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Make the most of your plastics: an e-manual
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This site aims to help people with plastics in their care make the most of them. It is intended for
those with little or no prior knowledge of plastics and as a starting point for further exploration. It
will help you identify and look after objects made of plastics whatever the subject of your
museum. It also demonstrates how plastics have increasingly become significant for how life is
lived with the intention of suggesting stories about plastics relevant to museums of widely
different subject areas.
Menu:
o Plastics stories
o Plastics identification
o Plastics care
o Sources of information
o Contact us
o Contributors
PLASTICS STORIES
Plastics have infiltrated almost everything to do with life and living from aviation to zip fasteners.
They are found in art and design, social history and technological collections and are also among
the ethnographic materials of the 20th century. They are a significant part of our cultural heritage.
The stories that can be told about plastics are infinite. The Plastics timeline introduces different
plastics in a way that it is hoped will make clear the relevance of plastics to museums of diverse
subject matter and suggest themes for research and display about plastics.
o Plastics timeline
Plastics Timeline
1712 John O’Brisset moulds snuff boxes from horn.
1823 Macintosh uses rubber gum to waterproof cotton and the ‘mac’ is born.
1839 First deliberate chemical modification of a natural polymer produces vulcanised

rubber, see vulcanite.
1851 Gutta percha used to insulate submarine telegraph cables between England and
France.
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1854 Shellac mixed with wood flour patented in USA as moulding material for making
‘union cases’, protective frames for daguerreotypes and ambrotypes, early forms
of photographs on glass.
1855 Soccer ball with vulcanised rubber panels, glued at the seams, designed and
produced by Charles Goodyear.
1861-87 Queen Victoria’s mourning for the Prince Consort fuels the production of imitation
jet mourning jewellery in such materials as cellulose nitrate, hard rubber and
horn.
1862 A range of toiletry and household objects, some imitating the appearance of
tortoiseshell and ivory, made of an early form of cellulose nitrate, is displayed at
the International Exhibition in London. The material was called Parkesine after its
inventor Alexander Parkes. Ultimately Parkesine fails as a commercial venture.
1870 In USA Hyatt brothers in search of substitute material for ivory billiard balls turn
cellulose nitrate into a commercially viable material. Dental palates are one of
their good sellers. They register the name ‘Celluloid’ for their material in 1873.
1884 Cellulose nitrate modified to make artificial silk, called Chardonnet silk.
1889 Dunlop Rubber Company founded and motor industry revolutionised.
1888 First commercially successful celluloid (cellulose nitrate) photographic film

introduced by George Eastman Kodak.
1890 Thermoforming introduced and used to make babies’ rattles from cellulose
nitrate.
1892 Cellulose acetate modified to make a form of artificial silk, called viscose. By
1904 this was known as rayon.
1898 Beginning of mass-production of 78 rpm gramophone records from shellac, for

which it remains the most common material until the 1940s.
1899 Casein formaldehyde patented as Galalith in Germany.
1905 Laminated safety glass, first with gelatine but then with cellulose nitrate inter-
layer introduced.
1907 First synthetic (lab made) plastic, phenol formaldehyde, better known as Bakelite,
later known as ‘the material of a 1000 uses’ introduced.
1910 Viscose stockings begin to be manufactured.
1913 Formica invented.
1915 Queen Mary orders casein jewellery at the British Industries Fair.
1916 Rolls Royce boasts about use of phenol formaldehyde in its car interiors.
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1920 Hermann Staudinger publishes his realisation that plastics are made up of
polymers. Only in 1953 was the value of his work properly recognised when he
was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry.
1926 Harrods, the London store, mounts a display of Beetle products, made from a
form of thiourea-urea formaldehyde. It is a huge success.
National Grid for electricity is established, fuelling the desire for consumer goods
that plug in and switch on, often with plastic housings.
1929 Bakelite Ltd receives its largest ever order of phenol formaldehyde for the
manufacture of the casing of the Siemens Neophone Number 162 telephone.
1930 Scotch Tape, the first transparent (see cellulose acetate) sticky tape, invented.
1933 The British Plastics Federation, the oldest national organisation in the world with
plastics in its name, set up.
1935 Couturier, Elsa Schiaparelli, begins to use zips made of cellulose nitrate and
cellulose acetate in her garments.
1936 Acrylic (polymethyl methacrylate) canopies used in Spitfire fighter planes. From
1940 it becomes the most widely used material for aircraft glazing.
1938 First toothbrush with plastic tufts manufactured. The tufts were made of nylon
(polyamide).
Introduction of plastic contact lenses. The lenses were made of acrylic

(polymethyl methacrylate).
1939 First polythene factory opens in Britain. Polythene plays a crucial role in the
insulation of British radar cables during World War II. Entire production for
military use.
Plastic Man, a fictional comic-book hero, first appears.
1945 End of the war releases a range of plastics developed to support the war effort on
the commercial market looking for uses.
1947 First acrylic (polymethyl methacrylate) paint (dissolved in turpentine) becomes

available. Appreciated by artists such as Roy Lichtenstein for its intensity and
rapid drying properties.
Tupperware, with flexible seals made possible by the invention of polythene,

patented in the USA.
1948 Introduction of long playing vinyl copolymer gramophone records
1949 Charles and Ray Eames glass reinforced plastic shell chair showed that plastic
could be more than a furniture covering or veneering material.
First Airfix self-assembly model produced. It was made of polystyrene.
Kartell, the Italian firm associated with plastic objects of desire for the home,
founded.
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1950 Silly Putty, made from silicon, launched at the New York Toy Fair.
Early 1950s The ubiquitous polythene bag makes its first appearance.
1951 First polythene bottle made by Sqezy.
1953 Commercialisation of polyester fibre introduces the concept of ‘wash and wear’
for fabrics.
Chevrolet Corvette, the first mass-produced car with a glass reinforced plastic
chassis, begins manufacture.
1954 Synthesis of polypropylene.
1956 Reliant Regal 111, first commercially successful all glass reinforced plastic
bodied car, goes on sale.
Eero Saarinen’s Tulip chair, the seat consisting of a glass reinforced plastic
moulded shell, launched.
1957 Invention of polyacetal, the first ‘engineering’ plastic.
The Monsanto Company’s House of the Future with 100% plastic structural parts
built at the entrance to Disneyland’s Tomorrowland.
Polyvinyl chloride road cones used in the construction of the M1 motorway.
1958 Invention of the silicon chip.
American Express launches first plastic credit card in US.
Lego decides to concentrate exclusively on plastic toys and patents its stud-and-
block coupling system. Originally made of cellulose acetate, it has been made of
ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) since1963.
1959 Birth of the Barbie doll, made mainly of PVC ( polyvinyl chloride) and the Lycra
(copolymer of polyurethane) bra.
Early 1960s Acrylic (polymethyl methacrylate) paint (diluted with water)

comes on market and is soon widely used by artists such as Warhol,
Rauschenberg and Hockney.
1962 Silicon gel breast implants pioneered successfully.
1963 Mary Quant launches her ‘Wet Collection” made of plasticised PVC (polyvinyl
chloride). It had taken two years to work out how to bond the seams successfully.
Robin Day polypropylene one-piece injection moulded chair shell begins

manufacture.
1965 Twiggy models John Bates’s plasticised PVC (polyvinyl chloride) dress.
1967 Inflatable PVC (polyvinyl chloride) ‘Blow’ chair designed by DePas, D’Urbino.,
Lomazzi and Scolari for Zanotta SpA, launched.
1969 Neil Armstrong plants a nylon (polyamide) flag on the moon.
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1969 Beatles’ song ‘Polythene Pam’, the kind of a girl that makes the News of the
World released on Abbey Road album.
1970 Verner Panton’s cantilevered stackable chair, the first whole chair to be made out
of a single piece of injection-moulded plastic becomes a reality. He had been
working on the design since 1960. The first pilot production models were made of
glass-reinforced polyester resin in 1967. It has since been made of polyester
integral foam, polyurethane, styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) and polypropylene.
1976 Plastic, in its great variety of types, said to be the material with the most uses in
the world.
Concorde with its nose cone of purpose-made plastic goes into service.
1977 PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) drinks bottle introduced.
1978 PolyStyrene, lead singer of the Punk band X-Ray Spex, bursts on the scene with
‘the day the world turned day glow’.
1980 During this decade ICI and Bayer launch PEEK, PES and PPS as the new
engineering thermoplastics, Costs are enormous but specialist applications make
a lasting market even after ICI retreats from the plastics market.
1982 First artificial heart made mainly of polyurethane implanted in a human.
1983 The slim Swatch watch launched, its case of ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene) and strap of PVC (polyvinyl chloride).
Authentics Ltd., British firm renowned for its sharp, modern designs in various
plastics for domestic use, founded.
1988 Triangular recycling symbols identifying different types of plastics introduced.
1990 First biodegradable plastics launched by ICI
1993 Alessi designs its first all plastic product: the Gino Zucchino sugar pourer
designed by Guido Venturini.
1994 Smart car with lightweight flexible integrally coloured polycarbonate panels
introduced.
1998 Amorphous free standing Zanussi Oz fridge, with insulation and outer-skins
made in one process from polyurethane foam, launched.
2000 Issues relating to sustainability and the creation of plastics from renewable
sources start gathering momentum.
2005 Nasa explores the advantages of a polythene-based material, RXF1,

for the space-ship that will send man to Mars.
2007 Tate Britain‘s Christmas tree decorated with plastic Airfix planes.
PLASTICS IDENTIFICATION
o Clues to get you started
5
o Materials: the basics
o A – Z of plastic materials
o Manufacturing processes: the basics
o A – Z of manufacturing processes
Clues to get you started

There will always be something you can glean from an object itself to help you decide what
material it is made of or how it was manufactured. If you have any thoughts to contribute to the
questions below click on them and find out how what you know may help. The notes attached to
each question aim to help you make the most of what you know about the object to narrow down
the options. Once you have done that you can go to the particular materials in the A –Z of plastic
materials or the particular manufacturing processes in the A - Z of manufacturing processes to
look in more detail at what you have decided are the probabilities.
When was it made?

What does it look like?
What does it feel like?
Does it smell?
What signs of deterioration can you see?
What marks are on it?
When was it made?

