heater section contains pyro string &
kiln string. The amount of material in pre heater section is
control by 12 pneumatic gates presents in silo. Cyclones
are present in pre heater section & the material
temperature & are increased by passing the hot gases .In
the cyclone the pressure & temp. Are measured by
pressure transmitters.

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11. QUENCHING AND DRYING :
The quenching process in white cement required cooling
of red-hot clinker in reducing atmosphere out of contact
with air. The quenching and drying of clinker is takes
place in continuous rotating Decolorizer for better
quenching and drying the water spray is required to
controlled quantity of water for better whiteness in
process.

12. STORAGE SILO:

Finally the clinker transported through belt conveyor
to clinker silo for storage purpose.

13. CEMENT GRINDING:

The cement grinding process involves operation in

following stages:

I Clinker extraction from storage silo.

II Clinker and Gypsum feeding in roller press.
III The product of roller press again grind in cement
mill for required parameters.
IV Transportation of finished ground cement-to-cement
silo.

The clinker extraction is done and transported to feeding

hopper through belt conveyor. Similarly, the other product
for cement manufacturing called as Gypsum also
transported to the hopper. Below of this hopper electronic

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weigh feeders are provided for proportionate weighing
quantity of clinker as well as gypsum to the roller press.
The final product of roller press again stored in bin.
Further the product of roller press again grinds in
cement mill and finally product to be transported through
mechanizes lifting conveyor or storage silo. This final
product known as white cement and further dispatched to
customer in different packing by electronics packing
machine.

Instrumentation

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INTRODUCTION: - The term instrumentation here
signifies designs & installation of a measuring & controlling
instruments system for an industrial process.

PURPOSE AND EFFECTS OF

INSTRUMENTATION

The primary objective of instrumentation is to control a plant

most effectively & safely. Its provides effective means of
producing the maximum of yields from raw materials
ensuring the highest & uniform quality of product. It greatly
reduces the man power. It guards the plant & against any
hazards.

ROLE OF INSTRUMENTATION

DEFINITION:-
Instrumentation is the system of measuring & controlling
process variables of any defined process to get a constant
quality & maximum production on regular basis with

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effective use of raw materials, equipment & with energy
leading better profitability to the company.

OBJECTIVE
To control the plant process of any nature most effectively &
safely by monitoring the variables & controlling them to the
required level of safely limits.

NECCESSITY OF INSTRUMENTATION
Control is required to avoid losses due to deviation.
Important factor related to control concept is the improve the
product quality, equipment safety & avoidance of losses.

WORKING:
The inaccuracy is in the system is continuously control by a
controller. This ensure steady continuous operation of a plant
to obtain require quality & rated quality of end product.

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INSTRUMENTATION IN CEMENT
INDUSTRY
In cement industry instruments can be used in different ways
like

1) Measuring of process parameters

Viz…. temp. , pressure, level, flow etc.
2) PLC (Programmable Logical controller): used for the
interlock & controlling of the process parameters
through periodic controller.
3) Power Electronics:
a) D.C Drives – To control dc motor & vary the
speed using the thyrister.
b) A.C Drive – To control speed of ac motor by
varying the frequency of supply.

4) Weighing system: These are weigh feeder, belt

weighted, and weighing tripper, truck weighing bridge,
hopper & bag weighing system.
5) Instrument used for safety like metal detector, photocell
etc.

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We will discuss all the instruments separately one by one in
detailed manner consisting of working principle &
operation.

1. TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCER

Temperature is the vital parameter which needs

measurement & control on the most of the industrial
processes. Various techniques of measurement of temp. Can
be classified as under

Temperature Measuring Techniques

Contact Type Non

Contact Type

Mechanical Electrical method Radiation Optical pyrometer

Method

17
Fille Bimetallic Thermocouples Resistance
system Thermometer

Here we have Contact type, Electrical method based

Thermocouples & Resistance Thermometer is employed for
small temp. Recordings & for analyzing temp. Of kiln it uses
Non Contact type Pyrometers.

THERMOCOUPLES:
The operation of this class of thermometer is based upon see
back effect which is as follows:
When wires of two different metals are joined together to
form two junctions, it is called thermocouples. If one of
these junctions is kept at higher temp. Than the other, a
thermal e.m.f. is generated across the wire. This e m f is
proportional to temp. Differences between two junctions.
The most common thermocouples used in industries are
Type of Thermocouple Temp. Range
0
+ ve wire - ve wire C
Iron Constantan 0to 8000C
Copper Constantan -185 to +3000C

Potentiometer circuit:
The emf due to TC is balanced against the voltage drop
along the slide wire sass shown in fig. until the instrument
reads zero. The position of the contact arm C is then measure

18
of the TC emf & hence the temp. Nickel spool resistance N
provides cold junction compensation B& M helps to reduce
the current from battery to 1 to 2mA, R is voltage adjusting
resistance.

RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS:
The operating principle of these thermometers is that the
electrical resistance of a wire increases as its temp.
Increases. Platinum is the most widely used material since it
is useful over a wide range of temp. From –240 0C to +164
0
C.

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Measuring circuit:
When subjected to heat, resistance RT of the Pt wire (RTD)
increases. The element is connected in one arm of the
Wheatstone bridge. The other arms of the bridge have fixed
resistor. A battery is connected across the bridge. As RT
increases the bridge is unbalanced which is detected by milli
voltmeter. This unbalanced voltage can be amplified &
calibrated in terms of temperature. In null balanced
condition R3 is varied until there is no deflection in the
voltmeter. At balance
R1/R2 = R3/RT
RT= R2 R3/R1
Since R2 & R1 are fixed RT can be found from the above eq.
& calibrated in terms of temperature. The ckt diagram is
shown below

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2. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
The measurement of pressure is fundamentally of two types:
a) The Absolute Pressure Measurement, measure actual
pressure of a fluid with help of gauge.
b) The Differential Pressure Measurement, the gauge
measures the difference of the pressures between two
portions of fluid.

The mostly preferred transmitter for pressure measurement

employed is Capacitance Transducers categorized under
Electronic pressure sensor.

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 a) CAPACITANCE TRANSDUCERS:
The basic operating principle involved in all capacitive
pressure sensors is the measurement of change in
capacitance resulting from the movement of a movable
electrode. The elastic element mostly used is stainless
steel diaphragm exposed to the process pressure on
one side & to the reference pressure on other.
Depending on the reference pressure used, the unit can
detect absolute, gauge & differential pressures.
The unit shown incorporates two capacitor plates. A high
voltage, high-frequency oscillator is used to energies the
sensing the sensing element. Changes in process pressure
deflect the diaphragm, & the resultant change in capacitance
is detected by the bridge ckt. The two-plate design can be
operated in balanced or unbalanced modes. If the ckt is
operated in balanced mode, the output voltage is fed to a null
detector, & the capacitance arms are varied to maintain they
bridge at null. In this mode, the null setting itself is a
measure of process pressure. If the ckt operates in
unbalanced mode, the ratio between output voltage &
excitation voltage is the indication of process pressure.
CPT has many adv. like good accuracy, range ability,
linearity, & speed of response. Their limitations include
temp. Sensitivity, high output impedance, &corrosion
sensitivity.

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 4) LEVEL MEASUREMENT

The level ia tank or silo can be detected by many different

techniques. The frequently used sensor foe level
measurement is the capacitance level sensor discussed
below:

THE CAPACITANCE LEVEL SENSOR:

As a low-voltage high=frequency (MHz) signal is applied to
the probe, a minute current flow is caused from the probe to
the ground. As changes in level cause a change in the
capacitance between the probe & ground, this affects the
minute that are detected by extremely accurate bridge ckts.
The size of the capacitor is a function of the physical & of
the dielectric constant of the material (K) between the plates
as follows:
C = 0.6 KX/Log10(A/B)

Where: C = total capacitance in farads

K = dielectric constant of material between the plates
X = length of active portion of tube
A = inside diameter of tank
B = outside diameter of bare probe
Variation in process level cause a change in the total
capacitance (C), which is measured by a ckt that is exited by
a allow-voltage radio frequency (RF) oscillator at a
frequency of a few MHz.

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INSTRUMENT USED FOR WEIGHING
PURPOSE:

LOAD CELL:
This is common type of instrument used to know the amount
(weight) of material present in Hoppers, Silo, Cement silo,
Packer machine etc.

STRAIN GAUGE TYPE LOAD CELL:

In this type of load cell as the load increase the resistance

also increases i.e. change in resistance brings the Wheatstone
bridge in unbalanced condition. That changes the voltage
across output terminals by this voltage we can measure the
amount of material present.

INDUCTIVE TYPE LOAD CELL:

In inductive type load cell ferromagnetic material is used
and two coils are used. To one coil a supply of 1.5v ac and
330hz frequency is supplied. When load applied the output
of the second coil is changed due to the change in the flux
which is proportional to the load applied on the cell.

