06 Bipolar Junction Transistor-1 PDF

Cha pter
The Bipolar
Junction Transistor 6
6.1 Introduction
We have already studied single pn junction and we have analized the pn junction i-v charactristic and
how it function as electron switch. The transistor is a multifunction semiconductor device that, in conjunction
with other circuit elements, is capable of current gain, voltage gain, and signal-power gain. The transistor is
therefore referred to as an active device whereas the diode is passive. The basic transistor action is the control
of current at one terminal by voltage applied across two other terminals of the device.
The bipolar transistor has three separately doped regions and two pn junctions, sufficiently close together
so that interactions occur between the two junctions. We will use much of the theory developed for the pn
junction in the analysis of the bipolar transistor. Since the flows of both electrons and holes are involved in this
device, it is called a bipolar transistor.
We will first discuss the basic geometry and operation of the transistor. Since there is more than one pn
junction in the bipolar transistor, several combinations of reverse and forward-bias junction voltages are possible,
leading to different operating modes in the device. As with the pn junction diode, minority carrier distributions
in the bipolar transistor are an important part of the physics of the device—minority carrier gradients produce
diffusion currents. We will determine the minority carrier distribution in each region of the transistor, and the
corresponding currents.
6.1 The Bopolar Transistor Action

The bipolar transistor has three separately doped regions and two pn junctions. Fig 6.1 shows the basic
structure of an npn bipolar transistor and a pnp bipolar transistor, along with the circuit symbols. The three
terminal connections are called the emitter, base, and collector. The width of the base region is small compared
to the minority carrier diffusion length.
Emitter Collector Emitter Collector

n++ p+ n p++ n+ p
C C
Base B Base B
E E
(a) (b)
Fig 6.1 : Simplified block diagrams and circuit symbols of (a) npn, and (b) pnp bipolar transistors
GATE MASTERS PUBLICATION

194 Electronic Devices and Circuits
The (++) and (+) notation indicates the relative magnitudes of the impurity doping concentrations
normally used in the bipolar transistor, with (++) meaning very heavily doped and (+) meaning moderately
doped. The emitter region has the largest doping concentration; the collector region has the smallest. The
reasons for using these relative impurity concentrations, and for the narrow base width, will become clear as we
develop the theory of the bipolar transistor. The concepts developed for the pn junction apply directly to the
bipolar transistor.
6.1.1 The Basic principal of operation

The npn and pnp transistors are complementary devices. We will develop the bipolar transistor theory
using the npn transistor, but the same basic principles and equations also apply to the pnp device.
Fig 6.2 shows an idealized impurity doping profile in an npn bipolar transistor for the case when each region is
uniformly doped.
(Nd – Na)
E C
n++ p+ n
(a) (b)
Fig 6.2 : Idealized doping profile of a uniformly doped npn bopolar transistor
The normal bias configuration of the BJT is when base - emitter (B-E) junction is forward blased and
base collector (B-C) junction is nevers biased. In this configuration (shown in Fig 6.3). The emitter emits
electrons into base and base emits holes into emitter as B-E junction is forward biased. From our understanding
of pn junction we can understand that the number of electrons being emitted into base will be much higher than
number holes being emitter into emitter as doping of emitter is higher than doping base region.
The electrons which are minority carrier in base will travel inside base region due to diffusion as
concentration gradient exist for electrons in base region. Since the B-C junction is reverse biased thus high
electric field exist inside the depletion region of B-C junction. Due to this high electric field from collector to
base all the electrons which reach the end of base region will be swept into collector and thats why we have
almost zero minority carrier (electrons) concentration at base end towards B-C junction.
The minority carrier concentration in npn BJT biased with BE junction forward biased and BC junction
reverse biased can be easly drawn from understanding of minority carrier profile in forward biased and reverse
biased pn junction. The mode of operation of BJT where base - collector (BC) junction is reverse biased and base
- emitter (BE) junction is forward biased is called forward active mode. The biased configuration, minority
carrier profile and band diagram is shown in Fig 6.3. We can see that concentration of electrons is high in base
at emitter side as emitter has injected electrons in base and the concentration of electrons decreases exponentially
( here we have shown that decay of concentration is linear as the width of base is very small), the concentratio
of electrons become zero at end of base as the high electric field (from C to B )in depletion region of BC junction
will sweep all the electrons into the collector. The minority carrier profile in collector can be simply explained
from the minority carrier profile of reverse bias pn junction that is hole concentration will be zero in collector at
B-C junction as all holes will be swept into base by electric field (from C to B) and the concentration of holes
deep inside collector will be ni2/Nc. The concentration of holes in emitter can be exaplined as holes are injected
into emitter by base thus large concentration of holes in emitter at emitter base junction and hole concentration
reduces as we go inside emitter as holes recombine with electrons and decay is exponential.

Bipolar Junction Transistor 195
E-B space B-C space

charge region charge region
Emitter Base Collector

-n- -p- -n-
E-
iE n++ p+ n iC E-field field
E C
np(x )
RE B RC
– VBE+ – VCB+ pn(x )
pn0
np0
pn0
pn (x)
– VBB + – VCC+
(a) (b)
B(p) e–
E C Ec
(n) (n) EFe
Ec EFb
EF Ev EFc
Ev
Zero bias Forward active
(c)
Fig 6.3 : (a) Biasing of an npn bipolar transistor in the forward-active mode
(b) Minority carrier distribution in an npn bipolar transistor operating in the forward-active mode
(c) energy-band diagram of the npn bipolar transistor under zero bias and under a forward-active mode bias.
6.1.2 Transistor Current Relation

The minority carrier concentrations are again shown in Fig. 6.4 for an npn bipolar transistor biased in
the forward active mode. Ideally, the minority carrier electron concentration in the base is a linear function of
distance, which implies no recombination. The electrons diffuse across the base and are swept into the collector
by the electric field in the B-C space charge region.
E(n) B(p) C(n)
v
nB(0)=nB0 exp BE
Vt
i E1
Ideal E-field
iE (linear) iC
Actual
i E2
nB0
x =0 x =x B
i Ba i Bb
iB
Fig 6.4 : Minority carrier distributions and basis currents in a forward-biased npn bipolar transistor

Assuming the ideal linear electron distribution in the base, the collector current can be written as a
diffusion current given by
dn( x )  n (0)  0 
iC  eDn ABE  eDn ABE  B 
dx  0  xB 
 eDn ABE v 
  nB0 exp  BE  …(6.1)
xB  Vt 
where ABE is the cross-sectional area of the B-E junction, nB0 is the thermal equilibrium electron
concentration in the base, and Vt is the thermal voltage. The diffusion of electrons is in the +x direction so that
the conventional current is in the -x direction. Considering magnitudes only, Eq. (6.1) can be written as
 v BE 
iC= I s exp   …(6.2)
 vT 
eD n ABE
here Is   nB 0
xB
Note: The collector current is controlled by the base-emitter voltage; that is, the current at one terminal of the
device is controlled by the voltage applied to the other two terminals of the device. As we have mentioned this is the
basic transistor action.
Emitter Current
From Fig 6.4 we can see that total emitter current is due to diffusion of electron in base region and due
to difusion of hole in emitter region . Since BE junction is forward biased the hole enter emitter and eletron
enter into base .Thus
iE = iE1 + iE2
 vBE 
iE1  ic  Is exp   …(6.3)
 vT 
and iE2 = hole diffusion current

d p( x )
 eD p ABE
dx
d v   x 
  eDp ABE  pEO exp  BE  exp   
dx   vT   Lp  
 
eDp  vBE   x 
iE2   ABE pEO exp   exp  
Lp  vT   Lp 
Thus at x = 0
eDp  vBE 
iE2  ABE pEO exp   …(6.4)
Lp  vT 
The negative sign show that current flow in –x.

Thus
iE = iE1 + iE2
= ic + iE2
v 
 ISE exp  BE  …(6.5)
 vT 
v 
Since all current components in Eq. (6.5) are functions of exp  BE  , the ratio of collector current to
 Vt 
emitter current is a constant. We can write
iC

iE
where  is called the common-base current gain. By considering Eq. (6.5), we see that iC < iE or  < 1.
Since iE2 is not part of the basic transistor action, we would like this component of current to be as small as
possible. We would then like the common base current gain to be as close to unity as possible.
Note: In npn BJT we want that the electron emitted by emitter should be collected by collector and want minimum
involvement of holes in the process. Thus we want   1.
Base Current
As shown in Fig. 6.4 the component of emitter current iE2 is a B-E junction current so that this current
v 
is also component of base current shown as iBa. This component of base current is proportional to exp  BE  .
 Vt 
There is also a second component of base current. We have considered the ideal case in which there is
no recombination of minority carrier electrons with majority carrier holes in the base. However, in reality there
will be some recombination. Since majority carrier holes in the base are disappearing, they must be resupplied
by a flow of positive charge into the base terminal. This flow of charge is indicated as a current iBb in Fig. 6.4.
The number of holes per unit time recombining in the base is directly related to the number of minority carrier
v 
electrons in the base. Therefore, the current iBb is also proportional to exp  BE  . The total base current is the
 Vt 
v 
sum of iBa and iBb, and is proportional to exp  BE  .
 Vt 
The ratio of collector current to base current is a constant since both currents are directly proportional
v 
to exp  BE  . We can then write
 Vt 
iC
 …(6.7)
iB
where  is called the common-emitter current gain. Normally, the base current will be relatively small
so that, in general, the common-emitter current gain is much larger than unity (on the order of 100 or larger).
6.1.3 The Mode of Operation

How the current flow and the working of BJT in various mode of operation will be disussed in analog
electronic here we will see only see only a part of brief introduction.

For flow of current thougth the device we need at least one of the junction (BE or BC) to be forward
biased. Fig 6.5 shows the npn transistor in a simple circuit. In this configuration, the transistor may be biased in
one of three modes of operation(to be discussed in this section). If the B-E voltage is zero or reverse biased (VBE
 0), then majority carrier electrons from the emitter will not be injected into the base. The B-C junction is also
reverse biased; thus, the emitter and collector currents will be zero for this case. This condition is referred to as
cut off— currents in the transistor are zero.(Thus cut off condition is that where both the junctions are reverse
biased and no current flow in the device.)
IC –
VR RC
+ C +
VCB
–
n +
RB
B
p VCE
+
IB n –
+ +
VBE
VBB – E VCC
–
– IE
Fig 6.5 : An npn bipolar transistor in a common-emmitter circuit configuration

