Creating A Forest Garden

Student Handbook, week I

July 2015
Creating A Forest Garden #4: Course Outline & Assessments
All sessions are on 9 to 4 with 2 breaks at (11-11.30 and 1.30-2.30). The sessions take place at ELL
http://www.ediblelandscapeslondon.org.uk/FindingUs but you'll also get the chance to see other forest garden
sites when training takes place elsewhere. On Tuesday we will be at the pocket park on Seven Sisters Road.
On Thursday 16th July we will be at the Castle Climbing Centre and on Thursday 15 th October we will be at
Redmond Community Centre. We may also do work at London Wildlife Trust and other sites in the area.

Pocket Park

ELL London
Wildlife
Trust

Redmond
Community
Centre
Castle
Climbing
Centre

Tutors for the course will be a mixture of established, experienced tutors and ex-CAFG students who will act
as support tutors and give short presentations.

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Course outline
Date Themes Tutors

Sat 11th Jul Meet some forest garden plants Richard Vials
Alex Sylvester
1 Mon 13th Jul Background issues, key features of a forest garden, Jo Homan
observation, assessment Laura Harrison

2 Tue 14th Jul Plant ID, canopy layer, surveys, biodiversity, plant guilds, Jo Homan
health and safety I, assessment Chris Speirs
3 Wed 15th Jul Design work, shrubs, herbaceous perennial layers, Jo Homan
assessment Nick Turner
4 Thur 16th Jul (at Castle) Propagation I, health and safety II, groundcover, Jo Homan
climbers and annuals layers, assessment Maïa Sparrow
5 Fri 17th Jul Assessment, practical choice Jo Homan
Lorena Vila
T1 Sat 15th Aug 10-12 Pocket Park, practical site preparation and design
conversations / sharing
T2 Sat 5th Sep 10-12 Priory Common Orchard – practical seed collection and
design conversations / sharing
T3 Fri 11th & Sat Visit to Agroforestry Research Trust in Devon Ben Yeomans
12th Sep
T4 Sat 26th Sep 10-12 Castle Climbing Centre – practical plant identification
and design conversations / sharing
T5 Sat 10th Oct 10-12 Pocket Park, practical tree planting and design
conversations / sharing
6 Mon 12th Oct Propagation II, assessment, student presentations x 3
7 Tue 13th Oct Soil, assessment, student presentations x 3 Jo Homan
Lewis McNeill
8 Wed 14th Oct Taxonomy, assessment, student presentations x 3
9 Thur 15th Oct Plant problems, plant care, planting out, care programme, Jo Homan
student presentations x 3 Lucy Nacson Jones
10 Fri 16th Oct Assessment, log inoculation, party

Most of the course content will be stored online at http://www.ediblelandscapeslondon.org.uk/CAFG_4

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Accreditation
We are studying:
* Certa Creating A Forest Garden 48 guided learning hours, 1 Unit worth 6 credits, level 2
* Certa Award in Horticulture (QCF) 80-90 guided learning hours, 4 Units worth 10 credits, level 2

QCF is the Qualifications and Credit Framework – all the Units offered by different awarding bodies are made
available in one place – e.g. http://register.ofqual.gov.uk/Unit/Details/F_504_0744.
Certa is a national awarding organisations. Other egs of awarding organisations: City and Guilds, Royal
Horticultural Society and Edexcel.

For the new Unit, Creating A Forest Garden, we have linked up with Certa via the Permaculture Association.
Jan Mulreany is the external verifier. She used to work for Certa (when it was the Open College Network) and
now works for the Brighton Permaculture Association. She wrote 'Creating A Forest Garden' especially for this
course. It covers: the characteristics of a forest garden; biodiversity; the background issues relating to food
security – climate change and peak resources; and forest garden design.

The Award in Horticulture is a pre-existing cluster of Units which are intended to help people looking for
employment in horticulture. The Units within the Award in Horticulture are:
• 'Health and Safety in a Practical Environment'
• 'Plant Selection'
• 'Plant Propagation' and
• 'Identification & Naming of Plants'

A full breakdown of the learning outcomes for each of these Units is found in Appendix 1.

Levels Creating a Forest Garden and the Award in Horticulture are available at level 2 but we may be able to
adapt your own learning outcomes if you're finding level 2 too challenging. Level 1 is about the same as a D-
G grade at GCSE level, whereas level 2 is grades A-C at GCSE level. We'll be teaching you much more than
what is covered by the accreditation.
Guided learning hours give training centres and idea of how much time to spend teaching something, but
they can overlap with each other. Guided learning hours also includes your own study time.
Credits relates to the amount of time you've spent studying something and is no reflection of difficulty.

For more information look at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualifications_and_Credit_Framework

Assessing what you've learned

We will be using a combination of different methods and there is some kind of assessment happening almost
every day of the course:

• oral questions and answers – e.g. quizzes and tutor asking questions
• written questions – e.g. testing recall or asking to and apply a general principle in a hypothetical
situation
• essays – work that would be in your portfolio, summarising what has been learned
• reports and presentations – again, you feeding back what you've learnt
• projects – e.g. your own forest garden design project that would be in your portfolio
• practical demonstration – for learning outcomes which ask for you to 'demonstrate' something, e.g.
how to take a hardwood cutting

More details of the assessment and course content is found in a spreadsheet which is downloadable from
http://www.ediblelandscapeslondon.org.uk/section/CAFG_3

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Day 1
09.00 Spot test on the key facts (succession, eco systems, perennial plants, permaculture principle on
edges). Introductions. Mango tree. Expectations. Working in groups. Course ethos.
10.00 Peak resources and climate change. Impact on food security. Map out on chart, recapping what was
covered in essays. Also look at responses to these issues by foodcrop growers...
11.00 Break
11.30 Key Features of FG as a reaction to CC & peak oil. Succession, layering (stacking) and self regulating
systems – stability.
12.15 Comparison between FG and conventional food growing – brainstorm a list
12.45 Assessment – responses by food growers to climate change and peak oil (could swap this with the
observation 1)
13.30 Break
14.30 Observation 1 – focusing on light – light assessment
Set homework, read chapters 9 & 10
Covering ~U1~ 1.2, 1.3 i) & ii) 1.4, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4
Assessing ~U1~ 1.4, 3.3

10:00 Background issues

Unit 1, Creating a Forest Garden
3.1 Describe the observed effects and predicted changes to world weather patterns (e.g. over forty years).
3.2 Assess the impact of climate change on plants and crops.
3.3 Give examples of possible responses to climate change by foodcrop growers.
3.4 Assess the potential impact of peak oil on food security.

Climate change – termperature, growing season, rainfall, sea level rise, humidity, Impact of these on
cloud cover, wind, unseasonal events, soil moisture food production and
food security
Peak oil – rising fuel prices, rising pesticide and fertilizer prices. Societal effects.

NB You will be tested on 3.3 this afternoon

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11:30 Key Features of a Forest Garden
Unit 1, Creating a Forest Garden
1.3 Describe the features of forest gardens related to:
- natural succession and layering
- the evolution of perennial and self-regulating systems
1.4 Describe how to use edges, space and light to stimulate productive growth.

From Martin Crawford's 'Forest

Gardening course notes':
A forest garden is a garden modelled on
natural woodland, the climax vegetation
of temperate climate regions like Britain,
utilising plants of direct and indirect
benefit to people – often edible plants.
Forest gardens are long-term biologically
sustainable systems for growing food and
other products for a household or
commercially.
Robert Hart initiated interest in the
concept of temperate forest gardens in
the 70s after studying tropical systems.
He experimented in Shropshire with his
own forest garden, inspiring many others.

Key features:
• several layers of vegetation
• a wide and diverse range of species
• edges where light levels are increased
• the majority of the soil is not dug
• the soil surface is covered with low growing plants and sometimes mulch materials
• nitrogen-fixing and other mineral-accumulating plants
• clearings may exist.
Key benefits:
• working with the land rather than against it
• low maintenance
• yields a wide range of products
• resilient to changes and biologically sustainable
• environmental benefits – CO2, erosion, shelter
• aesthetically pleasing
• promote biodiversity
• can be exploited commercially
• efficient system of production
• little or no greenhouse gas emissions

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Succession
Have you ever dug over a patch of earth, only to find a week or so later hundreds of volunteer seedlings? The
soil was full of seeds which you exposed by digging. And this is what happens in nature. Cleared land tends
to be colonised by plants of increasing size until eventually it becomes mature woodland. The earliest plants
tend to be annual plants which make the most of the good light conditions to rapidly grow and set seed e.g. a
meadow. Then come herbaceous perennials (e.g. mints) shrubs (e.g. blackthorn) and robust spreading plants
(e.g. bramble). The earliest trees to appear are 'pioneer species', plants which can handle tough conditions
and even enrich the soil by fixing Nitrogen e.g. Alder. These trees end up being shaded-out by the climax
species e.g. Oak.
At a woodland edge, you will find this pattern of succession – a mixture of small annual plants, then
herbaceous perennials, shrubs and small trees, with all plants determined to make the most of the available
light. Forest gardening consciously copies this pattern to try and create a stable-ish system. Trying to maintain
land at the end of the spectrum where solely annual plants are growing, with perhaps bare earth in between
each plant, is really hard work and truly counter to what nature 'wants' to do.
The next section is based on chapter five (‘Emulating forest conditions’, pp. 45-48) of Creating a forest
garden, by Martin Crawford (2010, Green Books).

Natural elements in a forest garden – towards stability

Intelligent forest garden design requires taking into consideration the interaction of natural elements such as
light, shade, temperature, soil moisture and humidity. (Wind is not an ingredient for plant growth, but is also
important to consider.) Plants have different needs and tolerance for things like shade, exposure, drought etc.
and by understanding the different natural elements and how they interact, the gardener can ensure plants
are in the best position possible for them to be healthy.

Shade
Shade can be created by features surrounding the garden (buildings, existing trees near the site etc.) and by
the plants within the forest garden itself. Therefore spacing of trees and the density of the canopy layer are
crucial features of the forest garden design.
 The canopy layer should be designed with consideration for how the trees shade the plants growing
below them. If the canopies are touching or too close together, there will not be enough light for much
to grow lower down and the garden will not be very productive. (Also consider how tall trees will grow
eventually…)
 Light levels in the garden can be increased by:
o planting the tallest trees at the northernmost edge of the site,
o planting trees with small leaves that allow more light to filter through,
o raising the height of the canopy by pruning the lower branches.

Temperature
 Temperature is important in forest garden design because forests are usually cooler in summer and
warmer in winter than an open site.
 Ensure plants are situated where they will get enough warmth and sun. Be aware that new woody
growth may harden off more slowly, which increases the risk of cold weather damage.
 The warmer winter conditions also have advantages: temperatures are higher, and the trees and
shrubs slow airflow (which prevents the chilling winds that are often more damaging than the cold
temperature per se) and prevent light frosts reaching the ground.
 The leaf mould layer also insulates the soil, making the soil cooler in summer and warmer in winter.

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Soil moisture
 Soil moisture affects how much water is available to plants through the soil. In summer, trees transpire
large amounts of water so there is likely to be water competition near trees and shrubs in dry weather.
 Levels of moisture in the soil are affected by a number of factors to do with plant choice and spacing.
o Deciduous trees with thinner canopies allow more rain to filter through the canopy. Dense and
evergreen trees do not allow as much water through and tend to shed water around the drip
line (the circle created by the outside of the canopy.) This means the soil within the drip line of
dense and evergreen trees can become very dry.
o Wind causes rain to fall at an angle, so more rain falls on the windward sides of trees than on
the sheltered side, creating moister and dryer areas of soil. When designing your garden, take
into account the position of trees in relation to the prevailing winds in your site.