If you have an idea when the object was made, use the information under the relevant date span
to narrow down the probabilities. Bear in mind though what you are getting are probabilities not
certainties. Many plastics have had long periods of gestation and, as more and more plastics are
invented, some become outmoded but nonetheless stay in production. And, although some
materials are used most often with a particular manufacturing process, they may also be used
from time to time with another. If you have a hunch that an object is made of a particular material
outside the dates given or manufactured in a different process go to the material or process in the
A – Z guides to check out what is possible in greater detail.
1840-1880
1880-1915
1915-1925
1925-1940
1940-1950
1950-1965
1965-onwards
1840 -1880
Materials Manufacturing processes
Bois durci Compression moulding
Celluloid (see cellulose nitrate) Compression moulding, fabrication
Gutta percha Compression moulding, extrusion
Parkesine (see cellulose nitrate) Compression moulding, fabrication
Shellac Compression moulding
Vulcanite Compression moulding
1880 -1915
Cellulose nitrate Blow moulding, fabrication, thermoforming
Vulcanised rubber Compression moulding, fabrication, turning
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1915 -1925
Casein formaldehyde Fabrication, extrusion
Phenol formaldehyde Compression moulding; casting
Vulcanite Compression moulding, fabrication, turning
1925 -1940
Casein Extrusion, fabrication, thermoforming
Cellulose acetate Compression moulding, fabrication, injection
moulding
Urea formaldehyde Compression moulding
1940 -1950
Cellulose acetate Fabrication, injection moulding
Polyamides Casting, extrusion, injection moulding
Polymethyl methacrylate Casting, extrusion, fabrication, thermoforming
Polythene extrusion, blow moulding, injection moulding
Urea formaldehyde Compression moulding
1950 -1965
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene Injection moulding
Glass reinforced plastic Compression moulding, fabrication,
Melamine formaldehyde Compression moulding
Phenol formaldehyde Compression moulding
Polymethyl methacrylate Casting, extrusion, fabrication, injection
moulding, thermoforming
Polypropylene Blow moulding, injection moulding, casting
Polystyrene Extrusion, foaming, injection moulding
Polythene Extrusion, blow moulding, rotational moulding
Polyurethane Blow moulding, extrusion, injection moulding,
foaming
Polyvinyl chloride Blow moulding, extrusion, injection moulding,
foaming, rotational moulding
Silicones Injection moulding
1965 onwards
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene Injection moulding
Glass reinforced plastic Compression moulding, hand lay-up, fabrication,
pultrusion, vacuum laminated

Polycarbonate Blow and injection moulding, extrusion, foaming
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Polythene Blow moulding, extrusion, injection moulding,
rotational moulding
Polypropylene Blow and injection moulding, casting (film)
Polyethylene terephthalate Blow moulding, extrusion, injection moulding
Polymethyl methacrylate Casting, extrusion, fabrication, injection

moulding, thermoforming
Polystyrene Extrusion, foaming, injection moulding
Polyurethane Blow moulding, extrusion, foaming, injection
moulding
Polyvinyl chloride Blow moulding, extrusion, injection moulding,
foaming, rotational moulding
Silicones Injection moulding
What does it look like?
Transparent ?
Pale or bright coloured?
Amber, ivory, tortoiseshell or pearlised?
Shiny?
Transparent
Relatively few plastics are transparent like glass. All transparent plastics can be made
translucent or opaque by the addition of pigments or fillers. Some plastics are only
transparent in sheet form. If it is moulded and transparent it is probably made of one of
the following:
Phenol formaldehyde as liquid resin not with filler

Polycarbonate
Polylactide
Polyethylene terephthalate
Polymethyl methacrylate
Polyurethane
The following plastics can also be clear in sheet or film form but are translucent or
opaque when injection-moulded:
Cellulose acetate
PVC
Polypropylene
Is it translucent? If so, it can be any of the above and also:
Polythene
Silicones
Pale or bright coloured

If so it is unlikely to be made of one of the following as they usually come in dark colours.
However plastics that can be light or bright in colour also come in dark colours.
Bois durci
Gutta percha
Vulcanised rubber
Horn
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Shellac
Amber, ivory, tortoiseshell, or pearlised

If it imitates one of these it is likely to be made of one of the following:
Casein formaldehyde
Cellulose acetate
Cellulose nitrate
Shiny
If it has a hard glossy surface it is likely to be one of the following but bear in mind that
nowadays almost any plastic can be made glossy:
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

Casein formaldehyde
Melamine formaldehyde
Phenol formaldehyde
Polycarbonate
Polystyrene
What does it feel like?
Soft?
Flexible or rigid?
Sticky?
Soft
Some plastics have such a soft surface that they can be indented with a finger nail. If the
object feels as if that is likely it is probably made from one of the following:
Polythene
Polyurethane
Polyvinyl chloride (when in flexible form)
Silicones
Flexible or rigid
Many plastics can be rigid or flexible however a few are always rigid. These are:

Bois durci
Gutta percha
Phenol formaldehyde
Vulcanite
Sticky
Stickiness is a sign of degradation. The following can go sticky:
Cellulose acetate
Cellulose nitrate
Polyvinyl chloride
Polyurethane foam
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Does it smell?
The following smells are sometimes given off by the plastics listed:
Carbolic acid: phenol formaldehyde

Formaldehyde: casein formaldehyde
Milky, if rubbed casein formaldehyde
Mothballs (camphor): cellulose nitrate
Plasticky (new car smell) polyvinyl chloride
Sweet: polyvinyl chloride but only when degrading
Sulphurous: hard rubber
Vinegar: cellulose acetate
Vomit /rancid butter: cellulose butyrate, cellulose acetate butyrate
Waxy: polythene
What signs of deterioration can you see?
The following signs of deterioration are associated with the materials listed:
Bloom
This takes the form of a white powder that can be wiped off or a pale mistiness.
Cellulose acetate
Cellulose nitrate
Polyvinyl chloride
Cracks and splits
Casein formaldehyde
Cellulose nitrate
Phenol formaldehyde
Polycarbonate
Polystyrene
Polyvinyl chloride
Shellac
Urea formaldehyde
Crazing
Casein formaldehyde (surface crazing)

Cellulose nitrate (internal crazing)
Gutta percha (network of small cracks on surface)
Polystyrene
Urea formaldehyde (an orange peel effect)
Crumbling
Gutta percha
Polyurethane foam
Embrittlement
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Polyvinyl chloride
Fading and discolouration

Pigments can fade independently, leading to complete changes of colour.
Phenol formaldehyde, also dulls

Polyamide, tendency to yellow
Polymethyl methacrylate, sometimes discolours in light
Polyvinyl chloride: yellows and goes brown
Polyurethane: yellows
Urea formaldehyde, also dulls
Vulcanite, often has a yellowish brown tinge
Physical distortion, warping
Cellulose acetate
What marks are on it?
A small bird’s wing was used to indicate the use of the material bois durci
An infinity sign is the logo of Bakelite and thus frequently indicates the material phenol
formaldehyde but the company made many other plastic materials. It only appears on
Bakelite promotional mouldings. Bakelite did not make mouldings for the general market.
Recycling triangles were introduced in 1988 so any object with these on must date from
that year or later.
Smooth circular marks are a sign of the use of ejector pins to push the moulding from the
mould and thus of injection moulding.
An imperfection on an otherwise smooth surface may be a residue left at the spot the
material has been forced into the mould and thus indicate the use of injection moulding.
Such marks can be extremely hard to detect and they may not be where you might
expect to find them, for example centrally placed on the base or on the edge. They can
be polished off so their absence does not tell you anything.
The following are trade names that frequently appear on mouldings. They are associated
with the materials indicated:
Bandalasta Thiourea-urea formaldehyde

Beetleware Urea formaldehyde
Carvacraft Phenol formaldehyde
Gaydon Melamine formaldehyde
Linga Longa Urea formaldehyde
Melaware Melamine formaldehyde
Melmex Melamine formaldehyde
Xylonite Cellulose nitrate
Materials: the basics

o Why identify the material?
o What are plastics?
o What are additives?
11
Why identify the material?
It is good practice to identify the material of which an object is made because it enables you to
understand more about the object. But it is vital for objects made of plastics as it will help you
know how best to look after them. All plastics degrade over time but some are much less stable
than others. It makes sense to concentrate limited resources on providing objects made of these
plastics with optimum environments or you might even decide not to collect such objects at all. To
find out which materials these are go to Problem plastics.
The best way to learn to identify different plastics is to study a group of objects that already have
the plastic from which they are made identified. That way you can get to know what they look, feel
and smell like. Clues to help you know what to look for can be found at Identification: clues to get
you started.
Identification can also involve sophisticated analytical equipment of which the Fourier Transform
Infrared Spectrometer (FTIR) is the most widely used. Such machines can be brought to your
museum at a cost. It does however require experts to carry out the analysis and opinions differ on
its value. For information on this and other forms of instrumental analysis please refer to Anita
Quye and Colin Williamson ed., Plastics collecting and conserving, part two: analytical methods,
pp.70 -73.
What are plastics?

Plastics are materials that can be moulded into required shapes by the application of heat and /or
pressure. Most plastics are derived from organic material, that is substances made from things
that have lived, including oil, cotton, sugar cane, coal, corn and many others. There are however
exceptions such as silicon which is derived from sand.
At the point of processing plastics consist of granules, pre-formed tablets, powders, syrups or
pastes.
Plastics have been traditionally classified as:

 Natural, a material that can be moulded in its natural form. Examples are amber, gutta
percha, horn, rubber, and tortoiseshell.
 semi-synthetic, that means, made of a chemically altered natural material. Examples are
casein, cellulosic plastics and rubber.
 synthetic, that is entirely laboratory made, as for example is the case with phenol
formaldehyde, polymethyl methacrylate and the many poly-plastics.
Plastics are based on polymers. That is a material made up of many smaller base units. The
simplest plastic is polythene consisting of base units of carbon atoms with two hydrogen atoms to
each carbon. The base unit is referred to as a monomer. Many monomer units linked together
create a polymer, through a chemical process known as polymerization. Polymerization can be
demonstrated by hooking together hundreds of paper clips (base units) to form chains. Chains in
different configurations make plastics with different properties.
Plastics are divided into two distinct groups:
 thermosets, plastics that on being heated and moulded set permanently, and thus cannot
be re-melted and re-formed.
 thermoplastics, plastics that can be re-melted after moulding again and again, and thus
can be recycled by melting and reforming
Thermosets referred to on this site are:
Bois durci
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Casein formaldehyde
Glass reinforced polyester
Hard rubber
Melamine formaldehyde
Phenol formaldehyde
Polyester (some types)
Polyurethane foam
Shellac (sometimes)
Silicones (sometimes)
Urea formaldehyde
Thermoplastics referred to on this site are:

Cellulose acetate
Cellulose nitrate
Gutta percha
Horn
Polyamide
Polycarbonate
Polyester (some types)
Polyethylene terephthalate
Polylactide
Polypropylene
Polystyrene
Polythene
Polyurethane (some types)
Polyvinyl chloride
Shellac
Silicones (sometimes)
Recognising whether plastics are thermosets or thermoplastics is relevant for the curator as
certain production techniques, for example those that rely on reforming plastic sheet, can only be
done with thermoplastics.
Increasingly plastics are copolymers, that is made up of two or more polymers, in order to
increase the range of performance of the resulting material, e.g. Lycra.
What are additives?