Now we apply forward biased across B-E junction and due to this forward bias voltage electrons will be
emitted by emitter into base and this will produce collector current. When forward bias of BE junction is small
then collector current will be small and drop across resistor will be small and if VCC is large then VCB > 0 thus
BC junction will be reverse biased(Thus we have B-E junction to be forward biased and B-C junction to be
reverse biased). The kVL across collector- emitter loop is
VCC = ICRC + VCB + VBE …(6.8)
Thus for small applied forward bias the device go into forward active mode.
As the forward-biased B-E voltage increases, the collector current and hence VR will also increase. The
increase in VR means that the reverse-biased C-B voltage decreases, or |VCB| decreases. At some point, the
collector current may become large enough that the combination of VR and Vcc produces zero voltage across the
B-C junction. A slight increase in IC beyond this point will cause a slight increase in VR and the B-C junction will
become forward biased (VCB < 0). This condition is called saturation. In the saturation mode of operation, both
B-E and B-C junctions are forward biased and the collector current is no longer controlled by the B-E voltage(We
can see that collector current is not zero in saturation).
REMEMBER In the above discussion we assumed that when VCB is less than zero then the BC junction go into
forward bias or device go into saturation but generally the junction go in forward bias when
voltage across junction is 0.3 V or 0.4 V thats why we always say that npn BJT go in saturation
when VCB is < 0.3 V or 0.4V.
Thus as we will increase the forward biased of BE junction the device will go into satration region, that

is both the junction become forward biased due to high collector current. Since the two junction in forward
biased both will oppose each other as when BE is forward biased then it will flow current from base to emitter
and when BC is forward biased then it will flow current from base to collector. Since current flow cannot stop
thus both junction will become forward biased such that current flow donot stop thus generally if BE junction
has forward bias of VBE = 0.7 V then BC junction can have maximum value of VBC = 0.4 V. Thus BE junction will
remain at higher forward bias and collector current will keep flowing in saturation mode also the relation
 vBE 
iC  Is exp  
 vT 
iC
=
iB
iC
=
iE
are valid in forward acctive mode only
Fig 6.6 shows the transistor current characteristics, IC versus VCE, for constant base currents. When
the collector-emitter voltage is large enough so that the base-collector junction is reverse biased, the collector
current is a constant in this first order theory. For small values of C-E voltage, the base-collector junction
becomes forward biased and the collector current decreases to zero for a constant base current.(For making
B-C junction forward bias we need VCB = 0.4V, since VBE = 0.7V thus VCE = VCB + VBE = 0.3 V)
Writing a Kirchhoffs voltage equation around the C-E loop, we find
VCE = VCC – ICRC …(6.9)
Equation (6.9) shows a linear relation between collector, current and collector-emitter voltage This
linear relation is called a load line and is plotted in Fig.6.6. The load line, superimposed on the transistor
characteristics, can be used to visualize the bias condition and operating mode of the transistor. The cutoff mode
occurs when IC = 0, saturation occurs when there is no longer a change in collector current for a change in base
current, and the forward-active mode occurs wheti the relation IC = IB is valid. These three operating modes
are indicated on the figure.
IC Load line
Saturation Increasing
IB
Forward active
Cutoff
VCC VCE
Fig 6.6 : Bipolar transistor common-emmitter current-voltage characteristics with load line superimposed
The fourth mode of operation is reverse active mode where the BC junction is forward biased and BE
junction is reverse biased. In this mode the role of emitter and collector are reversed. Thus collector will emit
electrons in base and emitter will collect electrons, since doping of collector is less thus forward biasing BC
junction means large number of holes will enter into collector than the concentration of electrons emitted by

emiiter into the base and hole current will be larger than the electron current leading to smaller value of r
(ratio of emitter current and collector current in reverse active mode) and r (ratio of emitter current and base
current in reverse active mode) (in above case collector is acting as emitter and emitter act as collector ).
The junction voltage conditions for the four operating modes are shown in Fig.6.7
VCB
Cutoff Forward
active
VBE
Inverse Saturation
active
Fig 6.7 : Junction voltage conditions for the four operating modes of a bipolar transistor
Note: The application of BJT as switch and amplifier and BJT curcuits will be analyzed in analog electronics.
6.2 Minority Carrier Profile

In this section we will analyze minority carrier profile inside a BJT for various mode of operation of BJT.
The minority carrier profile will be drawn from our understanding of minority carrier profile in forward bias and
reverse bias pn junction. Lets look at notion used for analysis of bipolor transistor.
Table 6.1 Notation used in the analysis of the bipolar transistor
Notation Definition
For both the npn and pnp transistors
NE, NB, NC Doping concentrations in the emitter, base, and collector
xE, xB, xC Widths of neutral emitter, base, and collector regions
DE, DB, DC Minority carrier diffusion coefficients in emitter, base, and
collector regions
LE, LB, LC Minority carrier diffusion lengths in emitter, base, and collector
regions
E, B, C Minority carrier lifetimes in emitter, hase, and collector regions
For the npn
pE0, nB0, pC0 Thermal equilibrium minority carrier hole, electron, and hole
concentrations in the emitter, base, and collector
pE(x' ), nB(x), pC(x'') Total minority carrier hole, electron, and hole concentrations
in the emitter base, and collector
pE(x' ), nB(x), pC(x'') Excess minority carrier hole, electron, and hole concentrations
in the emitter, base, and collector
For the pnp
nE0, pB0, nC0 Thermal equilibrium minority carrier electron, hole, and

electron concentrations in the emitter, base, and collector

nE(x' ), pB(x), nC(x'' ) Total minority carrier electron, hole, and electron
concentrations in the emitter, base, and collector
nE(x' ), pB(x), nC(x'' ) Excess minority carrier electron, hole, and electron
concentrations concentrations the emitter, base, and collecto
3.2.1 Forward Active Mode

Consider a uniformly doped npn bipolar transistor with the geometry shown in Fig. 6.8. When we
consider the individual emitter, base, and collector regions, we will shift the origin to the edge of the space
charge region and consider a positive x, x' or x'' coordinate as shown in the figure.

-n- -p - -n-
xE xB xC
x = x E x =0 x =0 x =x B x =0 x =x C

x x x
Fig 6.8 : Geometry of the npn bipolar transistor used to calculate the minority carrier distribution
When BE junction is forward biased then holes enter into emitter and electrons enter into base and as
BC junction is reverse biased the minority carrier will be zero close to collector base junction. The exponential
decay of minority carrier in base will be appoximated by a staraight line as width of base is much less than the
diffusion length of monority carrier (LB).
Base Region
-n- -p- -n-
nB(x )
pE(x ) pC0
nB0
pE0 pC(x )
x =x E x =0 x =0 x =x B x =0

x x x
Fig 6.9 : Minority carrier distribution in an npn bipolar transistor operating in the forward-active mode.
The monority carrier concentration at
 vBE 
• x = 0 is nB0 exp  
 vT 
• x = xB is 0

Since, xB << LB we approximate decay of minority carrier profile as straight line (Fig 6.9)
Thus excess minority carrier concentration will be
nB0 v 
nB(x)  exp  BE  (1  x ) …(6.10)
xB  vT 
Note: • LB is diffusion length of minority carrier in base, in case of npn, LB is diffusion length of elecron and in
case of pnp, LB is diffusion lenght of hole
• LB  DB  B0
Collector Region
The minority carrier concentration in collector will be as shown in Fig 6.9. The carrier profile will be
exponentially rising from 0 to pC0 thus excess minority carrier concentration will be
pC(x'') = pC(x'') – pC0
  x  
  pC0 exp   …(6.11)
 LC 
Note: Here LC  DC  C0
Emitter Region
The minority carrier profile will be as shown in Fig 6.9, thus excess minority carrier concentration will
be
pE(x' ) = pE(x' ) – pE0
 v     x 
 pE0  exp  BE   1 exp   …(6.12)
  vT    LE 
If xE that is width of emitter is smaller than LE then exponential decay can be approximated as linear.
Thus
pE0   vBE  
pE(x' )   exp    1 ( xE  x ) …(6.13)
xE   vT  
6.2 Carrier Profile in Other Mode of Operation
1 Cut Off Mode

Here both the junction are reverse biased so minority carrier profile will be same as that of the reverse
biased pn junction . the carrier profile is shown in Fig 6.10(a).
In cutoff, both the B-E and B-C junctions are reverse biased; thus, the minority carrier concentrations
are zero at each space charge edge. The emitter and collector regions are assumed to be “long” in this figure,
while the base is narrow as compared to the minority carrier diffusion length. Since xB << LB, essentially all
minority carriers are swept out of the base region.
2. Saturation Mode
Here both junction are forward biased but VBE > VBC and base will provide hole to emitter and collector

and emitter and colletor both provide electron to base. Obviously the hole concentration in collector at edge of
junction will be
 vBC  ni2 v 
pC(0)  pC0 exp 
  exp  BC 
 vT  NC  vT 
The electron concentration in base at edge of BE junction will be
 vBE  ni2 v 
nB(0)  nB0 exp   exp  BE 
 vT  NB  vT 
and at edge BC junction will be

 vBC  ni2 v 
nB(xB)  nB0 exp 
 exp  BE 
 vT  NC  vT 
The hole concentration in emitter at edge of BE junction
 vBE  ni2 v 
pE(0)  PE0 exp   exp  BE 
 vT  NE  vT 
Since vBE > vBC and NE > NB > NC thus we get

nB(0) > nB(xB), pE(0) > PC(0)
We can see this in Fig 6.10(b)
Note: We can see that vBE has to be greater than vBC then only nB(0) greater than nB(xB) as then concentration
gradient inside base exist and current flow from emitter to collector.
Emitter Base Collector Emitter Base Collector
- n- -p - - n- - n- -p - - n-
pC(0)
pC(x )
pC0 pE(x )
n B0 nB0 pC0
pE0 pC(x )
nB ( x ) nB(x )
pE(x ) pE0
(a) (b)
Fig 6.10 : Minority carrier distribution in an npn bipolar transistor operating in (a) cutoff, and (b) saturation
3 Reverse Active Mode

Finally, Fig. 6.11(a) shows the minority carrier distribution in the npn transistor for the inverse-active
mode. In this case, the B-E is reverse biased and the B-C is forward biased. Electrons from the collector are
now injected into the base. The gradient in the minority carrier electron concentration in the base is in the
opposite direction compared with the forward-active mode, so the emitter and collector currents will change
direction. Fig 6.11(b) shows the injection of electrons from the collector into the base. Since the B-C area is
normally much larger than the B-E area, not all of the injected electrons will be collected by the emitter.
The relative doping concentrations in the base and collector are also different compared with those in
the base and emitter; thus, we see that the transistor is not symmetrical. We then expect the characteristics to
be significantly different between the forward-active and inverse-active modes of operation.

Thus we can see in minority carrier profile that

 vBC  ni2 v 
pC(0)  pC0 exp   exp  BC 
 vT  NC  vT 
 vBC  ni2 v 
and  exp  BC 
nB(xB)  nB0 exp 
v
 T  NB  vT 
Since NB > NC thus pC(0) > nB(xB) and thus hole diffusion current will be large leading to reduced
gains.
C B E

- n- -p - - n- p n
pC(0)
n B(x B)
pC( x ) Electron injection
n B( x ) n
pC0
pE0 n B0
pE(x )
(a) (b)
Fig 6.11 : (a) Minority carrier distribution in an npn bipolar transistor operating in the inverse-active mode
(b) Cross section of an npn bipolar transistor showing the injection and collection of electrons in the inverse-active mode
The difference in the current equation of diode and BJT is that.
 v  
In diode i D  Is  exp  a   1
  vT  
 va 
In BJT iC  Is exp  
 vT 
The difference is because minority carrier profile in base region ends at zero at end of base region due to
reverse bias BC junction, but in diode the minority carrier profile not end at zero rather end at minority carrier
concentration at equlibriuim.
3.3 Low Frequency Common Base Current gain

The meaning of common base is that BJT is being used with base common between input and output, in
this configuration the input is applied at emitter and output is at collector. Thus ratio of output current and
input current iC / ie =  is called common base current gain. We will study about various configuration of BJT in
later section of this chapter. Now let us analyze what are all the current component in a BJT. We will do the
analyze for npn transistor.