Humidity
 Humidity is generally higher in forests because:
o trees slow down airflow,
o the leafmould retains water,
o moisture transpired by lower plants is mostly trapped by the canopies of higher trees.
 This is not generally a problem in forest gardens, as most woodland perennials prefer a more humid
environment. However, it can take a while for this microclimate to establish, especially if the forest
garden is planted on bare land. For this reason, it might be better to wait a few years before planting
woodland perennials so that the trees are larger and have created this more humid environment.

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12:15 Comparing forest gardens with conventional food growing methods
Unit 1, Creating a Forest Garden
1.2 Compare the elements of a forest garden with those of a conventional garden or food production site.

Day 1 Homework
Learn key facts #2
Review chapters 9 & 10 of Creating a Forest Garden

Key Facts #2

5 canopy plant names

Siberian Pea Tree Caragana arborescens
Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna
Quince Cydonia oblonga
Fig Ficus carica
Sea Buckthorn Hippophae rhamnoides

Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life. It is seen in the number of species in an ecosystem or on the entire
Earth. Biodiversity gets used as a measure of the health of biological systems, and to see if there is a
danger that too many species become extinct.

Plant guild – different definitions

A guild (ecological guild) is any group of species that exploit the same resources, often in related ways OR a
guild (permaculture guild) is a system of efficiently grouped plants that uses everything to its fullest potential.

Plant family
When talking about a plant 'family' it means a taxonomic rank. Many plants may belong to a family. e.g. The
Rose Family (Rosaceae) includes apples, plums and true service trees. All botanical families end with
'aceae' (pronounced 'ay see ee'). They will have a medium level of genetic similarity.

Cotyledon
A cotyledon, or seed leaf, is a leaf that is stored in a seed

Monocotyledon
Monocotyledons are a class of flowering plants whose embryo (seed) store only one cotyledon.

Dicotyledon
Dicotyledon is the name of a class of plants in taxonomy. They are also called dicots. It is the biggest group
of flowering plants. Seedlings in this group have two seed leaves.

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Day 2
Start at pocket park.
09.00 Spot test on key facts #2 from yesterday. Health and Safety legislation.
09.45 Site survey - client interview, site measurement, orientation, soil appearance, plant identification (use
plant ID books and Field Study Council field guides), indicator species.
11.00 break
11.30 continue with survey
12.30 Biodiversity. 7 functions of guilds. (Chris Speirs lead)
13.30 break
14.30 Homework setting and Kelsey / Whitfeld – read and summarise in pairs
Covering ~U1~ 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 ~U2~ 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 ~U3~ 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

09:00 Health and Safety

Unit 2, Health and Safety in a Practical Environment
1.1 Describe the purpose of relevant, current health and safety requirements, for example Health and
Safety at Work Act, or the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations.
1.2 Describe the correct procedures for reporting accidents and potential hazards.
1.3 Describe the correct response to two emergency situations.
1.4 Describe the location of emergency equipment, for example fire/emergency alarm and first aid box.

Basic stuff you should have in place: health and safety policy; first aid kit; risk assessment template; public
liability insurance. These are 'big picture' steps you should take that are not site specific.
Risk Assessments – these are site specific and variable
If your project is a social enterprise, business, charity or possibly even a non-domestic green space, then you
are operating under the Health and Safety at Work Act, 1974. This means you'll need to risk assessments
for your work days and any high risk one-off activities. Risk assessments list the hazards, show the likelihood
of each risk, the severity of the injury and what you're doing to minimise the risk.
Often the risk is mitigated by using Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), e.g. gloves or wet weather clothing.
Sometimes risk is mitigated by having a clear process – e.g. systematically showing people how to use tools
(like TCV), doing a regular site walk to pick up needles or tripping hazards. What have you seen at other
projects?
Another piece of regulation that sometimes affects gardening projects is COSHH (Control of Substances
Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002. However, since forest gardens don't use hazardous substances like
weed killers you don't need to worry. If you did use these things you'd have to do a mini risk assessment for
each product, called a COSHH assessment.
One final piece of legislation to be aware of is RIDDOR (the Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous
Occurrences Regulations 1995). Incidents and near misses need to be recorded in an Accident Book. You will
have to report these incidents to the Health and Safety Executive: bone fracture (other than finger, thumb or
toe); amputation; dislocation of shoulder, hip, knee or spine; loss of sight; eye injury – from chemicals, hot
metal or penetration; electric shock injury or electric burn causing unconsciousness; death; tetanus; or
Leptospirosis (Weil's syndrome).
First aid Volunteer organisations don't have to have a qualified first aider but it's considered good practice.
The following additional information is from the The Federation of City Farms and Community Gardens'
'Community Garden Start up Pack'. http://www.farmgarden.org.uk/component/docman/doc_download/14-
community-garden-starter-pack

What are the duties?

• To have a health and safety policy – have a working group that writes, implements, checks and
regularly revises your policy.
• To make the community garden environment safe with minimum risks to health – how often do you
inspect and check the garden and its facilities?

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 • To provide good information, instruction, training and supervision – what safety information is provided
on the garden site? Can all users understand it easily?
• To provide preventative advice and appropriate first aid – how many of your volunteers, staff and
members are qualified first aiders? What information do you provide to users, e.g. tetanus
information? Does the garden display a clear notice stating where first aid is available?
• To provide appropriate welfare facilities – are any toilets and washing facilities clean and accessible?
• To investigate accidents, industrial diseases and dangerous occurrences – where is your accident
book kept? Is it accessible? Are there clear instructions about what to do, what needs to be recorded
and who to contact?
• To have procedures for the safe use, handling, storage and transportation of articles and substances
– the best policy is to minimise the use of dangerous substances in the garden.
• To provide insurance, e.g. public liability insurance

A 5 step guide to risk assessments

1. Look for hazards.
2. Decide who might be harmed, and how.
3. Assess the risks arising from the hazards and decide whether existing precautions you are taking are
adequate or if more should be done/
4. Record your findings and take action where necessary.
5. Review your assessment at least once a year and when any major changes take place

Potential hazards to consider in your risk assessment

Poisonous plants If you don't have the expertise in your group to identify poisonous plants and fruits seek
local advice. These plants may form an important par of your garden, but you need to manage them to
prevent accidents particularly if children are involved.
Paths and walkways These are a major source of accidents. Keep them clear of obstacles and hidden
dangers like trailing hoses or electric cables.
Wheelbarrows Don't overload and only move what you can easily manage. Load the barrow at the front over
the wheel, not at the handles end. Train staff and volunteers in proper use.
Toos Show volunteers how to use spades, mattocks etc. safely and make sure they are not left lying around.
Tools should also be maintained so they can be used safely.
Power and electrical tools If you use these, keep them locked up and have an appropriate booking in/out
system. Only allow those properly trained to use them. Even electrical equipment like kettles is supposed to
be checked each year.
Compost heaps Avoid putting food on that will attract rats. Make sure this info is on signs.
Dogs Many community gardens are dog free zones. Dog faeces can have an impact on land for up to 15
years! Faeces poses particular problems for young children and pregnant women.
Example of part of a risk assessment:
Risk Probability Severity Management
1-5 1-5
Tools and injury 2 4 - Lead volunteer to ensure volunteers know how to use tools
- Inappropriate appropriately
use of tools - Regularly check tools for wear and tear
- Accidents when - Check appropriate tools are available for jobs required
using tools - Use safety equipment where possible, e.g. hand protectors
when using sharp knives

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09:45 Site Survey, Plant Identification etc.

Client Interview – questions you might ask to find out about your site
1. Client name:
2. Address:
3. Site size:
4. Number of people on site (typical/average):
5. Groups that use the site:
6. Physical challenges that need to be considered (blind, wheelchairs etc):
7. Occupations & skills:
8. Lifestyle/ethos of group:
9. Eating habits:
10. Age ranges:
11. Financial situation, budget.
12. On site resources:
13. Site tenure (owned freehold, leasehold, rented):
14. Restrictions on land use (tenancy agreements, covenants etc)
15. Potential catastrophes (vandalism, flooding etc)
16. Are there any plans and drawings?
17. Level/type of crop required
18. Existing energy efficiency measures, and energy usage
19. Privacy (views, difficult neighbours, respecting other people’s privacy where site is overlooking others)
20. Priorities for the site - Client wants and needs
21. Water catchment (quality and amount)
22. Water general
23. Soils (pH, texture)
24. Names & addresses of supportive groups and people (councillors, voluntary service support etc)
25. Utilities

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Site measurement – scales, compasses and triangles
1. Imagine the main fixed points on your site are joined up to form triangles. Do a rough drawing on quite
large paper, showing where these triangles are. Use a tape measure to measure the length of the
sides of the triangles and record carefully on your drawing. The best place to write the length of each
side of each triangle is sideways, along its length – this will avoid confusion later on. So long as you
measure all three sides of each triangle, you'll be able to get them onto a proper drawing, accurately.
Take photos as well to remind yourself where things are.
2. Use a scale to convert all the measurements in your rough drawing. You could write the scaled down
measurements on your rough drawing in a different colour. You can buy scale rulers that make the
conversion much easier. Here are some common scales:
1:10 means 1 cm on your drawing = 10 cm in real life. And 10cm on your drawing = 100cm (or 1m) in
real life.
1:20 means 1 cm on your drawing = 20 cm in real life. And 5cm = 1m.
3. Do a scale drawing using a compass, pencil and rubber to make sure your angles are right. Not every
corner is going to be an exact 90 degrees, so you need to make sure you get the angles correct.
Here's how you do it: Choose one of the triangles in your drawing. First of all, draw a scaled down line
for the first side of the triangle. Now you need to get the angle for the second and third sides of that
triangle. Put the point of the compass into one end of the line you've just drawn. Make sure the
distance between the point of the compass and the pencil is the scaled down distance you measured
for the second side of the triangle. Use your compass to draw an arc in the direction of the third
corner. Then put the point of your compass into the other end of the line you drew, making sure that
the pencil is the right distance apart (the length of the third side of the triangle). Draw an arc which
should cross the other arc. The point where they cross is the third corner of the triangle. Mark that
point, draw the lines you need to and then rub out the arcs. Repeat this process for the other triangles
in your drawing so that it's all to scale, with the correct angles.

Orientation / slope / aspect

This kind of thing is thoroughly covered in 'Permaculture Design – a step-by-step guide', by Aranya
Orientation which way is North? Think about the amount of sun you get over the year.

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Slope inclination of ground. You may have more than one... North facing slopes receive much less sun than
south facing slopes. The direction of a slope is know as its aspect.
Exposure think about how much wind is hitting your site... In the UK the prevailing wind is from the south
west.
What other things are noticeable on your site?

Soil
Does it look dried out / exposed / full of builder's rubble? Does it feel like clay or sand? Or is it loamy?
We will be doing more work on soil in week 2 of the course. At this stage it's useful to know that some plants
can give an indication of what is going on in the soil. But first, we need to be able to identify those plants...

10:30 Plant identification: characteristics

Unit 3, Identification and Naming of Plants
3.1 Use a range of reference materials to aid identification of plants.
3.2 Use a plant’s characteristics to aid identification
e.g. (i) habit (ii) leaves (iii) stems (iv) flowers (v) buds
3.3 Identify and botanically name a total of 35 plants from the following categories:
(a) annuals and short lived perennials
(b) houseplants
(c) herbaceous perennials
(d) trees and shrubs
(e) grasses
(f) food crops
(g) weeds.

General plant identification tips

evergreen v deciduous Deciduous plants lose their foliage during the winter or dry season. Evergreens are
in leaf all year round. The Latin binomial term sempervirens (literally, "always green") refers to the evergreen
nature of the plant, for instance Pentaglottis sempervirens - the annoying Green Alkanet.
herbaceous v woody A herbaceous plant is a plant that has leaves and stems that die down at the end of the
growing season. They have no persistent woody stem above ground.
hardy v tender Tender plants are those killed by freezing temperatures, while hardy plants survive freezing—
at least down to certain temperatures, depending on the plant.