NO MOTION SENSOR:
To know the belt running condition or any faults in the
motor or belt cut is sensed by no motion sensor. Here there is
a flange which is attached to a motor and rotating in front of

24
a sensor. If the belt is running it is sensed by the sensor and
pulses are generated. There is a LED switch blinking
continuously i.e. belt is ON. If the LED allows continuously
without blinking then there is a fault.

NOISE MEASUREMENTS:

ELECTRONIC EAR-
This instrument is used in BALL MILL to know the amount
of filling. This consists of a microphone which converts
sound intensity of BALL MILL into proportional 4-20mA
signal. If the material is less then the sound intensity will be
more and if the material is more sound intensity will be less.

GAP SENSOR:
LVDT (Linear variable differential transformer)-
Is used as a gap sensor. LVDT consists of a primary coil and
two identical secondary coils, auxiliary spaced & wound on
a cylindrical coil former, with a road shaped magnetic core
positioned centrally inside the coil assembly providing a
proffered path for a magnetic flux linking in the coils. The
displacement to be measured is transferred to the magnetic
core through suitable linkages. When the primary coil is
energized with AC carrier wave signals, voltages are induced
in each secondary section, the exact value depending upon
the position of the magnetic core w.r.t the center equal

25
voltages are induced in secondary. These two outputs are
connected in phase opposition; the magnitude of the
resultant voltage tends to zero. This is the null position.
When the core is now displaced from the null position the
induced voltage in the secondary towards which the core has
moved increases while in the other secondary decreases.
This is the differential voltage output of the LVDT.

UNINTERRUPTED POWER SUPPLY

(UPS)
Modern electronic equipment is very dependent on being
provided with a clean transient free source of power. No
matter how good the AC utility supply is, interruptions,
voltage surges, spikes, blackouts, brownouts etc. do occur &
such fluctuations can under many circumstances be both
dangerous & expensive. This equipment, an Uninterrupted
Power Supply (UPS) provides continuous, regulated sine
wave power to the load.
Standard UPS System with stand by redundancy provided by
electronic bypass switch.

26
Mains I/P

STATI

RECTIFIER INVERTER

BATTERY

BYPASS I/P

(ALTERNATE SOURCE)

ALTERNATE SOURCE

27
A standard UPS is consists of Five major sections as shown
in Fig.

1. Rectifier/Charger
2. Battery
3. Inverter
4. Static Bypass Switch
5. Manual Bypass Switch

1) RECTIFIER / CHARGER
The rectifier converts the incoming AC supply into an
accurately controlled DC voltage suitable for charging the
system battery & for supplying the DC requirements of
the inverter. Current limit control is incorporated to
provide battery charging current limitation. The battery
charging level can be preset to a figure acceptable to the
particular battery employed thus helping to ensure
maximum battery life.
The rectifier provide a front end that effectively compensates
for wide variations in supply & frequency & combined with
battery provides a very effectively buffer against most
transient, dips, spikes & other commonly occurring
fluctuations in the AC supply.

2. BATTERY

The battery is connected directly across the output of

the Thyristor rectifier & is permanently on Float mode.

28
 It stores energy to be supplied to the inverter for
specific period (backup time0) in case of a I/P power
failure.

3. INVERTER

This section converts the DC power to a regulated A.C. The

inverter employed is of the PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
type. Power transistors are used to switch the DC supply at a
frequency between 2 & 5 KHz depending on rating. By
switching a train of pulses through one transistors bridge
circuit & alternatively through second transistor circuit at the
required output frequency the output sinusoidal waveform
can be built up. Switching pulses are slightly longer near the
center of the outgoing waveform than nearer to the cross-
over point. By varying the pulse width in this way the output
sine waveform can be controlled very accurately. The
advantages in size, response time & efficiency.

The inverter design is self protected in the event of overload,

short circuit at the output terminals. Fast acting & slow
acting current limit circuits ensure that fault at the system
load will not cause any permanent damage or malfunction in
the inverter. The three most common types of
inverter/rectifier are as follows:

1. Current Source Inverter (CSI)

2. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
3. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

