CI Nov 2011 0054 PDF

Construction Innovation
Sustainable methods for waste minimisation in construction

J.K. Yates
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J.K. Yates, (2013),"Sustainable methods for waste minimisation in construction", Construction Innovation,
Vol. 13 Iss 3 pp. 281 - 301
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Waste
Sustainable methods for waste minimization
minimisation in construction in construction
J.K. Yates
The Kimmel School of Construction Management, 281
Engineering Technology, and Engineering, Western Carolina University,
Cullowhee, North Carolina, USA
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this article is to provide scenarios for the incorporation of sustainable
waste minimisation strategies that were determined during a research project that investigated
sustainable engineering and construction processes.
Design/methodology/approach – The research included a thorough review of sustainable
engineering and construction practices throughout the world and the collection of additional
information from high-level executives from some of the top ranked global engineering and
construction firms. The research was limited to collecting data from high-level engineering and
construction executives since they were the most knowledgeable about the use of sustainable
strategies within their firm.
Findings – The results determined the main types of construction waste and sustainable
strategies that could be used to minimise the amount of waste generated by the construction industry.
Research limitations/implications – he research was limited to collecting data from high-level
engineering and construction executives since they were the most knowledgeable about the use of
sustainable strategies within their firms. The research could affect members of the engineering and
construction industry, since it provides methods for implementing sustainable strategies that help to
reduce the amount of waste generated by the construction industry.
Originality/value – The research is unique because it addressed waste minimisation strategies
for the building construction industry and for the industrial and heavy/highway construction
industries.
Keywords Sustainability, Sustainable development, Waste minimisation, Green building,
Green construction
Paper type Research paper
The author would like to thank the members of the Construction Industry Institute for funding
the sustainability research project and acknowledge the contribution of the Research Team
250 members that included 13 representatives from construction firms, owner organizations, and
government agencies: Larry Arndt – M. A. Mortenson; Melanie Berkemeyer – US Department of
State; Richard Budzowski – SNC Lavalin Inc.; Tom Garrett – Emerson Process Management;
Scott Haywood – Abbott; Nancy Kralik – Flour Corporation; Catherine McKalip-Thomson –
Bechtel Group Inc.; David Prada – CSA Group; Kathleen Reid – Intel Corporation;
Laurie Robbins – Jacobs; David Stayshich – Flour Corporation; Russ Svendsen – Dresser-Rand
Company; and Paul Wilcox – Jacobs. The author would especially like to thank all of the
engineering and construction industry executives that provided information that was used in
Construction Innovation
this article. They documented many of the sustainable practices that their firms have Vol. 13 No. 3, 2013
incorporated in recent years and shared data that helps to construct useful scenarios for the pp. 281-301
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
incorporation of sustainability practices in the engineering and construction industry. Their 1471-4175
contribution to this research project was greatly appreciated by the author. DOI 10.1108/CI-Nov-2011-0054
CI Introduction
13,3 This article discusses sustainable waste minimisation strategies that were derived from a
research investigation funded by the Construction Industry Institute and that included
assistance from the 13 industry representatives as listed in the Acknowledgments. The
research investigated sustainable topics applicable to the engineering and construction
industry (E&C). Waste minimisation strategies formed a major component of the research,
282 since the construction industry generates waste that is disposed in landfills. The
construction industry generates 25 percent of municipal solid wastes and 50 percent of the
hazardous wastes. In addition, it utilises 40 percent of the total energy resources, 16 percent
of available water, 35 to 45 percent of the total carbon dioxide, 25 percent of all virgin
wood, and 75 percent of the polyvinyl chloride manufactured in the world (USGBC, 2008).
The research investigation included reviewing waste minimisation strategies that

are being used throughout the world and conducting a survey of high-level executives
from top ranked engineering and construction firms.
Data was gathered using a survey distributed by the principal investigator to
high-level executives in building, heavy/highway, and industrial construction firms.
Most of the previous sustainability research focused on the building industry and not
on the heavy/highway and industrial construction sectors; therefore, members of the
heavy/highway and industrial sectors requested that the research be conducted to
determine what is currently being done in these two segments of the industry.
The Construction Industry Institute funded the research investigation on the behalf of
their constituents, which include 130 of the top engineering and design firms in the world.
Due to the limitation restrictions on the length of this article this article only summarises a
portion of the results of the research investigation, i.e. the section that pertains to waste
minimisation, and it provides a variety of waste minimisation strategies that could be
implemented by members of the construction industry. For additional information on the
results obtained to the other portions of the research investigation see the detailed
Construction Industry Institute Research Report 250-1 Sustainable Design and
Construction for Industrial Construction (Yates, 2008) or the resulting book Sustainable
Engineering and Design (Yates, 2012).
This article discusses sustainable development and sustainable construction, the
purpose of the research, and the research methodology. The results obtained from the
literature review are presented and they include information on sustainable construction
materials, principles and strategies for designing for disassembly, the environmental
impact of production operations for construction materials, construction waste
generation, and producing lower levels of waste.
The results obtained from the survey of high-level engineering and construction
industry executives are presented in the last section of the article and they include
information on sustainable materials considered during the design stage, processes used
to recycle waste at the end of construction projects, processes used to sell or reuse
material by-products, waste being recycled or reused compared to projects before
sustainability, techniques for reducing the amount of waste being generated during
construction, and addressing project level waste.
Sustainable development
Sustainable development has been defined in many ways, and one definition characterises
it as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment Waste
and Development, 1986, p. 43). Another definition for sustainable development is: minimization
A process of change in which the direction of investment, the orientation of technology, the in construction
allocation of resources, and the development and functioning of institutions meet present
needs and aspirations without endangering the capacity of natural systems to absorb the
effects of human activities, and without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs and aspirations (Cywinski, 2001, p. 14). 283
Sustainable construction
Sustainable construction involves “creating construction items using best-practice clean
and resource-efficient techniques from the extraction of the raw materials to the
demolition and disposal of its components” (Ofori, 2000, p. 196). The Conseil International
du Batiment (CIB) defined the goal of sustainable construction as “[. . .] creating and
operating a healthy built environment based on resource efficiency and ecological
design” and introduced seven principles of sustainable construction (Kibert, 2008, p. 6):
.
reduce resource consumption;
.
reuse resources;
.
use recyclable resources;
.
protect nature;
. eliminate toxics;
.
apply life-cycle costing; and
.
focus on quality.
purpose of the research.