Dicotyledon Monocotyledon
Embryo Has two cotyledons Has one cotyledon
Leaf venation Leaf veins are branched. Leaf veins are parallel.
Flowers Petals in multiples of four or five. Multiples of three
Secondary growth (outwards) Often present Absent
Examples pea, bean, daisy, oak tree Grains, lilies, onions, bamboo
Root system Taproot system Fibrous root
Woody? Both herbaceous and woody Herbaceous
Number of seed leaves 2 seed leaves 1 seed leaf
Leaf stalk? Most don’t have a leaf stalk

Three Cornered Leek, Black Bamboo and Day Lily from your plant list are all monocots. There are plant
identification tips relating to your plant list in Appendix 2 and 3.

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CAFG#4 14
Indicator species
Herbaceous Latin Name Indicates
Perennials & Shrubs
Agrimony Agrimonia sp. Well drained
Bilberry or Bayberry Vaccinium myrtillus Acid, poor
Birdsfoot trefoil Lotus corniculatus Low Nitrogen
Bog asphodel Narthecium ossifragum Wet, acid and poor
Bog myrtle Myrica gale Wet, acid. Nitrogen fixer.
Bracken Pteridium sp. Well-drained, usually acid, usually sandy when abundant
Bramble Rubus fruticosus Well drained but moist
Broom Cytisus scoparius Acid, sandy
Buttercup, bulbous Ranunculus bulbosus Well-drained
Buttercup, creeping Ranunculus repens Moist, compacted or heavy
Buttercup, meadow Ranunculus acris Moist
Chickweed Stellaria media Rich. Mineral accumulator – K, P, Ma. Edible.
Cleavers Gallium aparine Rich. Mineral accumulator – Na, Ca. Edible.
Coltsfoot Tussilago farfara Heavy
Corn spurrey Spergula arvensis Poor, acid
Couch grass Agropyons repens Unstable soil being bound. Minerals – K, Cl, Si
Cow wheat Melampyrum sp Acid
Cuckoo flower Cardamine pratensis Moist
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale Liquid fertilizer. Na, Si, Mn, Ca, K, P, Fe, Cu. Edible.
Deadnettle Lamiium sp. Rich
Dock, broad leaved Rumes obtusifolius Rich. Compacted soil. Mineral accumulator – Ca, K, P, Fe.
Edible
Fat hen Chenopodium album Rich. Rich in B1 and B2. Mineral accumulator – Fe, K, N.
Edible leaves.
Fleabane Pulicaria dysenterica Damp
Foxglove Digitalis purpurea Acid
Gorse, common Ulex europaeus Well drained, usually sandy, poor. Nitrogen fixer.
Gorse, dwarf Ulex minor Acid, not necessarily well drained
Groundsel Senecio vulgaris Fertile, cultivated soil. Rich in Fe.
Guelder rose Viburnum opulus Moist to wet, usually alkaline
Harebell Campanula rotundifolia Well drained.
Heath bedstraw Galium saxatile Acid
Heather, cross-leaved Erica tetralix Acid, poor, wet
Heather, bell Erica cinerea Acid, poor, dry
Heather, common or Calluna vulgaris Acid, poor, moist
ling
Hemp agrimony Eupatorium Damp to wet
cannabinum
Horseshoe vetch Hippocrepis comosa Alkaline, dry, limestone or chalk

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Horsetail Equisetum arvense Wet subsoil, poor soil. Mineral accumulator – Si, Ca, Co,
Au
Kidney vetch Anthyllis vulneraria Well-drained, usually alkaline
Marjoram Origanum majorana Well-drained, usually alkaline
Meadowsweet Filipendula ulmaria Moist to wet
Nettle Urtica dioica Fertile soil – high in N and P. Mineral accumulator – N, Si,
Fe. Edible.
Old Man's beard Clematis vitalba Alkaline
Orache Atriplex hortensis Rich
Orchid, pyramidal Anacamptis pyramidalis Alkaline
Pineapple weed Maticaria disoidea Compacted
Plantain, greater Plantago major Compacted
Poppy, opium Papaver somniferum Rich
Ragged robin Lychnis flos-cuculi Wet, not very acid
Reed Phragmites sp. Usually soil flooded for at least part of the year
Rhododendron Rhododendron sp. Acid
Rush, hard Juncus inflexus Wet, alkaline
Rush, soft Juncus effusus Wet, acid
Salad burnet Sanguisorba minor Alkaline, dry
Sheep's Sorrel Rumex acetosella Poor
Silverweed Argentina anserina Compacted or damp
Sorrel, common Rumex acetosa Poor
Stinking iris Iris foetidissima Alkaline
Thistle, creeping Cirsium arvense Often compacted subsoil, fairly rich
Thyme Thymus sp. Dry, usually alkaline
Tormentil, common Potenilla erecta Acid, poor
Willowherb, great Epilobium hirsutum Damp
hairy
Wood sorrel Oxalis acetosella Usually acid

Trees Latin Name Indicates

Alder Alnus glutinosa Wet. Pioneer species. Nitrogen fixer.
Beech Fagus sylvatica Well-drained, often suffers from die-back on poorly drained
soil
Chestnut, sweet Castanea sativa Acid, sandy
Elder Sambucus nigra Rich, usually alkaline
Elm, suckering Ulmus minor Clay coil usually
Elm, wych Ulmus galbra Alkaline,
Rowan Sorbus aucuparia Typical of light, acid soils, occasionally on limestone
Scots pine Pinus sylvestris Acid
Spindle tree Euonymus europaeus Alkaline
Wayfaring tree Viburnum lantana Alkaline

CAFG#4 16
12:30 Biodiversity and Plant Guilds
Unit 1, Creating a Forest Garden
2.1 Describe the value of building and maintaining biodiversity.
2.2 Describe how the elements of a forest garden interact to support each other, and maintain
biodiversity.
2.3 Outline the lifecycle of a typical “guild” that can be found or designed into the forest garden.

Introduction
The word "biodiversity" is the contracted form of biological diversity first used by scientist Raymond Dasmann
in 1968.
Biologists often define biodiversity as the "totality of genes, species and ecosystems of a region" and it
commonly implies species diversity and species richness.
Biodiversity is not evenly distributed, rather it varies greatly across the globe as well as within regions. Among
other factors, the diversity of all living things (biota) depends on temperature, precipitation, altitude, soils,
geography and the presence of other species.
Although 80% of humans' food supply comes from just 20 kinds of plants, humans use at least 40,000
species, on which we depend for food, shelter and clothing.

1. Benefits of biodiversity
(from www.globalissues.org) A healthy biodiversity provides a number of natural services for everyone:
Ecosystem services, such as
• Protection of water resources
• Soils formation and protection
• Nutrient storage and recycling
• Pollution breakdown and absorption
• Contribution to climate stability
• Maintenance of ecosystems
• Recovery from unpredictable events
Biological resources, such as
• Food
• Medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs
• Wood products
• Ornamental plants
• Breeding stocks, population reservoirs
• Future resources
• Diversity in genes, species and ecosystems
Social benefits, such as
• Research, education and monitoring
• Recreation and tourism
• Cultural values

2. Threats to biodiversity
Monocultures a contributing factor to several agricultural disasters (such as the European wine industry
collapse or the Irish potato blight in the late 19th c).

CAFG#4 17
Habitat destruction plays a key role in extinctions and is associated with overpopulation, deforestation,
pollution (of air, water and soil), global warming and climate change. Co-extinctions are also a form of habitat
destruction, they occur when the extinction or the decline of a species accompanies the other, such as in
plants and bees).
Introduced and invasive species may drive local native species to extinction via competition, niche
displacement, or hybridisation (genetic pollution) which may result in extensive changes in the biota of the
sites of introduction, leading to the homogenisation of the world’s fauna and flora and the loss of biodiversity.
Genetic erosion Intentional and unintentional cross-pollination and cross breeding has created the collapse
of an huge gene pools of various wild and native breeds causing the loss of genetic diversity which could
result in a serious threat to our food security.
Climate change and global warming drastically alters the biology of many species and is considered to be a
major threat.
Over-exploitation occurs on land in the form of over-hunting, excessive logging, poor soil conservation in
agriculture and the illegal wildlife trade.
Human overpopulation According to Sir David King, chief scientific adviser to the UK government, "It is self-
evident that the massive growth in the human population through the 20th century has had more impact on
biodiversity than any other single factor."

3. How to build and maintain biodiversity

In forest gardens, the complex tri-dimensional structure and the diversity of plants provides many niches for
insects and small animals. Some might become pests but the system would hopefully include predators to
establish a balance. The insects considered "friendly" include lady beetles, bees, ground beetles, hoverflies,
and parasitic wasps. Other animals that are frequently considered beneficial include lizards, spiders, toads,
frogs and humming birds.
Grow a mix of trees, shrubs and climbers to provide food and shelter. Larger plants, particularly trees,
support more wildlife, as well as providing food in the form of flowers, fruits and seeds. They provide cover
and nesting sites for garden animals, from insects to larger species such as birds. Small trees and shrubs that
are good for blossom and berries include rowan, crab apple, elder, blackthorn and hawthorn – and not just our
native species.
Leave water Ideally dig a pond, but a container of water will suffice, a large pot or even an inverted dustbin lid
in an out-of-the-way spot will do. Allow water plants to colonise naturally. Make sure ponds have at least one
sloping side to allow creatures an easy way out. Most wildlife, including amphibians such as newts and frogs,
like shallower water than is generally thought.
Leave piles of dead wood in a shady spot Decaying wood provides a habitat to a range of specialist wildlife
that is growing increasingly uncommon in the countryside, such as stag and bark beetles and their grubs, and
many species of fungi. It also provides cover and hibernation sites.
Compost This makes for healthy soil, which is good for everything living in it and growing on it. Compost
heaps also shelter many small creatures (and some larger ones, like slug-loving slow worms and grass
snakes), which enjoy the heat released by decomposition.
Undisturbed areas Piles of leaves and twiggy debris provide both food and habitat for many species. If you
leave perennials uncut over winter, their hollow stems can shelter hibernating insects. Piles of stones also
make good habitat, particularly for hibernating reptiles and amphibians.
In a Forest Garden where the soil is left undisturbed, the complex network of root systems, insects, fungi,
bacteria and animals can take place and regulate itself, thanks to plant selection and diversity. There is no
need for pesticides or chemical fertilizers which would affect the biota.
Tall herbs (as opposed to mown grass) will provide shelter for small mammals such as wood mice, voles and
shrews, and food for some butterfly caterpillars.
Choosing the right plants to provide pollen and nectar for the bees, butterflies and insects that fertilise
fruits. Seed and fruit production would drop dramatically without them. For a list of nectar and pollen plants,
see p.358 to p.364 in Martin's book.It's best to avoid highly bred cultivars with big or double flowers, most of
which contain little or no pollen or nectar. Choose plants that provide pollen and nectar for as long a season
as possible, from spring through to autumn. Studies are showing that wildlife cares little if a plant is native or
not.