Fig 6.12 shows different current component in an npn transistor. The factor JnE is the electron flux
injected from the emitter into the base. As the electrons diffuse across the base, a few will recombine with
majority carrier holes. The majority carrier holes that are lost by recombination must be replenished from the
 
base terminal. This replacement hole flux is denoted by JRB . The electron flux that reaches the collector is JnC .
The majority carrier holes from the base that are injected back into the emitter result in a hole flux denoted by

JpE . Some electrons and holes that are injected into the forward-biased B-E space charge region will recombine

in this region. This recombination leads to the electron flux JR . Generation of electrons and holes occurs in the
reverse-biased B-C junction. This generation yields a hole flux JG . Finally, the ideal reverse-saturation current

in the B-C junction is denoted by the hole flux Jpc0.
JnE– JnC–
E +
+
-n- JpE -p- + JG -n- C
+
+
JR– + JRB Jpc+0
B
Fig 6.12 : Particle current density or flux components in an npn bipolar transistor operating in the forward-active mode
The corresponding electric current density components in the npn transistor are shown in Fig.6.13
along with the minority carrier distributions for the forward-active mode. As in the pn junction, the currents in
the bipolar transistor are defined in terms of minority carrier diffusion currents. The current densities are
defined as follows:
JnE : Due to the diffusion of minority carrier electrons in the base at x = 0.
JnC : Due to the diffusion of minority carrier electrons in the base at x = xB
JRB : The difference between JnE and JnC, which is due to the recombination of excess minority carrier
electrons with majority carrier holes in the base. The JRB current is the flow of holes into the base to replace the
holes lost by recombination.
JpE : Due to the diffusion of minority carrier holes in the emitter at x' = 0.
JR : Due to the recombination of carriers in the forward-biased B-E junction.
JpC0 : Due to the diffusion of minority carrier holes in the collector at x'' = 0.
JG : Due to the generation of carriers in the reverse-biased B-C junction.
-n- -p- -n-
JnE JnC
JE JC
JR
JRB
JpE JG
Jpc0
x =x E x =0 x =0 x =x B x =0

x x
JB
Fig 6.13 : Current density components in an npn bipolar transistor operating in the forward-active mode

REMEMBER In reverse bias junction we have generation and in forward bias junction we have recombination.
The currents JRB, JpE, and JR are B-E junction currents only and do not contribute to the collector
current. The currents Jpc0 and JG are B-C junction currents only. These current componentes do not contribute
to the transistor action or the current gain.
The dc common-base current gain is defined as
IC
0  …(6.14)
IE
If we assume that the active cross-sectional area is the same for the collector and emitter, then we can
write the current gain in terms of the current densities, or
JC JnC  JG  Jpc0
0   …(6.15)
JE JnE  JR  JpE
We are primarily interested in determining how the collector current will change with a change in
emitter current. The small-signal, or sinusoidal, common-base current gain is defined as
JC JnC
   …(6.16)
JE JnE  JR  JpE
The reverse-bias B-C currents, JG and Jpc0, are not functions of the emitter current.
We can rewrite Eq. (6.16) in the form
 JnE   JnC   JnE  JpE 
   
   
 …(6.17)
 JnE  JpE   JnE   JnE  JR  JpE 
or  = T …(6.18)
The factors in Eq.(8.25) are defined as
 JnE 
     emitter injection efficiency factor
 …(6.19)
 JnE  JpE 
J 
 T   nC   base transport factor …(6.20)
 JnE 
JnE  JpE
   recombination factor …(6.21)
JnE  JR  JpE
Ideally  shoud be 1 and thus our motive is to make  equal to 1. We can see that for  = 1 we need
 = l, T = l,  = l. The emitter injection eficiancy  take into account the current flow due to holes, base
transport facton T take into accunt the recombination of minority carrier in base, and recombination factor 
take into account recombination in BE junction.
Emitter Injection Efficience
 JnE   1 
  
 JnE  JpE   J 
   1  pE 
 JnE 
 
JnE = Current density due to diffusion of electrons

dn( x )
 eDn
dx
Using equation (6.10) we get
ni2 v 
JnE  eDn exp  BE  …(6.22)
NB x B  vT 
and J pE = Current density due to diffusion of holes
dp( x )
 eDp
dx
Using equation (6.13) (assuming xE << LE)
ni2   vBE  
J pE  eDp  exp    1
NE xE   vT  
ni2 v 
  eDp exp  BE  …(6.23)
NE x E  vT 
1 1
    …(6.24)
JpE Dp NB xB
1 1
JnE Dn NE xE
Thus to have   1 we need NBxB << NExE

Thus very high emitter doping will ensure   1
Base Transport Factor

Mathematical analysis shows that base transport factor can be written as
2
1 J 1 x 
T   nC  1   B  …(6.25)
cosh( x B / LB ) JnE 2  LB 
The base transport factor T will be close to one if xB << LB. Equation (6.25) shows the reason for base
width to be less than LB.
Recombination Factor
The recombination factor can then be written as
JnE  JpE 1
   …(6.26)
JnE  JR  JpE J  eVBE 
1  r 0 exp  
Js0  2kT 
where, Jr0 = factor of recombination current

The recombination factor is a function of the B-E voltage. As VBE increases, the recombination current
becomes less dominant and the recombination factor approaches unity.
REMEMBER • For   1 we need to work at high VBE, width of base xB << diffusion length of carrier LB,
doping of emittrer much higer than doping of base

I 
• Since IE = IB + IC, IE   C 

IC 
  
IB 1  
 
   and  
1  1 
•  is ratio of IC and IB, thus it is called common emitter current gain as in this configuration
emitter is common and input is at base out put is at collector.
Example 6.1
To design the ratio of emitter doping to base doping in order to achieve an emitter injection
efficiency factor equal to  = 0.9967
Consider an npn bipolar transistor. Assume, for simplicity, that D E = D B , L E = L B , and
xE = xB.
Solution 6.1
Equation (6.24) reduces to
1 1
  
pE0 2
ni / NE
1 1
nB0 ni2 NB
so
1
   0.9967
NB
1
NE
Then
NB NE
= 0.00331 or = 302
NE NB
Example 6.2
To design the base width required to achieve a base transport factor equal to T = 0.9967.
Consider a pnp bipolar transistor. Assume that D B = 10 cm 2 /s and B 0 = 10 –7 s.
Solution 6.2
The base transport factor applies to both pnp and npn transistor and is given by
1
T   0.9967
cosh( xB / LB )
Then
xB
= 0.0814
LB
We have
LB  DBB0  (10)(107 )  103 cm

so that the base width must then be
xB = 0.814 × 10–4 cm = 0.814 m

Example 6.3
Calculate the forward-biased B-E voltage required to achieve a recombination factor equal
to  = 0.9967.
Consider an npn bipolar transistor at T = 300 K. Assume that J r 0 = 10 –8 A/cm 2 and that
J s 0 = 10 –11 A/cm 2 .
Solution 6.3
The recombination factor, from Eq. (6.26), is
1
 
J  eVBE 
1  r 0 exp  
Js0  2kT 
We then have
1
0.9967  8
10  eVBE 
1 11
exp  
10  2kT 
We can rearrange this equation and write
3
  eVBE   0.9967  10  3.02  105
exp  
 2kT  1  0.9967
Then
VBE = 2(0.0259) ln(3.02 × 105) = 0.654 V
6.4 Non ideal effects in BJT Transistor

Ideally we assume that BJT has collector current which is independent of collector voltage, we have
assumed BJT has uniformly doped region, low injection (The concentration of minority carrier being injected is
less than majority carrier concentration in the region). These ideal approximation are not present in practical
cases thus practically we have same changes in properties of BJT transistor.
6.4.1 Base width Modulation

In forward active mode the BE junction is forward biased and BC junction is reverse biased, thus when
the forward bias of BE junction is kept constant and reverse bias of BC junction is changed then as reversed bias
of BC junction is increased the depletion width increase and the depletion width inside base also increase that
reduce the effective base width xB. Thus with increase in reverse bias of BC junction the effective base width xB
reduces and we know that collector current is invesely proportional to xB. Thus rise in reverse bias of BC
junction collector current increase. Thus effect is called base width modulation and called early effect. The
change in effective base width with change in applied reverse bias across BC junction is shown in Fig 6.14.
The Early effect can be seen in the current-voltage characteristics shown in Fig. 6.15. In most cases, a
constant base current is equivalent to a constant B-E voltage. Ideally the collector current is independent of the
B-C voltage so that the slope of the curves would be zero; thus the output conductance of the transistor would be
zero. However, the base width modulation, or Early effect, produces a nonzero slope and gives rise to a finite
output conductance. If the collector current characteristics are extrapolated to zero collector current, the
curves intersect the voltage axis at a point that is defined as the Early voltage. The Early voltage is considered
to be a positive value. It is a common parameter given in transistor specifications; typical values of Early voltage

are in the 100 to 300 volt range.

Base Moving space
charge edge
with increasing
C-B voltage
Increasing
minority
carrier
gradient
x =0 x =x B
Fig 6.14 : The change in the base width and the change in the minority carrier gradient as the B-C space charge width changes
IC
VBE
|VA| VCE
Fig 6.15 : The collector current versus collector-emitter voltage showing the Early effect and Early voltage
From Fig. 6.15, we can write that

dIC IC
 g0  …(6.27)
dVCE VCE  VA
where VA and VCE are defined as positive quantities and g0 is defined as the output conductance. Equation
(6.27) can he rewritten in the form
IC = g0(VCE + VA) …(6.28)
showing explicitly that the collector current is now a function of the C-E voltage or the C-B voltage.
Note: We know that in reverse bias pn the depletion region width enter less high doped region. This is the reason
that base is having high doping than collector. Now when BC junction is reverese biased then lesser depletion
region go into base. This reduces early effect and since width of base region is small base region has to have higer
doping than collector because otherwise punch through would occus for very small reverese bias across BC junction.
Example 6.4
Calculate the change in the neutral base width with a change in C-B voltage.
Consider a uniformly doped silicon bipolar transistor at T = 300 K with a base doping of
NB = 5 × 1016 cm –3 and a collector doping of NC = 2 × 1015 cm–3. Assume the metallurgical
base width is 0.70 m. Calculate the change in the neutral base width as the C-B voltage
changes from 2 to 10 V.
Solution 6.4

The space charge width extending into the base region can be written as
1/2
 2  ( V  VCB )  NC 1  
xdB   s bi   
 e  NB ( NB  NC )  
or
1/2
 2(11.7)(8.85  1014 )( Vbi  VCB )  2  1015 1  
xdB     15  
 1.6  1019 16 16
 2  10 (5  10  2  10 )  
which becomes
xdB = {(9.96 × 10–12)(Vbi + VCB)}1/2
The built-in potential is
kT  NBNC 
ln 
Vbi    0.718 V
e  ni2 
For VCB = 2 V, we find xdB = 0.052 m, and for VCB = 10 V, we find xdB = 0.103 m. If we neglect the B-
E space charge region, which will be small because of the forward-biased junction, then we can calculate
the neutral base width. For VCB = 2 V.
xB = 0.70 – 0.052 = 0.648 m
and for VCB = 10 V,
xB = 0.70 – 0.103 = 0.597 m
6.4.2 High Level Injection

Till now we assumed that minority carrier concentration which enter a region is always less than the
mojority carrier concentration of the region. Thus we assumed low level injection, but practically the base
doping is low and the minority carrier injected by emitter into base will make the approximation of low level
injection invalid when VBE is large. Due to high level injection the excees holes get generated in base region BE
junction. Due to these excees holes more holes will enter into emitter of the device which create more hole
current. Thus JPE will increase and this will reduce emitter injection efficiency. Thus due to high level injection
the emitter injection efficency reduce which reduces common base current gain. Fig 6.16 show how due to
increase in minority carrier concentration leads to high level injection and thus majority carrier concentration
also increase to maintain charge neutrality. Fig 6.17 shows a typical common-emitter current gain versus collector
current curve. The low gain at low currents is due to the small recombination factor and the drop-off at the high
current is due to the high-injection effect.
p-base
pp(x )
NB
nB(x )
nB0
x =0 x =x B
Fig 6.16 : Minority and majority carrier concentrations in the base under low and high injection
(solid line: low injection; dashed line: high injection)

200
T = 300 K
Short circuit current gain

150
High
injection
effects
100
Recombination
effects
50
0.00 –8
10 10–6 10–4 10–2 100
Collector current (A)
Fig 6.17 : Common-emitter current gin versus collector current
6.4.3 Emitter Band gap Narrowing

