Hazem Emam Ali

Building Engineer
Ain Shams University
January 2014
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES...................................................................................................III

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.................................................................................................................IV

INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................V

1.0 WHAT IS ELECTRECITY? ........................................................................................................1

2.0 HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY......................................................................................................2

2.1 Ancient Electricity..................................................................................................................2

2.2 The Foundation of The Modern Electrical Science .........................................................,....3

2.2.1 History of Electricity - William Gilbert...........................................................................3

2.2.2 History of Electricity - Early Inventors..........................................................................3

2.2.3 History of Electricity - Leyden Jar................................................................................3

2.2.4 History of Electricity - Henry Cavendish & Luigi Galvani.............................................4

2.2.5 Joseph Henry...............................................................................................................4

2.2.5.1 Biography .......................................................................................................4

2.2.5.2 His works on magnet.......................................................................................5

2.2.5.3 Self induction....................................................................................................5

2.2.5.4 Telegraph.........................................................................................................5

2.2.5.5 Magnetic Engine..............................................................................................6

3.0 WHAT IS AN ELECTRIC CHARGE?........................................................................................6

4.0 WHAT IS AN ELECTRIC CURRENT?......................................................................................8

5.0 WHAT IS AN ELECTRIC FIELD?.............................................................................................8

6.0 WHAT IS THE POTENTIAL ENERGY?....................................................................................9

6.1 Concept...............................................................................................................................9

6.2 Zero Potential....................................................................................................................10

6.3 Potential Reference At Infinity...........................................................................................10

7.0 ELECTROMAGNETS...............................................................................................................11

8.0 WHAT IS AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT?.......................................................................................12

9.0 WHAT IS THE ELECTRIC POWER?......................................................................................13

9.1 Concept.............................................................................................................................13

9.2 DC Electric Power.............................................................................................................14

9.3 AC Power..........................................................................................................................14

10.0 ELECTRONICS.......................................................................................................................14

11.0 APPLICATIONS AND USES OF ELECTRICITY....................................................................15

11.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum..............................................................................................16

11.2 Electric Motors.................................................................................................................17

11.3 Electric Shock..................................................................................................................17

11.3.1 Concept................................................................................................................17

11.3.2 Current involved in Electric Shock........................................................................18

11.4 Lightning..........................................................................................................................18

11.4.1 Concept................................................................................................................18

11.4.2 Where will lightning strike?...................................................................................19

12.0 ELECTRICITY AND THE NATURAL WORLD........................................................................19

12.1 Physiological Effects.......................................................................................................19

12.2 Electrical Phenomena In Nature......................................................................................20

13.0 CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................22

14.0 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................23
 LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
FIGURES:
FIGURE 2.1 HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY................................................................3

FIGURE 2.2 HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY................................................................4

FIGURE 4.1 ELECYRIC CURRENT..........................................................................8

FIGURE 5.1 ELECTRIC FIELD.................................................................................8

FIGURE 7.1 ELECTROMAGNETS.........................................................................11

FIGURE 7.2 ELECTROMAGNETS.........................................................................11

FIGURE 8.1 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT..........................................................................12

FIGURE 8.2 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT..........................................................................12

FIGURE 10.1 ELECTRONICS..................................................................................15

FIGURE 11.1 ELECTRIC MOTORS........................................................................17

FIGURE 11.2 ELECTRIC SHOCK............................................................................17

FIGURE 12.1 ELECRICITY AND NATURAL WORLD.............................................20

FIGURE 12.2 ELECTRICITY AND NATURAL WORLD..........................................20

TABLES :
TABLE 11.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM.................................................16

