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Inertia, Electromagnetism and Fluid Dynamics

Article · January 2008

DOI: 10.1063/1.2844955

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Alexandre A. Martins Mario J. Pinheiro

University of Brasília University of Lisbon
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 Inertia, Electromagnetism and Fluid Dynamics
Alexandre A. Martins^ and Mario J. Pinheiro^

' Center for Plasma Physicsjnstituto Superior Tecnico, Lishoa, Portugal

^Department of Physics and Center for Plasma Physicsjnstituto Superior Tecnico, Lisboa, Portugal
351.1.21.841.93.22, mpinheiro@ist.utl.pt

Abstract. It is shown that the vector potential created by a charged particle in motion acts as an ideal space flow
that surrounds the particle. The interaction between the particle and the entrained space flow gives rise to the
observed properties of inertia and the relativistic increase of mass. Parallels are made between the inertia property
of matter, electromagnetism and the hydrodynamic drag in potential flow. Accordingly, in this framework the non
resistance of a particle in uniform motion through an ideal fluid (Paradox of Dirichlet) corresponds to Newton's
first law. The law of inertia suggests that the physical vacuum can be modeled as an ideal fluid. It is shown that
the force exerted on a particle by an ideal fluid produces two effects: i) resistance to acceleration and, ii) an
increase of mass with velocity which is due to the fluid dragged by the particle, where the bare mass of the particle
at rest changes when in motion ("dressed" particle). From this theoretical ground, the inertia property of matter
appears in a new light representing a promising avenue to create new propulsion concepts.

Keywords: Classical electromagnetism. Maxwell equations; Classical field theories; Special relativity; General
physics; Electromagnetic propulsion. Fluid Dynamics.
PACS: 03.50.De; 03.50.-z; 03.30.+p; 01.55.+b.

INTRODUCTION
It has been suggested in the past that the vector potential represents some kind of velocity field (Ives, 1939;
Kirkwood, 1953; Hannay, 1976; Cook, Fearn and Millonni, 1995; Leonhardt and Piwnicki, 1999, 2000,
2001; Belot, 1998), but the consequences of this comparison have not been properly analyzed, verified or
proved to be more than a pure theoretical convenient analogy. For instance, the field of Metafluids
(Marmanis, 1996) makes a bridge between the equations of electromagnetism and hydrodynamics on a pure
theoretical level. In this article, we will present a new theoretical approach pointing out some experimental
observations performed in the past that illustrates our point of view, in such a way that our model can give
a good representation of observable facts. In the ensuing discussion, we will formulate some questions that
will take us to consider the vector potential as the velocity component of a superfluid quantum space, i.e. as
a space flow, from which the inertia property evolves and field propulsion becomes possible.

VECTOR POTENTIAL AS A SPACE FLOW

In 1851 Fizeau showed experimentally for the first time that flowing water could drag light with it. He
measured interference between light rays going with and against water flow, proving that the flow altered
light propagation (see Figure 1(a)). The amount of light dragging by a moving medium is given by the
Fresnel dragging coefficient, who initially predicted the effect (Fresnel, 1818). The total velocity of light v
in a medium of refraction index n is given by:
r 1^ c
c
—+
n -i. = — + au,
n
CP969, Space Technology and Applications International Forum—STAIF 2008, edited by M. S. El-Genk
(1)

© 2008 American Institute of Physics 978-0-7354-0486-l/08/$23.00

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where c/n is the velocity of light in a dielectric medium and au is the dragging of light by the medium with
velocity u.

Hannay (1976) was the first to suggest an analogy between light in a moving medium and charged matter
waves in electromagnetic fields, where the velocity of a flow is played by an electromagnetic vector
potential, A. Thus, a vector potential circular "velocity" pattern around a solenoid can be seen (compare
Figure l.(b) with Figure l.(c) ) to be equivalent to the Fizeau's experiment of dragging light (Cook, Feam
and Millonni, 1995). The Aharonov-Bohm (AB) effect (1959) is the corresponding effect in
electromagnetism consisting in the production of the phase shift between two electron waves (Figure l.(b)).