We have seen that for value of  (emitter injection efficiency) close to unity we need emitter doping to be
very high. When we keep on increasing the doping concentration then the distance between the impority atoms
in semiconductor keep an decreasing, when doping concentration is very high then impurity atoms interact
with each other and the discrete impurity level will become a band of energy that is discrete energy level will
split into band of energy. As the doping continues to increase, the donor band widens, becomes skewed, and
moves up toward the conduction band, eventually merging with it. At this point, the effective bandgap energy
has decreased.
Due to decrease in energy band gap the inrinsic carrier concentrattion in emitter region will increse
and the motive with which doping of emitter was increased (to make emitter n++ and reduce holes in emitter
region to a very small vallue) will not be fulfilled as ni will increase due to band gap lowering and number of holes
will also increase as now
 Eg 
n12E  ni2 exp  
 kT 
n12E ni2  E 
and pE0   exp  
NE NE  kT 
As the emitter doping increases, n12E increases; thus, pE0 does not continue to decrease with increased
emitter doping. If pE0 starts to increase because of the bandgap narrowing, the emitter injection efficiency
begins to fall off instead of continuing to increase with increased emitter doping.
6.4.4 Current Crowding

It is tempting to minimize the effects of base current in a transistor since the base current is usually
much smaller than either the collector or the emitter current. Fig 6.19 is a cross section of an npn transistor
showing the lateral distribution of base current. The base region is typically less than a micrometer thick, so
there can be a sizeable base resistance. The nonzero base resistance results in a lateral potential difference

under the emitter region. For the npn transistor, the potential decreases from the edge of the emitter toward the
center. The emitter is highly doped, so as a first approximation the emitter can be considered an equipotential
region.
The number of electrons’ from the emitter injected into the base is exponentially dependent on the B-E
voltage. With the lateral voltage drop in the base between the edge and center of the emitter more electrons will
be injected near the emitter edges than in the center, causing the current to be crowded toward the edges. This
current-crowding effect is schematically shown in Fig. 6.20. The larger current density near the emitter edge
may cause localized heating effects as well as localized high-injection effects. The nonuniform emitter current
also results in a nonuniform lateral base current under the emitter. A two-dimensional analysis would be required
to calculate the actual potential drop versus distance because of the nonuniform base current. Another approach
is to slice the transistor into a number of smaller parallel transistors and to lump the resistance of each base
section into an equivalent external resistance.
Power transistors, designed to handle large currents, require large emitter areas to maintain reasonable
current densities. To avoid the current-crowding effect, these transistors are usually designed with narrow
emitter widths and fabricated with an interdigitated design. In this special type of design many narrow emitters
are connected in parallel to achieve required emitter area [Fig 6.21]
Base Emitter
IE
IB/2 IB/2
p base n+emitter p base

– –
Collector
Fig 6.19 : Cross section of an npn bipolar transistor showing the base current distribtution
and the lateral potential drop in the base region.
Base n+ Emitter n+ Base

-p - -p -
Collector current
Fig 6.20 : Cross section of an npn bipolar transistor showing the emitter current-crowding effect.
Base Emitter
terminal terminal
n n n n n
p base
n Collector
Fig 6.21 : Cross section of an interdigitated npn bipolar transistor stucture

6.4.5 Non Uniform Base doping

Uniform base doping in BJT is impossible and generally the doping in base non uniform. Fig 6.22 shows
a doping profile in a doubly diffused npn transistor, we can start witn a uniformly doped n-type substrate, diffuse
acceptor atoms from the surface to form a compensated p-type base, and then diffuse donor atoms from the
surface to form a doubly compensated n-type emitter. The diffusion process results in a nonuniform doping
profile.
Doping
5×1019
Nd for n-type
emitter
Na for p-type
5×10 17 base
Nd for n-type
collector
5×1015
x
Fig 6.22 : Impurity concentration profiles of a double-diffused npn bipolar transistor
From the given doping concentration (Fig 6.22) we can see that in base region doping decreases from
emitter to collector. Since hole concentration in base is high at BE junction and decreases as we move toward
collector. Thus base has non uniform doping, now we know that in non uniform doped base region at equilibrium
will have electric field this electric field will stop the holes from diffusing at equilibrium. Using the concept
learned in chapter 2 we know that
p-type base region in thermal equilibrium, we can write
dNa
J p  e p Na E  eDp 0 …(6.33)
dx
Then
 kT  1 dNa
E    …(6.34)
 e  Na dx
According to the example of Fig. 6.22, dNa/dx is negative; hence, the induced electric field is in the
negative x direction. Electrons are injected from the n-type emitter into the base and the minority carrier base
electrons begin diffusing toward the collector region. The induced electric field in the base, because of the
nonuniform doping, produces a force on the electrons in the direction toward the collector. The induced electric
field, then, aids the flow of minority carriers across the base region. This electric field is called an accelerating
field.
Thus due to electric field that help the motion electron from emitter to collector thus electrons emitted
by emitter will reach collector much fastly and thus speed of operation of this device (non uniform doped BJT)
will be more than speed of operation of uniform doped BJT.

REMEMBER Now we can compare the speed of operation of these three BJTs
BJTs BJTs BJTs

Nd for emitter Nd for emitter Nd for emitter
Na for base Na for base Na for base
Nd for collector Nd for collector Nd for collector
x x x
(a) (b) (c)
Assuming that amount of doping in all three regions emitter, base and collector is same in all
three BJTs (a),(b), and (c). Now if we compare speed of operartion then in (b), using equation
(6.34) the base has electric field from collector to emitter which support electron movement
from emitter to colletor, in (a) the base has no electric field and in (c), using equation (6.34) we
can find that the electric field exist form emitter to collector that oppose electron flow from
emitter to collector. Thus (b) is faster, (a) is normal, (c) is slowest.
6.4.6 Punch Though Breakdown In BJT

Generally the BC junction is reverse biased as we keep on increasing revese bias across the junction, the
depletion width keep on increasing and the depletion width inside base region will also increase. This will
reduce the neutral base region thus to have minimum depletion region in base we keep base doping higher than
collector. Still we cannot have very high base doping as this will increase recombination in base.
It is possible for the B-C depletion region to penetrate completely through the base and reach the B-E
space charge region, the effect called punch-through. Fig 6.23(a) shows the energy-band diagram of an npn
bipolar transistor in thermal equilibrium and Fig 6.23(b) shows the energy-band diagram for two values of
reverse-bias B-C junction voltage. When a small C-B voltage, VR1, is applied, the B-E potential barrier is not
affected; thus, the transistor current is still essentially zero. When a large reverse-bias voltage, VR2, is applied,
the depletion region extends through the base region and the B-E potential barrier is lowered because of the
C-B voltage. The lowering of the potential barrier at the B-E junction produces a large increase in current with
a very small increase in C-B voltage. This effect is the punch-through breakdown phenomenon.
We can easily calculate punch though voltage, from Fig 6.24 the width of base region is WB, thus for
punch though we need depletion width of BC junction inside base should have width WB. Taking NB and NC as
doping of base and collector. If WBC is depletion region width of BC junction then
NC
xdB  W
NC  NB BC
NC 2 s  1 1 
 ( Vbi  VR )   
NC  NB e  NB NC 
for punch through VR >> Vbi and VR = Vpt, xdB = WB

NC 2 s N  NC
 WB  ( Vbi  Vpt ) B
NC  NB e NBNC
eWB2 NB( NC  NB )
 Vpt  …(6.35)
2 s NC
E B C
Ec
EF
VR1
Ev
E B C
VR 2
Ec
EF
Ev
(a) (b)
Fig 6.23 : Energy-band diagram of an npn bipolar transistor (a) in thermal equilibrium, and
(b) with a reverse-bias B-C voltage before punch-through, VR1, and after punch through, VR2
E B C
x dB
WB
Fig 6.24 : Geometry of a bipolar transistor to calculate the punch-through voltage
Example 6.5
To design the collector doping and collector width to meet a punch-through voltage
specification.
Consider a uniformly doped silicon bipolar transistor with a metallurgical base width of
0.5 m and a base doping of NB = 1016 cm –3 . The punch-through voltage is to be Vpt = 25 V.
Solution 6.5
The maximum collector dopin concentration can be determined from Eq (6.35) as
(1.6  1019 )(0.5  104 )2 (1016 )( N C  1016 )
25 
2(11.7)(8.85  10 14 )N C
or

106
12.94  1 
N
which yields
NC = 8.38 × 1014 cm–3
This n-type doping concentration in the collector must extend at least as far as the depletion width extends
into the collector to avoid breakdown in the collector region. We have
1/2
 2  ( V  VR )  NB 1 
xn   s bi   
 e  NC NB  NC  
Neglecting Vbi compared to VR = Vpt, we obtain
1/2
 2(11.7)(8.85  1014 )(25)  1016  1 
xn  19  14 
  16 14 
 1.6  10  8.38  10   10  8.38  10  
or
xn = 5.97 m
6.4.7 Avalanche Breakdown in BJT

Since BC junction of BJT is reverse biased and doping of base is higher than doping of collector region.
Thus width of depletion region of BC junction is large as collector is large thus avalanche breakdown may occur
in the junction. The analysis for avalanche breakdown is done in two ways.
1. Open Emitter Configuration

When emitter is open and BC junction is reverse biased thus only reverse saturation current will flow in
the reverse biased pn junction as shown in Fig 6.24 (a). Thus breakdown in this case is similar to that of the
reverse biased pn junction.
2. Open Base Configuration

Fig. 6.24(b) show the confiquration , here CE voltage is applie and this will reverse bias the CB junction
and here base terminal is left open. the current here is denoted by ICEO.
REMEMBER • ICBO means collector to base current when emitter is open

• ICEO means collector to emitter current when base is open
n p n
ICBO
E n p n C E C
ICEO ICEO I
ICBO CEO
VCB B VCE
– + – +
B
(a) (b)
Fig 6.24 : (a) Open emitter configuration with saturation current ICBO
(b) Open base configuration with saturation current ICEO

The working of circuit show in Fig 6.24(b) is not similar to that of the reverse bias pn junction because
when high voltage is applied at collector and base is open then obviously CB junction will be reverse biased and
holes will flow form collector to base. Since holes come inside base become positive with respect to emitter thus
BE junction become slightly forward biased. Thus the ciruut of Fig 6.24(b) will approximately work as BJT in
forward active mode. The forward-biased B-E junction produces the current ICEO, due primarily to the injection
of electrons from the emitter into the base. The injected electrons diffuse across the base toward the B-C
junction. These electrons are subject to all of the recombination processes in the bipolar transistor. When the
electron reach the B-C junction, this current component is ICEO, where  is the common base current gain.
We therefore have
ICEO = ICEO + ICBO …(6.36)
or
ICBO
ICEO   ICBO …(6.37)
1 
where  is the common-emitter current gain. The reverse-biased junction current ICBO is multiplied by
the current gain  when the transistor is biased in the open-base configuration.
When the transistor is biased in the open-emitter configuration as in Fig.6.24(a), the current ICBO at
breakdown becomes ICBO  MICBO, where M is the multiplication factor. An empirical approximation for the
multiplication factor is usually written as
1
M …(6.38)
1  ( VCB / BVCBO )n
where n is an empirical constant, usually between 3 and 6, and BVCBO is the B-C breakdown voltage with
the emitter left open.
When the transistor is biased with the base open circuited as shown m Fig. 6.24(b), the currents in the
B-C junction at breakdown are multiplied, so that
ICEO = M(ICEO + ICBO) …(6.39)
Solving for ICEO, we obtain
MICBO
ICEO  …(6.40)
1  M
The condition for breakdown corresponds to
M = 1 …(6.41)
Using Eq.(6.38) and assuming the VCB  VCE, Eq. (6.41) becomes

=1 …(6.42)
1  ( BVCEO / BVCBO )n
where BVCEO is the C-E voltage at breakdown in the open base configuration. Solving for BVCEO, we find
BVCEO  BVCBO n 1   …(6.43)

where, again,  is the common-base current gain. The common-emitter and common-base current
gains are related by