The purpose of the research project was to gather information on sustainable
development practices in construction from existing research and members of the
engineering and construction industry. The research was conducted to provide members
of the engineering and construction industry with information about the types of
sustainability practices that are being implemented and the reasons why they are being
implemented on construction projects. The research was also meant to provide
information to assist in the decision making processes regarding the implementation
and evaluation of sustainable practices on construction projects.
Research methodology
In order to collect data on sustainability practices in construction, a series of tasks
were undertaken that contributed to the body of knowledge related to sustainable
development in the construction sector. Research projects that addressed sustainability
practices used in construction were located and analysed to determine their
applicability to construction projects. In addition, domestic and foreign environmental
regulations and global environmental treaties were reviewed in order to determine their
impact on construction operations.
At the conclusion of the literature review, a knowledge acquisition system was
developed based on the information derived from the literature exploration.
The knowledge acquisitions system was designed to solicit additional information
from industry experts on sustainability practices that have already been implemented
CI in the construction industry. The survey was developed with assistance from the
13,3 following 13 executives from the engineering and construction industry:
(1) Larry Arndt – M.A. Mortenson.
(2) Melanie Berkemeyer – US Department of State.
(3) Richard Budzowski – SNC Lavalin Inc.
284 (4) Tom Garrett – Emerson Process Management.
(5) Scott Haywood – Abbott.
(6) Nancy Kralik – Flour Corporation.
(7) Catherine McKalip-Thomson – Bechtel Group Inc.
(8) David Prada – CSA Group.

(9) Kathleen Reid – Intel Corporation.
(10) Laurie Robbins – Jacobs.
(11) David Stayshich – Flour Corporation.
(12) Russ Svendsen – Dresser-Rand Company.
(13) Paul Wilcox – Jacobs.
The selected methodology was developed in conjunction with the 15 engineering and
construction industry executives listed above. They determined the research strategy
and methodology that would be used for this research project. A knowledge acquisition
system was selected as the method used to solicit information from high-level
engineering and construction industry executives in order to capture their knowledge
of sustainability practices in the engineering and construction industry.
A knowledge acquisition system was selected to solicit data from engineering and
construction industry executives because the research was conducted to determine
which sustainability methods and practices were currently being implemented in the
industry and this type of information is qualitative rather than quantitative. Utilising a
knowledge acquisition system to collect data for the research projects allowed data to
be collected in a format that provided information on the utilisation of specific types of
sustainability practices.
The questionnaire was designed to include questions that could be answered with
“yes”, “no”, or “do not know” responses and if the respondents answered in the
affirmative they were provided with additional space to elaborate on their yes answer
by providing examples of situations, where methods, processes, or ideas were
implemented on actual construction projects. The questionnaire included check boxes
for answers along with textboxes for written clarification of the checkbox answers.
The knowledge acquisition system was developed based on the literature
review results and it included categories that would build on the body of knowledge
acquired during the literature review process. This allowed for the verification or
refutation of the information collected during the literature review. The knowledge
acquisition system was divided into distinct categories that covered the different topics
that were investigated during the literature review. The data acquired during the data
acquisition process were instrumental in determining the current state of the use of
sustainability practices in major global engineering and construction industry firms.
The knowledge acquisition system was pilot tested by ten members of the Waste
engineering and construction industry and changes were made to the format of the minimization
survey to allow for easier entry of answers and to clarify questions.
73 engineering and construction industry top level executives from firms that in construction
represent some of the largest engineering and construction industry firms in the world,
and that have offices throughout the world, were targeted as survey participants and they
were sent surveys through e-mail. Top-level executives were selected for inclusion in the 285
research because they are the most aware of what is occurring within their organisations
throughout the world and that were also able to obtain information appropriate to the
research from their subordinates. The respondents were targeted based on their position
within their firms, as they needed to have access to the types of information that was being
requested in the survey on both corporate and project level sustainability.