Current Source Inverter (CSI): A CSI actually uses the

inductive characteristic of the motor to stabilize DC as it

29
reaches the inverter, because the inverter has to be fairly
large too keep the current source stable; this type of
electronic ASD is generally used with 100 hp & larger
drives. It is harder to tune in the field because it cannot
operate without connection to the motor.
Advantages include regenerative braking capability (acting
as a generator while motor is slowing down), good short-ckt
protection, and high efficiency at a wide range of speeds
above 50%, quiet operation, relative ruggedness, &
simplicity. Drawbacks include poor power factor at low
speed/load & inability to test the drive without attaching the
motor (which must to be matched to the inverter). This type
of the drive is usually used to drive only one motor at a time,
although more than one is physically possible.
Voltage Source Inverter (VSI): The VSI is sometimes called
a variable-voltage inverter (VVI) or six-step inverter. It uses
a capacitor before the inverter to store energy from the
rectifier & stabilize the voltage entering the inverter. It is
used in low to medium power applications, generally up to a
few hundred hp.
Advantages include simple circuit configuration, high
efficiency over a wide speed range (10 to 200%) & ability to
control several motors at once. Disadvantage is that
arrangement it has no regenerative braking capability. Nor is
it well suited to operation at less than 10% of rated speed,
where power factor is very poor.

Pulse Width Modulated Inverter (PWM): The PWM inverter

develops the voltages output by chopping pulses by varying
to synthesize the desired waveforms. PWM drives uses
complex software algorithms to determine timing, duration,
& frequency of the voltage pulses delivered to the motor.

30
This is presently the most common ASD type for up to
400hp motor sizes. These drives are well suited for motors
up to 10,000hp.
Advantages includes good power factor through a speed
range from 0 to 100% & low harmonic distortion generation
on power systems. It can control several motors from a
single drive, can be tested without being connected to a
motor & has fast response & close control characteristics.
Disadvantages include no regenerative braking capability,
need for greater skill in servicing, greater motor heating due
to motor harmonic distortion generation & limited cable
distance between drive & motor (50-100 feet). The ckt
diagram with explanation is shown on the next page.

AC DRIVES
An inverter or ac drive is a piece of equipment used to
control the rotating speed of an induction or ac motor. These
are sometimes called asynchronous or squirrel cage motors.
As the speed of rotation of the motor is governed by the frequency of the applied supply current, it
seems logical that the best way to control the speed of the motor is to control the frequency applied to it.

Speed = 120 x f
P
Where f = frequency and p = the number of poles.
Poles refer to the construction used in the motor. A 4 pole
motor connected to a 50Hz supply will rotate at 1500rpm,

31
whereas a 2 pole motor will rotate at 3000rpm.
As well as changing the frequency, the inverter drive also
alters the voltage applied to the motor; this is to ensure the
required torque at the motor shaft is available without the
problem of overheating.

The primary purpose of an adjustable speed drive is to let an

AC motor run slower. These drives allow the motor driven
machines to produce the same output as counterparts but
with less electrical input, often improving manufacturing
quality as well. Such drives can also enhance motor &
machine life & reduce maintenance by allowing operation at
lower temperature & smoothing machine startup &
shutdown. The most common type is Pulse Width
Modulation drive, which provides good power factor
through a wide range of speeds, ca control several motors
from a single drive, has very good speed control response &
is applicable to all AC motor sizes.

Fluid control in the buildings of today is commonly done

using Adjustable Speed Drives (ASDs) connected to AC
motors. In the past, this control likely would have been done
using constant speed motors and either mechanical flow
control devices or cycling techniques. The drivers behind the
switch to ASDs include energy savings, controllability, and
reliability. However, as some of us know by experience,
these benefits are only obtained with a successful application
of the ASD system. The simple task of installing an ASD
into an existing system to replace an existing damper or flow

32
control valve may turn into a major project for several
reasons.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Fig. Shows a typical ASDs system which has 4 basic

components namely Rectifier, DC link, Inverter &
Regulator. The rectifier converts line frequency AC to
DC. The DC link smoothes at the output of the
rectifier. And, the inverter generates an adjustable
frequency & voltage AC output to the motor. Some
application may require regulators, which helps
control system to optimize the process requirements.
The basic block diagram of AC Drive is shown below:

TYPES OF ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVES

ASDs are also commonly referred to as variable speed drives
(VSDs), variable frequency drives (VFDs) &
adjustable frequency drives (AFDs). Several types of
ASDs are available; each with its own practical
applications. All are similar in controlling motor speed
by varying electrical voltage & frequency. They differ
in how they accomplish AC-to-DC inversion. The
three most common rectifier/inverter are discussed
above.

33
VARIABLE-FREQUENCY DRIVE
A variable-frequency drive is an electronic controller that
adjusts the speed of an electric motor by modulating the
power being delivered. Variable-frequency drives provide
continuous control, matching motor speed to the specific
demands of the work being performed. Variable-frequency
drives are an excellent choice for adjustable-speed drive
users because they allow operators to fine-tune processes
while reducing costs for energy and equipment maintenance.