  …(6.44)
1 

Normally,   1, so that
1
1–  …(6.45)

Then Eq.(6.43) can be written as
BVCBO
BVCEO  …(6.46)
n
The breakdown voltage in the open-base configuration is smaller, by the factor n , junction breakdown
voltage. This characteristic is shown ih Fig 6.25
Open Open
IC base emitter
ICEO
ICBO
BVCEO BVCBO
V
Fig 6.25 : Relative breakdown voltages and saturation currents of the open base and open emitter configurations
REMEMBER • In Fig (6.25) the breakdown voltage BVCEO is when base is open and current in collector is
ICEO, but when base is connected in the circuit then collector current will increase and thus
the breakdown of device will occur at voltage lower than BVCEO. Similaly when emitter is
open and current in collector is ICBO the breakdown voltage is BVCBO but when emitter is
connected then collector current increases and breakdown voltage decrease.
• As the current though reverse biased junction the breakdown voltage deacreses.
Example: 6.6
Consider a silicon bipolar transistor with a common-emitter current gain of  = 100 and a
base doping concentration of N B = 10 17 cm –3 . The minimum open-base breakdown voltage is
to be 15 volts. Determine the open emitter breakdown voltage.
Solution 6.6
From Eq. (6.59), the minimum open-emitter junction breakdown voltage must be
BVCBO  n BVCEO
Assuming the empirical constant n is 3, we find
BVCBO  3 100(15)  69.6 V
6.5 Frequency Limitation in BJT

The BJT will take some time to respond to the applied signal, since it take time to emit electron form
emitter and collected by collector. Thus if a signal is applied at BE junction then BJT will need time to respond

to the applied signal thus input signal must have frequncy less that a value so that we can get faithful response
form device. The hybrid pie moded will be analyzed in analog electronics. Here we will only analyze the limitation
on frequency due to time delay factors.
6.5.1 Time delay factors

The bipolar transistor is a transit-time device. When the voltage across the B-E junction increases, for
example, additional carriers from the emitter are injected into the base, diffuse across the base, and are collected
in the collector region. As the frequency increases, this transit time can become comparable to the period of the
input signal. At this point, the output response will no longer be in phase with the input and the magnitude of
the current gain will decrease.
The total emitter-to-collector time constant or delay time is composed of four separate time constants.
We can write
ec = e + b + d + c …(6.47)
where
ec = emitter-to-collector time delay
e = emitter-base junction capacitance charging time
b = base transit time
d = collector depletion region transit time
c = collector capacitance charging time
The equivalent circuit of the forward-biased B-E junction has resistance r'e, capacitance Cje is the junction
capacitance. If we ignore the series resistance, then the emitter-base junction capacitance charging time is
e = r'e(Cje + Cp) …(6.48)
where r'e is the emitter junction or diffusion resistance. The capacitance Cp includes any parasitic
capacitance between the base and emitter. The resistance r'e is found as the inverse of the slope of the IE versus
VBE curve. We obtain
kT 1
r'e   …(6.49)
e IE
where IE is the dc emitter current.
The second term, b, is the base transit time, the time required for the minority carriers to diffuse across
the neutral base region. The base transit time is related to the diffusion capacitance C of the B-E junction. For
the npn transistor, the electron current density in the base can be written as
Jn = –enB(x) v(x) …(6.50)
where v(x) is an average velocity. We can write
dx dx
v(x)  or dt  …(6.51)
dt v(x)
The transit time can then be found by integrating, or
xB xB xB
dx enB( x )dx
b   dt   v( x )
  (  Jn )
…(6.51)
0 0 0
The electron concentration in the base is approximately linear, so we can write

  eV   x 
nB(x)  nB0 exp  BE  1    …(6.52)
  kT   xB  

and the electron current density is given by

dnB( x )
Jn  eDn …(6.53)
dx
The base transit time is then found by combining Eqs.(6.52) and (6.53) with Eq.(6.51). We find that
xB2
b  …(6.54)
2Dn
The third time-delay factor is d, the collector depletion region transit time. Assuming that the electrons
in the npn device travel across the B-C space charge region at their saturation velocity, we have
xdc
d  …(6.55)
vs
where xdc is the B-C space charge width and vs is the electron saturation velocity.
The fourth time-delay factor, c, is the collector capacitance charging time. The B-C is reverse biased so
that the diffusion resistance in parallel with the junction capacitance is very large. The charging time constant
is then a function of the collector series resistance rc. We can write
c = rc(C + Cs) …(6.56)
where C is the B-C junction capacitance and Cs is the collector-to-substrate capacitance. The series
resistance in small epitaxial transistors is usually small; thus the time delay c may be neglected in some cases.
Note: If in a question any information to calculation e, b, d, and c is missing then we can neglect that delay or
transit time. For example if width of base region is not given in question then we can neglect b and can write
ec = e + d + c.
6.5.2 Transistor Cut Off Frequency

The cut off frquencncy is fT and
1
fT  …(6.57)
2ec
Since gain band width product for a device is a constant, since at fT frquency gain is 1 thus beta cut off
frequncy can be pond as
f  ×  = fT × 1
fT
 f  …(6.58)

Similarly alpha cut off frequency can be found
f  ×  = fT
fT
 f  …(6.59)

Example 6.7
In calculate the emitter-to-collector transit time and the cutoff frequency of a bipolar
transistor, given the transistor parameters.
Consider a silicon npn transistor at T = 300 K. Assume the following parameters:
IE = 1 mA C je = 1 pF
x B = 0.5 m D n = 25 cm 2 /s

x dc = 2.4 m r c = 20 
C  = 0.1 pF C s = 0.1 pF
Solution 6.7
We will initially calculate the various time-delay factors. If we neglect the parasitic capacitance, the emitter-
base junction charging time is
e = r'eCje
where
kT 1 0.0259
r'e     25.9 
e IE 1  103
Then
e = (25.9)(10–12) = 25.9 ps
The base transit time is
xB2 (0.5  10 4 )2
b    50 ps
2Dn 2(25)
The collector depletion region transit time is
xdc 2.4  104

b    24 ps
vs 107
The collector capacitance charging time is

c = rc(C + Cs) = (20)(0.2 × 10–12) = 4 ps
The total emitter-to-collector time delay is then
ec = 25.9 + 50 + 24 + 4 = 103.9 ps
so that the cutofffrequency is calculated as
1 1
fT    1.53 GHz
2ec 2 (103.9  10 12 )
If we assume a low-frequency common-emitter current gain of  = 100, then the beta cutoff frequency is
fT 1.53  109
f    15.3 MHz
0 100
6.6 Switching of BJT

The ideal swith is that which do not allow any current to flow in off condition and in on state drop across
switch should be zero and it must allow any amount of current to flow. The BJT is the device in which voltage at
terminal B control flow of current from collector to emitter thus when BE junction is reverse biased or very low
or negative voltage is applied at base then device is off and no current will flow from collector to base. Now when
applied voltage at base is very high then base current is very high which take the device into saturation. In
saturation mode of operation the BJT allow any amount of current to flow and drop across the device
VCE = 0.2 V. Thus BJT act as turned on switch in saturation mode. We do not use BJT as turn on switch in active
region because in active region the VCE drop is high.
Thus BJT act as switch in cut off and saturation mode of operation.

6.6.1 Switching Characteristic

Consider an npn transistor in the circuit shown in Fig. 6.26 (a) switching from cutoff to saturation, and
then switching back from saturation to cutoff. We will describe the physical processes taking place in the transistor
during the switching cycle.
Consider, initially, the case of switching from cutoff to saturation. Assume that in cutoff VBE  VBB < 0,
thus tbe B-C junction is reverse biased. At t = 0, assume that VBB switches to a value of VBB0 as shown in
Fig.6.26(b). We will assume that VBB0 is sufficiently positive to eventually drive the transistor into saturation.
For 0 < t < t1, the base current supplies charge to bring the B-E junction from reverse bias to a slight forward
bias. The space charge width of the B-E junction is narrowing, and ionized donors and acceptors are being
neutralized A small amount of charge is also injected into the base during this time. The collector current
increases from zero to 10 percent of its final value during this time period, referred to as the delay time.
IC
RB RC
+
+ IB + VBB0
VBE
VBB – VCC
– Time
– VBB
–VR
t =0 t =t 3
(a) (b)
IC (sat)
0.9
ts
IC td tr tr
0.1
0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 Time
(c)
Fig 6.26 : (a) Circuit used for transistor switching (b) Input base drive for transistor switching
(c) Collector current versus time during transistor switching
During the next time period, t1  t  t2, the base current is supplying charge, which increases the B-E
junction voltage from near cutoff to near saturation. During this time, additional carriers are being injected into
the base so that the gradient of the minority carrier electron concentration in the base increases, causing the
collector current to increase. We refer to this time period as the rise time, during which the collector current
increases from 10 percent to 90 percent of the final value. For t > t2, the base drive continues to supply base
current, driving the transistor into saturation and establishing the final minority carrier distribution in the
device.
When device is working in saturation mode form time t2 to t3 then both the junction (BE and BC) are
forward biased and emitter inject electron in base, collector inject electron in base, base inject hole in collector
and emitter. Thus in saturation region the minority carrier profile is as shown in FIg 6.27(a)

Emitter Base Collector Emitter Base Collector
ni2
ni2 NC
Qbx ni2 NB
ni2 NE
ni2 QB
QC NC QC
NE
(a) (b)
ni2 ni2
NE NC
(c)
Fig 6.27 : (a) Minority carrier profile in saturation (b) minority carrier profile in equilibium
(c) minority carrier profile in cut off
So we can see that large amount of charges get stored in emitter, base and collector and when at t = t3
the voltage at base terminal is made highly negative then the current in the device should ideally go to zero but
practically the collector current will keep flowing with very little change or no change because of large amount
of excess minority carrier in collector, base and emitter (Fig 6.27(a)). Thus current will keep flowing as now
excees holes will move from collector to base and excees electron will move from base to collector and collector
current will flow from collector to base. Thus the excees carrier will keep on reducing and minority carrier
profile will change form that shown in Fig. 6.27 (a) to that shown in Fig 6.27 (b). Thus at time instant t4 the
carrier profile will be that shown in Fig. 6.27(b) thus from time t3 to t4 all excess carriers are removed and the
time t4 – t3 is called storage time t5, where all stoned charge are removed. This time delay is cailed the storage
time and is denoted by ts. The storage time is the time between the point at which VBB switches to the time when
the collector current is reduced to 90 percent of its maximum saturation value. The storage time is usually the
most important parameter in the switching speed of the bipolar transister.
Now after time t4 the current start reducing as now no excees carrier are left to support flow current.
Thus from time t4 to t5 the minority carrier profile changes from that shown in Fig.6.27 (b) to that shown in
Fig.6.27(c). Now at time t5 the device is in cut off. The time difference t5 – t4 is called fall time.
The final switching delay time is the fall tf during which the collector current decrease from the 90
percent to the 10 percent value. During this time, the B-C junction is reverse biased but excess carriers in the
base are still being removed, and the B-E junction voltage is decreasing.
6.6.2 The Schottky Transistor

One method frequently employed to reduce the storage time and increase the switching speed is the use
of a Schottky-clamped transistor. This is a normal npn bipolar device with a Schottky diode connected between
base and collector, as shown in Fig.6.28(a). The circuit symbol for the Schoitky-clamped transistor is shown in
Fig. 6.28(b). When the transistor is biased in the forward active mode, the B-C junction is reverse biased;
hence, the Schottky diode is reverse biased and effectively out of the circuit. When the transistor is driven into
saturation, the B-C junction becomes forward biased; hence the Schottky diode also becomes forward biased

and the effective turn on voltage of the Schottky diode is approximately half that of the pn junction. The amount
of excess stored charge in the base and collector is drastically reduced. The reduced excess stored charge in the
base of the Schottky transistor greatly reduces the storage time. The storage times of the order of 1 ns or less
are common in Schottky transistors.
C
C
B
B
E
E
(a) (b)
Fig 6.28 : (a) The Schottky-clamped transistor (b) Circuit symbol of the Schottky-clamped transistor
6.7 Various Configuration of BJT