CAFG#4 18
4. What is pollination?
Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred from one flower to another, allowing flowers to
become fertilised and produce seeds and fruit. In some plants, such as grasses and conifers, pollen is spread
by the wind, but most plants require insects and sometimes other animals to carry the pollen.
'Entomophily' means pollination by insects, e.g. bees, Lepidoptera (eg. butterflies and moths), wasps, flies,
ants and beetles. Apples, plums, pears, cherries, raspberries, blackberries, blackcurrants, redcurrants,
gooseberries and strawberries all rely on insects to bring about pollination. The same is true for some
vegetables, such as broad beans, runner beans and plants in the marrow family.
Flowers attract insects by providing them with two rich sources of food - nectar and pollen. Nectar contains
sugars and provides insects with an energy source, while pollen grains contain proteins and oils. Both provide
a complete diet for the adult bees and their larvae. Other insects, such as various flies and midges, beetles,
wasps, thrips, bugs, butterflies and moths visit flowers to feed but may also have other dietary requirements,
especially in their immature stages. Some predatory insects visit flowers to feed on other insects attracted to
the blooms. All are capable of picking up pollen on their bodies and bringing about pollination when they move
to other flowers of the same plant.
Newsflash: Bees' Biodiversity Boosts Crop Yields (e! Science News) Research from North
Carolina State University shows that blueberries produce more seeds and larger berries if they are
visited by more diverse bee species, allowing farmers to harvest significantly more pounds of fruit
per acre.
Within the blueberry fields, the researchers identified five distinct groups of bee species: honey
bees, bumble bees, southeastern blueberry bees, carpenter bees and a functionally similar
collection of species that they termed small native bees.
The benefit could be explained by the differences in behaviour between bee groups, in part
depending on the weather. For example, southeastern blueberry bees work well regardless of
inclement weather, whereas honey bees only perform at their best on calm, warm, sunny days.
"This can make a big difference, since blueberries bloom in March and April in North Carolina,"
There is some research showing that having native, flowering plants near blueberry fields can
increase native bee populations over time, but the researchers are now planning to see what role
crop management can play in fostering bee diversity at crop sites for financial assets.
The researchers found that for each group above one, farmers saw an increase of $311 worth of
yield per acre. For example, if two bee groups pollinated a field, the boost would be $311 per acre;
for three bee groups, the boost would be $622 per acre, and so on.

5. How do the elements of a forest garden interact to support each other and maintain biodiversity
Polyculture = resilience and productivity
Forest Gardens are designed for maximum inter-species interaction. The higher the diversity, the more
resilient and productive. This is because different species rarely share the same pests and diseases and they
use different ecological niches (eg. root and aerial space) to maximise the efficient use of available resources
(light, moisture and soil).

In nature, where plants grow without cultivation, there is always a mixture of plant types growing in an area.
With few exceptions, the plants that grow together are mutually beneficial, in that they allow for maximum
utilisation of light, moisture and soil. Plants that need less light live in the shade of those which must have full
light. The roots of some plants live close to the surface and others send their roots far down into the subsoil.

In forest gardens, the perennial ground-cover layer is very attractive for beneficial insects, which are the
mainstay of the pest-control system.

Aromatic plants
Many of these are herbs. They lure beneficial insects which act as pest-control. The Lamiaceae or mint family
contains the largest number of aromatic plants: To name just a few: Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia),
Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin), Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), Peppermint (Mentha x piperita), Sage
(Saliva officinalis), Sweet Marjoram (Origanum majorana), Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis), Basil (Ocimum
basilicum), Mints (Mentha spp), Oregano (Origanum vulgare).

CAFG#4 19
In the growing season, their essential oils are easily released as they are stored on the surface of the leaves.
These oils are anti-bacterial and anti-fungal and they have the effect of confusing pests and protecting nearby
plants against bacterial and fungal diseases.
The Apiaceae or carrot family members are also often aromatic and started as defence chemicals against
herbivores such as deer or insects. In addition, their tiny flowers forming umbels are perfectly suited for
ladybugs, parasitic wasps and predatory flies.
Include: Angelica (Angelica sylvestris), celery (Apium), chervil, cumin (Cuminum), dill (Anethum), lovage,
fennel (Foeniculum)
Allelopathy and Resource Competition
The opposite biological phenomenon of companion planting is called allelopathy, by which a plant will have a
detrimental effect on growth, survival and reproduction of other plants. The black walnut (Juglans nigra)
produces the allelochemical juglone, which affects some species, such as apples and the legume family,
while others not at all. The leaf litter and root exudates of some Eucalyptus species are allelopathic for
certain soil microbes and plant species. Many invasive plants interfere with native plants through allelopathy.
A well known example is the garlic mustard, an invasive plant which success might be due to a allelochemical
that interferes with mutualisms between tree roots and their mycorrhizal fungi.

Resource competition is when a plant acquires more of the available resources (nutrients, water or light)
without any chemical action on the surrounding plants. Some trees such as ash, poplars, or willows have very
competitive roots and it might be difficult to grow trees and shrubs near them.
Often, members of a guild [a group of species that exploits the same kinds of resources in comparable ways]
are competitors for the resources they share, especially when those resources are scarce. This competition
among guilds emphasizes the fact that, in addition to food webs, the structure of the community is built on
other types of interaction. Species not only eat one another; they compete for resources, forging a variety of
interspecific interactions. Many species also interact cooperatively to search for food or avoid predators.
These and other nontrophic relationships between species are as important as food chains and food webs in
shaping the organization of biological communities.
The name “guild” emphasizes the fact that these groups are like associations of craftsmen who employ similar
techniques in plying their trade. They often are composed of groups of closely related species that all arose
from a common ancestor, and they exploit resources in similar ways as a result of their shared ancestry.
Hence, several species within a single genus may constitute a guild within a community; however, guilds may
be made up of unrelated species. Guilds may consist of different insect species that collect nectar in similar
ways, various bird species that employ corresponding insect-foraging techniques, or diverse plant species
that have evolved comparable floral shapes with which they attract the same group of pollinators.
Source:
John N. Thompson "guild". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web. 09.05.14

6. How forest gardens add to biodiversity and plant guilds

A "guild" in Permaculture is a system of efficiently grouping different plants together in order to use everything
to its fullest potential. The definition in ecology has a slightly different meaning - any group of species that
exploit the same resources, often in related ways
In a forest system, there are multiple layers of vegetation growing together in a very diverse setting. We see
many types of trees, shrubs, plants, insects, animals, and various other things all living together in a system
that continually strengthens itself. All of these components of a natural ecosystem serve a function (or several
functions) that support each other like the strands of a web. One strand on its own may be weak, but the
combination of all the strands together add to the overall strength and usefulness of the web.
More than grouping plants which relate synergistically, benefiting each other by warding off pests or by
supporting each other in some specific way, in a forest garden we would try to compliment the arrangement
as a whole ecosystem: soil biota to unique microclimate, insects to animals, plants to people.

CAFG#4 20
CAFG#4 21
CAFG#4 22
Key points about plant gulds – they have 7 components
1. Food for us: staples, legumes, fruits, vegetables and fats.
When building a guild, we need to think about maximizing the health and nutritional benefits we will be getting
from our systems. In order to eat a diversity of foods we need to plant a diversity of foods. With good
planning, we should be able to receive foods from all groups throughout the year.
2. Food for the soil: legumes and organic matter that provide nutrients to the soil.
Like us, plants need nutrients to grow, one of the main being Nitrogen that plants only absorb from the soil.
Nitrogen-fixers such as legumes will help the plants growing near. Any organic matter added back to the soil
will eventually help to act as food for the soil (this includes leaves, kitchen scraps, decaying matter, compost,
compost tea, mulch, manure, etc).
3. Climbers: Important for making the most of vertical space, they maximise food production.
4. Supporters: strong items that provide support to climbers and make the most of our space. They can be
living things like trees, bushes, stalks or non living like houses, walls, fences,etc.
5. Miners or diggers: deep roots or tubers that open the soil and bring up nutrients and minerals from deep.
They also break open the soil, allowing for air & water to be easily absorbed. Trees, deep rooted plants (root
vegetables) but also insects and animals are diggers.
6. Groundcovers: Protect soil, provides shade, holds moisture and suppresses weeds. Many plants and also
mulch can form a groundcover.
7. Protectors: Protection for others in the system (repellent, attractors, live fencing, etc). To protect the guild
from damaging insects, strong smelling plants can be useful (eg. Alliums and herbs can repel or confuse
insects). Natural predators can also help control insects problems in a guild (frogs, lizard, birds, ladybugs, etc)
and should be attracted to the garden with various habitats and plants. Thorny plants can protect from larger
animals or people.
A forest garden with its vertical structure comprising of 7 layers of plants (the canopy, the subcanopy, the
shrub, herbaceous, climbing, groundcover and sub soil organisms) is made up of diverse plants grown in
polyculture which have all specific characteristics that function for the forest garden as a whole.
Understanding what particular habits plants have, how plants can be used and how they function inherently is
one of the most important considerations when designing a plant guild or a forest garden.
Sources:
Royal Horticulture Society <http://www.rhs.org.uk/Science/Conservation-biodiversity/Wildlife>
Creating a Forest Garden by M. Crawford
CAFG 1 own resources
Wikipedia
Midwest Permaculture Plant Guilds ebooklet

Day 2 Homework
Learn key facts #3
Read the next few pages from Anni Kelsey and Patrick Whitfield's books
Re-read chapters 12, 14 & 16 of Creating a Forest Garden

CAFG#4 23
From 'How to make a Forest Garden' Patrick Whitefield, 2010 (1996) Permanent Publications

Microclimate
The three microclimate factors most likely to affect the choice of plants and their positioning within the
garden are:

1. Light and Shade

Where a FG is shaded from the outside by trees or buildings, shade tolerance is needed in the trees as
well as the shrubs and vegetables. Most fruits prefer full sun, but some need it more than others. On
the whole soft fruit need less sun than top fruit, so in a very shaded garden, or part of a garden, it is
worth considering a garden of two layers only, shrubs and vegetables. This will give an opportunity to
grow some of the taller shrubs, which may not fit under the trees in a three-layer garden.
Trees
• tender exotics, including peaches, apricots, figs and almonds really need full sun
• pears and mulberries also need as much sun as they can get, but are not quite so demanding
• dessert fruits need more sun than cookers. Cooking apples and cooking plums can be grown in
position where they receive direct sun for less than half the day during the growing season,
though they must have good indirect light in that case.
• Sour cherries, medlars, elders and hazels are the most shade-tolerant of the tree fruits. They
can produce a crop with only indirect light. Note, elders and hazels are normally grown in a
shrub form
Shrubs
• autumn fruiting raspberries need full sun
• most soft fruit needs direct sun for at least half the day
• other can fruit, gooseberries and red & whitecurrants can do with less than half a day's full sun
• loganberries and elders can give a crop with only indirect light
Vegetables
• the most shade tolerant of the forest garden vegetables are: Jerusalem artichoke, ramsons,
mints, pink purslane, golden saxifrage, stinging nettles and ground elder (not recommended)
• the least shade tolerant are: nine star broccoli, sea kale, rock samphire, red valerian, nasturtium
and those listed under the 'sun-loving' sections of herbs, onions and roots in chapter 9
• perennials which leaf early or remain green through the winter tolerate shade cast by deciduous
trees and shrubs better than ones which leaf later, when the trees and shrubs are leafing
• the same goes for annuals which grow during autumn, winter and spring rather than summer
• plants with broad leaves are usually more shade tolerant than those with narrow leaves
(...)

2. Walls
• South, south-east and south-west walls are suitable for all fruit, but they are best reserved for
the kinds that really need the heat and light: figs, apricots, peaches, dessert apples, dessert
plums, gages, grapes and New Zealand kiwis. Mulberries and quinces also like this kind of
microclimate, but they are lower value fruits. These walls are ideal sites for aromatic herbs,
especially those of Mediterranean origin which like hot, dry summers
• west walls are the next warmest, as the afternoon sun is warmer than the morning. They are
suitable for all the above, plus: cooking pears and plums, all apples, sweet and sour cherries
and soft fruit
• an east wall is cooler, especially if it is exposed to easterly winds. It can grow early and mid-
season pears, apples, plums, sweet and sour cherries and soft fruit
• north-east and north-west walls are suitable for cooking apples and early season cooking
 plums. Moisture loving vegetables and herbs should not be planted by a wall with a more southerly
aspect than this. If possible they should not be grown near a wall at all.
• North walls, and very shady walls of other aspects, can grow: sour cherries, early season cooking
apples, red and white currants, gooseberries, summer-fruiting raspberries, blackberries, Japanese
wineberries, some hybrid berries, including loganberries, and the pear variety, Williams Bon Chretien
Of course the aspect of the wall is not the whole story, and other microclimate factors must be taken into
account, including shading and shelter. Remember that all plants grown on or by a wall will need extra
watering and mulching.