BENEFITS
Single-speed drives start motors abruptly, subjecting the
motor to high torque and current surges up to 10 times the
full-load current. In contrast, variable-frequency drives offer
a "soft start" capability, gradually ramping up a motor to
operating speed. This lessens mechanical and electrical
stress on the motor system and can reduce maintenance and
repair costs and extend motor life. Variable-frequency drives
allow more precise control of processes such as water
distribution, aeration and chemical feed.
Variable-frequency drives are reliable, easy to operate,
increase the degree of flow control, and reduce pump noise.
Because of the nature of this technology, variable-frequency
drives can produce harmonic distortion—adversely affecting
power quality, and subsequently, other electrical machinery.
However, manufacturers have developed many solutions to
correct this problem. For example, installing an isolation
transformer in conjunction with the variable-frequency drive
can reduce distortion to an inconsequential level.

34
 DC Drives

The basic function of the DC Drive is similar to that of

the AC Drive that is controlled of the speed of motor.
The block diagram shows how the DC Drive controls
speed of the motor.

DC FEEDBACK:
Function of each rectangle box is as follows:
The set speed control provides a dc voltage, say 12V for
maximum speed & zero for stationary. This could be a
potentiometer providing any voltage in a range from 0 to
+12V.
The difference amplifier will amplify any difference between
its two input voltages.
If the motor is stationary & the speed control is moved from
0 to half speed then, since the tachometer is not rotating &
not producing an output voltage, there will a difference in
voltages at the two inputs of the difference amplifier.
Therefore there will be an output voltage from the amplifier.
Since this voltage is not high enough in value to drive the
motor, it is increased in amplitude by the DC amplifier. A
DC amplifier is a special type of amplifier, which can
increase dc voltages.
This amplified dc powers the dc motor, which begins to
increase its speed of rotation. This in turn rotates the tacho,
which produces a voltage proportional to speed. As the tacho
voltage increases it will eventually reach the same value as

35
the “set speed” voltage. At this point there will be no output
from the difference amplifier. The motor is up to the correct
speed.
However, since the dc amplifier no longer powers the motor
its speed will start to fall. But the tacho output voltage will
start to fall, & there will again be a difference between the
two input voltages to the difference amplifier. This will
produce an output from the difference amplifier & dc
amplifier which will power the motor & correct this drop in
speed.
The basic block diagram of DC drive is shown below. It
consist of ckt breaker, fuse & mainly rectifier control card
whose function is to control the firing angle, provide
isolation transformer ckt for safety purpose as it give
isolation from power ckt. Also field is given DC voltage
which according to Faraday’s law magnetic field is
generated (due to the fact that current induces e.m.f around
coil which generates magnetic flux) which thus drives the
motor.

COMPARISON AC VS DC DRIVES
AC DRIVES MAY BE BETTER BECAUSE….

36
•They use conventional, low cost, 3-phase AC induction
motors for most applications.
•AC motors are smaller, lighter, more commonly available,
and less expensive than DC motors.
•AC motors are better suited for high speed operation (over
2500 rpm) since there are no brushes, and commutation is
not a problem.
•Multiple motors in a system must operate simultaneously at
a common frequency/speed.
•When the application load varies greatly and light loads
may be encountered for prolonged periods. DC motor
Commutator and brushes may wear rapidly under this
condition.
•Low cost electronic motor reversing is required.
•It is important to have a back up (constant speed) if the
controller should fail.

DC DRIVES MAY BE BETTER BECAUSE…

•DC drives are less complex with a single power conversion

from AC to DC.
•DC drives are normally less expensive for most HP ratings.
•DC regenerative drives are available for applications
requiring continuous regeneration for overhauling loads. AC
drives with this capability would be more complex and
expensive.
•DC motors are capable of providing starting and
accelerating torques in excess of 400% of rated.
•Some AC drives may produce audible motor noise, which is
undesirable in some applications

37
 Instrumentation Control
systems
Plant Control System

The plant is fully automated and plant operation and

controls are from central control Room through latest
DCS systems and PLCs.

There are mainly two divisions in plant UNIT I and

UNIT II .There is also a technology corresponding to
DCS known as DIGITAL DISTRIBUTED CONTROL
SYSTEMS (DDCS).

DCS System
DCS system can be classified as follows:

38
The DCS consists of master computer MAX – I from USA
and DDCS consists of master computer which from
SWEDEN. Both the computer has totally different modes of
execution.
MAX – I SYSTEM:
The MAX – I system can be broadly
classified into 3 sections:

 OPERATING STATIONS
 DATA HIGHWAY
 CONTROLLER FILE

OPERATING STATION:

39
This is the main functioning station of DCS. It consists
of a super computer through which information is get
from the field through various instruments and data line
and then suitable instructions can be given to it for
performing particular function or operations.