Since BJT is a three terminal device when it is used as a two port network then one terminal is common
between both the ports. There are three configurations in which BJT can be used and they are
(i) common base configuration
(ii) common emitter configuration
(iii) common colector configuration
6.7.1 Common Base Configuration

In common base confguration base is common between input and output port, the input port is emitter-
base and output port is collector - base port.
E IE IC C
+ npn BJT +
in
Input Common Base
port VEB Configuration VCB Output
port
– –
B
Fig 6.29 : Common base configuration of npn BJT
Thus port 1 or input port has current and voltage IE and VEB (always current entering the port is taken
as positive). Thus for npn BJT the collector current enter the terminal, emitter current leave the terminal and
base current enter the terminal. Thus IE will be negative IB and IC will be positive
For defining BJT as a two port network we always use H parameter thus for common base configuration
 VEB   IE 
 I    HCB   
 C   VCB 
Thus input charactistic of CB configuration will be plot of VEB as a function of IE and VCB

Input characteristic of common base configuration

The characrestic is Fig 6.30. The plot VEB wrt IE for various valve of VCB is shown and we can see that
plot of VEB wrt IE is similar to that of diode plot but here the cut in voltage will be smaller than the normal diode
bacause VCB which is positive making BC junction reverse bias thus BC depletion region has electric field from
collector to base which drags electron from base to collector and produce collector current. VCB cannot be
negative, in the plot we can see that when VCB is open then the current - voltage plot will be exactly similar to
that of the diode. We can clearly see the difference between VEB – IE plot when VCB is positive and When VCB is
open.
Note: Obviosly VEB will negative and IE will be negative.
Output Characteristic of Common Base Characteristic

The output characteristic is the plot of IC as a function of VCB and IE. In forward active region when VCB
is greater than over –0.4 V the collector current IC is independent of VCB and IC = IE. In Fig. 6.31 we have
assumed that for VCB < 0 the device goes in saturation and for VCB > 0 the device remain in saturation. In many
other books we may find that saturation region exist when VCB < – 0.4 V.
VCB open
–0.4
Emitter voltage VEB, V
VCB = 0V
–0.2 +1
+10
+20
0 –10 –20 –30 –40 –50

Emitter current IE, mA
Fig 6.30 : Common base input characteristics of a typical npn transistor.

Saturation
region Active region
+50
IE=40 mA
+40
Collector current IC, mA
–30
+30
–20
+20
–10
+10
–0
0
ICO
VCB=0 Cutoff region
–0.25 0 +2 +4 +6 +8
Collector-to-base voltage drop VCB.V
Fig 6.31 : Typical common base output characteristics of a npntransistor.(we assumed  =1)

Saturation Region The region to the left of the ordinate, VCB = 0, and above the IE = 0 characteristics,
in which both emitter and collector junctions are forward-biased, is called the saturation region. We say that
“bottoming” has taken place because the voltage has fallen near the bottom of the characteristic where VCB  0.
Actually, VCB is slightly negative in this region, and this forward biasing of the collector accounts for the large
change in collector current with small changes in collector voltage.
Cutoff Region The characteristic for IE = 0 passes through the origin, but is otherwise similar to the
other characteristics. The region below ithfe IE = 0 characteristic, for which the emitter and collector junctions
are both reverse-biased, is referred to as the cutoff region.
6.7.2 The Common Emitter Configuration
In this configuration we have emitter common between both the ports of two port network, the input
port is base emitter port and output port is collector emitter port. The common emitter configuration is shown
in Fig. 6.32.
IC
B C
+ IB npn BJT +
Common emitter
Input Configuration
port VBE VCE Output
port
– –
B
Fig 6.32 : Common emitter configuration of BJT
The port 1 parameters are IB and VBE and port 2 parameters are IC and VCE. Here IB and IC both are
positive and VBE will also be positive. The H parameter for CE confiquration are
 VBE   IB 
 I    HCE   
 C   VCE 
Input Characteristic of Common Emitter Configuration

The input charactristic is plot of VBE as a fuction of IB and
VCE. For npn device VCE is always positive and plot is approximately
–0.6
as that of the normal pn diode. In fig 6.33 we can see that, with the T = 25°C
collector shorted to the emitter and the emitter forward-biased, the –0.5 VCE=+1.0V
input characteristic is essentially that of a forward-biased diode. If +0.3
+0.2
Base voltage VBE, V
VBE becomes zero, then IB will be zero, since under these conditions –0.4
both emitter and collector junctions will be short-circuited, +0.1
In general, increasing V CE with constantVBE causes a –0.3
0
decrease in base width W'B and results in a decreasing recombination
–0.2
base current. These considerations account for the shape of input
characterstics shown in Fig. 6.33.. –0.1
The output characteristic of common emitter confiquration 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

Base current I,BmA
The output characterstic is plot of IC wrt VCE for various
Fig 6.33 : Typical common-emitter
values of IB and is shown in Fig 6.34. The output characterstic show input characteristics of the transistor
early effect that is increase in VCE lead to increase in collector current
and for VCE > 0.2 V we have device in active region, for VCE < 0.2

V the device is in saturation region. In cut off region current that flow in device ICEO and we know that ICEO =
( + 1) ICBO.
Saturation
iC region
vCE= …
Active
region vCE= …
vCE= …
vCE= …
–VA 0 vCE
Fig 6.34 : The outpu characteristics of a CE configuration of BJT.
REMEMBER If in a question we have to find total collector current then

IC = I + ICEO
= I + ( + 1)ICBO
IC  ICBO
  
I  ICBO
6.8 Eber Moll (EM) MODEL

We can approximate the BJT in forward active mode, where BE junction is forward biased and BC
junction is reverse biased with a large signal model as shown in Fig 6.35.
C
iC
Fi E
iB
B
+ iE DE
(ISE = IS /F)
v BE
–
E
Fig 6.35 : Large-signal equivalent-circuit models of the npn BJT operating in the forward active mode.
Here we have shown forward biased BE junction as diode and collector current is FiE. Thus we can see

that
Is vBE
iE  exp
F vT
iC = FiE
Here F is common base current gain in forward active mode.
Similarly we have large signal model for reverse active mode BJT where BC junction is forward biased
and it is shown by a diode and here emitter current will be RiC. Here R is common base current gain in
reverse active mode. Fig 6.36 show large signal model of reverse active mode BJT
C
iC DC
(ISC = IS/R)
Ri C
E
Fig 6.36 : Model for the npn transistor when operated in the reverse active mode
(i.e., with the CBJ forward biased and the EBJ reverse biased)
The model of Fig. 6.36 can be combined with that of Fig. 6.37 to obtain the circuit model shown in
Fig. 6.38. Note that we have relabelled the current through DE and DC, and the corresponding control currents
of the controlled sources, as iDE and iDC. Ebers and Moll, two early workers in the area, have shown that this
composite model can be used to predict the operation of the BJT in all of its possible modes. To see how this can
be done, we derive expressions for the terminal currents iE, iC, ad iB in terms of the junction voltages vBE and
vBC. Toward that end, we write an expression for the current at each of the three nodes of the model in Fig. 6.38
as follows:
i E = iDE – RiDC …(6.60)
iC = –iDC + FiDE …(6.61)
i B = (1 – F)iDE + (1 – R)iDC …(6.62)
Then we use the diode equation to express iDE and iDC as
iDE  iSE ( evBE / vT  1) …(6.63)
and iDC  iSC ( evBC / vT  1) …(6.64)

C
iC
DC i DC Fi DE
B
iB
DE i DE Ri DC
iE
E
Fig 6.38 : The Ebers-Moll (EM) model of the npn transistor.
The diode DE in Fig 6.36 has scale current ISE and in Fig 6.37 diode DC has scale current ISC. Generally
the area of BC junction is mach greater than EB junction thus
ISC >> ISE
The two scale currents have, of course, the same ratio as the areas of the corresponding junctions.
Furthermore, a simple and elegant formula relates the scale currents ISE, ISC, and IS and the current gains F
and R, namely
FISE = RISC = IS …(6.65)
E B C
p n
Fig 6.39 : Cross-section of an npn BJT.

Substituting for iDE and iDC in Eqs.(6.60), (6.61) and (6.62) and using the relationship in Eq.(6.62)
yield the required expressions:
 IS vBE / vT
iE   ( e  1)  IS ( evBC / vT  1) …(6.66)
 F
 I 
iC  IS ( evBE / vT  1)   S  ( evBC / vT  1) …(6.67)
 R 
 IS  vBE / vT I 
iB   (e  1)   S  ( evBC / vT  1) …(6.68)
 F   R 
where
F
F  …(6.69)
1  F
and

R
R  …(6.70)
1  R
As a first application of the EM model, we shall use it to predict the terminal currents of a transistor
operating in the forward active mode. Here vBE is is positive and in the range of 0.6 V to 0.8 V, and vBC is
negative. One can easily see that terms containing evBC / vT will be negligibly small and can be neglected to obtain
 IS  vBE / vT  1 
iE   e  IS 1   …(6.71)
 F   F 
v /v  1 
iC  IS e BE T  IS   1 …(6.72)

 R 
 IS  vBE / vT  1 1 
iB   e  IS    …(6.73)
 F   F R 
In each of these three equations, one can normally neglect the second term on the right-hand side.
Thus far, we have stated the condition for forward active mode operation as vCB  0 to ensure that the
CBJ is reverse biased. In actual fact, however, a pn junction does not
iC
Saturation Active mode
mode FIE
–0.4 V 0 vCB
Expanded
scale
Fig 6.39 : The iC–vCB characteristic of an npn transistor fed with a constant emitter current IE. The transistor enters the
saturation mode of operation for vCB < –0.4 V, and the collector current diminished.
Become effectively forward biased until the forward voltage across it exceeds approxi-mately 0.5 V. It
follows that one can maintain active mode operation of an npn transistor for negative vCB down to approximately
-0.4 V or so. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.9, which shows a sketch of iC versus vCB for an npn transistor operated
with a constant-emitter current IE. Observe that iC remains constant at FIE for vCB going negative to
approximately –0.4 V. Below this value of vCB > the CBJ begins to conduct sufficiently that the transistor leaves
the active mode and enters the saturation mode of operation, where iC decreases. We shall study BJT saturation
next. For now, however, note that we can use the EM equations to verify that the terms containing evBC/vT remain
negligibly small for vBC as high as 0.4 V.

