ELEMENTS

*elements are not ordinarily encountered in thin section apart from sulfur which are usually found in salt dome cap rock

Sulfur: Pure Sulfur is bright yellow. The color may be altered if impurities are present. Clay and selenium
impurities, as well as volcanic mixtures in sulfur can cause it to be slightly red, green, brown, or gray. Sulfur often occurs
in petroleum deposits, where it is found coated with greasy black petroleum. The earthy, massive, specimens usually
come from volcanic sulfur springs, and have small, bubbly holes throughout. These specimens usually have a greasy
feel and exhibit a strong "rotten-egg" odor. Sulfur crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, but an uncommon monoclinic
form of sulfur also exists. This monoclinic form is scientifically considered a different mineral than Sulfur, and is scientific
name is Rosickyite.

Environment: In sedimentary environments in evaporite and salt dome deposits, where it often is a product of breakdown
of sulfates caused by certain bacteria. In volcanic deposits in hot springs and fumaroles as a product of sublimation.
Also occurs in igneous basalt rocks of recent volcanic activity.

Graphite: like diamond, it is composed of pure carbon, but has very different properties. It is very soft, opaque,
dark grey or black, and is normally found as grains and scaly, foliated, or massive aggregates. Crystals are hexagonal
and platy with triangular striations. Graphite forms by the metamorphism of organic material in sediments and occurs in
schists and marbles. It is a rare constituent of meteorites and igneous rocks. It forms when carbon is subjected to heat
and pressure in Earth's crust and in the upper mantle (granulite metamorphic facies)

Environment: Most often in metamorphic rock caused from the metamorphism of carbonates. Rarely in pegmatites and
hydrothermal veins.

*Has a greasy feel; Smudges the hands when touched; Good conductor of electricity (though a poor conductor of heat).

Gold: The color of pure Gold is bright golden yellow, but the greater the silver content, the whiter its color is. A
Gold nugget is usually 70 to 95 percent gold, and the remainder mostly silver. Gold is usually associated with Pyrite and
other sulfides, and sometimes may not be noticed because of the association with these resembling minerals. In certain
localities, minerals that contain these sulfides are heated high enough for the sulfides to dissolve, enabling the Gold to
remain intact on the matrix. Such Gold is known as "Roasted Gold".

Environment: In Quartz veins and high temperature hydrothermal deposits, as well as placer deposits.

* Soluble only in aqua regia [("royal water" or "king's water") is a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid, optimally in
a molar ratio of 1:3]

SULFIDES

Sphalerite: a common mineral and occurs in many distinct colors and forms. Iron impurities are often present in
this mineral, and for this reason it is not commonly transparent. If Sphalerite contains a large amount of iron impurities,
it will have a metallic dark gray or black color, which is typical of most sulfide minerals. Sphalerite is one of the few
minerals that can range from gemmy transparent crystals to dark, metallic-black crystals.
*Schalenblende: banded variety associated with Wurtzite and often also Pyrite and Galena that forms strange concentric
shapes

Environment: In sedimentary limestone deposits, hypothermal veins and mesothermal veins, and in hydrothermal
replacement deposits. Occasionally in basalts.

Pyrite: Most common sulfide mineral. It is sometimes called Fools Gold because of its similarity in color and
shape to Gold. The mineral marcasite, sometimes called white iron pyrite, is iron sulfide (FeS2) with orthorhombic crystal
structure. It is physically and crystallographically distinct from pyrite, which is iron sulfide with cubic crystal structure. IN
THIN SECTION: Pyrite – brass yellow ; chalcopyrite – darker yellow; pyrrhotite – dark brown.
Oxidation: pyrite becomes limonite
*pyrite can also fill or replace fossils
 Arsenopyrite: indicates early mineralization among sulfides. It is the most abundant arsenic mineral and the
primary ore of arsenic metal. Much of the arsenopyrite that has been mined formed as a high-temperature mineral in
hydrothermal veins. Arsenopyrite is unstable in most environments of Earth’s surface. It easily alters from its silver-white
or steel-gray color to yield a bronze to brown tarnish. If a geologist strikes the mineral with a hammer to view a fresh
surface or does a streak test, an odor of garlic might be detected. In some deposits, cobalt will substitute for some of
the iron in the arsenopyrite crystal structure. This produces a solid solution series between arsenopyrite (FeAsS) and
glaucodot ((Co,Fe)AsS). “Mispickel” is another name for arsenopyrite.
Weathering products of arsenopyrite: scorodite, pharmacosiderite

Pyrrhotite: late magmatic mineral. is unusual in that it maintains a variable iron content, as reflected in its odd
chemical formula. The variability is formed by deficiencies of iron in its chemical structure, which is also responsible for
its magnetic properties. Greater deficiency of iron is responsible for stronger attraction to magnetic fields. If the mineral
lacks any iron deficiencies, it is no longer Pyrrhotite, but a rare, non-magnetic mineral called Troilite. (Troilite usually
originates from meteoric sources.) Pyrhottite occurs in a host of environments, including hydrothermal replacement
deposits, pegmatites, marbles, nepheline syenites, carbonatites, and skarns.

Chalcopyrite: Fresh chalcopyrite is opaque, brassy yellow, but on exposure it develops an iridescent tarnish. It
occurs in most sulfide mineral deposits throughout the world and has been the most important ore of copper for
thousands of years. The most significant chalcopyrite deposits to be mined are hydrothermal in origin. In these, some
chalcopyrite occurs in veins and some replaces country rock. Associated ore minerals include pyrite, sphalerite, bornite,
galena, and chalcocite.