The operating station is also called a CENTRAL

CONTROL ROOM i.e. CCR. The computer used here
mainly works on optical system and it has 16 data
highway lines for collection and executing information
and instruction respectively.

The computer used here is also attached with optical to

electrical or electrical to optical connector, which is
called “OEI”.

The information of field, which comes through data

highway, is in electrical form therefore the OEI
converts the electrical signal to optical and send it
through the computer OR if the information is in optical
form then it converts them to electrical form and send it
to various field instruments.

The working of master computer is governed by a

human operator and according to information received
by the operator gives the necessary commands and the
functioning is done through this.

Therefore whole of the plant is controlled through this

master and therefore CCR is the Heart of the PLANT.

40
DATA HIGHWAY:

The data highway is used for sending and receiving

various information from field instruments. It acts as a
medium or a channel for use of information and
commands.

It mainly consists of large cables of wires and other

related cords. The cable used in data highway carries
information in either optical for or electrical form
according to the need of the instruments. The data
highway lines are casted or shielded layers of cables.
These cables are properly mounted and fixed at suitable
places.

CONTROLLER FILE:

The controller file consists of various cords and other

useful data storage equipments. The controller file is
the main functioning and processing part.

It mainly consists of same cards like COM card, DAQD

card, DATA highway card, Programmer function cord,
PF cord, etc. and also some of the memory storage
devices like database I and database II.

The power supply required for the system is 24V DC

and this supply is connected into 5V DC for the use of

41
cell cords.

The controller file is specific file for each instrument or

machine which is attached in the field. The controller
file are provided with specific address, so that it is easy
to reach a particular controller file and instruction are
given to them to perform suitable operations through
CCR. For e.g. Kiln has been given address 426A and
Raw mill has C421.

FUNCTIONING OF DCS:

First of all the drive or instrument which is attached at

the equipment for knowing temperature, pressure, etc.
are joined through its input through Digital
Input/Output i.e. DIO and its output is also connected to
DIO. The DIO tells about the input of the drive to the
CCR and also tells about the output provided by the
CCR to drive or instrument. The system we are using
here is a two wire system i.e. One wire to send
information and other to know the response or output.

The instruments at the field works on 230V AC supply

but our whole DCS system works on 1- 5V DC,
therefore it is converted into 1- 5V DC. Now the
information through various DC Drive goes to the
MACHINE CONTROL ROOM (MCC Room).

From the MCC room this information, through the data

highway, is fed into their controller file as it is stated
earlier that each controller file is built for each

42
particular machine therefore they are all put in a room
called PLC room i.e. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
CONTROL Room.

This controller file has various cords and various

processing instruments. If the information received by
the field is in Digital form then it is directly fed to the
DIO Board.

There is also some information that is not in digital

form, so this information is fed into ATB i.e. Analogue
Terminal Cord and this convert the analogue
information to digital form and from both Digital and
Analogue Board the whole Digital information is fed
into the DAQA cord. This DAQA is a processing cord
and joined with HOLD station cord. Now from the
DAQA level the information is given to the DATA
BASE I , which is a memory module and used for
storing data and its is provided with battery backup for
storage of data even at the time of power failure.

The PF cord i.e., PROGRAMMER FUNCTION Cord

is attached after Data Base I and it changes its status
according to the information received.

The DATA BASE II is connected after PF level, which

is also the battery backup memory module and used to
store data from PF and information form CCR. After
the data base II the information is fed into the DATA
HIGHWAY cord which is also a processing cord and
process the received information, from this the
information is fed into MODEM which either

43
modulates or demodulates the signal which are
transmitted to data highway. The Data Highway cord
formats the Data and used to communicate between
controller and instrument.

Therefore according to the information received is fed

to the CCR through the QEI and the manual controller
know about the actual status of the machine and driver.

Therefore according to the need of the operator they

give suitable commands for particular section like Raw
Mill, Mixer, Grinder, etc. and the information again
passes through this channel and work according to the
software implemented for each drive in turn to each
controller file.

The inputs of files are compared with ideal situations

and the value stored in the software and according to
them the function is performed.

If there is any error in the apparatus or drive, the system

itself produces an alarm or warning on the screen of
motor conductor and operator comes to know about the
fault.

The processor inside the master computer itself checks

the working of other processors in the system and tells
the operator or user about them. Therefore by just
sitting and giving instructions to the machineries
through the master computer we can automatically
control the working of whole PLANT.