3. Frost
The least favourable microclimate for a FG is one which is prone to late frosts. If the only land available is in a
frost pocket, and nothing can be done to make it less of one by altering structures, hedges and so on, the only
option is to choose fruits which are tolerant of late frosts.
These either flower late or have lowers which are resistant to frost. The plants listed here are not all equally
tolerant of frost. Some flower later than others, and some can stand harder frosts than others. Reference
should be made to the descriptions of the plants in the relevant chapters.
There is also variation in frost tolerance between different varieties of the same fruit. Apples in particular have
a wide range of blossoming times, and late ones can be chosen for sites where frost may be a problem.
Frost Tolerant Fruit and Nuts
Asian pear Blackberry Blueberries Cherry plum
Chinese dogwood Elder Hawthorn Hazel
Hybrid berries Mahonia Manchurian kiwi Medlar
Mulberry Quince Roses Siberian pea
NB Mulberries are susceptible to early autumn frost
(…)

Choosing Vegetables
(…)
Perennial vegetables are a neglected group of plants, an area of deep mystery compared to fruit growing.
This goes to make the vegetable layer the most interesting part of a FG to my mind.

Shade Tolerance
There are two kinds of shade: the permanent shade cast by buildings and evergreens, and the seasonal
shade cast by deciduous trees and shrubs. In the descriptions of plants in Chapter 9, 'shade tolerance' means
the plant's tolerance for seasonal shade. Plants which can grow well under a close canopy of deciduous trees
will not necessarily do well in positions which get no winter sun.
The shade-tolerance of many perennial vegetables is indirectly affected by the winter microclimate. Where it
is mild they are able to start growth early, and complete much of their annual growing cycle before the trees
and shrubs leaf up. As well as extending the picking season for these vegetables, this means they can be
grown under a more complex cover of trees and shrubs than would be possible in areas with a cooler winter.
Sea beet, for example, can be found growing well under a closed canopy of deciduous shrubs within a stone's
throw of the sea in south west England. But it would not do well under the same cover in an inland situation or
on more easterly coasts.

Wild Food Plants

Many of the vegetables we can grow in a forest garden are wild ones. Since they grow in this country without
any help from us they are likely to do well with a minimum of care and attention.
They have a greater natural resistance to diseases and pests, including slugs and snails, than cultivated
kinds. They may not be immune, but they can usually live with the level of pests and diseases they are likely
to find in a polyculture. They are also more likely to be able to propagate themselves year after year in the
garden, more so than cultivated perennials and self-seeders.

CAFG#4 25
Wild vegetables are almost always more nutritious than cultivated ones. They tend to be higher in protein,
vitamins and minerals. As every other desirable characteristic has been bred for in cultivated varieties over
the centuries, this one has gone by default. Until very recently it was not possible to measure nutritional
content, so it could not be bred for, and there is no commercial advantage in breeding for it today.
One drawback of wild food is that the edible parts, whether these are leaves, roots, seeds or whatever, tend
to be smaller than those of cultivated plants. This means that they take longer to pick than conventional
vegetables, which have been bred over generations to have large edible parts. But there is very little work
involved in growing them other than the picking, so the total amount of time spent in getting them to the table
is less. However the time it does take is concentrated at picking time, and this may be inconvenient.
Another possible drawback is the taste of wild food, which some people find less attractive than the food they
are used to. Whether this is simply a matter of familiarity or because cultivated plants really do taste better is
hard to say. No doubt it is a bit of both. But there are some wild plants which actually taste better than their
cultivated equivalents. Fat hen and chickweed, for example, have a better taste than spinach and lettuce
respectively. Most people don't know this simply because they haven't tried them.

From 'Edible Perennial Gardening' Anni Kelsey, 2014, Permanent Publications, p148
Name Height/ Edible Harvest Flowers Perennial/ Other Propagation
Width (cm) Part(s) periods / Annual/ functions in
storage Other polyculture
Asparagus To 200 Young shoots Early spring Female Perennial Attractive Sow seed in
plants only foliage spring or grow
(these do not from purchased
crop so 'crowns'
prolifically as
male)
Buckler leaf 25 x Leaves Spring to Insignificant Perennial Mineral Divide established
sorrel indefinite autumn flowers in accumulator / clumps, sow seed
spring groundcover in spring, does
self-seed
Daubenton's 60 x 70 Leaves All year N/a Perennial Take cuttings from
kale round side shoots from
spring to autumn
Nine star 100 x 75 Leaves, Autumn to Late spring Perennial Flowers Sow seed in
perennial flower shoots spring attract spring
broccoli and heads insects
Paul & Becky's 60 x 50 Leaves All year Perennial Sow seed in
Austrian tree round spring
cabbage
Sea beet 60 x 60 Leaves Spring to Flower Perennial Sow seed in
autumn spikes spring
Stinging nettle To 100 Young leaves Spring Late spring Perennial Mineral No need!
accumulator,
insect habitat
Walking stick To 150 x 50 Young Autumn to Late spring Sold as Flowers Sow seed in
kale leaves, spring annual, can attract spring
stems, flower be kept as insects
shoots perennial
Wild cabbage 100 x 50 Leaves, Autumn to Late spring Biennial or Flowers Sow seed in
flower shoots spring perennial attract spring or take
and heads insects cuttings in spring
Wild rocket 60 x 60 Leaves Early spring Summer Sold as Flowers Sow seed in
to autumn annual, can attract spring
be kept as insects,
perennial groundcover
Wood sorrel Ground cover Leaves All year Early spring Perennial Groundcover Divide existing
round plants

CAFG#4 26
Key Facts #3
3 drought resistant plants
Learn their Latin name, rough size and growing preferences. Choose from:
Siberian Pea Tree, Autumn Olive, Sea Buckthorn, Hop, Ice Plant, Hawthorn, Groundcover Raspberry, Pear,
Saltbush, Fig, Fennel

3 Nitrogen fixing plants

Learn their Latin name, rough size and growing preferences. Choose from:
Siberian Pea Tree, Autumn Olive, Sea Buckthorn, White Clover

3 plants that are attractive

Learn their Latin name, rough size and growing preferences. Choose from: any of the plants on the list

3 shade tolerant plants

Learn their Latin name, rough size and growing preferences. Choose from:
Sweet Cicely, Groundcover Raspberry, Siberian Purslane, Mint, Small Leaved Lime, Redcurrant /
Whitecurrant

Herbaceous perennial
Perennials, especially small flowering plants, that grow and bloom over the spring and summer, die back
every autumn and winter, and then return in the spring from their root-stock, are known as herbaceous
perennials. However, depending on the rigors of local climate, a plant that is a perennial in its native habitat,
or in a milder garden, may be treated by a gardener as an annual and planted out every year, from seed,
from cuttings or from divisions. Tomato vines, for example, live several years in their natural tropical/
subtropical habitat but are grown as annuals in temperate regions because they don't survive the winter.

CAFG#4 27
Day 3
09.00 Spot test. Nick SADIM process, (focusing on Assessment and Design)
11.00 Design canopy, shrub and herbaceous perennial layers
13.00 Share with rest of group. Nick and Jo to do assessment based on presentation
14.30 Reinforcement of plant names, walk arounds, spot plant guilds.
Covering ~U1~ 4.1, 4.2 ~U5~ 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 2.1, 2.2
Assessing ~U5~ 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4

09:00 SADIM
Unit 1, Creating a Forest Garden
4.1 Design a forest garden that uses the typical elements and that meets the needs of the garden’s user.
4.2 Select a typical range of plants for a forest garden according to their needs and properties.
Unit 5, Plant Selection
1.1 Describe aesthetic characteristics of plants.
1.2 Describe functional characteristics of plants.
1.3 State the conditions required for specific plants to thrive.
1.4 Describe the appropriateness of different categories of plants for specific purposes.
2.1 Specify plants to meet site characteristics.
2.2 Specify plants to meet a required function or aesthetic purpose

Survey – what we did yesterday

- this is about observation
- Site survey
- Sectors and elevation
- client interview, locals

Assessment or Analysis – doing this today

Make sense of information
- What do we want to achieve?
- Input/output analysis
- Set goals (holistic goal setting exercise)
- Limiting factors (physical, cultural...)
- Needs (skills, money, time...)
- Set the criteria by:
+ client interview
+ brainstorm
+ mind maps
- SWOT analysis – identify the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities & Threats.

Design – our focus today!

Putting it all together
How we're going to do it
Minimize limiting factors
Make a plan for use of space and time required – use the instructions on page 12 to help you...
- make a 'base map'
- indicate the sectors and slopes
- think about relative location
- include the existing trees etc you identified yesterday
- consider the 12 permaculture principles and 3 permaculture ethics – see below
- start zoning the land (0 to 5)
- add canopy layer plants from your plant list

CAFG#4 28
Implementation
Execute
Who, When, How
Funding

Maintenance
Living Ecosystem in constant change
Never finished – continue to evaluate and tweak
Learn
During and/or after maintenance we go back to the observations.

Permaculture design principles

1. Observe and Interact e.g. What were your observations yesterday about the way the site is used or
who the main users will be? Who will be keeping an eye on this forest garden?
2. Catch and store energy e.g. What energy is coming through the site? How can you best position
your plants and paths to make the most of the these different energies?
3. Obtain a yield e.g. What kind of yields might this forest garden have?
4. Apply self-regulation and feedback e.g. How will you know if this forest garden is successful in 3
months / a year? What are the success indicators?
5. Use and value renewable resources and services e.g. How can external inputs to the forest garden
be reduced?
6. Produce no waste e.g. How will the forest garden retain energy in its system? What external inputs
might there be?
7. Design from patterns to detail e.g. Are there features of other successful projects you could copy in
this forest garden design?
8. Integrate rather than segregate e.g. Are there ways the design could be more welcoming and
inclusive?
9. Use small and slow solutions e.g. What is the most elegant way to ensure this design is really low
maintenance?
10. Use and value diversity e.g. Are any outputs overly dependent on one element in the system? How
can you spread risk in your design?
11. Use the edges and the marginal e.g. How can you increase edges and the yields in this forest
garden design?
12. Creatively use and respond to change e.g. One day this site will be built on. How can we anticipate
that in our design?

Permaculture ethics
• Earthcare Respect and preserve the biodiversity of earth. We're now at a stage where we need to
add yields rather than merely creating a zero footprint
• Peoplecare Care for ourselves and other people as we meet our needs in sustainable ways
• Fair share Promote equality, justice and abundance

CAFG#4 29
Day 3 Homework
Learn key facts #4
Read CAFG chapter 8, especially pages 83 and 86
Read the propagation notes for tomorrow's lesson and watch YouTube videos about layering, chipbud
grafting and softwood cuttings.
Remember that tomorrow's lesson is at the Castle Climbing Centre!

Key Facts #4
Sexual reproduction
A a process that creates a new organism by combining the genetic material of two organisms. It is the
primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of plants.

Vegetative reproduction
Vegetative reproduction (vegetative propagation, vegetative multiplication, vegetative cloning) is a form of
asexual reproduction in plants. It is a process by which new organisms arise without production of seeds or
spores. It can occur naturally or be induced by horticulturists.

Propagation
Plant propagation is the process of creating new plants from a variety of sources: seeds, cuttings, bulbs and
other plant parts. It can be sexual or vegetative.