The performance, appearance and stability of a specific plastic can be greatly modified by a mix
of additives in its recipe. They are used for a wide range of reasons including to:
 give additional strength or dimensional stability

 act as plasticisers or lubricants
 provide decoration or pigmentation
 improve chemical resistance
 act as fire-retardants
 protect against ultra-violet degradation
 as fillers to reduce cost
Commonly found additives include:
 calcium carbonate
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 camphor and phthalates (as plasticisers)
 pigments
 cotton flock
 gas/air in foams (as expanders)
 glass and other fibres
 mica
 minerals
 stabilisers
 talc
 wood flour
It would be impossible to process most polymers into useful objects without additives. Additives
can be added in different quantities and can affect the long term stability of the plastic. It is as
likely to be the additive contributing to a plastic object’s degradation as the plastic itself. Please
go to Degradation for more information.
For information on particular plastics please go to the A - Z of plastic materials or to an individual

letter within it.
A – Z of plastic materials
Each letter with its own page. The next 4 paras should appear with each letter.
Plastics featured are those commonly found in museum collections. The aim of the information is
to help you identify the material of which an object is made. Most plastic materials have been
produced in a large number of formulations to suit particular applications and manufacturing
processes. They may be what is called a copolymer, that is made up of two or more polymers, in
order to increase the range of the plastic’s performance. The complexity of the subject is only
hinted at here.
Manufacturing processes listed are those most commonly used with the particular material. It is
though possible to find the material manufactured by other processes.
Many plastics have long gestation periods and were ‘invented’ at slightly different times in
different countries. Dates should therefore be taken as indicative rather than absolute.
If you have an object made of a plastic not featured on this site please contact us so that we can
remedy the situation for those who come after you.
Acrylic see polymethyl methacrylate
Acrylonitrile ABS
butadiene styrene
Group: thermoplastic
Developed: from 1948
Trade names: Cycolac
Manufacturing process: injection moulding; extrusion (sheet); thermoforming
Cost: low
Colour: any
Transparency: almost always opaque
Rigidity: rigid
Feel: hard
Smell: none
Other: glossy
Typical uses: domestic appliance and computer housings; Lego
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Degradation: relatively stable but has tendency to yellow
Alkathene™ see polythene
Alketh™ see polythene
Argosy™see melamine formaldehyde
Bakelite™ see phenol formaldehyde
Bandalasta™ see thiourea-urea formaldehyde
Beatl™ see urea formaldehyde
Beetle™ see urea formaldehyde
Bexoid™ see cellulose acetate
Bois durci blood albumen and powdered wood

Group: thermoset
Developed: patented in Paris 1855, exhibited 1862 and 1867 International
Exhibitions, London; commercial production ceased in 1875
Trade names:
Manufacturing process: compression moulding
Cost: high
Colour: black and dark brown, but sometimes has a lacquered finish
Transparency: always opaque
Rigidity: always rigid
Feel: hard
Smell: none
Other: can sometimes be identified by the moulding of a small bird’s wing or by
the name ‘Bois Durci’
Typical uses: desk accessories; plaques with reliefs of notable people or mythological
scenes
Degradation: relatively stable
Casein formaldehyde milk curds hardened with formaldehyde

Group: thermoset (but can also be thermoplastic to a certain extent)
Developed: patented 1899; little used since the1980s
Trade names: Lactoid, Erinoid, Galalith
Manufacturing process: extrusion; fabrication, usually machined to shape from sheet, rod or
block; textures achieved by laminating sheet on sheet
Cost: medium
Colour: any, including mottles, pearls and special effects
Opacity: usually opaque but some translucency when imitating tortoiseshell, horn
and all the many decorative affects that could be achieved
Rigidity: firm but can flex
Feel: hard
Smell: occasionally of the formaldehyde used in its production
Other: accepts surface dyeing; polishes to a brilliant lustre
Typical uses: buttons, knitting needles, fountain pens, jewellery, dressing table sets,
manicure sets, inlay in furniture
Degradation: Surface crazes and cracks
Cast phenolic see phenol formaldehyde
15
Celanese™ see cellulose acetate
Cellophane™ see cellulose acetate

`
Celluloid™ see cellulose nitrate
Cellulose acetate
Developed: invented 1894, but only developed as a material for commercial use from
1918 (although to form cellophane from 1908); not common until late
1920s. Use fell off in1970s but interest currently reviving, as made from
wood based cellulose, a renewable resource.
Trade names: Celanese, Estron, Plastacele, Bexoid, Tenite, Clarifoil
Manufacturing process: early examples compression moulded; from c.1928 injection moulded
Cost: medium
Colour: any, usually plain but occasionally marbled
Transparency: transparent to opaque
Rigidity: strong but slightly soft, may be flexible in thin sections
Feel: hard
Smell: vinegar (when degrading)
Other: will accept surface colouring
Typical uses: as liquid to stiffen and waterproof fabric wings and fuselage of early
aircraft. In solid form in spectacle frames; type-writer keys; negatives and
film; toys; fancy goods e.g. by Lalique; sculpture e.g. by Naum Gabo;
hair brush handles, especially Addis Ltd; also as supports for archival
material from 1940s
Degradation: shrinks, crazes, becomes ‘sugary’ and cracks. Acidic droplets; white
bloom on the surface; and distortion (warping), a result of plasticiser
migration
Cellulose nitrate
Developed: displayed at 1862 International Exhibition, London; first common
domestic plastic; turned into an artificial fibre like silk in 1884 called
Chardonnet silk; use of all kinds almost ceases in 1940s but it is still
used for ping pong balls.
Trade names: Parkesine 1862 – 68; Xylonite (British) and Celluloid (USA) from 1870s
Manufacturing process: blow-moulding; fabrication, made into blocks that are sliced into thin
sheets; thermoforming of thin sheets
Cost: medium
Colour: any, including mottles, pearls and special effects such as imitations of
tortoiseshell and ivory
Rigidity: Wide range
Feel: hard
Smell: camphor (used as plasticiser), easiest to smell in containers with lids
Other: blade marks from the slicing into sheets sometimes visible; flammable,
hence its early demise
Typical uses: collars and cuffs; dressing table sets and combs; billiard and ping pong
balls; knife handles; jewellery and costume accessories; spectacles;
toys; false teeth; sculpture e.g. by Naum Gabo; in mortars ; also as
support for film and still photography and from 1940s archival material
Degradation: internal cuboid crazing, becomes ‘sugary’ and cracks. Decomposition of
the polymer releases nitrogen oxides, generating acidic wet bloom and
ultimately breakdown
16
Chardonet silk see cellulose nitrate
Clarifoil™ see cellulose acetate
Corian™ see polymethyl methacrylate
Crimplene™ see polyester
Cycolac™ see acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
Delrin™ see polyacetal
Diatite™ see shellac
Erinoid™ see casein
Ebonite see hard rubber
Estron™ see cellulose acetate
Fibreglas™ see glass-reinforced plastic
Florence compound see shellac
Formica™ see melamine formaldehyde and phenol formaldehyde
Galalith™ see casein
Gaydon™ see melamine formaldehyde
Glass reinforced GRP, a composite material made of glass fibres and plastic
plastic usually polyester
Group: thermoset
Developed: during World War 2; first used in civilian life in 1950s
Trade names: Fibreglas
Manufacturing process: compression moulding or fabrication: hand-laying in an open mould
Cost: low
Colour: any
Transparency: translucent to opaque
Rigidity: Rigid
Feel: hard
Smell: None
Other:
Typical uses: very large containers, boat hulls, car panels, sculptures e.g. by Claus
Oldenburg and Philip King
Degradation: Relatively stable
Gutta percha hard substance exuded from tropical tree that softens in hot water
Trade names:
Developed: introduced from Far East in1843; wide range of products shown at 1851
Great Exhibition, London; use falls off in 1930s
Production techniques: compression moulding; extrusion
Cost: low
Colour: dark, but sometimes painted
17
Rigidity: normally rigid
Feel: old material is hard; modern gutta percha is often softer; dry-ish
Smell: none
Other: can look woody
Typical uses: golf balls; dentistry; insulation for submarine telephone cables;
household uses similar to those of tin; fancy mouldings
Degradation: oxidises and embrittles, as a result mouldings are now scarce
Hard rubber see vulcanite
Horn
Developed: moulding technology from early 17th century
Trade names:
Manufacturing process: compression moulding; thermoforming
Cost: medium
Colour: natural horn colour, typically dyed black; also imitations of tortoiseshell
Transparency: translucent or opaque
Rigidity: rigid but when thin flexes
Feel: sometimes textured
Smell: none
Other: fibrous texture sometimes visible
Typical uses: drinking vessels; buttons; combs; imitation jet jewellery; snuff boxes;
cutlery handles; small translucent panels used e.g. in windows and
lanterns
Degradation: stress cracks; some distortion and shrinkage but otherwise stable
Ivoride™ see cellulose nitrate
Kematal™ see polyacetal
Lacqrene™ see polystyrene
Lactoid™ see casein
LingaLonga™ see urea formaldehyde
Lucite™ see polymethyl methacrylate
Lycra™ see polyurethane
Makrolon™ see Polycarbonate
Melamine
formaldehyde
Group: thermoset
Developed: commercially, post World War II; heyday late 50s and early 60s; still in
use for picnic ware and ashtrays
Trade names: Argosy; Gaydon; Melaware; Melmex
Cost: low
Colour: any, often two-toned
Feel: hard
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Smell: none
Other: porcelain-like; capable of high gloss
Typical uses: colourful table and picnic ware; ashtrays; a component of Formica™
Degradation: relatively stable but scratches and stains
Melaware™ see melamine formaldehyde
Melmex™ see melamine formaldehyde
Mouldrite™ see phenol formaldehyde
NatureWorks™ see polylactide
Nestorite™ see phenol formaldehyde
Nylon see polyamide
Oroglas™ see polymethyl methacrylate
Parkesine™ see cellulose nitrate
Peck™ see shellac
Perspex™ see polymethyl methacrylate
Plantic™ see polylactide
Plaskon™ see urea formaldehyde
Plastacele™ see cellulose acetate
Plexiglass™ see polymethyl methacrylate
Phenol formaldehyde with wood flour or other filler as powder or pre-formed tablets
and as liquid resin. Often called cast phenolic
Group: thermoset
Developed: with filler 1907: not widely used until after 1915; still used for electrical
moulds and saucepan handles
as liquid resin: 1927.
Trade names: with filler: Bakelite; Mouldrite; Nestorite; Roanoid
as liquid resin: Bakelite; Catalin; Carvacraft
Manufacturing process: with filler: compression moulding
as liquid resin: casting, often cut sections of rod, tube etc; often carved
Cost: medium
Colour: with filler: usually dark in colour: black, shades of green, red and brown,
often mottled sometimes in wood effects
As liquid resin: any, but frequently amber and green, seldom blue
Transparency: with filler: always opaque
as resin: seldom transparent; often translucent and marbled; sometimes
opaque
Feel: hard
Smell: carbolic acid
Other: good electrical and heat resistance
19
Typical uses: with filler: domestic items: radio, clock and hair dryer casings, ash trays,
boxes; electrical fittings; car components, aircraft and military
components; cooker knobs; kettle handles;
As liquid resin: napkin rings and bangles; desk accessories; wireless
cabinets, especially American; jewellery; laminate surfacing, e.g.
Formica™.
Degradation: with filler: relatively stable but colour darkened by exposure to light,
green becoming brown, also goes dull
As liquid resin: brittle but relatively stable; discolours
Polyacetal also referred to as polyoxymethylene (POM) and polyformaldehyde