Molybdenite: the most important ore of molybdenum. It is also an important ore of the rare metal rhenium, which
it sometimes contains in small traces. often occurs with chalcopyrite. Molybdenite forms in two distinct crystal polytypes:
Molybdenite-2H and Molybdenite-3R. Most Molybdenite is of the 2H type, although it is difficult to distinguish the two
without complex analysis, and a distinction is rarely made. Molybdenite occurs in lustrous, metallic-looking crystals that
can be easily moved and bent out of shape. It also has perfect cleavage in one direction and is often flaky, allowing thin
crystals to be "peeled" similar to the micas.

HALIDES

Halite: Halite is the mineral name for the substance that everyone knows as "salt." Its chemical name is sodium
chloride, and a rock composed primarily of halite is known as "rock salt." Halite is mainly a sedimentary mineral that
usually forms in arid climates where ocean water evaporates.

Fluorite: also fluorspar. Fluorite is allochromatic, meaning that it can be tinted with elemental impurities. Fluorite
comes in a wide range of colors and has consequently been dubbed "the most colorful mineral in the world". Every color
of the rainbow in various shades are represented by fluorite samples, along with white, black, and clear crystals. Fluorite
is one of the more famous fluorescent minerals. Many specimens strongly fluoresce, in a great variation of color. In fact,
the word "fluorescent" is derived from the mineral Fluorite. The name of the element fluorine is also derived from Fluorite,
as Fluorite is by far the most common and well-known fluorine mineral. It occurs mainly as a gangue mineral in low
temperature hydrothermal deposits, and, as an accessory mineral in acid and intermediate intrusive rocks.

VARITIES

a. Antozonite: variety of Fluorite containing uncombined fluorine ions. When fractured or cleaved, this variety gives
off a peculiar odor.
b. Blue John: banded purple and white (or purple and yellow) variety of Fluorite.
c. Chlorophane: variety of Fluorite that is thermoluminescent, emitting bright green light when heated.
d. Yttrocerite: variety of Fluorite in which the elements cerium and yttrium partially replace the calcium in the
chemical structure. Its chemical formula is (Ca,Ce,Y)F2.
e. Yttrofluorite: Variety of Fluorite in which the element yttrium partially replaces the calcium in its chemical
structure. Its chemical formula is (Ca,Y)F2.

OXIDES

Periclase: magnesium oxide mineral (MgO) that occurs as colourless to grayish, glassy, rounded grains in
marble and in some dolomitic limestones, where it formed by the metamorphosis of dolomite at high temperatures.
Usually altered to brucite which in turn may be altered to hydromagnesite. Its most common occurrence is in
metamorphic limestones. It is a higher-grade metamorphic product than wollastonite. It is found as cores w/in brucite
spots that formed by hydration of the periclase.
* is isostructural (relating to or having a similar crystal structure in that the atoms correspond in position and function
although there may not be close chemical relationship) with halite
*artificial periclase is made from magnesite
* Pyrometamorphism is a type of contact metamorphism (sanidinite facies) involving very high temperatures that may
cause fusion in suitable lithologies at very low pressures. The high temperatures are attained by flow of mafic magma
through conduits, by way of spontaneous combustion of coal, carbonaceous sediments, oil and gas, and through the
action of lightning strikes

Corundum: Corundum is best known for its gem varieties, Ruby and Sapphire. Ruby and Sapphire are
scientifically the same mineral, but just differ in color. Ruby is the red variety, and Sapphire is the variety that
encompasses all other colors, although the most popular and valued color of Sapphire is blue. Sapphire is also only
used to describe the gem variety; otherwise it is simply called Corundum. The industrial term "emery" describing
Corundum abrasives is derived from the variety Emery which is mined specifically for its use as an abrasive. Erosion
may cause Emery to crumble and form sand, which are sometimes called "black sands." Corundum is easily
synthesized, and many Corundum abrasives are synthetic. Synthetic gems are also easily created by adding traces of
certain color producing elements to the Corundum solution, and letting the solution solidify into a boule, or synthetic,
unprocessed "mineral" with a particular shape. This process is called the Verneuil process.

The aluminum analogue of Eskolaite, Hematite, and Karelianite.

The red (Cr-bearing) gem variety is called Ruby.
The blue (Fe- and Ti-bearing) gem variety is called Sapphire.

Hematite: most important ore of iron. The names of the different varieties of hematite are very descriptive.
Opaque grey crystals with a mirror-like lustre are known as specular hematite. Crystals are complex rhombohedral,
pyramidal, or tabular, and sometimes thin and platy; triangular striations are often seen. Rosette-shaped groups of
crystals are known as eisenrose. Where crystals have grown tightly together to form compact masses, hematite is
always red. Red reniform masses are known as kidney ore. Hematite is found in volcanic fumeroles and hydrothermal
veins, in contact metamorphic rocks, banded ironstones, oolitic ironstones, and as an alteration product of other iron
minerals.

Uraninite: formerly pitchblende, is a radioactive, uranium-rich mineral and ore with a chemical composition that
is largely UO₂, but due to oxidation the mineral typically contains variable proportions of U₃O₈. Two properties of
uraninite are useful for locating it in the field. These are its radioactivity and its tendency to weather into yellow oxidation
products. A radiation detector can be used to quickly scan core, rock and soil for radioactive materials. Yellow materials
can be false indicators, but if they are oxidation products of uraninite they will usually be radioactive.
*As a matter of trivia, the first helium discovered on Earth was found in a material known as “cleveite,” an impure variety
of uraninite. Helium is a product of the alpha decay of the uranium in uraninite.
* Gummite is a yellow oxidation product of uraninite. It consists of uranium oxides, silicates and hydrates. Its yellow color
is often an indication that uranium minerals are nearby

Ilmenite: Ilmenite is a common accessory mineral in igneous rocks, sediments, and sedimentary rocks in many
parts of the world. Apollo astronauts found abundant ilmenite in lunar rocks and the lunar regolith. Ilmenite is a black
iron-titanium oxide with a chemical composition of FeTiO3; the primary ore of titanium. It has a high resistance to
weathering. When rocks containing ilmenite weather, grains of ilmenite disperse with the sediment. The high specific
gravity of these grains causes them to segregate during stream transport and accumulate as "heavy mineral sands".
*leucoxene: opaque white substance common as alteration product of titanium minerals.

Rutile: Rutile is a mineral composed primarily of titanium dioxide. Rutile is the most common natural form of
TiO₂. Other rarer polymorphs of TiO₂ are known including anatase, and brookite. Commonly mistaken for baddeleyite
(ZrO2). Rutile often forms microscopic oriented inclusions in other minerals; these are responsible for the asterism shown
by some phlogopite, rose quartz, ruby, and sapphire. Quartz that contains long, delicate, translucent rutile needles is
called rutilated quartz, or Venus’s-hairstone.

Cassiterite: a tin oxide mineral with a chemical composition of SnO2; it is the most important source of tin. The
primary ore of Tin, this mineral is found in hydrothermal veins and pegmatites associated with granite intrusions.
Because of its durability, it is also frequently found concentrated in alluvial placer deposits, sometimes in large enough
quantities to be commercially exploitable
SPINEL GROUP

Spinel, mineral composed of magnesium aluminum oxide (MgAl2O4) or any member of a group of rock-forming
minerals, all of which are metal oxides with the general composition AB2O4, in which A may be magnesium, iron, zinc,
manganese, or nickel; B may be aluminum, chromium, or iron; and O is oxygen. The spinel group is divided into three
immiscible series: the spinel (aluminum-spinel) series, in which B is aluminum; the chromite (chromium-spinel) series,
in which B is chromium; and the magnetite (iron-spinel) series, in which B is iron.

Spinel twin: Form of contact twinning, in which two octahedral crystals twin at the base. Named after the mineral Spinel,
which often exhibits this form of twinning.

Chromite: the most important ore of chromium; forms in deep ultra-mafic magmas and is one of the first minerals
to crystallize. It is because of this fact that chromite is found in some concentrated ore bodies. While the magma is
slowly cooling inside the Earth's crust, chromite crystals are forming and because of their density, fall to the bottom and
are concentrated there.

Although its primary origin is ultra-mafic rocks such as peridotites, chromite is also found in metamorphic rocks such as
serpentites. Chromite, as is indicated by its early crystallization is resistant to the altering affects of high temperatures
and pressures. Thus it is capable of going through the metamorphic processes unscathed, while other minerals around
it are being altered to serpentine, biotite and garnets. This characteristic also explains chromites use as a refractory
component in the bricks and linings of blast furnaces.

Magnetite: an oxide of iron (as is hematite); the primary oxide of iron found in meteorites. It is not a component
of ordinary rust, although it can form as iron oxidizes in a dry environment. When you see sparks from welding operations
or from iron striking a hard surface (as when it is held against a spinning grinder), the sparks are due to the rapid (and
exothermic) oxidation of tiny particles of iron into magnetite.
* Thermite is a mixture of powdered magnetite and powdered aluminum. When ignited, the aluminum fuel burns using
the magnetite as an oxidizer, resulting in much heat, aluminum oxide (corundum), and molten iron.

HYDROXIDES

Diaspore: also known as diasporite, empholite, kayserite, or tanatarite, is an aluminium oxide hydroxide mineral,
α-AlO(OH), crystallizing in the orthorhombic system and isomorphous with goethite. Diaspore is one of the three
component minerals of the economically important aluminum ore Bauxite, alongside goebsite and boehmite.

Brucite: the mineral form of magnesium hydroxide, with the chemical formula Mg(OH)2. It is a common alteration
product of periclase in marble; a low-temperature hydrothermal vein mineral in metamorphosed limestones and chlorite
schists; and formed during serpentinization of dunites. It is interesting because it is often found as a part of the structure
of other minerals. How can this be? Well, the neutral magnesium hydroxide sheets are found sandwiched between
silicate sheets in two important clay groups: the Chlorite and Montmorillonite/smectite groups. The individual magnesium
hydroxide layers are identical to the individual layers of brucite and are referred to as the "brucite layers".

BAUXITE MINERALS

It is a rock composed mainly of aluminum-bearing minerals. It forms when laterite soils are severely leached of silica
and other soluble materials in a wet tropical or subtropical climate. Bauxite does not have a specific composition. It is a
mixture of hydrous aluminum oxides, aluminum hydroxides, clay minerals, and insoluble materials such as quartz,
hematite, magnetite, siderite, and goethite. The aluminum minerals in bauxite can include: gibbsite Al(OH)3, boehmite
AlO(OH), and, diaspore, AlO(OH).

Boehmite: is an aluminium oxide hydroxide (γ-AlO(OH)) mineral, a component of the aluminium ore bauxite. It
is dimorphous with diaspore. Boehmite occurs in tropical laterites and bauxites developed on alumino-silicate bedrock.
It also occurs as a hydrothermal alteration product of corundum and nepheline. It occurs with kaolinite, gibbsite and
diaspore in bauxite deposits; and with nepheline, gibbsite, diaspore, natrolite and analcime in nepheline pegmatites.[3]
Industrially, it is used as an inexpensive flame retardant additive for fire-safe polymers

Gibbsite: It is also sometimes called hydrargillite. Gibbsite is an important ore of aluminium in that it is one of
three main phases that make up the rock bauxite.
Gibbsite has three named structural polymorphs or polytypes: bayerite (designated often as α-Al(OH)3, but sometimes
as β-Al(OH)3), doyleite, and nordstrandite. Gibbsite and bayerite are monoclinic, whereas doyleite and nordstrandite
are triclinic forms.

Cliachite: A colloidal Al hydroxide.

Limonite: Researchers who studied "limonite" discovered that it is amorphous and has a variable composition.
It often contains significant amounts of iron oxide minerals such as goethite and hematite. This research revealed that
the material called "limonite" does not meet the definition of a mineral. Instead, limonite is a mineraloid composed mainly
of hydrous iron oxides that are often found in intimate associations with iron minerals. Limonite usually occurs as a
secondary material, formed from the weathering of hematite, magnetite, pyrite, and other iron-bearing materials.
Limonite is often stalactitic, reniform, botryoidal, or mammillary in habit, rather than crystalline. It also occurs as
pseudomorphs and coatings on the walls of fractures and cavities.

CARBONATES

The Calcite Group is composed of minerals with the general formula of ACO3, where "A" can be one or more of several
positive 2 charged metal ions specifically calcium, cobalt, iron, magnesium, zinc, cadmium, manganese and/or nickel.
The symmetry of the members of this group is trigonal, bar 3 2/m.

MINERALS THAT BELONG TO THE CALCITE GROUP:

 Calcite (CaCO3)
 Gaspeite ({Ni, Mg, Fe}CO3)
 Magnesite (MgCO3)
 Otavite (CdCO3)
 Rhodochrosite (MnCO3)
 Siderite (FeCO3)
 Smithsonite (ZnCO3)
 Sphaerocobaltite (CoCO3)

The nitrate mineral nitratine is isostructural with the Calcite Group minerals.

There are several varieties of calcite and it would be impossible to describe them all. However there are a few standouts.
Possibly the most well-known of calcite's varieties is its most common form, the classic scalenohedron or "Dogtooth
Spar" as it is sometimes called. This variety appears as a double pyramid or dipyramid, but is actually a distinctly
different form.’ Mexican onyx is a variety of calcite that is used extensively for ornamental purposes. It is carved into
figurines and is so popular that almost every child in the USA owns a small onyx animal or two. Another variety is the
so called "Iceland Spar", which is basically clear cleaved fragments of completely colorless (ice-like) calcite. Most of
today's iceland spar comes from Mexico. The iceland spar displays the classic cleavage form of calcite, the
rhombohedron. Iceland spar was and is used for optical equipment and during World War II it was a strategic mineral
as it was used for the sighting equipment of bombardiers and gunners. It is iceland spar that best demonstrates the
unique property of calcite called double refraction.

Magnesite: It forms commonly from the alteration of magnesium-rich rocks during low grade metamorphism while they
are in contact with carbonate-rich solutions. Magnesite has the same crystal structure of calcite, hence its inclusion into
the calcite mineral group. Many of the properties of magnesite are either identical or similar to those of calcite. However,
the magnesium ion does not allow the carbonate ion (CO3) to interact as easily with cold acids, as the calcium ion does
in calcite. This provides the best means of distinguishing magnesite from calcite. However, dolomite(MgCa(CO3)2) can
be almost indistinguishable from magnesite.

The Calcite Group is an interesting contrast to the Aragonite Group of minerals. The structure of the Calcite Group is
stable at normal temperatures and pressures only with smaller metal ions than the Aragonite Group. The divide is right
at the radius of calcium. If the ion is larger than calcium, the mineral's structure will be of the Aragonite Group, otherwise
if the ion is smaller than calcium than the mineral's structure will be of the Calcite Group. Ironically, the mineral aragonite
is dimorphous with the mineral calcite in that they have the same calcium carbonate chemistry, but different structures.
The size of calcium is the same in both minerals, but different crystallization temperatures, pressures and other
parameters will decide the structure of the crystallizing mineral, that being either calcite's or aragonite's.
ARAGONITE

Calcite, the more common mineral, forms in trigonal crystals, whereas Aragonite forms orthorhombic crystals.

Aragonite is the main component of many organic substances, such as pearl and coral. The iridescent surface of Pearl
and mother-of-pearl is actually a layer of Aragonite secreted by mollusks and related invertebrates. Some forms of
Aragonite, especially the Flos Ferri variety, are brittle and very fragile, and may easily break when touched. Such
specimens need to be much care.

ACID CARBONATE

Trona is a naturally occurring mineral- Sodium Sesquicarbonate: NaHCO3·Na2CO3·2(H2O).Trona is used primarily to

make soda ash (Na2CO3) by calcining (heating) the trona to very high temperatures and converting it to sodium
carbonate. Trona’s other uses are air pollution control, enhanced gold recovery and animal feed

HYDRATED BORATE

Kernite: also known as rasorite is a hydrated sodium borate hydroxide; could be considered a metamorphic
mineral as it is thought to form from the recrystallization of borax due to mild heat and pressure. The mineral borax is
directly deposited in arid regions from the evaporation of water in intermittent lakes called playas. The playas form only
in rainy seasons due to runoff from adjacent mountains. The runoff is rich in the element boron and is highly concentrated
by evaporation in the arid climate. Eventually the concentration is so great that crystals of borax and other boron minerals
form and accumulate to great thickness. Kernite is found at the bottom of these deposits in stratified units with some
kernite crystal layers growing several feet thick.

*may resemble gypsum crystals but is soluble in warm water

Borax: Borax is directly deposited in arid regions from the evaporation of water in intermittent lakes called playas.
The playas form only during rainy seasons due to runoff from adjacent mountains. The runoff is rich in the element boron
and is highly concentrated by evaporation in the arid climate. Eventually the concentration is so great that crystals of
borax and other boron minerals form. Borax and boric acid are two related boron compounds. The natural mineral,
mined from the ground or collected from evaporated deposits, is called borax. When borax is processed, the purified
chemical that results is boric acid (H3BO3). Borax is a salt of boric acid.

*water solube; sweetish (mild alkaline) in taste

Colemanite: desert borax deposit; a secondary mineral that forms by alteration of borax and ulexite; an important
ore of boron and was the most important boron ore until the discovery of kernite in 1926.

* exfoliates (peels off) upon heating

SULFATES

Barite: Celestite (SrSO4) has the same structure as barite and forms very similar crystals. The two are
indistinguishable by ordinary methods, but a flame test can distinguish them. By scraping the dust of the crystals into a
gas flame the color of the flame will confirm the identity of the crystal. If the flame is a pale green it is barite, but if the
flame is red it is celestite. The flame test works because the elements barium (Ba) and strontium (Sr) react in the flame
and produce those colors. It is a prominent vein mineral; common associates are quartz and calcite. It also occurs in
lms and ss and is prominent in some concretions but is rare as a strictly rock-forming mineral.

Celestite: a mineral consisting of strontium sulfate (SrSO4). The mineral is named for its occasional delicate
blue color. Celestine and the carbonate mineral strontianite are the principal sources of the element strontium, commonly
used in fireworks and in various metal alloys. It usually occurs in sedimentary lms, where it is probably more common
than barite.

Anhydrite: Anhydrite is a relatively common sedimentary mineral that forms massive rock layers. Anhydrite
does not form directly but is the result of the dewatering of the rock forming mineral Gypsum (CaSO4-2H2O). This loss
of water produces a reduction in volume of the rock layer and can cause the formation of caverns as the rock shrinks. It
is an evaporite mineral that occurs in extensive layered deposits in sedimentary basins where large volumes of sea
water have been evaporated. It is typically interbedded with halite, gypsum, and limestone in accumulations that can be
up to hundreds of feet thick. On a much smaller scale, anhydrite can form in shoreline or tidal flat sediments from the
evaporation of sea water. Anhydrite also occurs as a vein-filling mineral in hydrothermal deposits. It is deposited from
solution, often along with calcite and halite, as gangue in sulfide mineral deposits. Anhydrite is also found in the cap
rock of salt domes and in cavities of trap rock.

* Many specimens are fluorescent; pag hindi, after heating nagiging din

Gypsum: Gypsum is one of the more common minerals in sedimentary environments. It is a major rock forming
mineral that produces massive beds, usually from precipitation out of highly saline waters. Since it forms easily from
saline water, gypsum can have many inclusions of other minerals and even trapped bubbles of air and water. Two types
of twinning are common and one produces a "spear head twin" or "swallowtail twin" while the other type produces a
"fishtail twin".
*The largest gypsum quarry in the world is in Milford, Nova Scotia.

a. Rock Gypsum - soft, granular, white to gray, with 30-40% impurities

b. Selenite - pure crystalline gypsum found in transparent monoclinic crystals
c. Alabaster - white, compact, fine grained variety used for carving
d. Satin Spar - fine, translucent fibrous variety with a silky sheen

Polyhalite: a sulfate mineral in evaporite deposits [K2Ca2Mg(SO4)4·2H2O] that often occurs with anhydrite and
halite. Its name, from the Greek words meaning “many salts,” reflects its composition, hydrated sulfates of potassium,
calcium, and magnesium. It occurs in saline beds; the common associates are halite, sylvite, magnesite, and anhydrite.

Alunite: The Al analogue of jarosite and the K analogue of natroalunite. Alunite forms from the action of sulfuric
acids upon potassium rich feldspars in a process called "alunitization". The sulfuric acids accompany hydrothermal
solutions, usually rich in certain ore metals. These solutions can result in large bodies of alunite, making alunite a rock
forming mineral. As such, alunite can easily be mistaken for massive rock forming dolomite or limestone (calcite). An
acid test should prove adequate in identification as alunite does not bubble even when powdered. Alunite also forms at
volcanic fumaroles.
*Some specimens fluoresce a nice orange color under longwave UV light. Does not react to acids except to slowly
dissolve, unlike dolomite and calcite. Also pyroelectric and piezoelectric.

Jarosite: has been used for dating (K-Ar method) of weathering processes; alters readily to limonite; rather
common mineral in the lower oxidized zone of ore deposits. Occasionally found in volcanic igneous rocks, perhaps as
a late hydrothermal mineral.
PHOSPHATES
Monazite: comes from a Greek word, monazein, which means "to be alone"; actually three different minerals
technically, but because of a lack of great differences between them they are referred to as one mineral, monazite. The
three monazites have differences in the percentages of their chemical makeup and these differences are reflected in
their respective names.
a. Monazite-(Ce): (Ce, La, Nd, Th, Y)PO4
b. Monazite-(La): (La, Ce, Nd)PO4
c. Monazite-(Nd): (Nd, La, Ce)PO4

It is radioactive, sometimes highly radioactive, and specimens are often metamict. This is a condition found in radioactive
minerals and results from the destructive effects of its own radiation on its crystal lattice. The effect can destroy a crystal
lattice completely while leaving the outward appearance of the crystal unchanged. It occurs in pegmatites, granites, and
may be found in veins. It is often a detrital mineral and may be found in ancient sedimentary strata or in younger sands.
An important source of thorium, cerium, and other rare elements. Often mined as a byproduct from heavy mineral
deposits.

Apatite: is named for the Greek word apate, which means "deceit", since Apatite is similar in appearance to many
other minerals; main source of phosphorus. Phosphate rock and phosphorite are names used for sedimentary rocks
that contain at least 15% to 20% phosphate based on weight.
 a. Carbonate apatite: Variety of the Apatite group where the phosphate radical (PO4) is partially replaced by a
carbonate radical (CO3). It has a chemical formula of Ca5(PO4CO3)3(OH,F). Also known as Carbonate-rich
Apatite
b. Chlorapatite: Individual member mineral of the Apatite group with chlorine being dominant in its structure.
c. Collophane: Microcrystalline variety of botryoidal white Apatite.
d. Fluorapatite: Individual member mineral of the Apatite group with fluorine being dominant in its structure
e. Hydroxylapatite: Individual member mineral of the Apatite group with hydroxyl being dominant in its structure.
f. Manganapatite: Manganese-rich variety of Apatite.
g. Sammite: A strontium-rich form of Apatite containing some rare earth elements
h. Staffelite: A botryoidal variety of Apatite
i. Strontian-Apatite: Rare, strontium-rich variety of Apatite, with the calcium partially replaced by strontium. Its
chemical formula is (Sr,Ca)5(PO4)3(OH,F).

It is a common accessory mineral of all practically all ig rx. It is a late magmatic mineral, it also occurs in pegmatites, in
some high-T veins in metamorphic lms, and is also prominent in some iron ores.

Collophane: a massive, cryptocrystalline variety of apatite that is the principal component of phosphate rock
and fossil bone where the structure of the original bone is usually preserved.

Lazulite: a blue, phosphate mineral containing magnesium, iron, and aluminium phosphate. Lazulite forms one
endmember of a solid solution series with the darker iron rich scorzalite. Practically the only blue pleochroic mineral w/
strong birefringence. It occurs in quartzites and in quartz veins. The usual associates are quartz, rutile, corundum,
pyrophyllite, kyanite and andalusite.

VANADIUM OXYSALTS

Carnottite: radioactive, bright-yellow, soft and earthy vanadium mineral that is an important source of uranium.
A hydrated potassium uranyl vanadate, K2(UO2)2(VO4)2·3H2O, pure carnotite contains about 53 percent uranium, 12
percent vanadium, and trace amounts of radium. It is of secondary origin, having been formed by alteration of primary
uranium-vanadium minerals. It occurs chiefly with tyuyamunite (its calcium analogue) in sandstone, either disseminated
or locally as small pure masses, particularly around fossil wood.

TUNGSTATE

Sheelite: A primary tunsten ore mineral commonly found in contact-metamorphic deposits, high-temperature
hydrothermal veins, greisens, and granitic pegmatites it forms a series with the rarer mineral Powellite, which contains
molybdenum in place of the tungsten. Powellite fluoresces a yellow color while scheelite fluoresces a bright blue under
short wave ultraviolet light. It forms perfect tetragonal dipyramidal crystals that look very much like octahedrons (see
also: wardite, anatase and powellite)

TECTOSILICATES

Tectosilicates, or "framework silicates," have a three-dimensional framework of silicate tetrahedra with SiO2 or a 1:2
ratio. This group comprises nearly 75% of the crust of the Earth.[6] Tectosilicates, with the exception of the quartz group,
are aluminosilicates. Since the Si - O bonds are strong covalent bonds and since the structure is interlocking, the
tectosilicate minerals tend to have a high hardness.

 QUARTZ GROUP

Quartz: Feldspars as a group are more prevalent than Quartz, as an individual mineral Quartz is the most common
mineral. Crystals frequently twin; a famous twinning habit is the Japanese twin, where two crystals contact at a 90º
angle. Quartz crystals may also contain a scepter growth, where the top of a crystal bulges out from the rest of the
crystal, and may also form as phantom growth, where one crystal forms over another, leaving a ghosted form inside. It
dissolves in hydrofluoric acid.

Tridymite (high T): is a rare polymorph of the mineral Quartz. However, its crystals are very distinct and form very
different habits from Quartz. Many Tridymite specimens are in fact pseudomorphs of Quartz after Tridymite, as the
Tridymite often alters to the more common Quartz in many environments. After Quartz replaces the Tridymite, it still
retains the original, distinct crystal form of Tridymite. True Tridymite and Quartz pseuomorphs are virtually
indistinguishable without locality knowledge or x-ray analysis.

Cristobalite (high T): is an odd form of silica. It is composed of the same elements as Quartz but has a different crystal
structure, making it a separate mineral. Cristobalite is found in volcanic sources almost always associated with the
natural glass rock obsidian. It usually forms in vesicles and gas pockets with the obsidian. Snowflake obsidian, a popular
form of obsidian with white snowflake-like formations on it, is in fact obsidian with small white inclusions of Cristobalite,
where the white microscopic crystals form a pattern giving it a snowflake-like effect.
*When heated to 350ºF (180ºC), Cristobalite becomes clear and transparent. However, when it cools down afterwards,
it returns to its translucent or opaque state and becomes whitish again.

Coesite: is a rare form of silica formed under intense heat and great pressure. There are only two environments where
Coesite is found: Crater impact sites and Diamond Kimberlite pipes. Both these environments provide the the great heat
and pressure this mineral needs to form.

Stishovite (high T&P): another rare form of silica formed under intense heat and extreme pressure. It was recently
discovered in the Barringer Crater (Meteor Crater) in Coconino Co., Arizona. It was formed when the large meteorite
struck the earth, causing a tremendous amount of heat and pressure, enough to suit the formation of Stishovite. The
Barringer Crater is currently the only locality where this mineral occurs.

Lechatelierite: is a very rare, natural form of silica that lacks a definitive crystal structure. It is amorphous and
considered a natural glass, and is scientifically classified as a mineraloid.

Keatite: is a synthetic form of silica; it does not exist in nature. Therefore, it cannot be classified as a mineral. It is
conceivable, although unlikely, that a natural example of Keatite will be found in the future, and thus will become
classified as a mineral.

 FELDSPAR FAMILY

o Alkali feldspars (potassium feldspars)

Microcline: is polymorphous with Orthoclase and Sanidine. These three minerals form the Potassium Feldspar
group. They are almost identical in physical properties, and sometimes it is impossible to distinguish one another
without x-ray analysis. The only difference between them is their crystal structure. Microcline crystallizes in the
triclinic system, and Orthoclase and Sanidine crystallize in the monoclinic system. Crystals of Microcline are
generally much larger than those of Orthoclase, and a deep green color is tell-tale sign of Microcline, since
Orthoclase does not exist in a deep green color. It forms during slow cooling of orthoclase; it is more stable at lower
temperatures than orthoclase. Sanidine is a polymorph of alkali feldspar stable at yet higher temperature. Microcline
may be clear, white, pale-yellow, brick-red, or green; it is generally characterized by cross-hatch twinning that forms
because of the transformation of monoclinic orthoclase into triclinic microcline.
Orthoclase: known in igneous rocks found on the moon and on Mars. Orthoclase is an important constituent of
igneous rocks brought back from the moon by astronauts. It has also been detected in the igneous rocks of Mars
during analyses done by NASA’s rovers.
Anorthoclase: the intermediary member of the Albite-Sanidine series. It is interesting to note that this mineral series
contains two end members crystallizing in different crystal systems. Albite crystallizes in the triclinic system, whereas
Sanidine crystallizes in the monoclinic system. When Anorthoclase forms, its atoms form in a specific arrangement.
This arrangement of the atoms forms the crystal structure of the mineral. Depending on the environment it forms in,
it will either form a monoclinic or triclinic crystal. If it forms a monoclinic crystal, it leans toward Sanidine in regard to
its crystal structure, and if it forms in the triclinic system, it leans toward Albite. (For this reason, Anorthoclase crystals
can either be triclinic or monoclinic, although the tendency is usually toward triclinic.) The scientific classification of
Sanidine, Anorthoclase, and Albite can only be determined with x-ray analysis. However, certain localities produce
known examples of these Feldspars, in which case the mineral type can be determined without complex analysis.
Sanidine: the high temperature form of potassium feldspar with a general formula K(AlSi3O8). Sanidine is found
most typically in felsic volcanic rocks such as obsidian, rhyolite and trachyte.
o Plagioclase feldspars (isomorphous)
All plagioclase feldspars show a type of twinning that is named after albite. Albite Law twinning produces stacks of
twin layers that are typically only fractions of millimeters to several millimeters thick. These twinned layers can be
seen as striation like grooves on the surface of the crystal and unlike true striations these also appear on the
cleavage surfaces. The Carlsbad Law twin produces what appears to be two intergrown crystals growing in opposite
directions. Two different twin laws, the Manebach and Baveno laws, produce crystals with one prominant mirror
plane and penetrant angles or notches into the crystal. Although twinned crystals are common, single crystals
showing a perfect twin are rare and are often collected by twin fanciers.

Albite: the last of the feldspars to crystallize from molten rock. The process of crystallization from a molten rock
body serves to isolate rarer elements in the last stages of crystallization and therefore produces rare mineral species.
Thus albite is often found with some lovely rare and beautiful minerals. Although usually not an exceptional collection
mineral in itself, albite can be a nice accessory mineral to other mineral species. A variety associated with tourmaline
is called cleavelandite and forms extremely thin, platy, white and sometimes very transparent crystals.
Oligoclase: is characteristic of granodiorites and monzonites. It may also have a sparkle owing to inclusions of
hematite, in which case it is called sunstone. Oligoclase is found in metamorphic rocks formed under moderate
temperature conditions such as amphibolite facies.
Andesine: is only a minor constituent in most granites and syenites. But is the dominant feldspar in certain igneous
rocks called, appropriately andesites. It is also found in some metamorphic rocks as a minor constituent
Labradorite: iGenerally a dull, dark looking mineral with no special virtue until the colorful schiller is observed
glowing on the surface. Labradorite can produce a colorful play of light across cleavage planes and in sliced sections
 called labradorescence. The usually intense colors range from typical blues and violets through greens, yellows and
oranges. Some rare specimens display all these colors simultaneously.
Bytownite: rarest plagioclase; occurs in basic igneous rocks and in stony meteorites.
Anorthite: found in mafic igneous rocks; rare on the Earth but abundant on the Moon
 FELDSPATHOID FAMILY
a group of tectosilicate minerals which resemble feldspars but have a different structure and much lower silica content.
They occur in rare and unusual types of igneous rocks, and are not found in rocks containing primary quartz.
Nosean: an uncommon member of the feldspathoid group that is closely related to Lazurite and Hauyne. It can
sometimes be very difficult to distinguish these three minerals without a complex chemical analysis. Nosean forms a
solid solution series with Hauyne, where Hauyne contains calcium in place of some of the sodium, whereas Nosean
lacks any calcium and has water in its chemical structure.
Cancrinite: rare feldspathoid mineral, an aluminosilicate that contains sodium and calcium carbonate and occurs as an
alteration product of nepheline and feldspar in nepheline-syenite and related rocks. It also is found in metamorphic rocks
and in contact zones between limestone and igneous intrusives. In the presence of high CO2 partial pressures cancrinite
can form pseudomorph after Nepheline in alkaline rocks.
Leucite: forms directly from cooling lava in volcanic rock. It forms in low-silica environments where little Quartz is
present. When Leucite forms at high temperatures, it crystallizes as isometric crystals in trapezohedral crystal form. As
it cools, its crystal structure becomes unstable, and transforms into tetragonal form while retaining the original isometric
shape. Though Leucite crystals are usually equant, the crystal faces may be slightly uneven due to the alteration. When
in the oxidized zone, Leucite often alters to Pseudoleucite, which is a chalky-white combination of Orthoclase, Nepheline,
and Analcime. Extensive oxidation may further break it down into Kaolinite or clay.
Nepheline: It is a major component of several igneous rocks called nepheline syenite, nepheline monzonite and
nephelinite. The basic difference between these is in the amount and types of feldspars present. In nepheline syenite
potassium feldspars or K-spars are the predominant feldspar. In the nepheline monzonite rocks both k-spars and
plagioclase feldspars are present in near equal proportions. And finally in the nephelinites there is little of any of the
feldspars present and the rock is mostly nepheline.
*Application of acids onto the surface of nepheline will cause a cloudy frosting and powdered nepheline will dissolve in
hydrochloric acid.
Sodalite: A light, relatively hard yet fragile mineral, sodalite is named after its sodium content. Well known for its blue
color, sodalite may also be grey, yellow, green, or pink and is often mottled with white veins or patches. Although
somewhat similar to lazurite and lapis lazuli, sodalite rarely contains pyrite (a common inclusion in lapis) and its blue
color is more like traditional royal blue rather than ultramarine. It is further distinguished from similar minerals by its white
(rather than blue) streak. Sodalite's six directions of poor cleavage may be seen as incipient cracks running through the
stone. Most sodalite will fluoresce orange under ultraviolet light, and hackmanite exhibits tenebrescence.
* tenebrescence: also known as reversible photochromism, is the ability of minerals to change colour when exposed to
sunlight. The effect can be repeated indefinitely, but is destroyed by heating (see also: spodumene and tugtupite)
Lazurite: Main component of Lapis Lazuli, along with calcite and pyrite. The carbonate mineral azurite has a very similar
color to lazurite but is associated with the green carbonate mineral malachite and reacts to acids.
*lazurite is sulphide, hauyne is sulphate
Petalite (castorite): Occurs in lithium-bearing pegmatites with spodumene, lepidolite, and tourmaline. Petalite is an
important ore of lithium, and is converted to spodumene and quartz by heating to ~500 °C and under 3 kbar of pressure
in the presence of a dense hydrous alkali borosilicate fluid with a minor carbonate component.
Scapolite: a mineral series consisting of two very similar minerals: sodium-rich Marialite and calcium-rich Meionite. The
two Scapolites also differ in that Meionite has a carbonate radical in place of chlorine that is present in Marialite. The
two Scapolite minerals are often visibly indistinguishable from each other, and they also form unclassified intermediary
examples within their series. Scapolite is the accepted term that encompasses both minerals, and further classification
into Marialite or Meionite is often not done unless the species determination is absolute. Scapolite forms as an alteration
mineral of the feldspars. It can form in two entirely different and unrelated habits, as large and stocky white, opaque
crystals, and as prismatic, completely transparent gemmy crystals in elongated form.
*chiefly metamorphic
Analcime: It forms the isometric trapezohedron. The minerals of the garnet group and high temperature leucite are the
only common minerals that will also form the trapezohedron. The garnets are much harder and usually deeply colored.
Leucite has a much lower density and usually has a dull luster. Also leucite is typically embedded in host rock where as
analcime, when displaying good crystals and not massive or granular, is loose or attacted to other minerals in volcanic
cavities.
*has both characteristics of feldspathoids and zeolites
 ZEOLITE FAMILY
any of a large group of minerals consisting of hydrated aluminosilicates of sodium, potassium, calcium, and barium.
They can be readily dehydrated and rehydrated, and are used as cation exchangers and molecular sieves.
Natrolite: a sodium zeolite
Scolecite: a calcium zeolite
Mesolite: a calcium and sodium zeolite
Erionite: forms wool-like, fibrous masses in the hollows of rhyolitic tuffs and in basalts. The form is such that hardness
measurements are impossible and basically irrelevant. The crystals not only look like wool they feel like wool as well.
*considered more dangerous than serpentine asbestos; can cause fibrosis and mesothelioma in mice lungs
Chabazite: also known as acadialite; forms in the petrified bubbles (called vesicles) of volcanic rocks that have had a
slight amount metamorphism.
Heulandite: has a very distinctive crystal form and has a noticeable pearly luster on cleavage surfaces; shares its
chemical structure with the closely related mineral Clinoptilolite. Clinoptilolite is a rare mineral very similar to Heulandite
with a higher potassium and silicon ratio.
Stilbite: It forms wheatsheaf-like crystals and highly collectible decorative hourglass-like structures; abundant in
volcanic rocks and commonly found with Barite, Heulandite, Prehnite, and Apophyllite.