Each of the respondents was contacted by telephone before the survey was sent out
to determine their willingness to participate in the research and this required access to
their contact information, which is not always available for high-level executives so it
limited the number of executives that could be contacted during the research. The
research team members tried to locate an engineering or construction professional that
was acquainted with the executives and these were the individuals that contacted the
executives to determine their willingness to participate in the survey. Originally
surveys were sent to 150 engineering and construction industry executives that had
not been contacted prior to the distribution of the survey but the surveys were not
completed by these executives. This indicated that another avenue had to be pursued
in order to obtain input from high-level executives.
29 of the surveys were completed and returned, which was a response rate of
40 percent. The responses each contained 20 to 30 pages of comments along with the
responses to the structured survey questions, which provided over 500 pages of
comments. The responses that were obtained were from firms that are some of the largest
firms in the world and that have a global presence; therefore, the data that was provided
covered a wide range of industry sectors, types of projects, and locations. The responses
covered in detail all of the areas targeted by the research project, and some additional
areas. The comments were entered into key word databases that represented the different
strategies that members of firms were implementing in the construction industry.
Table I provides a summary of the types of firms that provided information, along with
information about the firms that provided the information. Each of the columns in Table I
is independent of the other columns in Table I and they should be each read vertically.
The data collected from the literature review and the surveys were summarised by
each of the focus areas listed below. The questionnaires were analysed by computing
the total number of yes, no, and do not know responses and summarising the
comments supplied by the survey participants using keywords. The engineering and
construction industry experts provided information on:
. the sustainability programs being utilised in their firms;
.
how sustainability programs are being implemented in their firms;
.
how members of firms evaluate sustainability;
.
barriers to implementing sustainability programs;
.
drivers to implementation of sustainable development practices;
.
the economic benefits of using sustainable development practices;
CI
13,3
286
Table I.
information
construction company
General engineering and
Type of Countries of Nature of Size of Average size of Number of
Type of industry Type of firm contracts operation ownership company projects employees
Building (11) Architect (7) Cost plus % Africa (3) Corporation (35) $0-10 million (3) $1-10 million (28) 1-100 (7)
fee (20)
Commercial (6) Contractor (21) Cost plus No response (3) Do not know (5) $100-500 $10-50 million (30) 100-500 (13)
a fee (18) million (21)
Gar production (13) Design/build Lump North Employee $500-1 billion (7) $50-100 million (7) 500-1,000 (10)
(16) sum (47) America (7) owned (13)
Heavy/highway (6) Engineering(21) Other (2) South N/A or other (5) Over $1 $100-500 million (14) 1,000-5,000 (27)
America (3) billion (69)
Industrial No Unit price USA (33) Privately held $500 million to 1 5,000 to 10,000 (3)
construction (12) response (2) (13) (13) billion (14)
Institutional (5) Other (2) Worldwide (51) Public ally Over $1 billion (7) 10,000-50,000(40)
traded (29)
Manufacturing (5) Owner (26)
Mining/metals (6) Supplier (5)
Petrochemicals (13)
Power (15)
Pulp and paper (2)
Residential (2)
Utilities (11)
Note: Parenthesis values are in percent
.
the social conditions addressed during construction; Waste
.
sustainable alternatives to traditional construction materials; minimization
.
how the benefits of using sustainable practices are measured on projects; in construction
.
techniques used to improve sustainable development;
.
the use of innovative sustainable designs or construction components;
.
how the wastes being generated during construction projects are being recycled 287
or reused;
.
pollution prevention techniques; and
.
whether their firms have a method for measuring metrics related to sustainable
objectives.
The detailed research results for the other topics besides waste minimization that
were included in the survey are summarized in the Research Report 250-11 Sustainable
Industrial Construction that was written by the author and published by the Construction
Industry Institute (Austin, Texas) and in the book Sustainable Engineering Design
and Construction published by Prentice-Hall/Pearson Publishing (Yates, 2012).
Literature review
Many governments throughout the world have adopted the four Rs – reduce
consumption, reuse, recover, or recycle. In order to determine how members of firms
from foreign countries are achieving the four Rs over 350 journal articles, books,
research reports, company literature, and government publications were reviewed. The
literature reviewed, to determine its applicability to the section on waste minimisation
strategies was comprehensive (Amano and Ebihara, 2005; America’s Climate Security
Act of 2007; Andriantiatsaholiniaina et al., 2004; Azapagic, 2004; Basu and Van Zyl,
2006; Bradbury and Clair, 1999; Chartered Institute of Building, 2004; Cywinski, 2001;
Dwivedi and Jabbra, 1998; Euring and Ashworth, 2003; European Commission
Enterprise – Industry Sections: Construction: Finland, 2001c; European Commission
Enterprise – Industry Sectors: Construction, 2001a; European Commission Enterprise –
Industry Sectors: Construction 2001b; European Commission Enterprise – Industry
Sectors: Construction: The Netherlands, 2001e; European Commission Enterprise –
Industry Sectors: Construction: The United Kingdom, 2001f; Faraci, 2006; Fiedler, 2007;
Fonseca et al., 2005; French Institute for the Environment, 1999; Garner, 2000; Hodges,
2005; IFBWW, 2004; LANL, 2002; Libra, 2007; Lindley and McEvoy, 2002; Ministry of
the Environment, 2004; Moroueh et al., 2001; Naik and Mariconi, 2006; Nenoff, 2001;
Office of International Affairs – United States Environmental Protection Agency,
2005; Paramanathan et al., 2004; Patin, 1997; Petkovic et al., 2004; Roth and Eklund, 2003;
Samaras, 2004; United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2006; UNFCC, 2005;
United States Department of Energy, 2008; USGBC, 2008; Von Weizsacker, 1998; The
World Bank, 2008; World Commission on Environment and Development, 1986;
The World Bank, 2005).
Sustainable construction materials