Developed: 1957
Trade names: Delrin; Kematal
Manufacturing process: extrusion; injection moulding
Cost: medium
Colour: naturally white, but any
Transparent: translucent to opaque
Feel: hard
Smell: none
Other: strong; recognised as the first ‘engineering’ plastic
Typical uses: gear wheels and mechanisms; disposable lighters; bathroom taps;
plectra and guitar picks
Degradation: Stable
Polyamide PA
Developed: 1933; nylon trade name given in 1938
Trade names: Nylon
Manufacturing process: extrusion; injection moulding
Cost: medium
Colour: all
Rigidity: rigid to flexible depending on type
Feel: varies; can be waxy
Smell: none
Other:
Typical uses: toothbrush tufts, combs, kitchen utensils, zips, Velcro; as textile fibres:
carpets stockings, tents; glass-reinforced moulding compounds
Degradation: discolouration, especially yellowing
Polycarbonate PC
Developed: from 1958
Trade names: Makrolon
Manufacturing process: blow moulding; extrusion; injection moulding
Cost: medium
Colour: injection moulding
Rigidity: rigid
Feel: hard
Smell: none
Other can be outstandingly strong
Typical uses: safety and space helmets; compact discs and DVDs; as copolymer as
mobile phone housings; car components; large bottles; glass substitute
20
Degradation: stable but can crack
Polyester a category of polymer often used to describe its fibre form; a huge family
of ‘plastics’; more limited, see also polyethylene terephthalate
Developed: 1941
Trade names: Crimplene, Dacron, Terylene
Manufacturing process: as a fibre: extrusion
Cost: low
Colour: any
Rigidity: flexible
Feel: varies
Smell: none
Other: resilient, quick-drying, flammable
Typical uses: clothing and upholstery; also from 1955 in sheet form as support for
archival material
Polyethylene PET, a polyester

terephthalate
Developed: 1941 announced as a commercial polymer; widely used in blow-moulded
form from1980s
Trade names: related film Melinex and Mylar
Manufacturing process: especially blow moulding; injection moulding
Cost: medium
Colour: any
Rigidity: rigid
Feel: varies
Smell: none
Other: strong
Typical uses: carbonated drinks bottles; video and audio tape
Polyformaldehyde see polyacetal
Polylactide PLA, made from corn starch

Developed: since 2000
Trade names: NatureWorks; Plantic
Manufacturing process: all
Cost: medium
Colour: any
Rigidity: rigid to flexible
Feel: varies
Smell: none
Other: made from renewable resources
Typical uses: disposable plates and cutlery, trays in confectionary industry, but suitable
for anything from toys to car parts
Degradation: intended to biodegrade; crucial to keep it dry
21
Polymethyl
methacrylate PMMA, often called acrylic
Developed: 1932, in commercial use from 1934, fashionable in 1960s
Trade names: Oroglas, Perspex, Plexiglass, Lucite; Corian
Manufacturing process: initially thermoforming from cast sheet and fabrication; now also casting;
extrusion; injection moulding
Cost: medium
Colour: any
Transparency: transparent to opaque; better optical properties than glass
Rigidity: rigid
Feel: hard
Smell: none
Other: takes a high gloss; dull sound when struck
Typical uses: aircraft glazing; containers fabricated from sheet, e.g. handbags; blocks
with embedded objects, jewellery, display stands, artists ’paints
Degradation: relatively stable; crazing resulting from stress; physical damage,
especially scratches
Polyoxymethylene see polyacetal
Polypropylene PP
Developed: from 1956; increase in use from 1976 when initial patents ran out;
became fashionable in translucent sheet form in 1990s; now one of the
most used plastics
Trade names: Propathene
Manufacturing process: blow moulding; extrusion (as a fibre); injection moulding;
Cost: low
Colour: any
Transparency: translucent, but can have clarifying agents added making it transparent;
also comes as clear film (modern cellophane)
Rigidity fairly rigid but flexible
Feel: varies
Smell: none
Other: can be moulded to create an integral hinge; can achieve reasonably
glossy surface scratches with fingernail
Typical uses: chair shells and garden furniture; luggage; car bumper; petrol cans; food
wrappings; microwaveable meal trays; margarine tubs; netting;
household goods; carpets; packaging; rope
Polystyrene PS
Developed: became a usable material in 1930s but not used commercially until after
World War II
Trade names: Lacqrene; Polystyrol; Styron
Manufacturing process: usually injection moulding; also extrusion; fabrication: especially cutting
and sticking; foaming; thermoforming
Cost: very low
Colour: any, including streak and pearlised effects
Smell: none
Feel: hard, except when foamed
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Other: can be brittle but can be toughened, e.g. high impact polystyrene (HIPS);
metallic ring when tapped; good for bonding
Typical uses: disposable pens and razors; cutlery and vending cups; CD cases; yogurt
pots; model kits; insulation and packaging food trays, hamburger and
egg boxes, electronic equipment, when foamed
Degradation: crazing and discolours
Polystyrol see polystyrene
Polythene PE, low and high density: LDPE and HDPE

Category: thermoplastic
Developed: 1933 low density but used for military purposes until 1945; 1953 high
density
Trade names: Polythene; Alkathene; Tyvek
Manufacturing process: blow moulding; extrusion; injection moulding; rotational moulding
Cost: very low
Colour: any
Transparency: naturally translucent but can be opaque
Rigidity: semi-rigid to flexible depending on density
Feel: varies depending on density
Smell: wax
Other: scratches with fingernail; currently LDPE is the plastic with the highest
volume of use
Typical uses: replaced enamelled kitchenware: bowls and other domestic wares, first
squeezable bottles (e.g. for washing up liquid) and airtight food
containers; road cones; ‘poppit’ beads; packaging film, e.g. carrier bags
Degradation: yellows, stiffens, and embrittles
Polyurethane PU
Group: thermoset as foams; thermoplastic as fibres and surface coatings
Developed: from 1937; still widely used
Trade names: in adapted form: Lycra; Spandex
Manufacturing process: all
Cost: medium
Colour: any
Rigidity: any
Feel: varies
Smell: none
Other: surface scratches with fingernail
Typical uses: furniture; paint; shoe soles; synthetic leather-like fabrics; bicycle seats;
as foams, seating, large mouldings
Degradation: discolouration followed by crumbling, the result of oxidation; foams
deteriorate faster due to their greater surface area
Polyvinyl chloride PVC

Developed: known from 1870 but suitable plasticisers not discovered until 1933; wide
use from 1940s, ongoing
Trade names:
Manufacturing process: all thermoplastic processes
Cost: low
Colour: any
Rigidity: basically rigid but made soft with the use of plasticizers
Feel: varies, can be sticky
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Smell: none
Other: in flexible form scratches and indents with fingernail
Typical uses: shiny leather-like fabric; fashion belts; flexible toys; inflatable furniture;
cables e.g. computers and other electrical items; credit cards; blood
bags; flooring; in unplasticised form: guttering, window frames, flooring;
as co-polymer LP gramophone records from 1952
Degradation: yellowing and darkening; migration of additives to the surface creating
either a bloom or sticky surface, which may lead to embrittlement.
Propathene™ see polypropylene
Rayon see cellulose acetate
Roanoid™ see phenol formaldehyde
Rubber see vulcanite
Scarab™ see urea formaldehyde
Shellac excretion of tropical beetle mixed with fillers such as cotton flock,
powdered slate, wood flour
Group: thermoplastic or set depending on heat used in manufacture
Developed: known for thousand of years; used to make products from 1860s to
1940s
Trade names: Diatite; Florence compound; Peck
Cost: medium
Colour: dark brown, black and occasionally paler dull shades
Rigidity: rigid
Feel: hard
Smell: sealing wax
Other: brittle; capable of reproducing very fine detail
Typical uses: cases for daguerreotypes and ambrotypes (early forms of photographs
on glass); dressing table sets; 78 rpm records until 1948; as stiffening for
bowler and riding hats; also used as lacquer
Silastic™ see silicon
Silicon derived from sand