Tube

(a) Light Beam Flowing Water Interference

Light Beam Pattern

Shield

Solenoid

(b) Electron Beam Interference

(c) Light Beam Pattern

FIGURE 1. (a) The Fizeau Experiment, (b) The Aharonov-Bohm Effect, (c) The Optical Aharonov-Bohm Effect.

The same phenomenon of interference with light waves exists, the optical AB effect. In their very
interesting work on the study of light propagation in nonuniformly moving fluids, Leonhardt and Piwnicki
(1999, 2000, 2001) derived the formulas for the phase change light undergoes in an optical AB effect
obtained, e.g., by letting the light travel through a liquid vortex. The phase shift (PAB is given by:
(PAB=^^^AB^ (2)
with.

VAB = %^-l)^. (3)

c ~ 'c
where the vortex strength w is defined by u=w/re^ in cylindrical coordinates and r is the radius at which the
medium velocity is considered. The effect is small and could be enhanced by letting light take several turns
inside the vortex to get cumulative effects. To this day there is not a consensus of whether light really
suffers a velocity change or just simply a phase change when it passes through a physical flowing medium
such as water or the vector potential of electromagnetism (Spavieri and Gillies, 2007; Boyer, 2007).

The phase shift of electrons in the AB effect is considered to be a quantum topological effect where the
electrons feel no force or velocity change in their path. However, there exists a competing classical
explanation that sustains the phase shift to be caused by a lag effect in the transit times for the two beams

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which attain different velocities (in analogy with a wave from one of the beams passing through a dielectric
piece and changing velocity in the process) (Liebowitz, 1965, 1966; Boyer, 1973, 1987, 2002). According
to Boyer (2005), the change in velocity the electrons would suffer in the AB effect should be:
mAv^=(q/c)A^{r^(t)). (4)
where the vector potential A created by the magnet is in the Coulomb gauge and evaluated at the position
(r/t)) of the charge in motion. These velocity changes are consistent with the conservation of energy, of
linear momentum and special relativity. Furthermore, this result accounts exactly for the AB phase shift as
a classical electromagnetic lag effect. Preliminary experiments (Gronniger et al, 2007; Caprez, Barwick and
Batelaan, 2007) have not detected a classical force on electrons passing a macroscopic solenoid. These
results have been contested by Boyer (2007), thus it remains an open subject.

If it is experimentally verified that a dielectric flow (of water, for example) changes the speed of light and
not just cause a phase shift, then it is reasonable to assume correspondingly that the vector potential should
have a similar effect changing the velocity of light. This verification, if proven true, would link
electromagnetism with gravity supporting the vector potential ability for spacetime manipulation.

A moving dielectric medium appears to light as a gravitational field, modifying the spacetime metric
experienced by electromagnetic waves. Light traveling through a dielectric vortex suffers an AB phase
shift. On the same stance, atoms that pass through this vector potential circular flow also suffer a phase
shift (Wilkens, 1994; Wei, Han and Wei, 1995; Spavieri, 1999). It is worth to remark here that generalized
vector potentials can induce not only phase shifts, but also geometric angles. Previous work have shown
that the Lorentz-type force acting on a neutral particle due to the interaction of its magnetic moment with
an inhomogeneous magnetic field is a manifestation of Berry's geometric angle (Berry, 1984; Aharonov
and Stem, 1992).

In his fundamental article on understanding electromagnetism, Belot (1998) suggested three different
interpretations of electromagnetism corresponding to three different strategies for interpreting gauge
theories. In the first interpretation he considered the vector potential as a physical field on physical space in
which it represents the velocity of a material ether and where the electrokinetic field, E = -dAJdt,
corresponds to the acceleration of this material ether. The second interpretation is a traditional one where
the electric and magnetic fields are considered to be the physically real entities. And the third interpretation
is based on holonomies where the electromagnetic field is regarded as an assignment of real numbers to
closed curves in space and vectors to points of space (electric field). Holonomies are used because although
the vector potential. A, at a given point of space is not gauge invariant, the integral of ^ around a closed
curve is considered to be gauge invariant.