This section provides information on construction materials and waste minimisation
strategies that were obtained during the research project.
CI The term sustainable construction materials refers to materials that “minimise
13,3 resource use, have low ecological impacts, pose no or low human and environmental
health risks, and assist with sustainable site strategies” (Calkins, 2009, p. 3). Being able
to reuse existing structures, or structural elements from existing structures, also leads
to more sustainable structures. If materials are used that will not only last for the life of
a structure but be reclaimed and reused in future structures it also contributes to more
288 sustainable structures (Calkins, 2009). Suggestions for materials or products that
minimise environmental impacts include (Calkins, 2009, pp. 6-7):
.
use minimally processed materials;
.
specify low embodied energy materials;
specify materials produced with energy from renewable sources;
.
use local materials;
.
specify low-polluting materials;
.
specify low-water use and low-water-polluting materials;
.
specify low-emitting materials or products; and
.
specify materials or products that avoid toxic chemicals or by-products.
The US Green Building Council Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

(LEED) certification system includes credits that are related to site construction
materials and products. The categories are diverting waste from disposal, material
reuse, recycled content, using regional materials, using rapidly renewable materials,
low volatile organic compound (VOC) emitting materials, and using non heat island
effect materials, (USGBC, 2008). When projects are able to meet or exceed the
requirements set by LEED for each of these categories the project receives one credit.
The Green Globes sustainability certification system also awards points related to site
construction materials in a manner similar to the LEED system.
According to the Los Alamos National Lab (LANL) Sustainable Design Guide, there
are certain characteristics that are preferable in construction materials and Table II
provides a list of preferred material characteristics (LANL, 2002).
The Los Alamos National Laboratory Sustainable Design Guide also provides a
table of design evaluations for building materials and resources and it is shown in
Table III.
Principles and strategies of designing for disassembly

Designers should also consider the deconstruction and disassembly of structures in
order to increase their sustainability. Philip Crowther of the Queensland Technical
University in Brisbane, Australia has developed a list of 27 principles that apply to the
deconstruction and disassembly of structures (Kibert, 2008, p. 159):
(1) Use recycled and recyclable materials.
(2) Minimise the number of types of materials.
(3) Avoid toxic and hazardous materials.
(4) Avoid composite materials, and make inseparable products from the same
material.
(5) Avoid secondary finishes to materials.
Category Characteristic
Waste
minimization
Life cycle cost Relative impact of life cycle cost of building operations (not to be
impact (LCCI) confused with environmental life cycle assessment, which measures
in construction
environmental burdens, not financial impact)
Energy efficiency (EE) Construction materials that directly influence building energy use
Water efficiency Construction materials that directly influence building water use
Locally manufactured (LM) Construction materials that are manufactured within a defined radius
289
(500 miles for the LEED rating system)
Material reduction (MR) Products or materials that serve a defined function using less material
than is typically used
Locally derived raw Construction materials that are locally manufactured using raw
materials (LRM) materials obtained within the defined radius

Non-toxic (NT) Construction materials that release relatively low levels of emissions
of odorous, irritating, toxic, or hazardous substances. Volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) formaldehydes, particulates, and fibers are
examples of substances emitted from construction materials that could
adversely impact human health (allergens, carcinogens, and irritants)
Recycled content (RC) Amount of reprocessed material contained within a construction
product that originated from post-consumer use and/or post-industrial
use. This includes the reuse of existing building structures, equipment,
and furnishings
Salvages (S) Construction materials that are reused as-is (or with minor
refurbishing) without having undergone any type of reprocessing to
change the intended use. This includes the reuse of existing building
structures, equipment and furnishings
Rapidly renewable (RR) Construction materials that replenish themselves faster (within
ten years) than traditional extraction demand and do not result in
adverse environmental impacts Table II.
Certified wood (CW) Construction materials manufactures all on in part from wood that has Sample characteristics
been certified to the standards of the Forest Stewardship Council as of environmentally
originating from a well-managed forest preferable materials
(6) Provide standard and permanent identification of material types.