Group: usually thermosets
Developed: discovered in 1934; used commercially from 1942
Trade names: Silastic
Manufacturing process: injection moulding
Cost: high
Colour: any
Transparency: translucent to opaque
Rigidity: flexible
Feel: soft and bouncy
Smell: none
Other: water-repellent; can be subjected to high heat without damage; bouncy;
feels sensuous; softer than fingernail
Typical uses: baking and ice trays; oven gloves; breast implants; baby teats; silly putty;
micro-chips
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Spandex™ see polyurethane
Styron™ see polystyrene
Tenite™ see cellulose acetate
Terylene™ see polyester
Tyvek™ see polyethelene
Urea formaldehyde
Group: thermoset
Developed: patents taken out 1915 but only becomes practical for commercial use as
thiourea urea formaldehyde in 1925; Improved to urea formaldehyde in
1929; role taken by other plastics by 1950s
Trade names: Beetle; Beatl; Bandalasta; LingaLonga; Plaskon; Scarab
Cost: medium
Colour: naturally white but any slightly muted or pastel colour; also speckled and
marbled effects.
Transparency: opaque or translucent; never transparent
Rigidity: rigid
Feel: hard
Smell: usually none but occasionally a faint smell of urine
Other: brittle; less than a high gloss
Typical uses: domestic wares, picnic sets; jewellery; electric fittings and casings
Degradation: dulls, discolours, cracks; acquires an orange peel effect on the surface;
badly affected by hot water; otherwise reasonably stable
Vulcanite also known as ebonite and in USA as hard rubber. It is made from
chemically altered natural rubber. The process involves heat and sulphur
Group: thermoset
Developed: reaction when heated with a large percentage of sulphur to make it rigid
discovered in 1839; still in use in 1930s
Trade names:
Manufacturing process: compression moulding; fabrication; turning
Cost: medium
Colour: typically black (fades to brown) but can also be red
Rigidity: rigid
Feel: hard
Smell: sulphurous rubbery
Other:
Typical uses: match boxes; combs; fountain pens; imitation jet jewellery; denture
palates (with pigmentation to resemble gums); pipe stems
Degradation: often faded to a greyish greenish brown shade
Viscose see cellulose nitrate
Xylonite™ see cellulose nitrate
25
Manufacturing process: the basics
The principal manufacturing processes are: blow moulding, casting, compression moulding,
extrusion, fabrication, foaming, injection moulding, rotational moulding and thermoforming of
sheet. These processes are described in the A – Z of manufacturing processes.
The clue to the manufacturing process can lie in the number of the particular product. Some
processes can be used at home and others involve high tooling investment. Low investment
processes tend to be craft based and thus slower than high investment ones. Injection moulding
is only economically viable if a very high output is required. For example an injection moulding
machine can convert plastic granules to a safety helmet in 40 seconds, that is 2160 in 24 hours,
15,120 in a week and 786,240 in a year. The sharing of the tooling cost across so many units
results in a relatively low unit price. It is not, however, cost efficient to injection mould small runs
(e.g. 5000) of products. On the other hand, casting, fabrication and rotational moulding cost less
to set up but are slower in the making. Currently, excluding plastic bags, far more plastic objects
are made by injection molding than by any other process.
Certain processes leave marks behind on the finished product. The most frequently encountered
are the marks left by what is now the most widely used process: injection moulding. There are
two kinds of marks: that left by the ‘sprue’, the tail of plastic that is broken off at the point it enters
the mould, and the ejector pin marks, smooth and circular, which assist with the removal of the
moulding from the mould. For more information please go to what symbols, marks and words are
on it?
As certain plastics are only used with certain processes, identifying the process can assist in the
identification of the particular plastic. It is helpful to bear in mind when considering manufacturing
processes that thermosetting plastics were not injection moulded before about 1960 and they
cannot be thermoformed.
A – Z of manufacturing processes
Blow moulding
Process: hot air is blown into a pre-formed tube, a parison, of semi-molten plastic
which expands to fill a cavity formed by a two part, usually metal, mould.
The tube can be injection moulded allowing a thread for a lid or some
other detail to be formed. It can also be extruded as a tube, pinched at
one end, and again expanded to fill the cavity of a two part metal mould.
Textures can be formed on the mould walls.
Introduced: 1881 for use with cellulose nitrate
Plastics: commonly high density polythene and polyethylene terephthalate
Marks: a line where the mould parts have met is often visible
Tooling cost: relatively high
Production volume: high
Uses: hollow articles, usually with openings of smaller diameter than the body,
such as bottles or containers.
Casting
Process: plastic in liquid form is poured into an open mould itself often moulded
from plastic
Introduced: long history with traditional materials, like metals
Plastics: commonly phenol formaldehyde as liquid resin, polymethyl methacrylate,
and polyurethane
Marks: frequently trapped air bubbles, or their remains on the surface
Tooling cost: low
Production volume: low, essentially a craft process; objects can be placed in the liquid as it
solidifies; the cast form can be carved; open casts allows manipulation of
26
the finished result throughout the curing process
Uses: preformed shapes: sheets, rods, tubes; jewellery; radio housings;
designer furniture; paperweights
Compression moulding
Process: a measured amount of material is added to a two part mould and
subjected to heat and pressure
Introduced: before 1900
Plastics: usually thermosets, especially melamine formaldehyde amd phenol
formaldehyde with filler
Marks: mould lines but these can be polished off by hand
Tooling cost: medium
Production volume: relatively slow and labour intensive
Marks: sometimes, especially on complicated mouldings
Uses: radio and telephone housings; plugs and sockets; tableware; ashtrays;
bowls and boxes
Extrusion
Process: plastic pellets are fed into a heated cylinder and driven forward by a
turning screw which compacts and melts them and forces the melt
through a die at the end, creating continuous lengths of shapes with the
desired profile. It is a system much like that of a mincing machine except
for the addition of heat. Once the plastic shape is formed it is cooled by
air or water
Introduced: first experiments in the 1840s, widely used from late 1930s
Plastics: any, especially high density polythene; polystyrene and polyvinyl
chloride; all synthetic fibres
Marks: none
Tooling cost: moderate
Production volume: high but restricted to minimum order lengths
Uses: anything with a constant cross section: fibres; tubing; pipes; sheets;
films; cable sheathing; profiles e.g. curtain rails or window frames
Fabrication
Process: a catch-all term for a variety of processes, including bonding, carving,
cutting, sticking, turning and welding. Go to the different materials to see
how they are fabricated.
Introduced: a traditional means of making
Plastics: cellulose acetate; cellulose nitrate; glass reinforced plastic; phenol
formaldehyde as liquid resin; polymethyl methacrylate; polystyrene
Marks: none
Tooling cost: low
Production volume: slow
Uses: varied; see materials concerned
Foaming
Process: there are a number of different processes but they share the release of
air/ gas into the plastic so that it fills with bubbles and foams within a two
part metal mould of the desired shape
Introduced: Post World War 1
Plastics: most, especially polystyrene, polyurethane, polyvinyl chloride
Marks: none
Tooling cost: medium
27
Uses: packaging; sponges; soles of shoes; steering wheels; vending cups,
insulation; foam furniture
Injection moulding
Process: similar to extrusion except that the plastic is injected into a metal mould
often with branching for multi-impression tools
Introduced: first used successfully with cellulose acetate after 1928; since 1946 it has
been the most widely used method of processing thermoplastics; since
1960 it has also been used for processing some thermosets
Plastics: commonly all thermoplastics
Marks: the plastic enters the mould through what is known as a gate which
leaves a 'sprue' which is then broken off but leaves a slightly rough, often
circular area; there are sometimes also smooth circular marks left by the
ejector pins used to help release the warm moulding from the mould
Tooling cost: high
Uses: precision technique capable of complicated shapes: e.g. medical
components; Airfix kits; cheap products produced in very large numbers:
Lego; plastic cutlery; machine housings; washing-up bowls
Rotational moulding
Process: a measured amount of material is placed in a mould which is rotated on
two axes at low speed within an oven. The molten plastic then covers
and adheres to the inner surface of the mould. The mould is then cooled
while still rotating and the product is released
Introduced: 1940s
Plastics: most commonly low or medium density polythene; polypropylene can be
used if end product needs to withstand high temperatures; polyamides
may also be used but rarely because they are expensive
Tooling costs: relatively low
Production volume: medium
Uses: only for products with uniform wall thickness and where the inner surface
of the product can be inferior to its outer surface which replicates the
surface of the mould. Usually large simple forms: storage tanks; traffic
bollards
Thermoforming
Process: uses preformed sheets which are warmed and sucked (vacuum forming)
or pushed into a mould. Neither high heat nor pressure is required so
moulds can be made from cheap materials such as MDF or cast
aluminium. Also used to shape rod and tube.
Introduced: 1890 for use with cellulose nitrate
Plastics: most sheet thermoplastic materials
Marks: none
Tooling cost: low
Production volume: suitable for low quantities or even one offs, but can be mechanised to
speed up process
Uses: shallow forms: baths and boat hulls, bowls, margarine and yogurt pots
PLASTICS CARE
How a plastic object is looked after is the single thing that has the most impact on its life-
expectancy. It is unfortunate that objects may have had adverse experiences that are not visible
28
at the time they enter your care but may impact on their future. But good care will slow down most
forms of degradation.
Plastics differ from each other in their care needs. The exact recipe of each plastic, including its
range of additives, influences how it will age. Even the pigment used to colour an otherwise
identical object can cause objects to age differently. That said, most plastics are relatively stable if
looked after appropriately but degradation, when it does occur, is irreversible making good care in
the first place vital.
There are four plastics that are especially problematic. These are cellulose acetate, cellulose
nitrate, polyvinyl chloride and polyurethane. Objects made of these materials should be identified
and managed separately, according to their special needs. For more information please go to
Problem plastics.
o Handling
o Numbering
o Environmental requirements
o Storage and display requirements
o Degradation
o Problem plastics
o Specialist subject areas
o Cleaning
o Conservation
o Useful materials and products
Handling
Gloves of some inert material, such as latex, should always be worn. Cotton gloves are not
recommended as they may leave specks of lint on plastics that have become tacky.
Otherwise good practice is the same as for other objects: always use both hands and hold the
object in a manner that puts as little strain on any part of it as possible. Do not hold objects by
their handles.
Numbering
Barrier coatings as often applied to objects and adhesive tapes are not appropriate for plastics as
they may react adversely with the surface. Rubber bands should also be avoided. The options
are
 labels tied on with cotton tape
or
 writing directly on the plastic surface with a soft pencil, ideally inside the object.
Which method is the most appropriate will depend on the characteristics of the object.
Environmental requirements
Environmental conditions impact dramatically on the life-expectancy of plastic objects.
Appropriate environmental conditions are therefore vital. What follows is good practice for the
majority of plastics. For cellulose acetate, cellulose nitrate, polyvinyl chloride and polyurethane
foam please go to Problem plastics.
Plastics should be kept in a dark, cool, dry room. Whether in store or on display the temperature
should be restricted to 20 centigrade and relative humidity to 30 to 50%. Sharp fluctuations of
heat and RH are especially damaging.
UV should be filtered out from any light to which plastics are exposed. However even UV-filtered
light is bad for plastics so when stored plastics must be kept in the dark and when on display light
29
should be limited. Plastic objects should not be on permanent display. The damage is cumulative
and dependent on the overall amount of light whether a short blast of very bright light or a very
low light for a long time. It is for each curator/conservator to decide what is appropriate for any
particular object at any particular time. Recommended good practice varies from a maximum of
50 to 150 lux.
Storage and display guidelines

Objects should be stored and displayed in and on inert materials, in such a way as to minimise
handling. Polypropylene is a good material to use as trays on which to store objects. Avoid
especially materials that could off-gas organic vapours, such as painted materials, wood and
MDF. Plinths should be left for at least 72 hours for paint to dry completely before covering.
Plasticisers are drawn out by contact with absorbent materials so they too should be avoided.
Objects should never touch each other and air should be able to flow freely around them. Ideally
the space should be dust free, but it must not be airtight.
Ideally each type of plastic should be stored separately.
Try to store objects supported as you would wish them to be on display. Should degradation take
place this will enable them to be displayed without leading to further degradation as they are
opened, unfolded or otherwise handled in order to make them appropriate for display. This is
especially important for objects made of polyvinyl chloride and polyurethane foam (see Problem
plastics).
Degradation
The onset of degradation is unpredictable and rapid. It can manifest itself in an advanced state
apparently almost overnight. It is irreversible and in most cases, once started, unstoppable. The
best that can be achieved is to slow down the process.
Degradation products from objects (e.g. acidic vapours) can contaminate other objects in the
vicinity. Collections should be checked regularly, ideally at least once a year, and any object
showing signs of degradation should be separated from the rest of the collection.
Causes and effects of degradation:
 excessive humidity can lead to chemical breakdown of certain plastics.

 fluctuating temperature and humidity, leading to shrinkage and expansion which in turn
result in crazing and cracks.
 migration and loss of plasticizers, leading to surface bloom and /or surface tackiness and
then to loss of flexibility and embrittlement.
 pollutants and exhaustion of stablisers leading to chemical break down of the material’s
structure and, ultimately, collapse
 light, leading to darkening, loss of flexibility and embrittlement of the plastic and fading of
pigments.
 bad handling, leading to chips, cracks and breaks.
Early signs of degradation can include
 bloom, a white powder of the surface.

 corrosion of metal parts or surrounding objects.
 crazing and cracking.
 discoloured or even shredded packaging materials.
 distortion of the shape of the object.
 smells: mothballs (camphor), sweetness vinegar, vomit, rancid butter.
30
 Surface stickiness.
 Haze, wet acidic deposit on the surface.
If you think an object may be degrading wrap it in charcoal cloth and store it away from other
objects.
Problem plastics
The most likely plastics to degrade are cellulose acetate, cellulose nitrate, polyvinyl chloride and
polyurethane. Try to identify objects made of these materials before deterioration is visible and
store them separately according to the guidelines given below. If degradation has begun you
cannot reverse it or stop it. If however you move it into storage as outlined below you will slow
down its progress.
Cellulose acetate
Deterioration: how it happens