44
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
CONTROLLER (PLC):-
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), also referred to as
programmable controllers, are in the computer family. They
are used in commercial and industrial applications. A PLC
monitors inputs, makes decisions based on its program, and
controls outputs to automate a process or machine.

BASIC OPERATION OF PLC:

PLCs consist of input modules or points, a Central

Processing Unit (CPU), and output modules or points.
An input accepts a variety of digital or analogue signals
from various field devices (sensors) and converts them
into a logic signal that can be used by the CPU. The

45
 CPU makes decisions and executes control instructions
based on program instructions in memory. Output
modules convert control instructions from the CPU into
a digital or analogue signal that can be used to control
various field devices (actuators). A programming device
is used to input the desired instructions. These
instructions determine what the PLC will do for a
specific input. An operator interface device allows
process information to be displayed and new control
parameters to be entered.

TERMINOLOGY
The language of PLCs consists of a commonly used set of
terms; many of which are unique to PLCs. In order to
understand the ideas and concepts of PLCs, an
understanding of these terms is necessary.

SENSORS
A sensor is a device that converts a physical condition into
an electrical signal for use by the PLC. Sensors are

46
connected to the input of a PLC. A pushbutton is one
example of a sensor that is connected to the PLC input. An
electrical signal is sent from the pushbutton to the PLC
indicating the condition (open/closed) of the pushbutton
contacts.

ACTUATORS

Actuators convert an electrical signal from the PLC into

a physical condition. Actuators are connected to the
PLC output. A motor starter is one example of an
actuator that is connected to the PLC output. Depending
on the output PLC signal the motor starter will either
start or stop the motor.

DISCRETE INPUT

47
A discrete input also referred to as a digital input, is an
input that is either in an ON or OFF condition.
Pushbuttons, toggle switches, limit switches, proximity
switches, and contact closures are examples of discrete
sensors which are connected to the PLCs discrete or
digital inputs. In the ON condition a discrete input may
be referred to as logic 1 or logic high. In the OFF
condition a discrete input may be referred to as logic 0
or a logic low.

ANALOG INPUT

An analogue input is a continuous, variable signal.

Typical analogue inputs may vary from 0 to 20
milliamps, 4 to 20 milliamps, or 0 to 10 volts. In the

48
following example, a level transmitter monitors the
level of liquid in a tank. Depending on the level
transmitter, the signal to the PLC can either increase or
decrease as the level increases or decreases.

DISCRETE OUTPUT

A discrete output is an output that is either in an ON or

OFF condition. Solenoids, contactor coils, and lamps
are examples of actuator devices connected to discrete
outputs. Discrete outputs may also be referred to as
digital outputs. In the following example, a lamp can be
turned on or off by the PLC output it is connected to.

49
ANALOG OUTPUT

An analogue output is a continuous, variable signal.

The output may be as simple as a 0-10 VDC level that
drives an analogue meter. Examples of analogue meter
outputs are speed, weight, and temperature. The output
signal may also be used on more complex applications
such as a current-to-pneumatic transducer that controls
an air-operated flow-control valve.

CPU (Central Processing Unit):

50
 The central processor unit (CPU) is a microprocessor
system that contains the system memory and is the PLC
decision-making unit. The CPU monitors the inputs and
makes decisions based on instructions held in the
program memory. The CPU performs relay, counting,
timing, data comparison, and sequential operations.

PROGRAMMING
A program consists of one or more instructions that
accomplish a task. Programming a PLC is simply
constructing a set of instructions. There are several ways to
look at a program such as ladder logic, statement lists, or
function block diagrams.

LADDER LOGIC

Ladder logic (LAD) is one programming language used with

PLCs. Ladder logic uses components that resemble elements
used in a line diagram format to describe hard-wired control.
The left vertical line of a ladder logic diagram represents the
power or energized conductor. The output element or
instruction represents the neutral or return path of the circuit.

51
The right vertical line, which represents the return path on a
hard-wired control line diagram, is omitted. Ladder logic
diagrams are read from left-to-right, top-to-bottom. Rungs
are sometimes referred to as networks. A network may have
several control elements, but only one output coil.

STATEMENT LIST

A statement list (STL) provides another view of a

set of instructions. The operation, what is to be
done, is shown on the left. The operand, the item
to be operated on by the operation, is shown on the
right. A comparison between the statement list
shown below, and the ladder logic shown on the
previous page, reveals a similar structure. The set
of instructions in this statement list perform the
same task as the ladder diagram.