TABLE 11.2 ELECRTIC SHOCK.............................................................................17

 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report illustrates the importance of “electricity” through four

divisions. Starting with the first division which simplifies the
concept of electricity and how the electric charge is related to
other several types of physics.
Moving to the second division which is considered to be the
historical part of the report, where this division is talking about the
history of electricity and how ancient people discovered it, and it
also brings to you “the foundation of the modern electricity
science”. This division also mentions some works for great
scientists and how they figured out complicated things that are
the bases for many technologies nowadays.
There are some concepts that any inexpert engineer should
know, so in the third division we will be focusing on some
concepts that are related to electricity, those concepts may give
you the push to become more expert in this business if you are
interested.
And finally, the last division will be talking about some
applications and uses of electricity, and also how the electricity is
related to the natural world.
 Introduction

This report studies one of the most important forms of energy

which is “Electricity”, since we deal with the electricity in our
daily-life and we never see it or touch it physically, I thought it
would be useful to bring you a report that simplifies the concept
of electricity and handles it’s details in a convenient way that will
open your mind to get the information easily.
1. What is “Electricity”?
Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and
flow of electric charge. Electricity gives a wide variety of well-known effects,
such as lightning, static electricity, electromagnetic induction and electrical
current. In addition, electricity permits the creation and reception of
electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves.
In electricity, charges produce electromagnetic fields which act on other
charges. Electricity occurs due to several types of physics:

 Electric charge: a property of some subatomic particles, which determines

their electromagnetic interactions. Electrically charged matter is influenced
by, and produces, electromagnetic fields.
 Electric current: a movement or flow of electrically charged particles,
typically measured in amperes.
 Electric field (see electrostatics): an especially simple type of electromagnetic
field produced by an electric charge even when it is not moving (i.e., there is
no electric current). The electric field produces a force on other charges in its
vicinity. Moving charges additionally produce a magnetic field.
 Electric potential: the capacity of an electric field to do work on an electric
charge, typically measured in volts.
 Electromagnets: electrical currents generate magnetic fields, and changing
magnetic fields generate electrical currents.
In electrical engineering, electricity is used for:

 electric power where electric current is used to energise equipment;

 electronics which deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical
components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated
circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies.
Electrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity; though progress in
theoretical understanding remained slow until the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. Even then, practical applications for electricity were few, and it would
not be until the late nineteenth century that engineers were able to put it to
industrial and residential use. The rapid expansion in electrical technology at
this time transformed industry and society. Electricity's extraordinary versatility
means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which
include transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation.
Electrical power is now the backbone of modern industrial society.
2. History of electricity
Since this topic is complicated it’s preferred to divide it into sections; Ancient
electricity and Modern one.

2.1. Ancient electricity

Long before any knowledge of electricity existed people were aware of shocks
from electric fish. Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BC referred to these
fish as the "Thunderer of the Nile", and described them as the "protectors" of all
other fish. Electric fish were again reported millennia later by Greek,
Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians. Several ancient writers, such
as Pliny the Elder and Scribonius Largus, attested to the numbing effect
ofelectric shocks delivered by catfish and torpedo rays, and knew that such
shocks could travel along conducting objects. Patients suffering from ailments
such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that
the powerful jolt might cure them. Possibly the earliest and nearest approach to
the discovery of the identity of lightning, and electricity from any other source,
is to be attributed to the Arabs, who before the 15th century had
the Arabic word for lightning (raad) applied to the electric ray.
Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as
rods of amber, could be rubbed with cat's fur to attract light objects like
feathers. Thales made a series of observations on static electricity around 600
BC, from which he believed that friction rendered amber magnetic, in contrast
to minerals such as magnetite, which needed no rubbing. Thales was incorrect
in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would
prove a link between magnetism and electricity. According to a controversial
theory, the Parthians may have had knowledge of electroplating, based on the
1936 discovery of the Baghdad Battery, which resembles a galvanic cell, though
it is uncertain whether the artifact was electrical in nature.
2.2. The foundation of modern electrical science in the
Elizabethan Age.

2.2.1. History of Electricity - William Gilbert

The history of electricity begins with William Gilbert, a physician who served
Queen Elizabeth the first of England. Before William Gilbert, all that was known
about electricity and magnetism was that the lodestone possessed magnetic
properties, and that rubbing amber and jet would attract bits of stuff to start
sticking.
In 1600, William Gilbert published his treatise De magnete, Magneticisique
Corporibus (On the Magnet). Printed in scholarly Latin, the book explained years
of Gilbert's research and experiments on electricity and magnetism. Gilbert
raised the interest in the new science greatly. It was Gilbert who coined the
expression "electrica" in his famous book.

2.2.2. History of Electricity - Early Inventors

Inspired and educated by William Gilbert several Europeans inventors, Otto von
Guericke of Germany, Charles Francois Du Fay of France,
and Stephen Gray of England, expanded the knowledge.

Otto von Guericke proved that a vacuum could exist.

Creating a vacuum was essential for all kinds of further
research into electronics. In 1660, Otto von Guericke
Figure (2.1): Otto von
invented a machine that produced static electricity; this Guericke's static electricity
was the first electric generator, look at figure (2.1). generator - 1660

In 1729, Stephen Gray discovered the principle of the conduction of electricity.

In 1733, Charles Francois du Fay discovered that electricity comes in two forms
which he called resinous (-) and vitreous (+), now called negative and positive.

2.2.3. History of Electricity - Leyden Jar

The Leyden jar was the original capacitor, a device that stores and releases an
electrical charge. (At that time electricity was considered the mysterious fluid or
force.) The Leyden jar was invented Holland in 1745 and in Germany almost
simultaneously.
Both Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek and German clergyman and
scientist, Ewald Christian Von Kleist invented a leyden jar. When Von Kleist first
touched his leyden jar he received a powerful shock that knocked him to the
floor.

The Leyden jar was named after Musschenbroek's hometown and university
Leyden, by Abbe Nolett, a French scientist, who first coined the term "Leyden
jar". The jar was once called the Kleistian jar after Von Kleist, but this name did
not stick.

2.2.4. History of Electricity - Henry Cavendish & Luigi Galvani

Henry Cavendish of England, Coulomb of France, and Luigi Galvani of Italy made
scientific contributions towards finding practical uses for electricity.

In 1747, Henry Cavendish started measuring the conductivity (the ability to

carry an electrical current) of different materials and published his results.

In 1786, Italian physician Luigi Galvani demonstrated what we now understand

to be the electrical basis of nerve impulses. Galvani made frog muscles twitch by
jolting them with a spark from an electrostatic machine.

Following the work of Cavendish and Galvani came a group of important

scientists and inventors, including: Alessandro Volta of Italy, Hans Oersted of
Denmark, Andre Ampere of France, Georg Ohm of Germany, Michael Faraday of
England, and Joseph Henry of America.

2.2.5. Joseph Henry

2.2.5.1. Biography

In 1799, Joseph Henry was born in Albany, New York. He was

Figure2.2: Joseph
educated at Albany Academy (now Princeton University). Henry important
Intending to become a doctor, he studied natural sciences. American scientist

In 1824, Joseph Henry was employed as an assistant engineer on a survey team

for a State road, three hundred miles long, between the Hudson River and Lake
Erie. The experience changed the course of his career; he decided to study civil
and mechanical engineering instead of medicine.
2.2.5.2. His works on magnet

Joseph Henry's first discovery was that the power of a magnet could be
immensely strengthened by winding it with insulated wire. He was the first
person to make a magnet that could lift thirty-five hundred pounds of weight.
Joseph Henry showed the difference between "quantity" magnets composed of
short lengths of wire connected in parallel and excited by a few large cells; and
"intensity" magnets wound with a single long wire and excited by a battery
composed of cells in series. This was an original discovery, greatly increasing
both the immediate usefulness of the magnet and its possibilities for future
experiments.

Michael Faraday, William Sturgeon, and other inventors were quick to recognize
the value of Joseph Henry's discoveries. Sturgeon magnanimously said,
"Professor Joseph Henry has been enabled to produce a magnetic force which
totally eclipses every other in the whole annals of magnetism; and no parallel is
to be found since the miraculous suspension of the celebrated Oriental
imposter in his iron coffin.

2.2.5.3. Self Induction

Joseph Henry discovered the phenomena of self induction and mutual

induction. In his experiment, a current sent through a wire in the second story
of the building induced currents through a similar wire in the cellar two floors
below.

2.2.5.4. Telegraph

The first attempts to send signals by electricity (telegraph) had been made many
times before Joseph became interested in the problem.

William invention of the electromagnet encouraged researchers in England to

experiment with the electromagnet. The experiments failed and only produced
current that weakened after a few hundred feet.
2.2.5.5. Magnetic Engine

Joseph Henry next turned to designing a magnetic engine and succeeded in

making a reciprocating-bar motor, on which he installed the first automatic pole
changer, or commutator, ever used with an electric battery. He did not succeed
in producing direct rotary motion. His bar oscillated like the walking beam of a
steamboat.

3. What is an electric charge?

The unit of electric charge is the Coulomb (abbreviated C). Ordinary matter is
made up of atoms which have positively charged nuclei and negatively charged
electrons surrounding them. Charge is quantized as a multiple of the electron or
proton charge:

The influence of charges is characterized in terms of the forces between them

(Coulomb's law) and the electric field and voltage produced by them. One
Coulomb of charge is the charge which would flow through a 120 watt light bulb
(120 volts AC) in one second. Two charges of one Coulomb each separated by a
meter would repel each other with a force of about a million tons!

The rate of flow of electric charge is called electric current and is measured in
Amperes.

In introducing one of the fundamental properties of matter, it is perhaps

appropriate to point out that we use simplified sketches and constructs to
introduce concepts, and there is inevitably much more to the story. No
significance should be attached to the circles representing the proton and
electron, in the sense of implying a relative size, or even that they are hard
sphere objects, although that's a useful first construct. The most important
opening idea, electrically, is that they have a property called "charge" which is
the same size, but opposite in polarity for the proton and electron. The proton
has 1836 times the mass of the electron, but exactly the same size charge, only
positive rather than negative. Even the terms "positive" and "negative" are
arbitrary, but well-entrenched historical labels. The essential implication of that
is that the proton and electron will strongly attract each other, the historical
archetype of the cliché "opposites attract". Two protons or two electrons would
strongly repel each other. Once you have established those basic ideas about
electricity, "like charges repel and unlike charges attract", then you have the
foundation for electricity and can build from there.

From the precise electrical neutrality of bulk matter as well as from detailed
microscopic experiments, we know that the proton and electron have the same
magnitude of charge. All charges observed in nature are multiples of these
fundamental charges. Although the standard model of the proton depicts it as
being made up of fractionally charged particles called quarks, those fractional
charges are not observed in isolation -- always in combinations which produce
+/- the electron charge.

An isolated single charge can be called an "electric monopole". Equal positive

and negative charges placed close to each other constitute an electric dipole.
Two oppositely directed dipoles close to each other are called an electric
quadruple. You can continue this process to any number of poles, but dipoles
and quadruples are mentioned here because they find significant application in
physical phenomena.

One of the fundamental symmetries of nature is the conservation of electric

charge. No known physical process produces a net change in electric charge.
4.What is an Electric current?
Electric current is the rate of charge flow past a given point in an electric circuit,
measured in Coulombs/second which is named Amperes. In most DC electric
circuits, it can be assumed that the resistance to current flow is a constant so
that the current in the circuit is related to voltage and resistance by Ohm's law.
The standard abbreviations for the units are 1 A = 1C/s. See figure (4.1)

Figure 4.1: shows the direction of a magnetic field

5.What is an electric field?

Electric field is defined as the electric force per unit charge. The direction of the
field is taken to be the direction of the force it would exert on a positive test
charge. The electric field is radially outward from a positive charge and radially
in toward a negative point charge. See figure (5.1)

Figure 5.1: Shows some

Types of the electric field

6.What is an electric potential energy?
6.1. Concept:
Potential energy can be defined as the capacity for doing work which arises
from position or configuration. In the electrical case, a charge will exert a force
on any other charge and potential energy arises from any collection of charges.
For example, if a positive charge Q is fixed at some point in space, any other
positive charge which is brought close to it will experience a repulsive force and
will therefore have potential energy. The potential energy of a test charge q in
the vicinity of this source change will be:
Where k is Coulomb's constant.

In electricity, it is usually more convenient to use the electric potential

energy per unit charge, just called electric potential or voltage.
6.2. Zero potential:
The nature of potential is that the zero point is arbitrary; it can be set like the
origin of a coordinate system. That is not to say that it is insignificant; once the
zero of potential is set, then every value of potential is measured with respect
to that zero. Another way of saying it is that it is the change in potential which
has physical significance. The zero of electric potential (voltage) is set for
convenience, but there is usually some physical or geometric logic to the choice
of the zero point. For a single point charge or localized collection of charges, it is
logical to set the zero point at infinity. But for an infinite line charge, that is not
a logical choice, since the local values of potential would go to infinity. For
practical electrical circuits, the earth or ground potential is usually taken to be
zero and everything is referenced to the earth.

6.3. Potential reference at infinity:

The general expression for the electric potential as a result of a point charge Q
can be obtained by referencing to a zero of potential at infinity. The expression
for the potential difference is:

Taking the limit as rb→∞ gives simply

For any arbitrary value of r. The choice of potential

equal to zero at infinity is an arbitrary one, but is
logical in this case because the electric field and
force approach zero there. The electric potential
energy for a charge q at r is then

Where k is Coulomb's constant.

7. Electromagnets
Ørsted's discovery in 1821 that a magnetic field
existed around all sides of a wire carrying an
electric current indicated that there was a direct
relationship between electricity and magnetism.
Moreover, the interaction seemed different from
gravitational and electrostatic forces, the two
forces of nature then known. The force on the
compass needle did not direct it to or away from
the current-carrying wire, but acted at right angles
to it. Ørsted's slightly obscure words were that Figure 7.1: Magnetic field circles
"the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner." around a current

The force also depended on the direction of the current, for if the flow was
reversed, then the force did too. (Figure 7.1)

Ørsted did not fully understand his discovery, but he observed the effect was
reciprocal: a current exerts a force on a magnet, and a magnetic field exerts a
force on a current. The phenomenon was further investigated by Ampère, who
discovered that two parallel current-carrying wires exerted a force upon each
other: two wires conducting currents in the same direction are attracted to each
other, while wires containing currents in opposite directions are forced apart.
The interaction is mediated by the magnetic field each current produces and
forms the basis for the international definition of
the ampere.

This relationship between magnetic fields and

currents is extremely important, for it led to
Michael Faraday's invention of the electric motor
in 1821. Faraday's homopolar motor consisted of a
permanent magnet sitting in a pool of mercury. A
current was allowed through a wire suspended
from a pivot above the magnet and dipped into the
mercury. The magnet exerted a tangential force on
Figure 7.2: The electric motor exploits an
important effect of electromagnetism: a
current through a magnetic field
experiences
A force at right angles to both the field
and current
the wire, making it circle around the magnet for as long as the current was
maintained.

Experimentation by Faraday in 1831 revealed that a wire moving perpendicular

to a magnetic field developed a potential difference between its ends (figure-
7.2). Further analysis of this process, known as electromagnetic induction,
enabled him to state the principle, now known as Faraday's law of induction,
that the potential difference induced in a closed circuit is proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop. Exploitation of this discovery
enabled him to invent the first electrical generator in 1831, in which he
converted the mechanical energy of a rotating copper disc to electrical energy.
Faraday's disc was inefficient and of no use as a practical generator, but it
showed the possibility of generating electric power using magnetism, a
possibility that would be taken up by those that followed on from his work.

8.What is an Electric Circuit?

Most practical applications of electricity involve the flow of electric current in a
closed path under the influence of a driving voltage, analogous to the flow in a
water circuit under the influence of a driving pressure. A complete path,
typically through conductors such as wires and through circuit elements, is
called an electric circuit. (See figure 8.1)

The figure 8.1 shows A basic electric

circuit, The voltage source V on the
left drives a current I around the
circuit, delivering electrical energy
into the resistor R. From the
resistor, the current returns to the
Figure 8.2 source, completing the circuit
9.What is the Electric Power?
9.1. Concept

Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric

circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt, one joule per second.

Electric power, like mechanical power, is the rate of doing work, measured in
watts, and represented by the letter P. The term wattage is used colloquially to
mean "electric power in watts." The electric power in watts produced by an
electric current I consisting of a charge of Q coulombs every t seconds passing
through an electric potential (voltage) difference of V is

Where:

Q is electric charge in coulombs

t is time in seconds

I is electric current in amperes

V is electric potential or voltage in volts

Electricity generation is often done with electric generators, but can also be
supplied by chemical sources such as electric batteries or by other means from a
wide variety of sources of energy. Electric power is generally supplied to
businesses and homes by the electric power industry. Electricity is usually sold
by the kilowatt hour (3.6 MJ) which is the product of power in kilowatts
multiplied by running time in hours. Electric utilities measure power using
electricity meters, which keep a running total of the electric energy delivered to
a customer.
9.2. DC Electric Power
The electric power in watts associated with a complete electric circuit or a
circuit component represents the rate at which energy is converted from the
electrical energy of the moving charges to some other form, e.g., heat,
mechanical energy, or energy stored in electric fields or magnetic fields. For a
resistor in a D C Circuit the power is given by the product of applied voltage and
the electric current:

P = VI

Power = Voltage x Current

Watts = volts x amperes

The details of the units are as follows:

9.3. AC Power
As in the case with DC power, the instantaneous electric power in an AC circuit
is given by P = VI, but these quantities are continuously varying. Almost always
the desired power in an AC circuit is the average power, which is given by

Pavg = VI cosφ
where φ is the phase angle between the current and the voltage and where V
and I are understood to be the effective or rms values of the voltage and
current. The term cosφ is called the "power factor" for the circuit.

10.Electronics
Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical
components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits,
and associated passive interconnection technologies. The nonlinear behaviour
of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes
amplification of weak signals possible and electronics is widely used in
information processing, telecommunications, and signal processing. The ability
of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing
possible. Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards, electronics
packaging technology, and other varied forms of communication infrastructure
complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed components into a
regular working system.

Electronics is distinct from electrical and electro-

mechanical science and technology, which deals
with the generation, distribution, switching,
storage, and conversion of electrical energy to and
from other energy forms using wires, motors,
generators, batteries, switches, relays,
transformers, resistors, and other passive
components. This distinction started around 1906
with the invention by Lee De Forest of the triode, Figure 10.1: Surface mount
electronic components
which made electrical amplification of weak radio
signals and audio signals possible with a non-mechanical device. Until 1950 this
field was called "radio technology" because its principal application was the
design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers, and vacuum tubes.

Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform

electron control. The study of semiconductor devices and related technology is
considered a branch of solid state physics, whereas the design and construction
of electronic circuits to solve practical problems come under electronics
engineering. (see Figure 10.1)

11. Apllications and uses of electricity

Electricity has alot of apllications, here are four of them:

 Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Electric Motors
 Electric Shock
 Lightning
11.1. Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of

electromagnetic radiation (see figure 11.1). The "electromagnetic spectrum" of
an object has a different meaning, and is instead the characteristic distribution
of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object.

The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below the low frequencies used for
modern radio communication to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength
(high-frequency) end, thereby covering wavelengths from thousands of
kilometres down to a fraction of the size of an atom. The limit for long
wavelengths is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short
wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length, although in principle the
spectrum is infinite and continuous.

Most parts of the electromagnetic spectrum are used in science for

spectroscopic and other probing interactions, as ways to study and characterize
matter. In addition, radiation from various parts of the spectrum has found
many other uses for communications and manufacturing

Table 11.1
11.2. Electric Motors

Electric motors involve

rotating coils of wire which
are driven by the magnetic
force exerted by a magnetic
field on an electric current.
They transform electrical
energy into mechanical
energy. (see figure 11.1)
Figure 11.1 shows the AC motor and the DC one
11.3. Electric shock

11.3.1. Concept:

The primary variable for determining the severity of electric shock is the electric
current which passes through the body. This current is of course dependent
upon the voltage and the resistance of the path it follows through the body. An
approximate general framework
for shock effects is as in the table Electric Current
(11.2). (1 second Physiological Effect
contact)

1 mA Threshold of feeling, tingling sensation.

One instructive example of the
"Can't let go!" current - onset of
nature of voltage is the fact that
10-20 mA sustained
a bird can sit on a high-voltage muscular contraction.
wire without harm, since both of
Ventricular fibrillation, fatal if
its feet are at the same voltage. 100-300 mA
continued.
You can also see that the bird is
not "grounded" -- you will not be table 11.2

shocked by touching a high voltage if there is no path for the current to reach
the Earth or a different voltage point. Typically if you touch a 120 volt circuit
with one hand, you can escape serious shock if you have insulating shoes which
prevent a low-resistance path to ground. This fact has led to the common
"hand-in-the-pocket" practice for engineers and electrical workers. If you keep
one hand in your pocket when touching a circuit which might provide a shock,
you are less likely to have the kind of path to ground which will result in a
serious shock.
11.3.2. Current Involved in Electric Shock:

The electric current in amperes is the most important physiological varible

which determines the severity of an electric shock. However, this current is in
turn determined by the driving voltage and the resistance of the path which the
current follows through the body. One difficulty in establishing the conditions
for electrical safety is that a voltage which produces only a mild tingling
sensation under one circumstance can be a lethal shock hazard under other
conditions.

Will the 120 volt common household voltage produce a dangerous shock? It
depends!

If your body resistance is 100,000 ohms, then the current which would flow
would be:

But if you have just played a couple of sets of tennis, are sweaty and barefoot,
and then your resistance to ground might be as low as 1000 ohms. Then the
current would be:

The severity of shock from a given source will depend upon its path through

our body.

11.4. Lightning
11.4.1. Concept
Models for the charge buildup which leads to lightning discharges suggest a
buildup of a strong negative charge layer near the bottom of the cloud and the
formation of a positive ground shadow. When the buildup is large enough to
produce ionization of the air, a lightning discharge is initiated. This is called the
positive dipole structure for the charge buildup.
More recent studies indicate a tripolar structure.
With voltages of hundreds of millions of volts and
currents in the tens of thousands of amperes,
lightning flashes can be very destructive.

Most of the information in this section comes from

E. R. Williams' Scientific American article "The
Electrification of Thunderstorms" or from Martin
Uman's classic book "Lightning”. (see Figure 11.2)

11.4.2. Where will Lightning strike?

Figure 11.2

This is certainly a plausible question, and you can answer that it will take the
path of least resistance to the Earth. But the classic response is to say "That is
like asking where the 800 pound gorilla is going to sit. Anywhere he wants!"
That is not to say that there are no physical laws involved, it is just that there
are many variables and a degree of chaos in the environment of the charge. In a
medium which could be classified as "nonlinear", implying that it doesn't follow
simple proportionalities, the path of the lightning strike is not predictable in
practice. As an example of this kind of variability, electric discharges can be
produced with a Tesla coil. The path of the discharge changes drastically with
time, even though the voltage and the nature of the surrounding air are
reasonably constant.

12. Electricity and the natural world

12.1. Physiological effects

A voltage applied to a human body causes an electric current through the
tissues, and although the relationship is non-linear, the greater the voltage, the
greater the current. The threshold for
perception varies with the supply frequency
and with the path of the current, but is about
0.1 mA to 1 mA for mains-frequency
electricity, though a current as low as a micro
amp can be detected as an electro vibration
effect under certain conditions. If the current Figure 12.1: Two 1 New York City
Subway Trains, running electrically.
is sufficiently high, it will cause muscle
contraction, fibrillation of the heart, and tissue
burns. The lack of any visible sign that a conductor is electrified makes
electricity a particular hazard. The pain caused by an electric shock can be
intense, leading electricity at times to be employed as a method of torture.
Death caused by an electric shock is referred to as electrocution. Electrocution
is still the means of judicial execution in some jurisdictions, though its use has
become rarer in recent times
12.2. Electrical phenomena in nature:
Electricity is not a human invention, and may be observed in several forms in
nature, a prominent manifestation of which is lightning. Many interactions
familiar at the macroscopic level, such as touch, friction or chemical bonding,
are due to interactions between electric fields on the atomic scale. The Earth's
magnetic field is thought to arise from a natural dynamo of circulating currents
in the planet's core. Certain crystals, such as
quartz, or even sugar, generate a potential
difference across their faces when subjected to
external pressure. This phenomenon is known as
piezoelectricity, from the Greek piezein (πιέζειν),
meaning to press, and was discovered in 1880 by
Pierre and Jacques Curie. The effect is reciprocal,
and when a piezoelectric material is subjected to Figure 12.2: The electric eel,
an electric field, a small change in physical Electrophorus electricus
dimensions takes place.
Some organisms, such as sharks, are able to detect and respond to changes in
electric fields, an ability known as electroreception, while others, termed
electrogenic, are able to generate voltages themselves to serve as a predatory
or defensive weapon. The order Gymnotiformes, of which the best known
example is the electric eel, detect or stun their prey via high voltages generated
from modified muscle cells called electrolytes. All animals transmit information
along their cell membranes with voltage pulses called action potentials, whose
functions include communication by the nervous system between neurons and
muscles. An electric shock stimulates this system, and causes muscles to
contract. Action potentials are also responsible for coordinating activities in
certain plants
13. CONCLUSION
This report studied the electricity and how it is related to other
types of physics, and how the electricity changed our life
completely. It also took us away to the previous era starting with
the ancient people moving to the foundation of the modern
electrical science, then, it mentioned some of great scientists’
works on electricity and how they worked in developing its
usages.
The report also discussed some concepts like; electric charge,
electric field and so on.., the report also mentioned how to find
the direction of the electric field and current. It also brought to you
the electromagnets which shows the relation between the
magnetic field and the current, after that it showed the elements
of a simple electric circuit, moving to the electrical power which is
the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric
circuit, then it discussed the Electronics which deals with
electrical circuits that involve active electrical components.
After that, the report illustrated some applications of electricity
such as, electromagnetic spectrum which is the range of all
possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation; electric motor;
electric shock which passes through body; Lightning and where it
will strike.
In the end, the report discussed the relation between the
electricity and natural world, and how the electricity has
physiology effects, after all it discussed electrical phenomena in
nature which conclude that the electricity can be found in many
things and creatures, and it is not a human invention.
14. REFERNECES
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity

 Jones, D.A. (1991), "Electrical engineering: the backbone of

society", Proceedings of the IEE: Science, Measurement and
Technology

 Stewart, Joseph (2001), Intermediate Electromagnetic Theory,

World Scientific, p. 50

 http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html

 Baigrie, Brian (2006), Electricity and Magnetism: A Historical

Perspective, Greenwood Press

 Berkson, William (1974) Fields of force: the development of a

world view from Faraday to Einstein p.148.

 Bird, John (2007), Electrical and Electronic Principles and

Technology, 3rd edition, Newnes, pp. 223–225