(a) the ideal case when no recombination occurs in

the base, and
(b) the case when xB = LB = 10 m.
(c) Assuming DB = 10 cm2/s, calculate the diffusion
1 Subjective Practice Problems current density at x = 0 and x = xB for the

conditions in parts (a) and (b). Determine the
ratio J(x = xB)/J(x = 0) for the two cases.
1 . The parameters in the base region of an npn bipolar
transistor are Dn = 20 cm2/s, nB0 = 104 cm–3, 6 . An npn silicon bipolar transistor at T = 300 K has
xB = 1 mm, and ABE = 10–4 cm2. uniform dopings of NE = 1019 cm–3, NB = 1017 cm–3,
(a) calculate the magnitude of IS. and NC = 7 × 1015 cm–3. The transistor is operating
(b) Determine the collector current for in the inverse-active mode with VBE = –2 V and
(i) vBE = 0.5 V, (ii) vBE = 0.6 V, and VBC = 0.565 V.
(iii) vBE = 0.7 V. (a) Sketch the minority carrier distribution through
the device.
2 . (a) In a bipolar transistor biased in the forward-
(b) Determine the minority carrier concentrations
active region, the base current is iB = 6.0 mA
at x = xB and x'' = 0.
and the collector current is i C = 510 A.
(c) If the metallurgical base width is 1.2 m,
Determine , , and iE.
determine the neutral base width.
(b) Repeat part (a) if iB = 50 mA and iC = 2.65 mA.
7 . A uniformly doped silicon pnp bipolar transistor at
3 . A uniformly doped silicon npn bipolar transistor is to
T = 300 K with dopings of NE = 5 × 1017 cm–3,
be biased in the forward-active mode with the B-C
NB = 1016 cm–3, and NC = 5 × 1014 cm–3 is biased in
junction reverse biased by 3 V. The metallurgical
the inverse-active mode. What is the maximum B-C
base width is 1.10 m. The transistor dopings are
voltage so that the low-injection condition applies?
NE = 1017 cm–3, NB = 1016 cm–3, and NC = 1015 cm–3,
(a) For T = 300 K, calculate the B-E voltage at which 8 . The following currents are measured in a uniformly
the minority carrier electron concentration at doped npn bipolar transistor:
x = 0 is 10 percent of the majority carrier hole InE = 1.20 mA IpE = 0.10 mA
concentration. InC = 1.18 mA IR = 0.20 mA
(b) At this bias, determine the minority carrier hole IG = 0.001 mA Ipc0 = 0.001 mA
concentration at x' = 0. Determine
(c) Determine the neutral base width for this bias (a) , (b) ,
(c) T, (d) , and
4 . A silicon npn bipolar transistor is uniformly doped
(e) .
and biased in the forward-active region. The neutral
base width is xB = 0.8 m. The transistor doping 9 . A silicon npn transistorat T = 300 K has an area of
concentrations are N E = 5 × 10 17 cm –3 , 10–3 cm2, neutral base width of 1 m, and doping
NB = 1016 cm–3, and NC = 1015 cm–3. concentrations of NE = 1018 cm–3, NB = 1017 cm–3,
(a) Calculate the values of pE0, nB0, and pC0. NC = 1016 cm–3. Other semiconductor parameters
(b) For VBE = 0.625 V, determine nB at x = 0 and pE are DB = 20 cm2/s, E0 = B0 = 10–7 s, and C0 = 10–6 s.
at x' = 0. Assuming the transistor is biased in the active region
(c) Sketch the minority carrier concentrations and the recombination factor is unity, calculate the
through the device and label each curve. collector current for:
(a) VBE = 0.5 V, (b) IE = 1.5 mA, and
5 . Consider a pnp bipolar transistor. Assume that the
(c) IB = 2  A.
excess minority carrier hole concentrations at the
edges of the B-E and B-C space charge regions are
pB(0) = 8 × 1014 cm–3 and pB(xB) = –2.25 × 104
cm–3, respectively. Plot, on the same graph, pB(x)
for

10. Consider a uniformly doped npn bipolar transistor (a) Determine the hole diffusion current density in
at T = 300 K with the following parameters: the base for V BC = 5 V, V BC = 10 V, and
NE = 1018 cm–3 NB = 5 × 1016 cm–3 VBC = 15 V.
15
NC = 10 cm –3 (b) Estimate the Early voltage.
DE = 8 cm2/s DB = 15 cm2/s
2
14. The base width of a bipolar transistor is normally
DC = 12 cm /s
small to provide a large current gain and increased
TE0 = 10–8 s TB0 = 5 × 10–8 s
speed. The base width also affects the Early voltage.
C0 = 10–7 s
In a silicon npn bipolar transistor at T = 300 K, the
xE = 0.8 mm xB = 0.7 mm
Jr0 = 3 × 10–8 A/cm2 doping concentrations are N E = 10 18 cm –3 ,
For VBE = 0.60 V and VCE = 5 V, calculate NB = 3 × 1016 cm–3, and NC = 5 × 1015 cm–3. Assume
(a) the currents JnE, JpE, JnC and JR, and DB = 20 cm2/s and B0 = 5 × 10 –7 s, and let
(b) the current gain factors , T, , , and . V BE = 0.70 V. Using voltages V CB = 5 V and
VCB = 10 V as two data points, estimate the Early
11. Three npn bipolar transistors have identical voltage for metallurgical base widths of
parameters except for the base doping concentrations (a) 1.0 m, (b) 0.80 m, and
and neutral base widths. The base parameters for (c) 0.60 m.
the three devices are as follows:
Device Base doping Base width 15. Consider a silicon npn bipolar transistor with uniform
A NB = NB0 xE = xE0 dopings of NE = 5 × 1018 cm–3, NB = 1017 cm–3, and
B NB = 2NB0 xE = xE0 NC = 5 × 1015 cm–3. Assume the common base
C B = NB0 xE = xE0/2 current gain is  = 0.9920. Determine
(a) BVCBO,
(The base doping concentration for the B device is
(b) BVCEO, and
twice that of A and C, and the neutral base width for
(c) the base-emitter breakdown voltage. (Assume
the C device is half that of A and B.)
n = 3 for the empirical constant.)
(a) Determine the ratio of the emitter injection
efficiency of (i) device B to device A, and (ii) 16. Consider a silicon npn transistor at T = 300 K. Assume
device C to device A. the following parameters:
(b) Repeat part (a) for the base transport factor. IE = 0.5 mA Cje = 0.8 pF
(c) Repeat part (a) for the recombination factor. xB = 0.7 mm Dn = 25 cm2/s
(d) Which device has the largest common-emitter xdc = 2.0 mm rc = 30 
current gain ? Cs = C = 0.08 pF  = 50
(a) Calculate the transit time factors.
12. Repeat problem 11 for three devices in which the
(b) Calculate the cutoff and beta cutoff frequencies,
emitter parameters vary. The emitter parameters for
fT and f, respectively.
the three devices are as follows:
Device Base doping Base width 17. Assume the base transit time of a BJT is 100 ps and
A NE = NE0 xE = xE0 carriers cross the 1.2 m B-C space charge region at
B NE = 2NE0 xE = xE0 a speed of 107 cm/s. The emitter-base junction
C NE = NE0 xE = xE0/2 charging time is 25 ps and the collector capacitance
and resistance are 0.10 pF and 10 W, respectively.
13. A silicon pnp bipolar transistor at T = 300 K has
Determine the cutoff frequency.
uniform dopings of NE = 1018 cm–3, NB = 1016 cm–3,
and NC = 1015 cm–3. The metallurgical base width is
1.2 m. Let DB = 10 cm2/s and B0 = 5 × 10–7 s.
Assume that the minority carrier hole concentration
in the base can be approximated by a linear
distribution. Let VEB = 0.625 V.

3 . What will be the values of p E 0 , n B 0 and p C 0

(in cm–3)?
pE0 nB0 pC0
4.5 × 102 2.25 × 104 2.25 × 105
1
(a)
Objective Practice Problems (b) 2.25 × 104 4.5 × 102 2.25 × 105
(c) 2.25 × 105 2.25 × 104 4.5 × 102
Common Data for Q.1 and 2 (d) 4.5 × 102 2.25 × 105 2.25 × 104
1 . In a bipolar transistor biased in the forward-active 4 . At x = 0, total minority carrier electron

region, the base current is is iB = 6.0 mA and the concentration, nB for VBE = 0.625 V will be
collector current is iC = 510 mA. What will be the (a) 1.34 × 106 cm–3 (b) 3.02 × 1010 cm–3
10
(c) 6.8 × 10 cm –3 (d) 6.80 × 1014 cm–3
values of ,  and is iE ?
  iE 5 . At x = 0, total minority carrier hole concentration,
(a) 0.9884 85 516 A pB for VBE = 0.625 V will be
(b) 0.0117 13.25 504 A (a) 1.36 × 1011 cm–3 (b) 6.12 × 1015 cm–3
(c) 0.8673 8.5 516 A. 13
(c) 1.36 × 10 cm –3 (d) 3.02 × 1011 cm–3
(d) 0.9884 85 504 A.
Common Data For Q. 6 and 7
2 . Consider the geometry of an npn transistor as shown
in figure below. An npn silicon bipolar transistor at T = 300 K has uniform
Emitter Collector dopings of N E = 10 19 cm –3 , N B = 10 17 cm –3 and
Base
- n- -p - - n- NC = 7 × 1018 cm–3. The transistor is operating in the
inverse-active mode with VBE = – 2 V and VBC = 0.565 V.
xE xB xC 6 . The minority carrier concentrations (in cm–3) at
x = xB and x" = 0 will be respectively
x = x E x =0 x =0 x =x B x =0 x =x C
x x x
(a) 6.7 × 1012, 9.56 × 1013
(b) 2.97 × 1012, 9.56 × 1013
A uniformly doped silicon npn bipolar transistor is to (c) 6.7 × 1012, 2.97 × 109
be biased in the forward-active mode with the B-C (d) 2.97 × 1012, 2.97 × 109
junction reverse biased by 3 V. The metallurgical
7 . If the metallurgical base width is 1.2 m, what will
base width is 1.10 m. The transistor dopings are
be the neutral base width of the transistor ?
NE = 1017 cm–3, NB = 1016 cm–3 and NC =1015 cm–3
(a) 0.994 m (b) 1.187 m
at T = 300 K. What is the required B-E voltage at
(c) 1.006 m (d) 1.20 m
which the minority carrier electron concentration at
x = 0 is 10 percent of the majority carrier hole Common Data For Q. 8 to 10
concentration ?
A uniform doped silicon pnp transistor is biased in the
(a) 0.016 V (b) 24.51 V
forward-active mode. Its geometry has been shown in
(c) 0.0408 V (d) 0.635 V
the figure below. The doping concentrations are
Common Data For Q. 3 to 5 NE = 1018 cm–3, NB = 5 × 1016 cm–3 and NC = 1015 cm–3.
A silicon npn bipolar transistor is uniformly doped and
biased in the forward-active region. The neutral base -p - - n- -p -
width is x B = 0.8 m. The transistor doping
concentrations are NE = 5 × 1017 cm–3, NB = 1016 cm–3, xE xB xC
and NC = 1015 cm–3.
x = x E x =0 x =0 x =x B x =0 x =x C
x x x

8 . What will be the thermal equilibrium minority carrier 14. Consider the transistor shown in figure below :
concentrations, nB0, pB0 and nC0 (in cm–3)?
nB0 pB0 nC0
(a) 2.25 × 102 2.25 × 105 4.5 × 103
(b) 2.25 × 102 4.5 × 103 2.25 × 105
(c) 4.5 × 103 2.25 × 102 2.25 × 105
(d) 4.5 × 103 2.25 × 105 2.25 × 102
+
9 . For VEB = 0.650 V, total minority carrier hole 6V –
concentration, pB at x = 0 will be
(a) 4.68 × 103 cm–8 (b) 7.93 × 1013 cm–3
4
(c) 5.54 × 10 cm –3 (d) 3.57 × 1014 cm–3 The transistor is operating in
(a) Forward-Active region
10. For VEB = 0.650 V, total minority carrier (electron)
(b) Reverse-Active region
concentration, nE at x' = 0 will be
(c) Saturation region
(a) 1.78 × 1013 cm–3 (b) 7.91 × 1012 cm–3
2 –8
(d) Cutoff region
(c) 2.34 × 10 cm (d) 4.31 × 102 cm–3
15. Consider the transistor shown in figure below.
Common Data For Q. 11 and 12
The following currents are measured in a uniformly doped

npn bipolar transistor:
InE = 1.20 mA IpE = 0.10 mA
InC = 1.18 mA IR = 0.20 mA
IG = 0.001 mA Ipc0 = 0.001 mA
+
11. What wijl be the values of ,  and  ? 6V –
  