Rootstock
A plant with an established, healthy root system, onto which a cutting or a bud from another plant is grafted.
The rootstock is selected for its interaction with the soil, providing the roots and the stem to support the new
plant, obtaining the necessary soil water and minerals, and resisting the relevant pests and diseases.

CAFG#4 30
Day 4 – at Castle Climbing Centre
09.00 Spot test. Health and safety. Their risk assessment.
10.00 Define propagation (sexual and vegetative), cover all methods very briefly, focus on LAYERING and
GRAFTING along with examples of plants that can be propagated this way.
11.00 break
11.30 Practice layering and grafting. Student demo of layering and chip bud grafting.
12.30 Practical activity – doing SOFTWOOD cuttings of range of plants.
13.30 lunch
14.30 Reinforcement of plant names, walk arounds, spot plant guilds.
Covering ~U2~ 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 ~U3~ 3.3, 4.1, 4.2 ~U4~ 1.1, 1.2, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 a), 4.3 b)
Assessing ~U2~ 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 ~U3~ 4.1, 4.2 ~U4~ 4.3a), 4.3b)

09:00 Risk Assessment

Unit 2, Health and Safety in a Practical Environment
2.1. Assess the potential risks of a given situation.
2.2 Describe the purpose and use of safety equipment and/or clothing to minimise risk in particular tasks.
2.3 Observe relevant health and safety procedures, for example, by selecting and using appropriate
personal protective equipment or using correct manual handling techniques.
Unit 3, Identification and Naming of Plants
4.1 Work in a way which maintains health and safety.
4.2 Work in line with current legislation and codes of practice.

See pages 9 and 10 of this book to help you with your risk assessment
10:00 Propagation
Unit 4, Developing Plant Propagation Skills
1.1 Describe the term ‘propagation’.
1.2 Describe methods of propagation.
4.1 Describe methods of layering and grafting.
4.2 List plants that may be propagated by each of these techniques.
4.3 Demonstrate the technique of:
a) layering
b) grafting

Vegetative propagation is cloning. Different methods are suitable for different plants.

Grafting
Chip bud
Seeds SEXUAL Saddle / Whip & tongue
Cleft

Layering
Air
Simple
PROPAGATION VEGETATIVE Tip
Serpentine
Trench
Stool

Division Cuttings
Hardwood
Softwood
Root
Leaf

CAFG#4 31
Layering
At ELL, you can simple layer all the Rubus species except for Raspberries (Japanese Wineberry, Tayberry,
Thornless Loganberry & Thornless Blackberry) Oregano & Sage. For serpentine layering: Grape and Hop.
You can tip layer Goji, Lycium barbarum, most of the Rubus spp, Atriplex halimus and even Mulberry, Morus
nigra. The following five sections are taken from www.yourgardeninginfo.com.
Layering is a simple propagation technique which doesn't need a propagating frame or greenhouse.
Underlying principle is based on the fact that a plant that has been scraped or fractured is likely to produce
roots from the wound if this portion of the plant is in contact with the soil or other rooting medium. Once roots
have grown from a stem, you have the makings of a new plant, which can be detached and moved.
Layering is really suitable only for woody-stemmed plants - shrubs and trees, including some houseplants.
This method often succeeds where cuttings fail. Many of the pendulous or lax-stemmed shrubs and trees,
such as Willow, Salix x chrysocoma, layer themselves naturally when their stems touch the ground. Rubus
spp also tip layer naturally. The constant rubbing of the branch against the ground causes an injury to the
bark, and roots develop from the callous formed over the wound to anchor the branch.

CAFG#4 32
Simple Layering
The best branches for layering are non-flowering ones that have grown in the current year — that is, the
freshest, smoothest shoots. Deciduous plants are best layered in autumn or winter; evergreens in autumn or
spring.
First, fork over the surface of the soil around the plant. Choose any flexible branch and bend it down until it
reaches the ground 23-30cm from the tip, held at an upright angle. Strip the leaves off the branch where it
touches the soil. Wound the underside of the branch to restrict the flow of sap by cutting a shallow tongue
with a knife, cutting towards the growing tip. Alternatively, twist the branch to injure the tissue. Dig a hole 7.5-
10cm deep beneath the wound. Rooting hormone may encourage quicker rooting, but is not essential. Push
the wounded part of the branch into the hole, forming a right-angle at the wound. Peg the branch to the
ground with a bent piece of galvanized wire, 15-20cm long, and stake the upright tip. Fill the hole with
compost. Repeat with other branches. Water the area thoroughly and ensure that it never dries out.
Check for the new roots by carefully scraping away the soil. Most ornamental shrubs take six to twelve
months to root sufficiently. If roots are well established, sever the new plant from the parent, lift with a good
ball of soil and plant elsewhere in the garden. If the roots are not well grown, but the layer is healthy, replace
the soil and leave it for a few more months before re-examining the root formation.

Tip Layering
Certain plants can be propagated simply by burying the tips of their shoots in the soil — brambles such as
blackberries and loganberries are particularly successful. Towards the end of mid summer, bend down a new
season’s shoot and, where it touches the ground, dig a 15cm hole with a hand trowel. Plant the entire tip of
the shoot in the hole and firm it in. Peg down the shoot if it is particularly springy.
By mid autumn the tips will have rooted. Sever each new plant from its parent by cutting just above a bud. Do
not move the plant yet. In late autumn transfer each new cane to its permanent bed. It will bear fruit in either
its second or third year.

Serpentine Layering
A handy plant propagation technique of propagating woody plants with long pliable stems — especially
climbers — is called serpentine layering. It should be done at the same time as ordinary layering. Use long,
trailing shoots that have grown during the current year.
Bend a shoot to the ground carefully and, where it reaches the soil, dig a 5cm deep hole beneath it. Wound
the shoot underneath as for ordinary layering. Peg the wounded part of the shoot into the hole with a piece of
bent wire or a small forked twig. Fill in the hole with some compost if you have it, but the soil you dug out of
the hole will suffice. Cover with garden soil and firm in with your fingers. Leave the next two pairs of leaves
above ground and repeat the operation. Continue this way along the entire length of the shoot.
One year later, the serpentine layer should have rooted. Scrape the soil away from each buried section of the
layer and, if it is well rooted, sever it from the preceding section with secateurs. (If it is not well rooted, bury
the whole layer again and check it a few months later.) Each rooted section is now ready to be severed and
planted out in the normal way.
Transplanting is made easier if, instead of pegging the shoots into holes in the ground, they are pegged into
pots of compost sunk into the ground. When the layer has rooted it can then be severed and moved without
disturbing the new roots.

Growing from Runners

A runner is a type of aerial or underground stem which, when it comes into contact with moist soil, roots along
the stem and forms new plants — a form of natural layering. The runners formed by healthy strawberry plants,
and other ornamental members of the genus Fragaria, provide an easy means of propagation. In early
summer, anchor the plantlets with pegs if the plants are grown in matted rows. Let them root into the soil,
removing the remainder of the runners beyond the first plant.
Alternatively, select the strongest plantlets and peg them down into pots, sunk to their rim in the soil, and
potting compost. Water the pots frequently to aid root formation and remove all other runners as they form.
The plantlets should be separated from the parent in mid to late summer and planted out from their pots. If,
for some reason, planting is delayed until the autumn, the young strawberry plants should not be allowed to
fruit the first season. Pinch out the flowers as they appear.

CAFG#4 33
Air Layering
When branches are too stiff or too high to be layered at soil level, they may be ‘layered’ in the air. This can be
done between late spring and mid summer. Air layering is particularly recommended for Ficus species. This
method of propagation is sometimes known as Chinese layering.
Select a stretch of the branch of the current year’s growth and strip off the leaves in the middle. Then cut off a
shallow slice of wood and put rooting powder on the cut. Wrap a sheet of polythene around the area of the cut
and tie the bottom of it with raffia or string. Fill the open-topped tube with a mixture of equal parts moist peat,
coarse sand and sphagnum moss. Fasten the top with more string or raffia.
The conditions needed for rooting of the air layer are constant moisture, exclusion of sunlight and restriction
of the stem. Therefore, it is necessary to use black polythene and well-moistened rooting mixture. Once the
polythene is sealed, no further watering will be needed.
In three to six months, when rooted — check by unfastening the top of the polythene — remove the polythene
and cut off below the roots. Pot up the new plant into a 11-15cm pot containing a potting compost. Place the
potted plant in a closed frame for two weeks and keep it moist, then harden it off. This entails opening the
frame during the day, gradually admitting more air until the frame is left open entirely. Plant out the following
spring.

Mound (stool) layering

Taken from http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/hil/hil-8701.html . This is useful with heavy-stemmed, closely branched
shrubs and rootstocks of tree fruits. Cut the plant back to 5-10cm above the soil surface in the dormant
season. Dormant buds will produce new shoots in the spring. Mound soil over the new shoots as they grow.
Roots will develop at the bases of the young shoots. Remove the layers in the dormant season. Mound
layering works well on apple rootstocks, quince, hazel and hawthorn. We use this method to propagate
rootstocks.

CAFG#4 34
Grafting

Basic (very!) botany & jargon

Cambium Contains the plant’s vascular system, carries water and
minerals from the roots to the leaves, carries food back from the leaves after photosynthesis.
Node Has a concentration of actively dividing cells.
Scion Cutting of the plant that we want to reproduce.
Rootstock Rooted plant that we’ll graft the scion onto.
Juvenility Phase in which the plant cannot yet flower or fruit, but can form roots easily.

History
Vegetative plant propagation techniques are ancient. Grafting was in use by the Chinese before 2000 BC and
was widely used in ancient Greece and Rome. The development of grafting was key to the domestication of
fruit trees such as apples and cherries.

Why?
When simpler propagation methods are inappropriate or not possible. e.g. when:
• cuttings don’t work
• ‘top working’ existing trees
• you want particular rootstock characteristics
• you want more than 1 type of plant on the same rootstock

Which plants?
• Fruit cultivars are usually grafted to the same species, or at least the same genus.
• Compatibility is not straightforward. e.g. most pears are grown on quince rootstock, but quince cannot
be grafted onto pear…
• Hawthorn is a versatile rootstock.
• Rootstocks are usually 1-2 yrs old and can be grown or bought. You can also graft onto existing trees.

Scion / Budstick Rootstock

Apple e.g. MM106 Quince Hawthorn
Apple ♥
Quince ♥
Pear ♥ but many incompatible
Loquat ♥
Medlar ♥ ♥ ♥ (best)
True Service Tree ♥ ♥
Exotic Hawthorn ♥

CAFG#4 35
Which type of graft for June / July?
Chip bud grafting is where you take the bud of the desired plant and graft it onto the stem of the rootstock
plant. It's is one of the easier forms of grafting. A bud, rather than a shoot, is attached to a rootstock to make a
new plant. With practice, this technique can be mastered by anyone and, as just one bud is needed to make a
tree, it is very efficient.
Chip budding is often used for fruit and
ornamental, deciduous trees. Trees in the rose
family such as apple, cherries, hawthorn, pear,
plums and Sorbus are especially amenable to
chip budding.
For chip budding, a bud on a sliver of wood,
complete with bark is inserted into a matching
notch on the rootstock.
Chip budding is carried out between mid-
summer and early autumn.
Before you start, you need to choose a
rootstock (the plant you will be propagating
onto). Rootstocks can often be bought from
rootstock growers and nurseries that specialise
in the type of plant in question. Alternatively,
they can be raised from seed or cuttings.
Choose a rootstock with desirable characteristics; such as a dwarfing habit that makes fruit trees more
compact, or a rootstock that resists root diseases, or one that is easier to propagate than the scion (top part of
the budded tree).
From mid-summer choose the buds you wish to chip bud, by selecting non-flowering shoots that are a similar
diameter to the rootstock, from well-ripened, current season’s growth. Remove these 'budsticks' from the
parent plant so that they can be budded onto the rootstock.