Moisture causes the loss of acetate groups and the subsequent production of acetic
acid. The presence of acetic acid accelerates the process of deterioration. As this
happens a smell of vinegar is given off. Plasticisers can also migrate to the surface
leaving a white powdery deposit and resulting in shrinkage which itself often causes
distortion ad further stress. As degradation proceeds, crazing and cracking may
occur. The acetic acid fumes from deterioration corrode metals.
Storage guidelines
o Temperature ideally 2- 5 centigrade.
o RH ideally 20 to 30 %.
o Do not wrap.
o Keep away from absorbent materials.
o Isolate from metals and other materials if possible.
o Use air filtration or vapour scavengers.
o Use indicators (for more information got to Useful material and products).
Cellulose nitrate

Light and moisture cause the loss of nitrate as nitrogen oxides. Water and oxygen
then turn this into acids and that accelerates the process of deterioration making the
object brittle and prone to crazing and cracking, as well as forming sticky droplets on
the surface. The emanations from deterioration corrode metals.
Storage guidelines
o Temperature 2- 5 centigrade.
o RH 20 to 30 %.
o Do not wrap.
o Isolate from metals and other materials if possible.
o Use air filtration or vapour scavengers.
o Good ventilation desirable.
o Use indicators (for more information got to Useful material and products).
Polyvinyl chloride
31
Light causes yellowing and darkening and can lead to the giving off of hydrochloric
acid. Oxygen is also harmful. Plasticisers have a tendency to migrate to the surface
causing bloom and tackiness which attracts dirt. The weeping is accompanied by a
sweet smell. The loss of plasticiser causes the plastic to shrink and thus to warp and
also to become more rigid.
Storage guidelines
o Temperature 5 centigrade.
o RH 20 to 30%.
o Enclose in non-absorbent material such as glass or polyester bags to prevent
loss of plasticiser
o Ideally oxygen free, using products such as oxygen scavengers.
o Do not wrap.
o Store with future display requirements in mind.
Polyurethane foam

Oxidation causes discolouration and loss of strength. The result can be catastrophic
loss of structure leading to collapse.
Storage guidelines
o Temperature 20 centigrade
o RH at the low end of 20 – 30%
o Ideally oxygen free, using products such as oxygen scavengers.
o Store with future display requirements in mind.
Specialist subject areas

The key to the care of all plastics is identification of the specific material and then looking after it
appropriately. Once you know what it is (or its trade name) you can look it up in the A – Z of
materials to find out more about it. Plastics that are essentially the same can manifest themselves
in unexpectedly different ways. Under the subject areas that follow are a few pointers to get you
started.
o Architectural drawings and other archival material

o Composite objects
o Film and photography
o Packaging and containers
o Textiles and fashion
Architectural drawings and other archival material

Translucent synthetic supports made from cellulose acetate and cellulose nitrate film were
introduced in the 1940s and became wide spread in the 1950s. Coated with light-sensitive
compounds they were also used to make photo-reproductions. The care of such film is the same
as that for other objects made of these materials. For more information go to Problem materials.
There was during the 1960s a fashion for protecting architectural drawings and other large paper
objects with a cellulose butyrate or cellulose acetate butyrate varnish. This has had a tendency to
darken and obscure the image. A by-product of the degradation process, which will help you
recognise it, is the smell of vomit caused by the emission of acidic gases. The varnish may also
32
have become acidic itself and thus be weakening the paper. The environmental requirements for
such documents are the same as those for objects made of cellulose nitrate and acetate. For
more information go to Problem materials. A treatment strategy depends on the composition of
the paper, drawing process, coating and degree of deterioration. It might be possible to remove
the coating in a solvent bath but again this will depend on the degree of deterioration of the
coating, the composition of any inks that are present because these could be removed. It might
also be the case that removing the coating only removes one source of deterioration and thus, it
may not actually be worth putting the object through such intensive treatment. Only a professional
conservator should attempt this and only after some deliberation. Suitable conservators can be
found at www.conervationregister.com.
Polyester film as a draughtsman’s support and as means of reproducing drawings was introduced
in 1955. Polyester is an inert material good also for encapsulating drawings or as use as a barrier
to prevent cross-contamination between drawings. For more information go to Useful materials
and products. Polyester film requires the same care as outlined for all but problem plastics.
Composite objects
These are objects made from more than one material. Ideally plastics should be kept separately
from other materials to prevent cross-contamination. However greater damage can result to an
object by taking it apart. The care of composite objects is therefore likely to be a compromise
between maintaining the integrity of the object and looking after its different components.
Particular attention should be paid to plastic and metal objects as each can cause the other to
degrade. They are the priority for segregation.
Film and film-based photographic negatives

All film (motion and still) was made of cellulose nitrate until1923 when cellulose acetate was
introduced. In 1937 this was replaced by cellulose diacetate, which was in turn replaced in 1947
by cellulose triacetate. However cellulose nitrate film continued to be manufactured into the early
1950s.
Life expectancy is affected by precise composition at manufacture and storage conditions since.
Nitrate and acetate have long been recognised as problematic and relatively recently it has been
realised that the diacetate and triacetate adaptations are too. All benefit from even more stringent
conditions than those recommended in Problem materials. Temperatures of at or below 0 degrees
centigrade in a moisture free environment will extend their life in good condition by factors of ten
or more. For more information refer to Canadian Council of Archives, Basic conservation of
archival materials, 2003, chap 6, pp. 59-60 available at www.cdncouncilarchives.ca/RB and the
Cellulose Acetate Project: www.nla.gov.au/anica/natstratnew.html.
Cellulose nitrate film is extremely flammable and once on fire very difficult to quench. Storage or
transport of such film is extremely risky and the best course of action is to have it transferred by a
licensed laboratory to safety film. For more information on the associated hazards, recommended
actions and useful contacts please go to www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/cellulose.pdf.
Packaging and containers

If you wish to keep the packaging of plastic goods or plastic packaging of non-plastic goods the
same guidelines should be followed as is given for the materials concerned. Those most often
encountered in this use are:
Polyethylene terephthalate Fizzy drinks and water bottles

Polypropylene Petrol cans; microwaveable meal trays;
margarine tubs
Polystyrene CD cases; yogurt pots
33
Polystyrene foam Food trays, hamburger and egg boxes;
protective packaging especially for electronic
goods
Polythene (high density) Milk and washing-up liquid bottles
Polythene (low density) Carrier bags
Polyvinyl chloride Sandwich boxes; blood bags
Contents of containers, for example juice, shampoo, sweets or food should be removed unless, of
course, it is the contents rather than the container you are collecting. Ideally non-liquid contents
should also be stored separately but whether this is feasible will depend on the availability of
storage space.
Textiles and fashion

The plastics most commonly used in the manufacture of fabrics are polyamide, polyester,
polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride and polyurethane. Information on their introduction and early
uses can be found in the Plastics timeline. Trade names such as Crimplene, Lycra, Nylon, Rayon,
Terylene, and Viscose are given in the index of the A to Z of Plastic materials. From there you will
be led to the material from which they were adapted.
The best way to store semi-synthetic and synthetic materials is dependent on the size of the
garment or textile. Large objects should be rolled to avoid creases. Normal size garments should
be stored on hangers with proper support for the shoulders, inside Tyvek covers. Bear in mind
that it is a good idea to remove as many separate materials for examples buckles, buttons, belts
and foam shoulder pads as you can, to prevent cross-contamination.
Some semi-synthetic or synthetic fabrics or garments can be washed, depending on the finish of
the textile. Conservation advice should be sort before washing such materials. Suitable
conservators can be found at www.conervationregister.com.
Cleaning
Cleaning tends to cause both chemical and mechanical damage so keep a balance between the
risk of damage and your wish for the object to look pristine.
The best way to clean plastic objects is with cotton swabs and lint-free cloths, ideally of
microfibre, a mix of polyester and polyamide. If more in depth cleaning is essential dampened
cloth using deionised water can be used but the dampness should be kept to a minimum and
make sure that the object is completely dry after treatment. Water is especially bad for casein
formaldehyde, cellulose acetate and cellulose nitrate. Never immerse a plastic object in water.
Do not use solvents: severe damage that could ensue may not show immediately.
Conservation
Once an object needs treatment for anything other than mechanical damage it is likely to be too
late. The best conservation treatment for plastics is preventive conservation as outlined in
Environmental requirements and Storage and display. Storing plastics at low temperatures and
relative humidities and keeping them away from harmful substances and vapours will however
slow down the rate of harmful reactions.
There are no standard interventive processes for plastic materials. Interventive treatments
present risks of further damage to objects due to potential reaction between treatment and object.
More damage than good can be done by interventive conservation of plastics. Do not consider
mending plastics or doing other interventive work without the advice of a specialist conservator.
Suitable conservators can be found at www.conervationregister.com.
34
Useful materials and products
Materials that are safe to use in direct contact with all plastics are:
 acid free paper for wrapping.

 acrylic (polymethyl methacrylate)is an acceptable material to use for display stands.
 Charcoal cloth for wrapping objects that have the potential to offgas acidic fumes, e.g.
cellulose acetate and cellulose nitrate objects
 microfibre, a blend of polyester and polyamide, useful as cloth for cleaning.
 Tyvek, a form of polythene, useful for protecting objects from dust.
 Plastazote, a form of polythene foam, useful for securing objects within storage spaces.
 Melinex, a form of polyethylene terephthalate, an inert material to lay over degraded
objects to protect them from dust and to put between them to discourage cross
contamination. Also good as a buffer on painted surfaces.
 Polyester wadding useful for providing padding for example on hangers for costumes.
 polypropylene, appropriate for trays to hold objects.
 silicon release paper, useful for objects with potentially tacky surfaces.
Products that help you maintain a good environment are:
 Ageless oxygen scavengers for an oxygen free environment. This is suitable for
preventing the crumbling of polyurethane foams.
 Silica gel, as a buffering agent moderating the effects of change in relative humidity.
 Scavengers such as charcoal cloth and molecular sieves to remove polluting vapours.