(7) Minimise the number of different types of components.
(8) Use mechanical rather than chemical connections.
(9) Use an open building system with interchangeable parts.
(10) Use modular design.
(11) Use assembly technologies compatible with standard building practice.
(12) Separate the structure from the cladding.
(13) Provide access to all building components.
(14) Design components sized to suit handling at all stages.
(15) Provide for handling components during assemble and disassembly.
(16) Provide adequate tolerance to allow for disassembly.
(17) Minimize the number of fasteners and connectors.
(18) Minimize the types of connectors.
(19) Design for joints and connectors to withstand repeated assemble and disassembly.
CI
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290
Table III.
and resources
Sustainable design
evaluations for materials
Mat Life cycle cost Energy Water Material Locally Locally derived raw Non- Recycled Rapidly Certified
Material cost impact efficiency efficiency reduction manufactured material toxic content renewable wood
Ceiling tiles ¼þ 2 X
Carpet ¼ ¼ X X X
Fabrics ¼þ ¼ 2 X X
Resilient flooring ¼þ ¼ 2 X X X
Interior/exterior
paints ¼ ¼ X X
Sealants and
adhesives ¼ ¼ X
Steel ¼ ¼ X X
Cement concrete ¼ ¼ X X X X X
Insulation ¼ 2 X X O X X
Bathroom cubicles ¼ ¼ X
Wood products ¼þ ¼ X X X X
Gypsum wallboard ¼ ¼ X X X
Furniture ¼þ ¼ X X X
Brick CMU ¼ ¼ X X
Roofing ¼ ¼ X X
Windows þ 2 X X
Doors ¼þ 2 X X
Ceramic tile ¼ ¼ X X X
Insulating concrete
forms þ 2 X X
Structural
insulated panels þ 2 X X
Aerated autodave
concrete þ 2 X
Exterior finishes X O
Permeable paving ¼ X X
Notes: O – potentially applicable material and resource issue, research ongoing; X – applicable material and resource issue; ¼ - equivalent, “ 2 ” – generally less expensive, or þ –
Generally more expensive
Source: Adapted from LANL (2002, p. 237)
(20) Allow for parallel disassembly. Waste
(21) Provide permanent identification for each component. minimization
(22) Use a standard structural grid. in construction
(23) Use prefabricated subassemblies.
(24) Use lightweight materials and components.
(25) Identify the point of disassembly permanently. 291
(26) Provide spare parts and storage for them.
(27) Retain information on the building and its assembly process.
Construction waste generation

The main types of demolition wastes include cast concrete, combustible materials,
gypsum, scrap iron, unpainted wood, and other waste (Stenis, 2005). In addition to
construction wastes, there are other types of wastes including solid, liquid, and
airborne wastes. The origins of waste are the following (Munier, 2005, p. 49):
.
Household.
.
Municipal.
.
Institutional.
. Wastewater treatment plants.
.
Industry.
.
Hazardous.
. Nuclear.
.
Construction.
The options for dealing with these types of wastes include recycling, land filling,
incineration, biological treatment and second use. The least desirable of these processes
is incineration. Since incinerating wastes requires high temperatures and this consumes
energy, converts waste into toxic gases, and produces toxic fly ash. Other incineration
by-products include particulate matter, mercury, lead, dioxins, and furans.
Dioxins and furans are a family of chemical polychlorinated compounds created when there is
an incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons in the presence of chlorine and they remain in the
environment for long periods of time (Munier, 2005, p. 60).
Some studies indicate that incinerators also release cancer-causing chemicals from
smoke stacks. Another complication of incineration is the disposing of the fly ash,
which is radioactive and it could contain heavy metals (Munier, 2005).
Waste minimisation strategies

In the USA, at the Los Alamos National Laboratory, waste minimisation strategies
were developed that help reduce the generation of construction wastes and they are
listed in Table IV.
In addition to the literature cited in this section, a variety of additional waste
minimisation strategies were provided by industry executives and they are summarised
in the next section.
CI
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292
strategies/
Table IV.
Waste minimization
Potential waste
materials Segregate and dispose Reuse/recycle Waste minimization
Asphalt Stockpile in designated areas. If contaminated Use local recycling facilities. Uncontaminated asphalt Saw cut minimum perimeter of asphalt to be removed
segregate, label, and store in a hazardous waste area. may be crushed and utilized as base course material per construction drawings. Remove and segregate
Radioactive waste is stored at approved sites contaminated asphalt from recyclable
(uncontaminated)
Concrete Stockpile in designated area. Segregate by hazardous Local recycling facilities. Uncontaminated concrete Remove only those areas indicated on the
and non-hazardous may be crushed and used as base course material construction drawings. Procure concrete in quantities
consistent with the construction drawings and EPA
Affirmative Procurement specifications
Soil Stockpile in segregated areas. Dispose of in proper Local recycling facility Remove per elevations indicated by the construction
landfills – uncontaminated, contaminated, hazardous drawings
Electrical conduit/ Segregate by non-radioactive and radioactive Use an appropriate recycling facility Remove and segregate reusable conduit and wire
wire/equipment from equipment
Wood Segregate pressure treated wood from non-pressure Use designated landfills for regular wood and for Avoid use of wooden pallets for storage of
treated wood pressure treated wood construction materials. Minimize use of wooden
framing and forming materials
Paper Products Stockpile Recycle in a local facility Procure construction materials and equipment in
bulk to minimize packaging. Remove all possible
packaging materials before entering controlled area
to prevent generation of radiological waste
Plastic Stockpile Recycle in a local facility Procure in bulk to minimize packaging. Remove all
possible packaging materials before entering
controlled area to prevent generation of
radiological waste
Metal Stockpile in designated area and segregate by Use a local metal recovery program. Reuse pipe and Remove hazardous constituents from recyclable
hazardous and non-hazardous valves at appropriate facilities materials (e.g. lead soldered wires from metal
equipment)
Paints, stains, Stockpile and segregate radioactive waste Contractor should check with waste management Procure non-hazardous substitutes to traditional
solvents, and coordinators to see if excess materials may be used at solvents, paints, stains, and sealants (green seal
sealants other facilities products at greenseal.org). Procure only the materials
that are needed (just-in-time purchasing). Sequence
work to minimize waste generation through material
use on successive tasks
Equipment Stockpile and segregate by hazardous and non- Develop an equipment salvage program or locate a
hazardous local program
Source: Adapted from LANL (2002, p. 237)