52
 FUNCTION BLOCK DIAGRAMS

Function Block Diagrams (FBD) provides another

view of a set of instructions. Each function has a
name to designate its specific task. Functions are
indicated by a rectangle. Inputs are shown on the
left-hand side of the rectangle and outputs are
shown on the right-hand side. The function block
diagram shown below performs the same function
as shown by the ladder diagram and statement list.

Packing Plant
Cement packing is done at very high rate using electronic
robo packing machine. The rate of packing with these can be
achieved up to one bag /sec.

53
ELECTRONIC ROTO PACKER MACHINE:

These machines are electromechanical type. It is

microprocessor based. The microprocessor used in this
controller is . The controller works in time domain
& controls, filling of the bags as function of weight of the
bags. The measuring the weight of each bag. Each filling
spout is fitted with the load cell. The load cell is HEM,
Germany made & is tensional type. The excitation voltage
to the load cell is 10 V, sensitivity is 2mv/v & maximum
measurable load is 200Kg.
The packing machine rotates at 2.5
rpm & filled bags are discharged at 2 points in each
rotation. The data regarding the discharge bags is
transmitted by RS 232 port to a personal computer kept
inside the control room.

Thermal Power Plant

54
The Thermal Power Plant in here incorporates an AFBC
(Atomic Fluidized Bed Configuration) Boiler. A Steam flow
of 38 TPH is maintained at 65 kgF/cm2. Temperature of the
superheated steam is kept 495 degree Celsius. It’s a multiple
fuelled, i.e., Pet-coke, Lignite, and Indian or Foreign coal
fired furnace. Condenser used is Air cooled type.
Power is an essential input to economic development and for
improving the quality of life. In present situation, coal based
thermal power is the only source to augment power
generation to meet the increasing demand year by year.
Energy production can be considered as an index of the level
of development.
Though electricity is a clean form of energy at the point of
consumption, the process of its generation through coal
based thermal power plants may pose number of problems,
such as, environmental pollution viz. air, water and noise

55
pollutions, health effects, loss of forests etc., if adequate
preventive and control measures are not taken.

EQUIPMENTS OF PLANT:-
The main equipment of power plant is as follows:-
Steam generating plant
Coal & ash plant
Steam turbine
Alternator
Water treatment plant
Cooling arrangement
Condenser

ECONOMIZER:-
It is essentially a feed water heater. It is a device which
heats the feed water on its way to boiler. Economizer
consists of large no. of tubes connected by headers. Feed
water in the tubes & fuel gases are over these tubes Utilize
the heat from the fuel gases for heating the feed water.
Economizer gives benefits to the power plant by increasing

56
the boilers efficiency & reducing the stresses on the boiler &
saving of fuel.

BOILER:-

The boiler used in the thermal power plant is A.F.B.C.

Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion.
The job of a boiler is to supply good quality dry steam at the
correct pressure at the right time. Boilers and the associated
fire equipment should be designed for efficient operation.
They should also be properly sized. A boiler, which has to
scope with a peak load above its maximum continuous
rating, will operate at reduced efficiency. Pressure may drop
and the resultant priming and carry-over will mean that the
boiler is unable to do its job of providing good quality
steam.
If a boiler has to work at a small percentage of its rating,
radiation losses become significant and, again there is a drop
in overall efficiency. Clearly, it is not easy to match boiler
plant to what is normally a variable steam load. Two or more

57
boilers are more flexible than a single unit which explains
the common arrangement of a large boiler for the winter load
with a smaller boiler for the summer load.

SUPER HEATER:-
It is also attached to the boiler. The steam which is produced
in the boiler becomes wet. To remove this unnecessary
property, the steam will passes through the super heater. The
steam becomes dried. This is Called “Super Heated Steam “.
Steam is super heated by increasing its temperature &
pressure, which can be increased by passing its steam to fuel
gases.
The Super heater provides two benefits :
It increases the over all efficiency.
It avoids too much condensation of steam.

VARIOUS INSTRUMENTS USED IN ANY

THERMAL POWER PLANT:-
1. Pressure transmitters (Diaphragms).

2. Speed sensors.

58
3. Control valves.

4. Solenoid valves.

5. Level s/w.

6. Pressure s/w
.
7. Differential pressure s/w.

8. Orifices, Flow nozzles.

9. Level transmitters.

10. Flow transmitters.

11. Vibration sensors.

12. Displacement sensors.

13. Pneumatic cylinders.

14. Differential pressure transmitters (capacitance type).

15. Temperature transmitters (thermocouples, RTD’s

59