Products that help you detect trouble are:
 indicator strips and chemical - impregnated string which change colour in the presence of
acidic gasses.
For more information on these please go to Web resources: Care.
CONTACT US
Please contact modip@aib.ac.uk if you have any comments on or corrections to this site, find it
hard to use, misleading or if it does not answer your needs. Corrections and improvements will
then be made.
Also please contact us if you think you would use a plastics chat room or would like to contribute
to a plastics blog. We are interested in developing this site in a way that suits its users.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
o Selected further reading
o Selected web resources
Selected further reading

No attempt has been made to be comprehensive. The aim is to provide a selection of obtainable
books to which it would be useful for someone collecting or looking after plastics to have access.
The list is short enough for you to read it through and decide which are appropriate for your
needs and then to order them. Those not in print are readily available on the second-hand
market, for example via Amazon.
35
The books are arranged in order of publication.
E G Couzens & V E Yarsley, Plastics, Pelican, 1941; updated edition 1968; no ISBN
Clear and concise on plastics and their use to date but of special interest as a pioneering attempt
to bring to a wide public through paperback a little known and difficult technological subject.
John Gloag, Plastics and industrial design, George Allen Unwin, 1945; no ISBN
Historically interesting, giving an insight into the ‘state of plastics’ at the beginning of the post-war
period. Gloag sets out some ground rules for the newly emerging role of industrial designer.
Includes useful section on plastics, their properties and uses, and on manufacturing processes
by Grace Lovat Faser. 50 photos and 10 distinctive line drawings.
V E Yarsley (Ed.), Plastics Applied, National Trade Press, 1945; no ISBN

A comprehensive survey of the British plastics industry in 1945. Separate sections on plastics in
domestic appliances, electric lighting, medicine and surgery, etc. etc.
British Plastics Federation, The world of plastics, 1962; no ISBN

96 pages on raw materials to plastic products and their impact on the environment, presented as
a primer. Excellent introduction to the facts and issues.
M Kaufman, The first century of plastics, The Plastics Institute,1963; no ISBN

Comprehensive coverage of the history of early synthetic and semi-synthetic plastics, particularly
Parkesine and Xylonite. One of the most authoritative books on the subject.
John Briston, The Pegasus book of plastics, Dennis Dobson, 1969; SBN 234 77186 0
Accessible introduction to what plastics are and their impact on the world we live in up to the
1960s.
Dietrich Braun, Simple methods for the identification of plastics, Carl Hanser Verlag,1982;
ISBN 0029492602
Just what it says it is and includes a plastics identification table.
Andrea DiNoto, Art Plastic, Abbeville, 1984; ISBN 0 89659 437 8

Coffee table style with over 300 superb illustrations accompanied by sparse but interesting text.
International selection of artefacts.
Sylvia Katz, Plastics: design and materials, Studio Vista, 1978; ISBN 0 289 70783 8
Fulfils its title brilliantly bringing out the impact of the capabilities of different plastics on the
evolution of form in design. A must for any museum with a design remit whether concerned with
plastics or other materials.
Sylvia Katz, Classic plastics from Bakelite to high-tech, Thames & Hudson, 1984; ISBN 0
500 27390 1
Authoritative history with good pictures of products made of plastic. Conservation advice aimed at
private collectors rather than museums.
Sylvia Katz, Early plastics, Shire album 168, 1986; ISBN0 85263790 X
32 pages of essential information. Images black and white but nonetheless helpful. Care and
repair section more suitable for private collectors than a museum.
J A Brydson, Plastics Materials, Butterworths, 1989; ISBN 0 408 00721 4

Over 800 pages of plastics. Perhaps a little technical for the layman in places but still an essential
reference book.
36
Penny Sparke ed.,The plastics age, from Bakelite to beanbags and beyond, The Overlook
Press,1993; ISBN 0 87951 471 X
First published as the book of an exhibition held at the V&A in 1990 but hard to find in that
version. Includes key texts by a wide range of thinkers and plastics experts including Reyner
Banham, Jean Baudrillard, Roland Bathes, John Gloag, Sylvia Katz, Enzio Manzini and Susan
Mossman. Maps the intellectual territory.
Jeffrey L Meikle, American plastic, a cultural history, Rutgers University Press1995; ISBN
08135 2234 X
Extensive (403 pages) text written by an art historian on the contexts of and attitudes aroused by
American plastics. Thought-provoking.
Stephen Fenichell, Plastic: the making of a synthetic century, Harper Collins, 1996; ISBN 0
88730 732 9
Irreverent look at the social and economic revolutions brought about by plastic and how it has
moulded and been moulded by scientists, artists, politicians and shoppers.
Susan Mossman ed., Early plastics, Leicester University Press, 1997; ISBN 0 7185 00202
Chapters by Morris Kaufman, Susan Mossman, Roger Newport and Mark Suggitt approaching
the subject from a variety of perspectives. Very readable and full of useful historical information.
Large section devoted to a catalogue of the Science Museum plastics collection. 20 colour plates
and numerous black & white illustrations.
Pete Ward, Fantastic plastic, the kitsch collector’s guide, Quintet Publishing, 1997; ISBN1
85076 794 7
Good for images of, in its own words, the ‘wacky, crazy, eccentric, gaudy, tasteless’ from the
1950s onwards.
Mel Byars, 100 designs / 100 years, innovative designs of the 20 th century, RotoVision SA,
1999; ISBN2 88046 442 0
Not a history of plastics but half the designs happen to be made of plastics or have plastic
components.
Anita Quye and Colin Williamson ed., Plastics collecting and conserving, NMS Publishing
Limited, Edinburgh, 1999; ISBN1 901663 12 4
Key to the creation of this information resource. Encompasses its subject comprehensively but
succinctly with contributions from the key figures working in the field in the UK. A must have.
Holly Wahlberg, 1950s Plastics Design, Schiffer Publishing, 1999; ISBN0 7643 0783 5
Good for images of plastics in context but limited to plastics in the USA.
N. Odegaard, S.Carroll, and W.S.Zimmt, Material characterization test for objects of art &
archaeology, Archetype Publications, 2000; ISBN 1-873132-12-3
Places plastics in the context of other materials. Provides detailed information on tests available.
Perhaps for the more scientifically inclined.
Chris Lefteri, Plastic materials for inspirational design, Rotovision SA, 2001
and
Chris Lefteri, Plastics 2 materials for inspirational design, Rotavision SA 2006; ISBN 2
940361 0 1
Aimed at budding designers rather than those with plastics in their collection but features a range
of fascinating products that have defined and pushed out the boundaries of plastics manufacture
plus basic information on a wide range of plastics and processes.
Thomas Wessel ed., Plastic art – a precarious success story, AXA Art Versicherung AG,
2007; no ISBN
37
Useful short introduction to the issues relating to and care of the plastics used in art and the high-
end of design from about 1950 onwards.
Yvonne Shashoua, Conservation of plastics, materials science degradation and

preservation, Elsevier, 2007; ISBN 978950664950
Source for all that is required to keep plastic objects in prime condition and includes a history of
plastics. Excellent for curators as well as conservators.
Web resources
There are hundreds, if not thousands, of really useful websites. Any website will lead you to many
others. Only the most significant in terms of plastics in the museum context are given here. These
are listed alphabetically under the following subjects according to what is their greatest strength.
They are often also a source of information under the other subjects:
o Care
o Materials and processes
o Objects
Care
www.conservation-by-design.co.uk
Good for information on and products relating to absorbents and buffers.
www.conservationregister.com/careplastics.asp?id=4.
Succinct account of plastic conservation issues with access to practicing conservators.
www.nla.gov.au/anica/natstratnew.html/
Outlines a national strategy for Australian cellulose acetate collections, a strategy that could be
applied to plastics more generally.
www.spnhc.org/files/supplies_cdn.htm
Excellent account of useful products for the care of objects with explanations of what they do and
how to use them.
Materials and processes

www.bpf.co.uk
Site of leading trade association of the UK’s plastic industry, especially good on materials and
their histories and capabilities.
www.plasticsresource.com
American Plastics Council site, with succinct history of particular plastics up to 1950.
www.plastiquarian.com
Excellent information packed site of the Plastics Historical Society, especially good on the history
and uses of plastics and their inventors/manufacturers (up to 1965). Includes useful index of
tradenames/materials/manufacturers. If you are only going to look at one site, this is likely to be
the most useful.
Objects
www.kunsthoff-museums-verein.net
Site of the German Plastics Museum. Objects grouped by materials and themes with good
images and texts. A little hard to navigate but worth the effort.
www.museo.cannon.com
38
Site of the first Italian Museum of Plastics, founded 1985. 2500 well-catalogued objects presented
informatively through a range of themes.
www.plasticsmuseum.org
Site of the National Plastics Center & Museum, Massachusetts, USA. Currently developing an on-
line collections database: excellent so far as it goes but currently limited, plus useful timeline.
www.plasticsnetwork.org
A site created by the Bakelite Museum, Design Museum Collection (now the Museum of Design
in Plastics), National Plastics Museum, and Plastics Historical Society in partnership. Includes the
complete catalogue of the Museum of Design in Plastics and interesting case studies on a range
of design related themes.
CONTRIBUTORS
This e-manual is the product of a collaborative project funded by a Museums, Libraries and
Archives Subject Specialist Network Implementation Grant.
The information in it has been derived principally from papers given at four regional workshops
organised by the Plastics Subject Specialist Network, coordinated by the Museum of Design in
Plastics based at the Arts Institute at Bournemouth.
The workshops were held at the:
o Design Museum, London, in partnership with the 20th Century Society

o Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, Edinburgh, in partnership with the Modern
Materials in Collections: Scotland
o Tate Liverpool in partnership with the UK Centre for Materials Education, University of
Liverpool
o Wakefield Museum in partnership with the Social History Curators Group.
Each workshop followed the same pattern with three speakers in the morning on:
o Milestones in the development and use of plastics.

o Identification: plastic materials and production techniques.
o Care of plastics.
And in the afternoon, four sessions:
o venue and/or partner specific plastics.

o open discussion of delegates objects.
o group discussion with speakers.
o feedback.
The workshops were independently evaluated by Liverpool University. A copy of the evaluation is
available from modip@aib.ac.uk.
The speakers were different at each workshop. Their briefs were based on comments from
delegates on what they wanted to learn. Each speaker on a certain subject had the same brief
but they interpreted it in their own and very different ways thus providing a wonderfully rich
resource for the e-manual’s content. In addition, texts given in Sources of further information were
drawn upon, and in particular, Anita Quye and Colin Williamson ed., Plastics collecting and
conserving, NMS Publishing Limited, Edinburgh, 1999.
39
The e-manual has been drafted by Susan Lambert, Museum of Design in Plastics. Its structure
and content has been discussed in an ongoing process with all those involved. Thus delegates,
as well as speakers and chairs, have played a major role in its shaping. Additionally the content
has been reviewed by 6 specialist reviewers with complementary knowledge in the field of
plastics, and again amended. Any errors that remain are, however, entirely the fault of Susan
Lambert. If you find errors please send them to modip@aib.ac.uk and they will be corrected. She
is most grateful to everyone involved for the generosity with which they have given of their
expertise, ideas, and time, and for the marvellous support she has received throughout.
For information on those involved please go to:
o Chairs
o Delegates
o Speakers
o Specialist reviewers
Chairs
Each chair brought to the workshop their particular expertise and observations, and created an
atmosphere that enabled free-exchange between speakers and delegates. Their participation is
greatly appreciated.
Design Museum workshop Catherine Croft, Director of the 20th Century Society
Scottish National Gallery of Ray Bush, President of the Society of Plastics

Modern Art workshop Engineers, UK and Ireland
Tate Liverpool workshop Colin Williamson, Managing Director of Smile

Plastics, founder member of the Plastics Historical
Society, writer, lecturer and collector
Wakefield Museum workshop Zelda Baveystock, Lecturer in Museum Studies,