 To prepare the rootstock, cut off all shoots and leaves from the bottom 30cm of stem.
 To prepare the ‘budstick’, remove the soft, fleshy, tip growth and remove all leaves with knife or
secateurs, leaving 3-4 mm stubs of leaf stalk.
 Using a clean, very sharp knife make a cut 2cm below a bud, inserting the blade about 5mm deep at
an angle of 30 degrees.
 Make a second cut about 4cm above the first. Cut down through the wood to meet the first cut, taking
care not to damage the bud.
 Then immediately make two cuts in the rootstock about 15cm from the ground to exactly correspond
with those on the bud chip and remove the resulting sliver of wood.
 Place the bud chip into the ‘lip’ of the cut rootstock so that the cambium layers match as exactly as
possible. Bind the join tightly with grafting tape, leaving the bud and leaf stalk exposed. You can also
use wax or something else that will keep the join protected and immobile.
 The tape can be removed once the bud starts to swell. Insert a cane and tie in the new shoot as it
develops.
 The following spring, cut back the stock just above the bud. Plant out the following winter after the bud
has grown into a new tree.
Failure of buds to take usually results from not cutting accurately enough to get the cambium layers to match.
Practise on spare shoots until a really good match can be reliably cut. Some less experienced gardeners like
to attach several buds as at least one should take.

CAFG#4 36
Which type of grafts for March?
These grafts are done just before rootstock growth starts in the
spring.
Saddle grafting It is appropriate when the scion and rootstock
are of a similar diameter.
Matching cuts are made at the ends of the rootstock and scion.
You can use a knife or a special grafting tool to do this.
Check the cambium layer is lined up before sealing the union with
grafting tape.

Cleft grafting is appropriate where the rootstock has a larger

diameter than the scion. There is a comprehensive explanation on
pages 87- 88 of the CAFG textbook

Whip and Tongue grafting is also appropriate when the scion and rootstock are of similar
diameter. It's like saddle grafting, but just uses a different cut.
The scion is a cutting about 15cm long with a healthy-looking bud at the end.
Matching sloping cuts are made at the ends of the rootstock and scion. Check they fit together
well.
A ‘tongue’ is cut about ⅓ down from the pointed end of each. This will lock the 2 parts firmly
together, and maximise the cambial area in contact.
Grafting tape helps support the join and prevents water loss.
A successfully grafted plant will be healed and growing by summer.

Watch out:
• Knives are dangerous!
• Scion wood frozen at harvest is said to be less successful.
• Keep the scion the right way up - look at the buds.
• Aligning the cambium is key to success.
• A sharp thin blade is essential.
• Clean your tools and don’t touch the cut surfaces of the plants.
• Label everything.

Tools
• ‘Parafilm’ grafting tape, available from www.agroforestry.co.uk
• Sharp knife: Most people seem to favour craft knives or Opinel.
• The easiest way to sterilise your blade is with a flame. Let it cool before cutting the plant.

What now?
London is FULL of apple trees. There is so much ripe fruit around in early autumn that most of it goes
unpicked. However from mid-October the harvest tails off. If you want to plant new trees, please don’t add to
the glut! Plant a different kind of fruit or choose late fruiting varieties of apple. Perhaps graft late fruiting
varieties onto existing trees. That way we could have plentiful apples in London all the way to Christmas and
beyond.
• Cuttings are so easy - try loads of them. Why not go home and try some grafting too?
• Got an apple tree in your garden or a hedge? - Graft some tastier fruit onto it.
• Got a favourite fruit tree? - Get some rootstock and clone it.
• Now: Buy your grafting tape. It doesn’t go off and you want to be ready.
• During the year: When you taste particularly nice fruit, make a note of the tree and ask the owner if
you can come back and take scions.
• December/January: Collect your scions in the winter and store them wrapped, in a cool place like a
fridge or garage. Order your rootstocks and/or choose the trees you’re going to graft onto.

CAFG#4 37
12:30 Softwood Cuttings
Adapted from www.rhs.org.uk/advice
Softwood cuttings are mostly used for propagating hardy
and tender perennials. At ELL we propagate Fuchsia, Ice
Plant, Fig, Jostaberry and Saltbush in this way. Softwood
cuttings have the highest rooting potential of any stem
cutting and often provide the best chance of rooting
species that are difficult to propagate.

When to take softwood cuttings

Most softwood cuttings are taken in spring and early
summer, from the tender new growth of the season. If
potted by mid-summer they will develop sufficient roots to
survive the winter, otherwise pot up in the following spring.

How to take softwood cuttings

Cuttings from young plants root more easily; heavily pruning older plants can stimulate new growth that will
root quicker than the old growth.
Gathering material
• Collect material early in the day when it is full of water
• Collect non-flowering shoots, as they will root more readily
• Remove up to 10cm of shoot, cutting off the material neatly above a bud on the parent plant
• Place the cuttings material in a clean plastic bag with a label. Store the bag of material in the fridge if
you cannot prepare the cuttings immediately
Preparing cuttings
Most cuttings are nodal, i.e. cut at the bottom just below the leaf joint or node, where there is a concentration
of natural hormones to stimulate root production.
• Using a sharp knife trim below a node to make a cutting about 5-10cm long
• Remove the lower leaves, pinch out the very soft tip – use rooting hormone if you wish
• Make a hole for the cutting in a a container of cuttings
compost using a clean blunt stick and insert the base of
the cutting
• Label the pot and water it from above to settle the
compost
• Place the pot in a closed propagator case with bottom
heat of 18-24C (64-75F). Covering with a plastic bag
and placing somewhere warm will suffice if no other
equipment is available, but remove the bag to ventilate
the cutting at least twice a week for 10 minutes.
Commercial nurseries use mist units to provide constant
humidity
• Cuttings should be placed in good light but not direct,
scorching sunlight. Covering with fleece will help diffuse bright sunlight
• Ensure the compost is moist until the cuttings are well rooted which takes 6-10 weeks
• Once rooted, harden off the cuttings for about two weeks and pot them on individually. Covering with
fleece or gradually increasing the ventilation of plastic bags or propagators will allow the soft leaves
to develop a robust water-proof cuticle so that they can survive in lower humidity environments
• Remove any dead, rotting, dying or diseased material at least weekly
Some plants such as Elder (Sambucus), Jasmine (Jasminus) and Honeysuckle (Lonicera) can be removed
from the parent plant with a heel, pulling off the stem with a ‘tail’ of bark from the previous season’s growth.
You can also have 'basal' cuttings (from the young shoots at the base of a plant in spring) and 'greenwood' or
'semi-ripe' cuttings taken later in the year when the wood is a bit more mature.

CAFG#4 38
14:30 Site walk around
Unit 3, Identification and Naming of Plants
3.3 Identify and botanically name a total of 35 plants from the following categories:
(a) annuals and short lived perennials
(b) houseplants
(c) herbaceous perennials
(d) trees and shrubs
(e) grasses
(f) food crops
(g) weeds.

We will walk around the site looking at the plants from the plant list as well as others....

Day 4 Homework
Revise for the test tomorrow.
You will be being tested on:

~U1~ 1.2, 1.3 i) & ii), 2.1, 2.2, 2.3

~U2~ 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4
~U3~ 3.3 (15 plants)
~U4~ 1.1, 1.2, 4.1, 4.2

Look at Appendix 1 below to work out what these mean!

During the 13 week break

• There are 5 tutorials – see page 2 for more details
• Do own survey and forest garden design – canopy, shrub and climbing layers at least.
• Do a commentary on your plant choice.

Assessing ~U1~ 4.1 & 4.2 ~U5~ 2.1 & 2.2

UNIT 1, Creating a Forest Garden
4.1 Design a forest garden that uses the typical elements and that meets the needs of the garden’s user.
4.2 Select a typical range of plants for a forest garden according to their needs and properties.
UNIT 5, Plant Selection
2.1 Specify plants to meet site characteristics.
2.2 Specify plants to meet a required function or aesthetic purpose.

CAFG#4 39
Appendix 1: Learning Outcomes
Learning Learning oucome strands Covered Assessed
Outcomes when when
UNIT 1 Creating A Forest Garden (SA2/2/YH/002), 30 guided learning hours, 6 credits
1. Understand the 1.1 Describe the features of nutrient and energy cycles 1.1 day 9 1.1 day 9
characteristics of a observed in nature. 1.2 day 1 1.2 day 5
Forest Garden 1.2 Compare the elements of a forest garden with those 1.3 1.3
of a conventional garden or food production site. - day 1 - day 5
1.3 Describe the features of forest gardens related to: - day 1 - day 5
- natural succession and layering - day 9 - day 9
- the evolution of perennial and self-regulating systems 1.4 day 1 1.4 day 1
- the use of beneficial connections.
1.4 Describe how to use edges, space and light to
stimulate productive growth.
2. Understand how 2.1 Describe the value of building and maintaining Day 3 Day 5
forest gardens can biodiversity.
contribute to 2.2 Describe how the elements of a forest garden
biodiversity. interact to support each other, and maintain biodiversity.
2.3 Outline the lifecycle of a typical “guild” that can be
found or designed into the forest garden.
3. Understand how 3.1 Describe the observed effects and predicted Day 1 3.1 pre course
world food security is changes to world weather patterns (e.g. over forty essay
subject to the effects years). 3.2 pre course
of a range of 3.2 Assess the impact of climate change on plants and essay
external factors, crops. 3.3 Day 1
including nature and 3.3 Give examples of possible responses to climate 4.4 pre course
humans. change by foodcrop growers. essay
3.4 Assess the potential impact of peak oil on food
security.
4. Be able to design 4.1 Design a forest garden that uses the typical elements 4.1 Day 3 4.1 Days 6, 7, 8 &
a forest garden. and that meets the needs of the garden’s user. 4.2 Day 3 9
4.2 Select a typical range of plants for a forest garden 4.3 Day 7 4.2 Days 6, 7, 8 &
according to their needs and properties. 9
4.3 Develop a viable care and propagation programme 4.3 Day 10
for the forest garden.

Award in Horticulture – nationally recognised

UNIT 2 Health and Safety in a Practical Environment (F/600/3249) 8 guided learning hours, 1 credit
1. Be aware of 1.1 Describe the purpose of relevant, current health and Day 2 Day 5
relevant Health and safety requirements, for example Health and Safety at
Safety requirements, Work Act, or the Control of Substances Hazardous to
procedures and Health Regulations.
equipment. 1.2 Describe the correct procedures for reporting
accidents and potential hazards.
1.3 Describe the correct response to two emergency
situations.
1.4 Describe the location of emergency equipment, for
example fire/emergency alarm and first aid box.
2. Recognise and 2.1. Assess the potential risks of a given situation. Day 4 Day 4
manage risk by 2.2 Describe the purpose and use of safety equipment
following safe and/or clothing to minimise risk in particular tasks.
working practices. 2.3 Observe relevant health and safety procedures, for
example, by selecting and using appropriate personal
protective equipment or using correct manual handling
techniques.