Survey research results Waste
The information provided by the survey respondents indicated that some of the largest minimization
firms in the engineering and construction industry have already integrated sustainability
concepts into their corporate objectives. One of the major driving forces for engineering in construction
and construction firms adopting sustainability practices is clients. Most of the major
owner organisations are requiring the engineering and construction firms that they hire to
demonstrate their commitment to sustainability. This does not merely mean incorporating 293
sustainability practices into final products or structures, but it also means that
engineering and construction firms are incorporating sustainability practices into their
engineering designs and construction techniques. Owners are also cognisant of whether
members of the engineering design and construction firms that they hire are also following
sustainability practices in their corporate level operations, as well as at the project level.
Table V provides the responses to questions that were related to sustainable
materials and waste minimisations strategies that were provided by the survey
respondents for the structured questions.
Sustainable materials considered during the design stage

Some of the sustainable materials, and other sustainability practices, that the survey
respondents indicated that firms are considering during the design stage include
investigating whether there is any place in the structure that is being designed where
materials could be used that include recycled content. Some of the items that could be
recycled and used again include reusable concrete forms, recycled plastic, carpet, metal
and steel.
Other materials are considered during the design stage because they reduce
toxic effects on construction workers or building inhabitants such as low or no volatile
organic compounds in painting products. This is achieved by substituting
water-based for solvent-based paints.
Yes No Do not know

responses responses responses
Project level sustainability (%) (%) (%)
Processes are used to sell, or reuse, material

by-products generated by construction 60 16 24
Sustainable alternatives to standard materials are considered
during the design phase 40 20 40
The firm is using new techniques that improve resource
efficiency, equipment efficiency, material resource efficiency,
or training of laborers 56 26 29
Innovative sustainable designs, construction components,
or construction practices are being integrated into projects 39 19 42
Techniques or processes are being used to reduce the amount of
waste generated during construction 42 21 37
More construction waste is being recycled, or reused, than on
projects before sustainability practices were implemented 29 38 33
Structured approach is used when designing and specifying Table V.
materials that include sustainability 58 23 19 Sustainable materials and
waste minimization
Source: Adapted from LANL (2002, pp. 249-250) survey results
CI Another area that is considered during the design stage is whether fly ash could be
13,3 used in any of the concrete mixes. Fly ash is routinely being used in state highway
projects in the USA at levels between 30 and 70 percent and it is also being
incorporated into vertical structures. In addition to using fly ash lightweight concrete
is also being used in some projects to reduce the overall weight of the concrete.
Both horizontal and vertical structures are incorporating recycled steel since over
294 90 percent of the steel being produced in the USA is now recycled steel. Fibre
reinforced composite materials are already being used in highway bridge structures, to
reinforce existing columns that have been damaged or that are reaching the end of their
useful life, and for airplanes such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner.
Project designs are also integrating materials that maximise the amount of
rapidly renewable materials, which includes minimising the amount of wood that is not
harvested and managed in a sustainable manner. Another design integration strategy
is to stipulate the reusing of interior materials and remanufactured materials.
If environmentally preferable products are available that have comparable cost and
performance they are being considered during the design stage.
Sustainable practices are being considered early in the design process in order to
prevent rework later in the design. Products are selected in consultation with owners to
avoid material destruction, increase the life cycle of the systems, and to avoid the cost
of frequent replacement. In addition to selecting sustainable materials, materials are
selected during the design stage that is appropriate to the skill level and experience of
the workers and the subcontractors.
The survey respondents also indicated that designs are reviewed for process
simplification and waste elimination and to determine whether there are any methods for
eliminating pollution caused by materials. Materials are evaluated based on their durability
in addition to their sustainability. Sustainable design criteria are considered when it is
mandated by owners. Local and regional materials are evaluated to determine whether they
meet specification requirements. Energy star options are investigated to determine their
viability. The United States Environmental Protection Agency Procurement Guidelines are
reviewed and implemented if they are feasible. Designs are evaluated to determine whether
modular or prefabricated components could be used to replace other design options.
Processes used to recycle waste at the end of construction

Some of the processes that were provided by the survey respondents that could be used
to address waste at the completion of construction include establishing recycling
pathways for excess or unused materials or donating the waste to local community
organisations or business. In developing countries, construction refuse is distributed to
local citizens for their use.
The most efficient method for addressing construction waste is to minimise the
production of waste through design and construction strategies. The waste that results
from the demolition of structures could also be turned into other useful products.
Firms could also set target requirements for recycling waste products at the end of
the useful life of structures.
If the creation of waste cannot be avoided then some strategies for handling the waste
include providing scrap metal dumpsters and recycling the scrap metal, returning waste
products back into corporate inventory and offering unused materials to future projects,
selling the unused materials to recyclers, or handling all of the remaining construction
materials as per the appropriate process that is stipulated in each country. Firms Waste
may advertise the availability of surplus materials throughout their corporation. Some minimization
companies have introduced global waste management standards that are enforced on
all of their projects. In addition to concern about minimising the waste generated on in construction
projects members of firms are selecting commercial waste contractors that meet
standards for operational integrity and strive to influence partners to implement similar
programs. 295
Concrete and asphalt waste products are normally being recycled when it is
demolished at the end of its useful life. Concrete is being used as aggregate in new
concrete mixes and a percentage of the asphalt is used in recycled paving. Some firms set
the percentage of waste diversion to levels such as 75 percent on projects and use
progressive waste service providers to achieve this goal. Other firms set zero waste to
landfill programs, which could be difficult to achieve depending on the types of materials
that are used during construction.
Recycled materials could also be disposed of by selling it to dealers, returning it to
vendors, or selling it as surplus materials. Construction waste could also be sorted and
sold to recyclers. Sometimes there are contamination issues that prevent the recycling
of waste materials and this issue has to be addressed before a decision is made on
how to dispose of the materials. Materials may also be sold or given to local
manufacturers as feedstock for reuse and composting programs are used to recycle
organic wastes.
Processes used to sell, or reuse, material by-products