Newcastle University; Treasurer of the Social History
Curators Group
Speakers
The speakers’ papers, in their wonderful variety, provided the content of this resource. It is
extremely generous of the speakers to have given of their expertise and scholarship so freely and
to have allowed it to be used in this way. Their involvement is greatly appreciated.
Steve Akhurst Editor of the Plastiquarian, Plastics Historical Society, collector and
formerly plastics design consultant
Fran David Conservator, Science Museum, London
Gemma Curtin Curator, Design Museum, London
Colin Hindle Lecturer in Polymer Technology, Napier University, Edinburgh
Tom Fisher Professor of Art and Design, Nottingham Trent University
Brenda Keneghan Senior Conservation Scientist, Victoria and Albert Museum, London
40
Alistair Leeson Product Development Manager, Paragon Print and Packaging
Chris Lefteri Senior Lecturer, Central St Martins College of Art and Design, University
of the Arts, London; designer and writer
Susan Mossman Gallery Content Manager, Science Museum, London
Cordelia Rogerson Modern Materials Specialist Conservator, British Library, London
Joyce Palmer Director of the School of Design, Arts Institute at Bournemouth
Derek Pullen Head of Sculpture and Video Conservation, Tate
Emma Roodhouse Curator, Falkirk Council Museums; coordinator, Modern Materials in

Collections: Scotland
Chris Taylor Resource and Project Manager, UK Centre for Materials Education,
Liverpool University
Colin Williamson Managing Director, Smile Plastics; Plastics Historical Society; writer,
lecturer and collector
John Whitaker Curator, Wakefield Museum
Delegates
All delegates had input to this resource through what they said they wished to learn from the
workshops and through their participation at them, their questions, observations and feedback.
Those with an asterisk * beside their name brought objects for discussion to the workshops.
Those in bold contributed to this manual during the drafting process. The participation of all
delegates in the development of this resource is very greatly appreciated.
Clair Battisson Victoria and Albert Museum, London

Catherine Badley Ferens Art Gallery, Hull
Denise Brace Peoples Story Museum, Edinburgh
Ellen Breheny Freelance Conservator
*Laura Briggs Harris Museum and Art Gallery, Preston
*John Burnie Scottish Railway Preservation Society
*Andrea Bishop National Motor Museum, Beaulieu
Dionysia Christoforou Whitworth Art Gallery, University of Manchester
Stephanie Clemens Stockport Heritage Services
*Andrew Connell Royal College of Surgeons, Edinburgh
Nicola Constantine Stockport Heritage Services
*Rachel Cornes Tameside Museums and Galleries Service
Dan Coughlan Paisley Museum
Christopher Craig National Museums Scotland
*Angela Cox National Motor Museum, Beaulieu
Darren Cox National Museums Scotland
*Pamela Cranston University of St Andrews Library
*Louise Dennis Museum of Design in Plastics, Arts Institute at Bournemouth
Susan Doyle UK Centre for Materials Education, Liverpool University
Catherine Eagleton British Museum, London
*Charlotte Eddington National Trust
Angela Edgar Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh
Mary Edwards Greenwich Heritage Centre
Carla Flack Conservation Student
41
Vanda Foster Gunnersbury Park Museum
Claire Foley Derby Museum and Art gallery
Sue Franklin Hampshire County Council Museum and Archives Service
Sam Gatley Graduate Student
Sarah Gerrish National Museums Scotland
Kate Gillespie Aberdeen Art Gallery
Laura Gray Harris Museum and Art Gallery , Preston
Tate Greenhalgh Thackray Museum, Leeds
Rachel Hammond Museum of Science and Industry, Manchester
Elizabeth Henderson Conolly House, Westlothian
Hannele Hentula Burrell Collection, Glasgow
Jackie Heuman Tate
*Colin Hill Collector
*Emma Hogarth, Colchester and Ipswich Museums
Jill Holmen Epping Forest District Museum, Essex
Sarah Howard Hampshire County Council Museum and Archives Service
Judith Hoyle Market Drayton Museum, Shropshire
Helen Hughes Burrell Collection, Glasgow
*Alan Humphies Thackray Museum, Leeds
Jane Hunt Manchester Metropolitan University
Paul Hyman Luton Museum
*Marion Ingle Polymer Centre, London
*Marta Inglesias Freelance Conservator
Sally Johnson English Heritage
*Jonathan Jordan Collector
Elena Kallas Royal Armouries at HM Tower of London
Sylvia Katz Plastics Historical Society, collector and writer
Joanna Kehusma UK Centre for Materials Education, Liverpool University
Komal Khetia Design Museum, London
*Ray Balongo Khaemba National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi
*Lan Khuu Thackray Museum, Leeds
Sarah Lambarth English Heritage
Rachel Lambert-Jones Wolverhampton Art Gallery
*Pam Langdown Museum of Design in Plastics, Arts Institute at Bournemouth
Sarah-Jane Langley National Trust
Charlotte Lavin National Trust
Joanna Macrae National Museums of Scotland
*Elizabeth Main Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of
Scotland
Linda Matthews Queens Park Conservation Studios, Manchester
*John McGoldrick Museum of Lancashire, Preston
Meg McHugh Museum of Science and Industry, Manchester
Miriam McLeod National Museums Scotland
*Michael Major National Railway Museum, York
Sandra Martin Perth Museum & Art Gallery
*Paul Meara Catalyst Science Discovery Centre, Widnes
Dave Moffat National Museums Liverpool
Sarah Morton Museums Resource Centre, Cotswold Dene, Witney
Peter Oakley South West Lifelong Learning Network
*Micheal O’Conaire Unilever Archives & Records Management, Port Sunlight
Peter Ogilvie Salford Museum & Art Gallery
Robert Opie Brand and Packaging Museum, London
Sarah Park National Museums Scotland
Carrie-Anne Parkes Catalyst Science Discovery Centre, Widnes
*Jeanette Pearson Inverness Museum
Tacye Phillipson National Museums Scotland
42
Amy Preece Royal Armouries at HM Tower of London
Alyson Pollard National Museums Liverpool
Derek Pullen Tate
Sarah Rainbow Queens Park Conservation Studios, Manchester
*Linda Ramsay National Archives of Scotland
Kate Reeder Beamish Museum
Rebecca Regan Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of
Scotland
*Martin Reid Museum of Fire, Edinburgh
Emma Richardson Southampton University
Sarah Riddle Lancaster Maritime Museum
Stephanie de Roemer Glasgow Museums Resource Centre
Pauline Rushton National Museums Liverpool
Chris Russell Queens Park Conservation Studios, Manchester
Lydia Saul Ferens Art Gallery, Hull
Tracey Seddon National Conservation Centre, Liverpool
Kim Seoyoung Glasgow Museums Resource Centre
Arianna Shackle Graduate Student
*Paul Sillitoe Liverpool University Centre for Archive Studies
Paul Simpson Isle of Wight Heritage Service
Vicki Slade Leamington Spa Art Gallery & Museum
*Emily Somerville Lancashire County Museum Service, Preston
Bethan Stanley English Heritage
Klaus Stauberman National Museums Scotland
Zoe Stewart Lancashire Record Office, Preston
*Emma St John Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of
Scotland
*Gail Stewart-Bye National Motor Museum, Beaulieu
Josh Tidy First Garden City Heritage Museum, Letchworth Garden City
*Shelley Tobin National Trust
*Shona Thomas Discovery Museum, Newcastle upon Tyne
*Jenny Truran Lancashire County Museum Service, Preston
Peter Turner Salford Museum and Art Gallery
Jeremy Uden Royal Albert Memorial Museum, Exeter
Elaine Uttley Fashion Museum, Bath
Nova Marcic Vans –Colina Freelance Conservator
Julie Vint National Trust
*Sue Webber Elmbridge Museum, Weybridge
Clare Weir Learning and Leisure Services, Coatbridge
Theodore Wilkins Leeds Museums and Galleries
Corina Westwood Isle of Wight Heritage Service
Leona White Hartlepool Museums and Heritage Service
Gareth Williams Victoria and Albert Museum, London
*Sandy Wood Royal Scottish Academy, Edinburgh
Margot Wright Marischal Museum, University of Aberdeen
Georgina Young National Museums Liverpool
*Jen Young British Red Cross Museum & Archives, London
Sophie Younger Freelance Conservator
Specialist reviewers
Special thanks are due to the specialist reviewers for sorting out the draft. It was a time-
consuming and unrewarding but absolutely essential contribution, and very greatly appreciated.
43
Steve Akhurst, Editor of the Plastiquarian, Plastics Historical Society, collector and formerly
plastics design consultant
Sylvia Katz, Plastics Historical Society, private collector and writer on plastics
Susan Mossman, Curator of the Plasticity Gallery, Science Museum
Brenda Keneghan, Senior Conservation Scientist, Victoria and Albert Museum
Cordelia Rogerson, Modern Materials Conservator, British Library
Colin Williamson, Smile Plastics Ltd, Plastics Historical Society and private collector
44

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Make the most of your plastics: an e-manual

Is this site for you?

1712 John O’Brisset moulds snuff boxes from horn.

1839 First deliberate chemical modification of a natural polymer produces vulcanised

1889 Dunlop Rubber Company founded and motor industry revolutionised.

1888 First commercially successful celluloid (cellulose nitrate) photographic film

1898 Beginning of mass-production of 78 rpm gramophone records from shellac, for

1899 Casein formaldehyde patented as Galalith in Germany.

1910 Viscose stockings begin to be manufactured.

1913 Formica invented.

Introduction of plastic contact lenses. The lenses were made of acrylic

Plastic Man, a fictional comic-book hero, first appears.

1947 First acrylic (polymethyl methacrylate) paint (dissolved in turpentine) becomes

Tupperware, with flexible seals made possible by the invention of polythene,

1948 Introduction of long playing vinyl copolymer gramophone records

First Airfix self-assembly model produced. It was made of polystyrene.

1951 First polythene bottle made by Sqezy.

1954 Synthesis of polypropylene.

1957 Invention of polyacetal, the first ‘engineering’ plastic.

Polyvinyl chloride road cones used in the construction of the M1 motorway.

1958 Invention of the silicon chip.

American Express launches first plastic credit card in US.

Early 1960s Acrylic (polymethyl methacrylate) paint (diluted with water)

1962 Silicon gel breast implants pioneered successfully.

Robin Day polypropylene one-piece injection moulded chair shell begins

1969 Neil Armstrong plants a nylon (polyamide) flag on the moon.

1977 PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) drinks bottle introduced.

1982 First artificial heart made mainly of polyurethane implanted in a human.

1988 Triangular recycling symbols identifying different types of plastics introduced.

1990 First biodegradable plastics launched by ICI

2005 Nasa explores the advantages of a polythene-based material, RXF1,

o Clues to get you started

Clues to get you started

When was it made?

When was it made?

Polyamides Casting, extrusion, injection moulding

Polymethyl methacrylate Casting, extrusion, fabrication, injection

What does it look like?

Phenol formaldehyde as liquid resin not with filler

Is it translucent? If so, it can be any of the above and also:

Pale or bright coloured

Amber, ivory, tortoiseshell, or pearlised

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

What does it feel like?

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

Carbolic acid: phenol formaldehyde

What signs of deterioration can you see?

Cracks and splits

Casein formaldehyde (surface crazing)

Fading and discolouration

Phenol formaldehyde, also dulls

Physical distortion, warping

What marks are on it?

Bandalasta Thiourea-urea formaldehyde

Materials: the basics

What are plastics?

Plastics have been traditionally classified as:

Plastics are divided into two distinct groups:

Thermosets referred to on this site are:

Thermoplastics referred to on this site are:

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

What are additives?

 give additional strength or dimensional stability

Commonly found additives include: