9/4/2018 Ceramics - materials, joining and applications - Job Knowledge 54

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Ceramics - materials, joining and applications

Job Knowledge 54

Ceramics are an incredibly diverse family of materials whose members span traditional ceramics (such as pottery and refractories) to the modern day
engineering ceramics (such as alumina and silicon nitride) found in electronic devices, aerospace components and cutting tools.

Whilst the most extravagant claims of the 1980s in favour of advanced ceramic materials (such as the all ceramic engine) have largely proved
inaccurate, it is true to say that ceramics have established themselves as key engineering materials.

When used in conjunction with other materials, usually metals, they provide added functionality to components thereby improving application
performance, once the appropriate joint design and technology have been identified.

Ceramic materials

Ceramics exhibit very strong ionic and/or covalent bonding (stronger than the metallic bond) and this confers the properties commonly associated with
ceramics: high hardness, high compressive strength, low thermal and electrical conductivity and chemical inertness.

This strong bonding also accounts for the less attractive properties of ceramics, such as low ductility and low tensile strength. The wider range of
properties, however, is not widely appreciated. For example, whilst ceramics are perceived as electrical and thermal insulators, ceramic oxides (initially
based on Y-Ba-Cu-O) are the basis for high temperature superconductivity. Diamond, beryllia and silicon carbide have a higher thermal conductivity
than aluminium or copper.

Control of the microstructure can overcome inherent stiffness to allow the production of ceramic springs, and ceramic composites have been produced
with a fracture toughness about half that of steel.

The main compositional classes of engineering ceramics are the oxides, nitrides and carbides. The Table gives the general properties of the most used
ceramics.

Table 1 Properties of ceramics

Coefficient of thermal Thermal

Melting point Density (g/cm Strength Elastic Modulus
Ceramic 3) expansion conductivity
(°C) (MPa) (GPa)
(x 10 -6/°C) (W/m.K)
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9/4/2018 Ceramics - materials, joining and applications - Job Knowledge 54

BeO 2530 3.1 246 7.4 210 400

Al 2O 3 2050 4.0 455 8.0 40 380
ZrO 2 2700 5.6 175 10.5 19 140
AlN 1900 3.3 441 4.4 180 320
Si 3N 4 1900 3.2 210 3.0 17 175
B 4C 2350 2.5 350 4.3 25 450
SiC 2700 3.2 140 4.3 50 210
WC 2377 15.8 600 5.2 - 700
Diamond 3000 3.5 1500 0.5 2000 500

Oxides

Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and zirconia (ZrO2) are the most commonly used engineering grade oxide ceramics, with alumina being the most used
ceramic by far in terms of both tonnage and value.

Nitrides

Silicon nitride (Si3N4), and aluminium nitride (AlN) are the main advanced engineering ceramics in this category. There is a wide range of grades and
types of these materials, particularly of silicon nitride with each grade having specific properties.

Carbides

Silicon carbide (SiC) is widely used for its high thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance and hardness, although as an engineering ceramic its
toughness is lower than that of some silicon nitride grades. Boron carbide (B4C) is the third hardest industrial material (after diamond and cubic boron
nitride) and is used for components needing very high wear performance.

Ceramic-based composites

Ceramics are used as the reinforcement of composite systems such as GRP (glass reinforced plastics) and metal matrix composites such as alumina
reinforced aluminium (Al/Al 2O 3). Advanced ceramic materials are also used as the matrix materials in composites. Currently the most widely
available materials are based on SiC and carbon.

Joining

There are many possible techniques for joining ceramics to themselves and to dissimilar materials. These technologies range from mechanical fixturing
to direct bonding. Fig.1 gives an overview of these methods.

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9/4/2018 Ceramics - materials, joining and applications - Job Knowledge 54

Fig.1. An overview of processes for joining ceramics

The selection of one of these techniques to manufacture a particular component will depend on a number of factors including:

desired component function eg strength, electrical insulation or wear resistance

materials to be joined
operational temperature
applied stress
required level of joint hermeticity
component design
cost

Whilst all these considerations must be taken into account, generally the two important factors are the similarity of the materials to be joined and the
required temperature capability. Fig. 2 gives the temperature capability of a number of joining media.

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9/4/2018 Ceramics - materials, joining and applications - Job Knowledge 54

Fig.2. Temperature capability of a number of joining

media

When joining ceramics to metals it is necessary to create an interface between the materials. In general the interface must accommodate the
following:

the difference in coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)

bond type ie ionic/covalent for ceramics ranging to the metallic bond
crystallographic lattice mismatch between the ceramic and metal

Applications

Compared to metals and plastics, ceramics are hard, non-combustible and inert. Thus they can be used in high temperature, corrosive and tribological
applications. These applications rely on combinations of properties that are unique to industrial ceramics and which include:

retention of properties at high temperature

low coefficient of friction (particularly at high loads and low levels of lubrication)
low coefficient of expansion
corrosion resistance
thermal insulation
electrical insulation
low density

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9/4/2018 Ceramics - materials, joining and applications - Job Knowledge 54

Engineering ceramics are used to fabricate components for applications in many industrial sectors, including ceramic substrates for electronic devices
(Fig. 3), turbocharger rotors (Fig. 4), and tappet heads for use in automotive engines. Other examples of where advanced ceramics are used include
oil-free bearings in food processing equipment, aerospace turbine blades, nuclear fuel rods, lightweight armour, cutting tools, abrasives, thermal
barriers and furnace/kiln furniture.

Fig.3. Ceramic substrates for

electronic devices

Fig.4. Ceramic
turbocharger rotor
assembly made from
silicon nitride Courtesy of
NGK/NTK Spark Plug Co

Summary

When selecting a material for use in a specific component the applicability and suitability of the candidate materials need to be considered in detail.
When a ceramic material is being selected the fitness-for-purpose criteria that should be applied include:

operational environment - atmosphere, temperature, applied stress, fatigue, exposure time

predictable excursions beyond the usual, including mechanical impact or rapid heating/cooling
design - ceramic materials are relatively intolerant of abrupt changes in cross-section such as notches, holes and corners
joining - the role of the joint, its operational conditions and performance requirements and the joining techniques suitable for manufacture

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9/4/2018 Ceramics - materials, joining and applications - Job Knowledge 54

cost - as with all materials selection and component design questions, the cost and availability of the raw materials and all necessary fabrication
techniques must be considered in the light of their suitability to provide a component with the required performance profile at a viable cost

Future development is likely to come from improved processing and fabrication techniques that will lower component costs or improve behaviour, an
increasing demand for higher performance materials necessitating the use of more ceramics. Whilst it is difficult to predict new materials,
improvements in existing ones can be readily foreseen. The most significant area of development is likely to be in the ceramic matrix composites.

Whilst existing composites based on SiC will improve as porosity levels are reduced by improved processing techniques, the development of high
temperature oxide-based composites is likely to provide a competitor material system with wider applicability in the near future. In the future we can
expect to see a still greater contribution to industrial growth and technological development from these materials.

This article was prepared by Alan Taylor.

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