Suggestions on some of the processes that could be used to sell or reuse material
by-products provided by the research participants include salvaging construction
by-products in an informal manner by separating scrap metal or scrap cable selling it
back to venders. Reusable materials could be sent back into corporate inventory and
reused on future projects and non-reusable materials could be sold to recyclers.
Recycled materials and scrap metal that cannot be reused are disposed of by selling it
to dealers. Disposable wastes are separated into different types in order to minimise the
amount of energy expended in its final disposition.
Transformers and meters are being refurbished and reused on future projects.
Manufacturers will take back ceiling tile and carpet that results from demolition or that
is surplus materials. One of the materials that is reused the most frequently is soil
that results from excavation. It used to be more common to remove the excess
soil from construction sites, but now it is being used for creating landscaping or for fill.
Waste being recycled, or reused, compared to projects before sustainability

Some of the methods that are now being used by members of firms that participated in
the research for recycling or reusing materials that they were not utilising before
implementing sustainability practices include using site and demolition waste for
foundation materials and selling waste to recyclers rather than sending it to landfills.
The wood that is salvaged from formwork is being used for other purposes.
Waste service providers are being used that have access to sorting facilities that divert
waste from landfills. Structural members and finish materials (brick, stone, etc.) are
being recycled or reused on other projects and concrete is rubblized and used for base
course and roads.
CI Techniques for reducing the amount of waste being generated during construction
13,3 Techniques that were cited by the survey respondents that are being used to reduce the
amount of waste that is generated during construction involve correctly sizing
equipment, materials, and components and pre-cutting drywall, pipe, conduit and other
materials. Another procedure that helps to reduce the amount of waste being generated
during construction is take off and material ordering control to ensure that the correct
296 size materials are ordered that will not result in waste products. This also includes
ensuring that windows in a structure are sized to maximise the number of units of each
particular size to allow for similar size structures to support the windows and reduce
the creation of waste associated with having various sizes of window frames. Similar
results are obtained by minimising the waste from single sheet of polycarbonate.
Another method that helps to reduce the generation of waste is specifying durable and
reusable materials and products.
Waste generation should be addressed during the project-preplanning phase in order
to utilise designs that help to minimise waste. Simplifying designs, prefabrication,
preassembly, and modularisation are all techniques that could be utilised to help
reduce the generation of waste. Modular construction also helps to minimise the
generation of waste if standard size items are used during the prefabrication process.
Some firms are developing innovative uses for off-specification concrete or the
remnants of concrete, to make curb stones, barrier blocks, and pavers rather than
sending the concrete remnants to landfills. If formwork is properly oiled than the forms
could be removed and reused. Having repetitive formed concrete allows for forms to be
used directly without being dismantled and rebuilt for use on different shape concrete
structures. Fencing materials could also be used in a similar manner. Portions of
temporary fencing could be used for final perimeter security systems. Many firms have
resorted to setting waste diversion goals on all of their projects.
Addressing project level waste

61 percent of the respondents indicated that they sell, or reuse, material by-products
generated during construction, 40 percent are using processes to reduce the amount of
waste being generated during construction, and 37 percent are recycling or reusing
materials for other purposes. 50 percent either did not know or said they are not using
processes to reduce the amount of waste being generated during construction.
There may be local initiatives being implemented by workers, or construction
management staff, that the survey respondents were not aware that are helping to
reduce waste. These responses indicated that the area of waste management is one area
that would benefit from there being standard techniques that firms could use to either
reduce the amount of waste created at job sites or that would use the waste by-products
for other purposes.
Some of the processes mentioned by the survey respondents that are used to sell or
reuse material by-products were separating scrap metal and reselling it, returning
materials back into corporate inventory to be sold to recyclers, refurbishing
transformers and meters, recycling by-products, sharing left over materials with other
job sites, selling unused materials to marketers who resell it for its originally intended
purpose, and aggregating disposable waste to minimise the amount of energy
expended in its final disposition.
The research participants indicated that they use a variety of processes to recycle Waste
wastes including donations to local community organisations, scrap metal dumpsters, minimization
returning it to corporate inventory, selling it to dealers, returning it to vendors, using zero
waste landfills, using it as feedstock for reuse, advertising surplus materials throughout in construction
the organisation, selling it to commercial waste contractors, hiring appropriate
firms to deal with contamination issues, and establishing recycling pathways for excess
materials. 297
In order to reduce the amount of waste generated at job sites it was suggested that
improvements result from correctly sizing materials, and components; and pre-cutting
drywall, pipe, and conduit. Additional reductions in waste could be achieved through
increased take-off and material ordering control, making durable and reusable
material and product choices, using off-specification concrete or remnants of concrete

to make curb stones barrier blocks, using reusable concrete forms, and using more
modularisation.
37 percent of the firms were recycling or reusing more construction waste than
before sustainability practices were implemented on projects.
Conclusion
This article discussed a research project that investigated the sustainable aspects of
the processes required to design and build construction projects in order to determine
which types of sustainability practices pertaining to waste minimisation strategies
could be implemented during construction projects.
In addition to conducting an extensive literature review that included over
350 journal articles, books, government publications, and company information data
was gathered from top-level engineering and construction industry executives through
a survey on sustainability practices in the construction industry including the types of
issues members of engineering and construction firms address and the sustainability
practices that they are already incorporating into their projects.
The research investigation was limited by the time frame in which it needed to be
completed as set forth by the funding agency. The literature review, development of
the data acquisition system, the collection of data, the data analysis, and the writing
of the 300 page research report all had to be completed during a six month time
frame. The research methodology was limited to the prescribed techniques that were
developed by the 15 members of the industry that participated in the research
investigation. Although the responses received to the data acquisition system inquiry
were limited to a small number of firms, the responses that were received were from
high-level executives of top ranked global engineering and construction firms. In
addition to filling out the data acquisition system instrument, the executives provided
extensive written responses to each of the questions. Some of the response received
from the executives included 30 to 40 pages of written comments.
The research findings demonstrate that the members of the global engineering and
construction industry have already been implementing methods and strategies for
waste minimisation and productively utilising waste by-products from construction
operations. There are many different sustainable practices that are being implemented
with success throughout the industry to address the generation of construction waste.
The results of the research investigation indicated that the sustainable strategies that
were outlined in the literature reviewed for the research project are already being
CI implemented globally and they are leading to a reduction in the generation of waste
13,3 and the recycling of waste on major construction projects. The literature provided
many different sustainable techniques that could be used for addressing construction
waste and a majority of the techniques mentioned in the literature are being
implemented by the firms that participated in the research investigation.
Since the firms that participated in the study are leaders in their particular
298 construction industry sector and their commitment to utilising sustainable practices to
reduce and recycle waste is influencing other firms to adopt similar sustainable
strategies. The firms that participated in the research investigation also participate in
the global reporting initiative and this allows the results of the data acquisition process
to be verified on a longitudinal basis as the firms report their sustainable practices each
year as part of the global reporting initiative.

This article discussed sustainable development, sustainable construction, the
purpose of the research, and the research methodology. The results obtained from the
literature review were presented and they included information on sustainable
construction materials, principles and strategies for designing for disassembly,
the environmental impact of production operations for construction materials,
construction waste generation, and producing lower levels of waste.
The last section of the article presented the results of the survey of high-level
engineering and construction industry executives including information on sustainable
materials considered during the design stage, processes used to recycle waste at the
end of construction projects, processes used to sell or reuse material by-products, waste
being recycled or reused compared to projects before sustainability, techniques for
reducing the amount of waste being generated during construction, and addressing
project level waste.
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About the author

Dr J.K. Yates is Dean of the College of Engineering Technology at Ferris State University, the
largest engineering technology college in the USA. Dr Yates was the Joe W. Kimmel
Distinguished Professor of Construction Management at Western Carolina University. Dr Yates
previously worked for North Dakota State University, Ohio University, San Jose State
University, NYU Poly, and Iowa State University. Dr Yates has worked for Bechtel, CH2M Hill,
URS, the Williams Company, SeFab Steel Fabricators, Potlatch Forest Products, and B.T. Badak
in Borneo, Indonesia. Dr Yates is the author of six books and numerous refereed journal articles.
Dr Yates received the Distinguished Professor award from the Construction Industry Institute
(CII) in 2010 and for Polytechnic University in 1994, was the Associated General Contractors’
Outstanding Construction Professor in America in 1997, was one of the Engineering News
Record’s Those Who Made Marks in the Construction Industry in 1991, and received the
Ron Brown award for industry/academic collaborations with the Hewlett Packard Foundation
from the President of the USA in 2001. J.K. Yates can be contacted at: jkyates@wcu.edu
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The research investigation included reviewing waste minimisation strategies that

purpose of the research.

(8) David Prada – CSA Group.

requested in the survey on both corporate and project level sustainability.

Sustainable construction materials

The US Green Building Council Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

Principles and strategies of designing for disassembly

materials (LRM) materials obtained within the defined radius

(6) Provide standard and permanent identification of material types.

Construction waste generation

Waste minimisation strategies

Source: Adapted from LANL (2002, p. 237)

Sustainable materials considered during the design stage

Yes No Do not know

Processes are used to sell, or reuse, material

Processes used to recycle waste at the end of construction

Processes used to sell, or reuse, material by-products

Waste being recycled, or reused, compared to projects before sustainability

Addressing project level waste

material and product choices, using off-specification concrete or remnants of concrete

year as part of the global reporting initiative.

Ecologically Sustainable Construction, The European Commission, Brussels, available at:

Office of International Affairs – United States Environmental Protection Agency (2005),

About the author

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1. Construction-related sustainability 143-187. [CrossRef]

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