The AB effect shows that in quantum mechanics the vector potential of electromagnetism is physically real,
thus interpretation two above is false. Although Aharonov and Bohm seem to have preferred the first
interpretation, Belot choose the third because of the gauge invariance in terms of holonomies, where fields
are thought as properties of loops. This however destroys synchronic locality because if the field is a loop,
then the state of the system depends on regions of space far away from the area of interest. This, in our
view, simply does not make sense and we prefer to consider a local approach as given by the first
interpretation. Furthermore, it is known that the vector potential has longitudinal as well as curled
components (Schwab, Fuchs and Kistenmacher, 1997; Rousseaux, 2003), thus showing the impossibility of
interpretation three. Berry's phase (Berry, 1984) shed new light to the understanding of different
topological effects in micro- and mesoscopic physical systems with hydrodynamic effects generated by
loop configurations providing strong persistent spin and mass currents stabilized by phase locking
(Balatsky and Altshuler, 1993). Despite the effect taking place in a loop, however, spin currents are excited
locally.

It is not widely known but Einstein after denying the 19"" century concept of immobilized ether did in fact
return to the ether (Einstein, 1922; Granek, 2001) in 1916 with different and specific properties accounted
for in his relativity theories. Quoting Einstein (Kostro, 2000):

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... in 1905 I was of the opinion that it was no longer allowed to speak about the ether in physics. This
opinion, however, was too radical, as we will see later when we discuss the general theory of relativity. It
does remain allowed, as always, to introduce a medium filling all space and to assume that the
electromagnetic fields (and matter as well) are its states. [...] once again "empty" space appears as
endowed with physical properties, i.e., no longer as physically empty, as seemed to he the case according
to special relativity. One can thus say that the ether is resurrected in the general theory of relativity. [...]
Since in the new theory, metric facts can no longer he separated from "true" physical facts, the concepts of
"space " and "ether " merge together.

We can call it "aether", but this word has a very abstract meaning and we prefer instead to use a term which
reflects the observed properties of the vector potential as a directional space flow derived from charged
particle movements. We have shown that the spacetime effects related to a moving charged particle can be
attributed to the time change of the vector potential in the case of the inertia force, and to the space gradient
of the vector potential velocity dependent term in the case of the relativistic increase of mass (Martins and
Pinheiro, 2007).

As Einstein stated (Kostro, 2000), physical space as such is connected with time as such, forming the
known interdependent spacetime. The vector potential manipulates spacetime because it is a flow of space
which in turn alters time as demonstrated by the spacetime contraction with velocity. Vacuum zero point
energy (ZPE) seems to be the all pervading presence and the vector potential behaves as a polarizer of this
ZPE generating what could be called a zero point flow (ZPF). It is possible that inertia results from an
interaction of charged particles with the background ZPF (Haish, Rueda and Puthoff, 1994), but this
approach has been criticized (Woodward, 2001). Froning (1989, 2003, 2007) relates the zero point field
with fluid dynamics as having similar properties and Kelly (1976) has shown how vacuum
electromagnetics can be derived exclusively from the properties of an ideal fluid. Furthermore, Culetu
(1994), Volovik (2001), Alvarenga and Lemos (1998), Huang and Wang (2006) have treated the vacuum
and cosmological phenomena as a superfluid, thus showing the validity of our link between the vector
potential space flow with a superfluid space flow or a zero point energy (quantum space) flow. More
recently Jacobson and Parentani (2005) have suggested that spacetime can be a kind of fluid with the
properties of an ether. We can find the source of this physical picture in the work of Herbert E. Ives (1939,
1948) and Robert L. Kirkwood (1953, 1954).

Following along the reasoning of Faraday and Wheeler we envisage matter as build-up by the fields, its
epiphenomena. Likewise the "electric field," the gravitational field can be created by matter at rest with
mass M through the spherically symmetric gravitational potential:

0 = . (5)
r
When in motion, matter with velocity v (constituting a "matter current density" J^ = Mv ) will produce a
gravitational vector potential A . Attempting to build-up an appropriate constitutive equation we realize
that for a point source it should be:
G Mv
^s=— • (6)
^ c r
with units in m.s"\ Multiplying it by the test mass m of a particle subject to the field of M, recovers the
momentum of the gravitational field p = mA . The quantum of circulation is then given by (n=l,2,...):
^{A •dr)=n _h . (7)
Mr
r
he , ,, jg
Therefore, we obtain m^^ = — = 1.22x10 GeV, which is the Planck mass, those particles forming
G
the Planck-Wheeler quantum foam of spacetime, a kind of "atoms" of spacetime forming a physical
vacuum with fluid characteristics (Jacobson, 1999).
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 ELECTRODYNAMIC INERTIA AND HYDRODYNAMICS

Newton's first principle tells us that a body remains at rest or in motion with the same speed and in the
same direction unless acted upon by a force. The case of an elementary particle, a proton for instance,
traveling at uniform velocity and immersed in its own vector potential flow allows us to draw some useful
hydrodynamic analogies. The fact that a particle feels no drag when in motion with uniform velocity means
that the vector potential space flow is a lossless one. This means that the particle will be subject to a perfect
pressure recovery at the rear that will equal the pressure rise at the front, resulting in zero net drag. This
information suggests that at uniform velocity the space flow will show no viscosity and thus the structured
three-dimensional manifold (SSM) behaves as an ideal fluid (potential flow). One finds in hydrodynamics a
possible similar effect, the phenomenon of non resistance of a sphere in uniform motion through an ideal
fluid, referred to as the "Paradox of Dirichlet" (Prandtl and Tietjens, 1934).

For a fluid without viscosity, an action on the body can happen only by way of pressure on its surface. A
well-known result from hydrodynamic theory (Pandtl and Tietjens, 1934) shows that an accelerating
particle in an ideal fluid will be subject to two different forces: the acceleration force which is equal to the
product of its mass by the acceleration, and an additional force that accelerates the mass of the fluid
particles set in motion by it. Accordingly, a dissipation of energy is caused when an accelerated charged
particle interacts with its surrounding vector potential flow, thus having some viscosity to drag the
surrounding fluid. Supercavitation in the quantum vacuum allowing modes of propagation faster than the
velocity of hght is a possibility (Svozil, 2002).

In order to develop further the physical basis of inertia and gravitation, we recall that the Navier-Stokes
equation for an incompressible flow of Newtonian fluid is given by:

p — + (v-V)v =-Vp + juV\ + f. (8)

\dt J
As is well-known, the term on the left is considered to be that of inertia, where the first term in brackets is
the unsteady acceleration and the second term is the convective acceleration. On the right, the first term is
the pressure gradient, the second is viscosity and the third is ascribed to any other force.

Considering the special case of an ideal (viscosity |J. = 0) and incompressible fluid (V-v = 0) we arrive at
the Euler equation of motion (Guyon et al, 2001):

pF'^'
=p— + p(vV)v + Vp. (9)
dt
The term on the left represents the resultant volume forces applied to the fluid, the first term on the right is
the acceleration of a particle due to the explicit time-dependence of its velocity in a fixed Eulerian reference
frame (acceleration in a homogeneous non-stationary field v(r, t)), the second term corresponds to the
changes in velocity as a particle of fluid is convected through the velocity field. This leads to an
acceleration term present even if the velocity field vyr) is time independent; and the third term represents
the effect of pressure, where stresses are present even in the absence of fluid motion (hydrostatic pressure).

Considering the total derivative given by:

= 5,+(vV) = —+ v , (10)

the above equation (9) can be re-written under the form:

^^ Dv Vp
F"^ = +- ^ . (11)
Dt p
As we have shown in a previous work, the total electromagnetic force acting on a particle is given by
(Pinheiro, 2006; Martins and Pinheiro, 2007):

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 DA
FEM=-q—-q^v, (12)
Using the total derivative (10), we obtain:
dA dA
F^^=-qd,A-q{vV)A-qVV = -q—-qv- — -qVV, (13)
ot or
which can be written as:
FEM = - ^ — - ^ V , ( v - ^ ) + ^ [ v x f i ] - ^ V K , (14)
ot
Putting together the total electrical potential, one then has (Martins and Pinheiro, 2007):
m— = F''"-q— + q[vxi^xA)]-qV{y + v-A). (15)

Now it is interesting to consider the equation for a particle entrained in the medium flow of an idealfluidas
given by (Dmitriyev, 2006):
dv du i^ \ m^
m— = m mvx^VxMJH—\p. (16)
dt dt p
Comparison between these last two equations allows us to interpret the inertia property of matter both in
electromagnetic and hydrodynamic interchangeable terms, where the vector potential takes the role of a
fluid velocity field, the mass of a particle as a correspondence with its charge q and Vp/p is the gradient of
the specific enthalpy when the fluid density p is constant:
^ O C V ( K +V-^)OC£. (17)
P
Here, E is the electric field. This last relation shows that the electric forces can be considered to be caused
by pressure gradients in hydrodynamic terms and can even be considered similar to an equation of state.

If the medium velocity is zero (e.g. A = 0), we obtain the electromagnetic equivalent to the fundamental law
of hydrostatics:

^£M=-^VKX^. (18)
P
In Metafluids theory, the vector potential is also considered to be a velocity field of a fluid like medium
(Marmanis, 1996), and other electromagnetic quantities have a correspondence in hydrodynamics. The
following table is a brief summary of this analogy.

TABLE 1. Comparison Between Hydrodynamic and Electromagnetic Variables.

Hydrodynamical Quantities Electromagnetic Quantities

Velocity u Vector Potential A
Vorticity w Magnetic Induction B
Specific Enthalpy p/p Scalar Potential V
Lamb Vector 1 Electric Field E
Hydrodynamic Charge qn Electric Charge qg

CONCLUSION
At this point, the question is to which extent this comparison between electromagnetic and hydrodynamic
quantities can be taken. In the case of inertia, both equations seem tofitperfectly into each other, so it is
reasonable to assume that the physical property of inertia can be interpreted as resulting from the
interaction between charges and a surrounding electromagnetic spacetime ideal fluid, the vacuum energy or
zero point field, put in motion or "polarized" by the vector potential flow. In this context, the vector
potential can be considered as a physical field on physical space endowed with the physical property of the

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velocity of a kind of fluid in the three-dimensional structured spatial manifold. The vector potential can be
interpreted as a polarizer of this SSM generating a space flow from which the inertia property evolves. This
analogy and approach leads possibly to a better understanding of the physical origin of inertia.

Moreover, with this new theory structured on the concept of electromagnetic vector potential, as the
velocity component of a spacetime ideal fluid, we believe it contributes to engineering the vacuum for field
propulsion. The aeronautical industry is based on the control of the surrounding atmospheric fluid velocity
profile around airfoils. This theory opens for the first time, to our knowledge, the perspective to do the
same thing with the vector potential, through control of the velocity profile of the vacuum perfect fluid, to
achieve propulsion.

NOMENCLATURE

q = particle's charge (C) P = fluid density (kg/m^)

mem = electromagnetic mass (kg) ^ = viscosity (Pa-s)
m = particle mass (kg) P = pressure (N/m^)
M.0 = permeability of free space (H/m) r = radial position (m)
So = permittivity of free space (F/m) A = vector potential (T.m)
c = speed of light (m/s) J = vector density of charge (A/m^)
a = acceleration (m/s^) B = magnetic field (T)
V velocity of the particle (m/s) pext external force (N)
= =
Vq = velocity of a charge (m/s) U = fluid velocity (m/s)
w = vorticity (m^/s) (?AB = phase shift (rad)
CO ^ optical frequency (s"') VAB ^ phase difference (adimensional
units)
V = electric potential (V) E = electric field (V/m)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge partial financial support by the Reitoria da Universidade Tecnica de
Lisboa and the Fundafao Calouste Gulbenkian. We would also like to thank important financial support to
one of the authors, Alexandre Martins, in the form of a PhD Scholarship from FCT (Fundafao para a
Ciencia e a Tecnologia).

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