2009

12(a) State the origin of continuous and characteristic of X-ray spectra.

Answer:
Origin of Continuous X-ray Spectrum: Charged particles when made to accelerate or
decelerate in a strong field release their energy in the form of radiations. In an X-ray tube,
high speed electrons are suddenly stopped on a target of high atomic number, Z. During this
process the electrons pass through a combined field of nucleus and electrons. Consequently,
electrons are decelerated in the field and give away their energy in the form of radiation
which lie in the X-ray region. This process of loss of energy in the form of radiation by
charged particles is called Bremsstrahlung meaning braking radiation in German. The nature
of radiation depends upon the amount of energy lost in the process, which generally varies
from hard X-rays to ultraviolet region.

Origin of Characteristic X-ray Spectrum: The characteristic line spectrum of an element

originates when electrons are expelled from the inner shells of its atoms and electrons from
higher levels fall into these vacancies in the inner shells. Each such transition causes energy
loss equal to the difference of two shells which appear as an X-ray photon.

For example, the vacancy caused in K-shell is filled in by transition from L-shell and a new
vacancy in in L-shell is filled by transition from M-shell. These transitions give rise to K-X rays
and L-X rays respectively and are almost instantaneous, occurring within 10 -12 to 10-14 second
of creation of vacancy. The difference of energy of respective shells in atoms of element is a
unique characteristic of that element. Thus, characteristic X-rays label the element in terms
of their energies.

12(b) In an X-ray tube containing tungsten as target metal, a voltage of 50 kV is applied.

Calculate the minimum X-ray wavelength that will be emitted. If the material of the
target is replaced by molybdenum, will there be any change in the wavelength?
Justify your answer. (1 eV=1.6 x 10-19J; h= 6.63 x 10-34Jsec)

Answer:
The minimum wavelength is given by the equation,

Where, h = Planck’s constant = 6.63x10 -34J.sec

c = velocity of light = 3 x 108 m/sec
e = electronic charge = 1.6 x 10-19 J
V = applied voltage in volts = 50,000 Volts (given)
Substituting above values in equation (1) we get,
 Equation (1) clearly indicate that the minimum wavelength does not depend on any material
characteristics. It is inversely proportional to the applied voltage only. Hence if the target is
changed from tungsten to molybdenum, the minimum wavelength will remain unchanged.

12(c) Pure rotational spectrum is almost always seen as absorption lines and not as
emission lines. Explain.

Answer:
Absorption spectral lines are observed when a molecule undergoes a transition from
a low energy state to high energy state by absorption of a photon. On the other
hand, emission spectral lines are observed when a molecule undergoes a transition
from high energy state to low energy state by emitting a photon.

For emission lines to be seen, the frequency of the emitted photon should lie within
the range of frequencies for optical and/or ultraviolet radiation.

In pure rotational spectrum the transitions of energy states are usually detected by
net absorption of radiation in the microwave region. Hence we come across
absorption lines only.

13(a) Enumerate briefly the theory of Raman effect. Why are the Stokes lines brighter
than the anti-Stokes lines?

Answer:
1st part: Refer any standard text book on Atomic Physics.

2nd part: Stokes lines occur due to excitation of the atoms from ground state to the excited
state. On the other hand, anti-stokes lines occur due to transition of atoms from excited state
to the ground state. The intensity of stokes lines is proportional to the number of atoms in
ground state and that of anti-stokes lines is proportional to the number of atoms in excited
state. Since number of atoms in ground state is much more than number of atoms in excited
state, intensity of stokes lines is more.

13(b) Obtain an expression for the Lande g factor in terms of L, S and J.

Answer:
Refer text book titled Physics for Degree Students (B.Sc Third Year) written by C. L. Arora and
Dr. P. S. Hemne- S. Chand Publications, Pages 329-331.

13(c) Can Lithium (Z=3) give rise to normal Zeeman effect? Justify your answer.

Answer:
Normal Zeeman effect occurs between those energy states that have zero spin angular
momentum(S). Thus for these energy states the total angular momentum, J (=S+L) equals
the orbital angular momentum(L). This condition is satisfied by only singlet energy states.
Hence normal Zeeman effect occurs for spectral lines produced by transition between singlet
states.

The electronic configuration of Lithium (Z=3) is 1s2,2s1. Therefore, it has one valence
electron in its outermost orbit so that S=1/2 and not zero. Therefore Lithium does not exhibit
normal Zeeman effect.