CAFG#4 40
Learning LO strands Covered Assessed
Outcomes when when
UNIT 3 Identification and Naming of Plants (F/504/0744), 24 guided learning hours, 3 credits
1. Understand the 1.1 Define the terms, genus, species, cultivar, variety Day 8 Day 10
terminology used in and hybrid, using the bi-nomial system.
naming plants. 1.2 Describe the purpose and importance of botanical
names.
1.3 Describe how descriptive botanical names aid
identification. e.g. nana and pendula
1.4 Define terms relating to the characteristics of plants.
(i) monocotyledons
(ii) dicotyledons
(iii) evergreen
(iv) deciduous
(v) hardy
(vi) tender
1.5 Define terms relating to plant lifecycles.
(i) annuals,
(ii) biennials,
(iii) herbaceous perennials,
(iv) woody perennial
2. Understand how 2.1 Describe how a plant’s characteristics aid Day 8 Day 10
the parts of plants identification.
can aid identification. 2.2 Describe how plant anatomy and morphology aid
identification.
(i) flowers
(ii) seeds and fruit
(iii) stems
(iv) leaves
(v) roots
(vi) habit
3. Be able to identify 3.1 Use a range of reference materials to aid 3.1 Day 2 3.1 Day 10
and name plants identification of plants. 3.2 Day 2 3.2 Day 10
using botanical 3.2 Use a plant’s characteristics to aid identification. 3.3 Days -1, 3.3 Day 5 (15
names. (i) habit 2, 3, 4, 8 plants) & Day 10
(ii) leaves 3.4 Day 8 (20 plants)
(iii) stems 3.4 Day 10
(iv) flowers
(v) buds
3.3 Identify and botanically name a total of 35 plants
from the following categories:
(a) annuals and short lived perennials
(b) houseplants
(c) herbaceous perennials
(d) trees and shrubs
(e) grasses
(f) food crops
(g) weeds.
3.4 Use the correct format when writing botanical names.
4. Be able to work 4.1 Work in a way which maintains health and safety. Day 4 Day 4
safely and minimise 4.2 Work in line with current legislation and codes of
environmental practice
damage.

CAFG#4 41
Learning LO strands Covered Assessed
Outcomes when when
UNIT 4 Developing Plant Propagation Skills (T/500/5408) 24 guided learning hours, 3 credits
1. Understand the 1.1 Describe the term ‘propagation’. Day 4 Day 5
term ‘propagation’. 1.2 Describe methods of propagation.
2. Understand the 2.1 Explain the advantages of using seed in plant Day 6 2.1 Day 10
use of seed in plant propagation. 2.2 Day 10
propagation. 2.2 Explain the disadvantages of using seed in plant 2.3 Day 10
propagation. 2.4 Day 10
2.3 List the types of seed available 2.5 Day 6
2.4.State the advantages and disadvantages of using 2.6 Day 6
different sources of seed 2.7 Day 6
2.5 Illustrate how to harvest a batch of seed
2.6 Record its provenance.
2.7 Sow seed in media and containers
3. Know how to 3.1 List plants suitable for propagation by cuttings Day 6 Day 10
propagate plants by 3.2 List plants suitable for division
cuttings and division 3.3 Describe the main treatments that may be used to
maximise chances of successful rooting.
3.4 Explain the factors that need to be taken into account
when selecting appropriate media for successful
propagation by cuttings.
4. Know how 4.1 Describe methods of layering and grafting. Day 4 4.1 Day 5
layering and grafting 4.2 List plants that may be propagated by each of these 4.2 Day 5
may propagate techniques. 4.3 Day 4
plants 4.3 Demonstrate the technique of:
a) layering
b) grafting
UNIT 5 Plant Selection (T/504/0739), 24 guided learning hours, 3 credits
1. Know the 1.1 Describe aesthetic characteristics of plants. Day 3 Day 3
characteristics and 1.2 Describe functional characteristics of plants.
uses of plants. 1.3 State the conditions required for specific plants to
thrive.
1.4 Describe the appropriateness of different categories
of plants for specific purposes.
2. Be able to select 2.1 Specify plants to meet site characteristics. Day 3 Day 6, 7, 8 & 9
plants for specific 2.2 Specify plants to meet a required function or
uses and locations. aesthetic purpose.
3. Understand the 3.1 Describe establishment needs of specific plants. Day 7 Day 7
establishment and 3.2 Describe routine maintenance needs of specific
maintenance needs plants.
of plants.
4. Know how to 4.1 Describe how problems associated with the use of Day 7 Day 10
minimise problems specific plant groups can be minimised.
associated with the
use of specific plant
groups.

CAFG#4 42
Appendix 2: Plant List – Identification Tips
The common plant names from the plant list you're working from have been underlined here to help you pick
them out – but there is no convention for writing common names underlined or capitalised. However, there are
conventions for writing the Latin names which we'll cover later in the course.

Habit
Mulberry trees have a lop-sided growing habit. Lime tends to send up suckers from the tree base. Hops and
Grape have a climbing habit – but of the two only hops have 'velcro' covered stems. Jostaberry has a very
vigorous growing habit, so if you compared a 2 year old Jostaberry to a 2 year old Blackcurrant it would be
almost twice the size! All parts of a Blackcurrant have a distinctive smell, whereas Jostabery, Redcurrant and
Whitecurrant has none. Pot Marigold, Nasturtium and Siberian Purslane tends to self seed and grow in
patches. Pot Marigold has a distinctive smell and all parts of the Nasturtium have a strong peppery flavour.
Nasturtium has a sprawling horizontal growing habit which appears towards the end of the year, whereas the
Siberian Purslane grows glossy leaves from February, flowering in the spring. Black Bamboo produces shoots
in the spring and forms tall dense thickets. Sorrel also appears in the spring, but in low growing, multiple-
stemmed clumps. Clover usually spread horizontally and have a low growing habit.

Leaves
Horseradish has rounded bumps on the margin whereas dock has more irregular serrations. Horseradish
leaves also have a fiery flavour and distinctive smell. Quince has almost smooth leaf margins whereas Apple
has quite pronounced triangular serrations. Pear leaves are somewhere in between. Sweet Cherry leaves
have a small red bump near the base of each leaf. Oak has distinctive, large-lobed leaves. Saltbush and Sea
Buckthorn have silvery-grey leaves – drought tolerant plants. The leaves of Saltbush taste of salt and are
diamond shaped whereas the Sea Buckthorn leaves are long and narrow. Autumn Olive and Medlar leaves
are silvery/white underside but the Medlar ones feel soft and downy. Day Lilies have parallel veins in their
leaves. Ice Plant has succulent, brittle leaves. Clover leaves have three leaflets. Both Stinging Nettles and
Mint have leaves growing in pairs that rotate by 90 degrees, going along the stem. They are also both quite
invasive, grow stems horizontally through the soil. However, Nettles have a much more upright and taller
growing habit than Mint.

Stems
Siberian Pea Tree has striped stems whereas Hawthorn has smoother stems with thorns – usually at the
node. Plants in the Lamiaceae (Mint) family have square stems stems and often a strong smell. Stinging
Nettle stems have five or more sides which are covered in painful stings. Three Cornered Leek has a three-
cornered flower stem and leaves – as well as a strong oniony smell. Raspberry has vertical suckering stems
which are usually thorny whereas Nepalese Raspberry has soft, red hairs and a horizontal, low growing habit.

Flowers
Brassicaceae (Cabbage) family plants have four flower petals and a spiralling seed case habit – Perennial
Broccoli and Perennial Rocket. Plants in the Apiaceae (Carrot) family have clusters of flowers shaped like a
small umbrella – Mint and Sweet Cicely. Rosaceae (Rose) family plants have five flower petals – Hawthorn,
Quince, Strawberry, Apple, Crab Apple, Medlar, Sweet Cherry, Plum, Pear, Raspberry, Nepalese Raspberry
and True Service Tree. True Service Tree flowers have 5 or 6 styles whereas those of Rowan (or Mountain
Ash) have 3 or 4 styles. Plum blossoms have a nice smell, the petals tend not to be split whereas Sweet
Cherry blossom has a slight split at the end of each petal. The bark also has horizontal rings on it. The
flowers of Evening Primrose appear on a tall spike and are bright yellow. Clover has distinctive pom pom
shaped white or pink flowers, roughly 3m in diameter.

Buds
Fig has very distinctive, pronounced leaf buds. Sweet Chestnut has chestnut brown buds that alternate along
the stem whereas horse chestnut has buds in pairs that are often sticky. The fruit of Crab Apple are much
smaller than Apple. Plum buds are round and Sweet Cherry buds are oval. True Service Tree buds are
hairless and green whereas those of Rowan (or Mountain Ash) trees are hairy and brown. Small Leaved Lime
leaf buds are bright red.

CAFG#4 43
Appendix 3: Supplementary Plant Images

Three Cornered Leek

Allium triquetrum Horseradish
Armoracia rusticana

Perennial Rocket
Diplotaxis tenuifolia

Pot Marigold
Calendula officinalis

Fig
Ficus carica Fuchsia

CAFG#4 44
 Crab Apple
Malus sylvestris

Day Lily
Hemerocallis fulva

Mulberry
Morus nigra
Evening Primrose
Oenothera biennis

Black Bamboo
Phyllostachys nigra

Sweet Cherry
Prunus avium

CAFG#4 45
 Common Oak
Quercus robur

Plum
Prunus domestica

Raspberry
Rubus idaeus

Clover
Trifolium repens

Grape Vine
Vitis vinifera

CAFG#4 46
Appendix 4: plant list
CAFG shade shade drought
Common Name Latin Name pg prefnc tolrnc tolrnt? N fixer?
Three Cornered Leek Allium triquetrum 208 H 0.00 0.50
Horseradish Armoracia rusticana 237 H 0.00 0.50
Saltbush Atriplex halimus 177 S 0.00 0.00 /
Perennial Broccoli Brassica oleracea 214 H 0.00 0.50
Calendula (Marigold) Calendula officinalis 275 A 0.00 0.75
Siberian Pea Tree Caragana arborescens 128 S 0.00 0.00 / /
Siberian Purslane Claytonia sibirica 219 G 0.50 1.00
Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna 119 C 0.00 0.75 /
Quince Cydonia oblonga 107 C 0.00 0.50
Perennial Rocket Diplotaxis tenuifolia no H
Autumn Olive Elaeagnus umbellata 122 S 0.00 0.50 / /
Fig Ficus carica 108 C 0.00 0.00 /
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare 222 H 0.00 0.50 /
Strawberry Fragaria spp 203 G 0.00 0.75
Fuchsia Fuchsia spp. 169 S 0.00 0.50
Day Lily Hemerocallis fulva 239 H 0.00 0.50 /
Sea Buckthorn Hippophae rhamnoides 124 C 0.00 0.50 / /
Hop Humulus lupulus 283 Cl 0.00 0.75 /
Ice Plant Hylotelephium spectabile 234 H 0.00 0.50 /
Apple Malus domestica 108 C 0.00 0.50
Crab Apple Malus sylvestris 108 C 0.00 0.50
Mallow Malva sylvestris 224 H 0.00 0.75
Mint Mentha spp 226 H 0.00 1.00
Medlar Mespilus germanica 111 C 0.00 0.75
Mulberry Morus nigra 124 C 0.00 0.50
Sweet Cicely Myrrhis odorata 228 H 0.25 0.75
Evening Primrose Oenothera biennis no H
Black Bamboo Phyllostachys nigra 182 S 0.00 0.75
Sweet Cherry Prunus avium 112 C 0.00 0.50
Plum Prunus domestica 113 C 0.00 0.50
Pear Pyrus communis 115 C 0.00 0.50 /
Common Oak Quercus robur 135 C 0.00 0.75
Blackcurrant Ribes nigrum 158 S 0.00 0.75
Red/Whitecurrant Ribes rubrum 159 S 0.00 1.00
Jostaberry Ribes x nidigrolaria 157 S 0.00 0.75
Raspberry Rubus idaeus 161 S 0.00 0.75
Nepalese Raspberry Rubus nepalensis 206 G 0.50 1.00 /
Sorrel Rumex acetosa 233 H 0.00 0.25
True Service Tree Sorbus domestica 126 C 0.00 0.50
Small Leaved Lime Tilia cordata 136 S 0.00 1.00
Clover Trifolium repens 247 G 0.00 0.75 /
Nasturtium Tropaeolum majus 280 A 0.00 0.25
Stinging Nettle Urtica dioica 236 H 0.00 0.75
Grape Vitis vinifera 288 Cl 0.00 0.50

CAFG#4 47