(a) 0.787 0.923 3.69
The transistor is operating in
(b) 0.923 3.69 0.787
(c) 0.787 3.69 0.923
(d) 3.69 0.787 0.923
(c) Saturation region
12. What will be the values of T and  respectively ? (d) Cutoff region
(a) 0.983 and 0.923 (b) 0.923 and 3.69
16. The transistor given below is operating in
(c) 0.787 and 0.867 (d) 0.983 and 0.867

–
3V +
+
6V –
+
6V –

What is the region of operation of the transistor ? (c) Saturation region
(a) Forward-Active (b) Reverse-Active (d) Cutoff region
(b) Saturation (d) Cutoff

17. An npn silicon transistor is biased in the inverse active The mode of operation of the transistor is
mode with VBE = – 3 V and VBC = 0.6 V. The doping (a) reverse active mode
concentrations are NE = 1018 cm–3, NB = 1017 cm–3 (b) cut off mode
and N C = 10 16 cm –3 . Other parameters are (c) forward active mode
x B = 1 m,  E 0 =  B 0 =  C 0 = 2 × 10 –7 s, (d) saturation mode
DE = 10 cm2/s, DB = 20 cm2/s, DC = 15 cm2/s and 21. If the value of forward  is on the order of 100, while
A = 10–3 cm2. The collector and emitter currents in reverse  is on the order of 0.1, then what will be
the transistor will be respectively (Neglect geometry the value of F and R ?
factors and assume that the recombination factor is F R
unity) (a) 0.049 0.49
(a) 1.19 mA, 0.829 mA (b) 0.829 mA, 1.19 mA (b) 0.99 0.09
(c) 0.359 mA, 0.47 mA (d) 0.47 mA, 0.359 mA (c) 0.09 0.99
Common Data For Q. 18 and 19 (d) 0.49 0.049
The electron and hole currents inside a pnp BJT biased 22. To increase the upper frequency limit of pnp
in the active mode are plotted in figure. All the currents transistor with the help of
are referenced to I1, the hole current injected to the (1) Physical size of the device should be kept small
base. (2) Base width should be kept small to reduce transit
Hole current time
Ip In
(3) Base, emitter and collector areas should be kept
small to reduce junction capacitance
Which of the above statements are correct?
I1 I1 0.999I1 0.999I1 (a) (1), (2) (b) (2), (3)
(c) (1), (3) (d) (1), (2), (3)
0.001I1 10–6 I1
23. For an Si pnp transistor biased in the active region
0.001I1
with  = 1, width of the base region = 0.5 m, hole
x diffusion coefficient Dp = 15 cm2/sec. If the frequency
E B C
response is dominated by transit time delay, what is
18. What is the value of common emitter dc current gain the approximate upper frequency limit ?
(dc) ? (a) 1.91GHz (b) 1.91MHz
(a) 100 (b) 99 (c) 8.33 GHz (d) 8.33 MHz
(c) 999 (d) 499
24. Consider the transistor whose IC–VCE curvese are
19. What is the base current (IB) ? shown in figure.
(a) .999 I1, mA (b) 0.999 I1 Amp IB=40 A
(c) 1.999 I1 mA (d) 1.999 I1 Amp 5.4
5
30 A
+V 4
IC(mA)
3.7
3 20 A
RC 2
10 A
4.9 V 1
4.8 V
0
4.1 V 0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5
VCE(V)
RE
What is the value of early voltage (Volt)?
(a) –11 V (b) 0.5 V
(c) –100 V (d) –20 V

25. What is mode of operation of the transistor circuit 28. Which transistors have the largest value of collector
shown in figure below? junction capacitance with VCB reverse biased at
+V 10 V?
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 2 and 3
RE
29. Assume the base transit time of a BJT is l00 ps and
0.7 V carriers cross the 1.2 n B-C space charge region at
a speed of 107 cm/s. The emitter-base junction
charging time is 25 ps and the collector capacitance
–5 V
and resistance are 0.10 pF and 10 , respectively.
RC The cutoff frequency fT will be
(a) 2.3 GHz (b) 1.15 GHz
(c) 0.575 GHz (d) 7.24 GHz
–V
(a) reverse active mode 30. Consider the circuit shown below. If VS = 0.63 V,
(b) cut off mode I1 = 275 A, and I2 = 125 A then the value of I3 is
(c) forward active mode
(d) saturation mode
26. If a pnp transistor is marie with the name dimension I1

I2
and doping concentration as an npn. then which of
the following statement is true ?
(a) the value of  in npn is greater with respect to
VS +
pnp transistor – I3
(b) the value of  in pnp is greater with respect to
npn transistor
(c) the value of  is same in npn and pnp transistor (a) –400 A (b) 400 A
(d) None of the above (c) –600 A (d) 600 A
Common Data For Q. 27 to 28 31. Consider the circuit shown below. For the source
Three npn transistors in identical swept that tnmnrtcr voltage VS = 0.63 V, the currents are IC = 275 A
(2) has a bass region twioe as long as transistor (1), sad and IB = 5 A.
transistor (3), has a base ngioo doped twice as heavily as
tranaiater (1). All other dopings and lengths are Identical
for the three tranaistora.
w 2w
n p n n p n
VS +
Na = N1 N1 –
(1) (2)
w
The forward common emitter gain F is
(a) 56 (b) 55
(c) 0.9821 (d) 0.9818
2N1
(3)
27. Which transistors have the largest value of punch

through voltage ?
(a) 2 and 3 (b) 2
(c) 1, 2, 3 are same (d) 3

32. Consider the transistor circuit shown in figure below. 38. What is base transit time (in psec) for electron in
VCC the npn prototype transistor base doping level of
1017 cm–3 and base width of wB = 0.1 m and electron
diffusion constant Dn = 20 cm2/sec?
39. If the collector current is IC = 100 A, what will be

the value of transconductance gm(in ms) of the BJT?
RC IC1 IC2 RC
Common Data For Q. 40 to 41
Using the prototype model (ignore the apparent band
Vin Vref gap narrowing and its effect on injection efficiency) for
Q1 Q2
an npn with NDE = 1019 cm–3, NAB = 2 × 1017 cm–3,
N DC = 10 17 cm –3 let V BE = 0.8 V, V CB = 2 V.
The metallurgical widths are w EB = 0.2 m and
IEE wBM = 0.2 m. The minority carrier diffusion constant
DPE = 3.8 cm2/sec, DnB = 15 cm2/sec and intrinsic carrier
concentration ni = 1.08 × 1010 cm–3.
For the case, Vin = Vref + 0 3 V, what is the ratio of 40. What is the value of ?
lC1/lC2 ?
(a) 103 (b) 300 41. What is the value of ?
(c) 105 (d) 3 × 103
42. Consider the figure shown below.
33. The collector current of bipolar is iC = 2 mA if the 1020
output resistance is greater than 10 . What is the
value of early voltage VA for the transistor? 1019
(a) VA < 20 V (b) VA < 10 V
(c) VA > 10 V (d) VA > 20 V
1018
|ND – NA|(cm–3)
Common Data For Q. 34 to 35 NAB(0+)

17
2×10
For a BJT, IC = 5.2 A, IB = 50 A, and ICBO = 0.5 A. 17
10
34. The value of  is NAB(WB)
2×1016
(a) 103 (b) 91
1016
(c) 83 (d) 51
35. The value of IE is 1015

(a) 5.25 mA (b) 5.4 mA 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(c) 5.65 mA (d) 5.1 mA
Transition regions
Common Data For Q. 36 to 37 Depth (m)
The leakage current of a transistor are ICBO = 5 A and
Find the built in electric field in base region
ICEO = 0.4 mA and IB = 30 A
(in kV/cm)
36. The value of  is
(a) 79 (b) 81
(c) 80 (d) None of the above Given an npn BJT where IEn = 100 A, IEp = 1 A,
ICn = 99 A and ICp = 0.1 mA
37. The value of IC is
(a) 2.4 mA (b) 2.77 mA 43. What is the value of base current (in mA) ?
(c) 2.34 mA (d) 1.97 mA 44. What is the value of gain, dc?
45. What is the value of ICEO (in A)

Common Data For Q. 46 to 48 Assume that one-half of the base current enters from
Given a pnp BJT where IEp = 1 A, IEn = 0.01 A, each side of the emitter strip and flows uniformly to the
ICp = 0.98 A, and ICn = 0.1 A. centre of the emitter. Assume the following parameters
for the transistor:
46. What is the value of base current IB (in A)?
NB = 1016 cm–3 xB = 0.70 m
47. What is the value of dc? p = 400 cm3/V-s S = 8 m
Emitter length L = 100 m
48. What is the value of ICEO?
52. The resistance between x = 0 and x = S/2 for the
flow of base current (IB) will be _______ .
A Si pnp BJT with NAE = 5 × 1017/cm3, NDB = 1015/cm3,
NAC = 1014/cm3 and wB = 3 m is maintained under 53. If IB = 20 A then, the voltage drop between x = 0
equilibrium conditions at room temperature. and x = S/2 will be ______ mV.
49. What is the net potential difference (in volt) between 54. If VBE = 0.6 V at x = 0 then what will be the
the collector and emitter ? percentage of the number of electrons being injected
into the base at x = S/2, compared to x = 0.
50. If built in potential of E-B junction is 0.757 V, then
the maximum magnitude of the electric field in the Common Data For Q.55 to 56
E-B depletion region is ___________ × 104 V/cm. An npn silicon bipolar transistor has a base doping
concentration of NB = 1017 cm–3, a collector doping
51. In a particular bipolar transistor, the base transit time
concentration of NC = 1016 cm–3, a metallurgical base
is 20 percent of the total delay time. The base width
width of 1.1 m and a base minority carrier diffusion
is 0.5 m and the base diffusion coefficient is
coefficient of DB = 20 cm2/s. The transistor is biased in
DB = 20 cm2/s. The cutoff frequency, fT will be
the forward-active region with VBE = 0.60 V. If VCB changes
_______ MHz.
from 1 V to 5 V then answer the follwoing.
55. The corresponding change in the neutral base width
Consider the npn transistor shown in figure.
will be _________ m.
56. The corresponding change in the collector current

L will be________A/cm2.
S
IB/2 Emitter IB/2
Base
Collector
x =0 x B x =S/2

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Cha pter

6.1 The Bopolar Transistor Action

Emitter Collector Emitter Collector

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6.1.1 The Basic principal of operation

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E-B space B-C space

Emitter Base Collector

Zero bias Forward active

6.1.2 Transistor Current Relation

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and iE2 = hole diffusion current

The negative sign show that current flow in –x.

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6.1.3 The Mode of Operation

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Fig 6.5 : An npn bipolar transistor in a common-emmitter circuit configuration

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6.2 Minority Carrier Profile

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electron concentrations in the emitter, base, and collector

3.2.1 Forward Active Mode

Emitter Base Collector

x = x E x =0 x =0 x =x B x =0 x =x C

x =x E x =0 x =0 x =x B x =0

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Note: Here LC  DC  C0

6.2 Carrier Profile in Other Mode of Operation

1 Cut Off Mode

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and at edge BC junction will be

Since vBE > vBC and NE > NB > NC thus we get

3 Reverse Active Mode

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Thus we can see in minority carrier profile that

Emitter Base Collector

3.3 Low Frequency Common Base Current gain

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x =x E x =0 x =0 x =x B x =0

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Emitter Injection Efficience

JnE = Current density due to diffusion of electrons

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and J pE = Current density due to diffusion of holes

Thus to have   1 we need NBxB << NExE

Base Transport Factor

where, Jr0 = factor of recombination current

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LB  DBB0  (10)(107 )  103 cm

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6.4 Non ideal effects in BJT Transistor

6.4.1 Base width Modulation

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are in the 100 to 300 volt range.

From Fig. 6.15, we can write that

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6.4.2 High Level Injection

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Short circuit current gain

6.4.3 Emitter Band gap Narrowing

6.4.4 Current Crowding

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