Soil as a Construction Material

Merrill Zwanka
Geotechnical Materials Engineer
SCDOT Research and Materials Lab
February 1999

Soil as a
Construction Material

Definitions
Sampling and Testing
Classification

1
 Soil Particle Size

Mixture of any or all of:

Gravel - Rock Particles 5 mm-150 mm
Sand - Rock Particles 0.074 mm-5 mm
Silt - Rock Particles 0.002 mm - 0.074 mm
Cl - Mineral
Clay Mi l Particles
P ti l less than 0.002 mm

Soil Consistency

Consistency denotes the degree of

firmness - a function of particle size and
moisture content
Solid - like Hard Candy
Semi-Solid - like Cheese
Plastic - like soft butter to putty (deforms without
cracks)
Liquid - like pea soup to soft butter

2
 Soil Characteristics

Soil is different than any other

material that we work with in
construction
It is non-uniform
We can use it as it is (good material)
We can improve
i the
h properties
i (mix,
( i geosynthetics)
h i )
We can modify it (cement, geosynthetics)
We can remove it and replace it (poor material)

Soil Properties
How do we determine the soil
properties such as particle size,
consistency etc.?
consistency, etc ?
How do you know what soils are
good or poor for use in construction?

3
 Typical Soil Profile

Horizons
•O -Organic
•A - Eluviated
•B - Accumulated
•C - Parent Material

Fall Line

4
 Soil Sampling

 Sampled using continuous

flight augers for road and
bridge design purposes
 Sampled from road or pit
for use in embankments
and other earthwork
 Observations and
measurements of the soil
type is recorded

Soil Testing

Particle Size Analysis

Mechanical analysis - separate the clay
particles and vibrate the remaining
particles through a nest of sieves

5
 Soil Consistency
Atterberg Limits
Liquid Limit (LL) - Water content in which the
soil behaves as a viscous liquid
Plastic Limit (PL) - Lowest water content in
which the soil behaves as a plastic material

Liquid Limit

 Soil has moisture added to it - placed in cup

cup,
groove carved in center, cup dropped until soil
contacts, repeated at different moisture contents

Sample Preparation Cup Groove

6
 Plastic Limit

 Soil sample is rolled between the fingers and a

solid surface until a 1/8 inch diameter thread is
obtained - it is re-mixed and re-rolled until it
crumbles before obtaining a 1/8 inch thread - the
moisture content is then determined

Plasticity Index (PI)

The range of moisture contents

within which the material is in a
plastic state
PI = LL - PL

7
 Soil Strength Tests

 Triaxial Shear Strength

Tests drained or undrained
shear strength of sample
Used for bridge design,
retaining wall design,
embankment design, etc.

 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

Measures resistance to
penetration (Index)
CBR Triaxial
Empirical Data
Used for pavement design

Soil Classification

In order to use soil data for design

and construction, we classify it
according to a standard procedure
Predict the behavior of each soil
Ch k ffor compliance
Check li with
ith specifications
ifi ti

8
 Soil Classification

Several procedures available for

classifying soil types
AASHTO
ASTM
USDA (Agriculture)
FAA (Aviation)
Corps of Engineers
USBR (Bureau of Reclamation)

9
10
 Example Soil Classification

% Passing #10 Sieve = 83

% Passing #40 Sieve = 48
% Passing #200 Sieve = 31
Liquid Limit = 37
Plasticityy Index = 17

Given the information above, what is the soil classification?

Soil Classifications

 A-1-a
A1a  Gravel - Well Graded
 A-1-b  Gravel - Silty
 A-3  Sand - Poorly Graded
 A-2-4 or A-2-5  Sand - Silty
 A-2-6 or A-2-7  Sand or Gravel - Clayey
AA-4
4  Silt - Organic or Inorganic
 A-5  Silt - Inorganic
 A-6  Clay - Inorganic
 A-7  Clay - Organic or Inorganic

11
 Soil Classification
Group Index

Only for soils classified as A-2-6 and greater

Provides an indication of the material usage for
subgrade
GI of “0” indicates a good subgrade material
GI of “20” or greater indicates a very poor subgrade
Shown in parenthesis after the classification
A-2-6(5), A-7-6(25), etc.

12
 Compaction Theory

Soil is composed of three phases

 Air Air

 Water Water
 Solids
Solids

13
What is compaction?
 Compaction
p is the rapid
p application
pp of force
to the soil mass, resulting in the removal of
air.
Air

Water
Uncompacted
Volume
Solids

What is compaction?
 Compaction
p is the rapid
p application
pp of force
to the soil mass, resulting in the removal of
air.
Air
Water
Uncompacted Compacted
Volume Volume
Solids

14
What is compaction?
 During
g compaction,
p , there is no change
g in
the volume of water and solids!

Air
Water
Uncompacted Compacted
Volume Volume
Solids

Why is compaction important?

 Compaction:
p
– Increases strength
– Decreases permeability
– Prevents future settlement

15
What is moisture content?
 Moisture content is the weight
g of the water
divided by the weight of the solids.
 Since we are only removing air from the
soil, compaction does not change moisture
content.
 Moisture content can exceed 100%.

What factors control compaction?

 Soil type
yp
 Moisture content
 Compactive effort

We ca
can co
control
t o moisture
o stu e co
content
te t aand
d co
compactive
pact ve effort!
e o t!

16
How does moisture content affect
compaction?
 Too much water results in less compaction.
p
 Too little water results in less compaction.
 Water should be “just right”...

Moisture-Density Curves
Zero Air Voids Line

Maximum
Optimum
Density
Moisture
Content

17
How does compactive effort
affect compaction?
Increasing compactive effort

How does compactive effort

typically affect compaction?
 As compactive
p effort increases…
– Optimum moisture content necessary to achieve
maximum density decreases
– Maximum density increases

18
 Why is lift thickness important?

Importance of Lift Thickness

Compactive Effort Compactive Effort

0’ 0’ An equal compactive effort applied to

an excessively thick lift may be
1’ 1’ substantially reduced at the lower
elevations. A much greater
2’ compactive force would need to be
applied to achieve suitable density.
3’

Variables
Va ab es Note:
No e:
Well graded materials vs. poorly graded materials Maximum lift thickness
requirements are typically given in
Soil type and moisture condition
the project specifications. If
Compaction equipment requirements are not given, the
project geotechnical engineer should
Compaction procedure
be consulted for the recommended
Site conditions lift thickness.

19
SCDOT Compaction
Specifications Overview
 Embankment fill
– 8 inches, 95% SC-T-25 or SC-T-29
 Aggregate Bases
– Sand Clay - 10 inches, 100% SC-T-25 or SC-T-
29
– Marine Limestone, Macadam, Recycled
Concrete, Coquina - 10 inches, 100% SC-T-140

So, how do we determine what

moisture content is “just right”??
 The SCDOT One-Point Proctor Curve!!!

20
 CompactionAnd Gradation
Control
Definitions
Information
Formulas & Equations

DEFINITION OF COMPACTION

 Compaction-The densifying or Packing Together of Soil

Grains or Particles while Entrapped Air is Squeezed Out.
(Two Things Needed)
Maximum Dry Density-Dry Unit Weight - Obtained From A
Given Compactive Effort As Defined By The Peak of A
Compactive Curve.
Optimum Moisture Content- Amount Of Water At Which
The
h Maximum
i Density
i off A Material
i l Can Be Obtained
b i d
Within A Given Compactive Effort.

21
 Density

Density = Weight Per Unit Volume =

Weight/Volume in pounds per cu.ft. or grams per cubic

centimeter

Bucket Capacity-1/4 cu. ft. =22.3 lbs.when full of water.

Empty bucket weighs 6.7
6 7 lbs.
lbs
Wt. Water= 22.3 lbs.- 6.7 lbs. = 15.6 lbs.
Volume of Water= 1/4 cu. ft.= .25 cu. ft.
Density of water= weight water/volume of water
=15.6 lbs./.25 cu. ft.= 62.4 pcf

As Density Increases:

THESE INCREASE THESE DECREASE

shear strength compressibility
load bearing Permeability
shrinking/swell
susceptibility to erosion
freeze/thaw damage

22
 Methods Of Measuring Density

LAB PROCEDURES:

AASHTO T-99 moisture-density relations of soils using 5.5 lb.

Rammer & 12 inch drop (method A,B,C,D).
AASHTO T-180- moisture-density relations of material using a
10 lb. Rammer & 18 inch drop(method A,B,C,D).
SC-T-140 same as the old AASHTO T-180.

FIELD PROCEDURES:

SC T-25 field method of determining moisture-density

relations of soils.
SC T-29 field determination of MDD & OMC of soils by one-
point proctor method.

Density Determination

Density which is determined by direct or

indirect measurement is called the ACTUAL
DENSITY.
Actual Dry Density is compared to theoretical
maximum dry density to determine percent
compaction.
compaction
% Compaction = Actual Dry Density divided
by theoretical MAX Dry Density.

23
 AGGREGATE BASE DENSITY

 Contract specifies 10” Macadam base.

 Compaction required
required- 100% of MDD as determined by SC-
SC
T-140.
Sample submitted to lab for testing reported MDD OF 138.7
pcf & 5.8 % omc
You ran field density using Troxler nuclear gauge &
determined the actual wet den to be 139.8 pcf. >moisture
content of 3.9 pcf.
 Does
D it meett compaction
ti requirement?
i t?
DD= 139.8 - 3.9=135.9 pcf
% Compaction= 135.9/138.7 x 100= 98 %
(actual/theor.)
Required=100 % >>Fails
 Suggestions to contractor?

Factors That Influence Test

Results

Size & shape of mold

Mold support
Sample prep
Type,magnitude & distribution of
compactive effort
Layer Thickness
Degradation of particles
Temperature

24
Two Ways Of Controlling Compaction
(Practical Aspects)

 SPECIFY A METHOD OF COMPACTION

Ex. Sec 303.11 of std specs (old spec) - Initial compaction of
sand-clay base less than 8” thick will be done w/sheepsfoot
roller and will continue until roller walks out of base coarse.
Final rolling done by pneumatic(rubber tire) rollers.

 SPECIFY END RESULT

Ex. Sec.
E S 303.4.6
303 4 6 off std
td specs ((new spec)) - earth
th ttype base
b with
ith
total thickness greater than 8” to be compacted 100% max
den.
Max. den determined by SC-T-25,or SC-T-29.

END RESULT USED

 Where there is a Specified amount of compaction to be

achieved, field compaction tests required.
METHODS USED BY SCDOT
 Actual Density- Nuclear gauge
 Moisture Content- speedy moisture tester, pan drying
 Max Dry density - Lab uses oven drying.
AASHTO T-99(standard), AASHTO T-180(modified), SC-T-
140
 Four Pt. Field proctor (SC- T-25)
 One Pt. Field proctor (SC-T-29)

25
 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE COMPACTION

 Moisture content
 Method of preparation
 Uniformity of Procedures
 Environmental influences
 Type of Roller
 Compactive effort
 Underlying layer
 Lift thickness
 Rate of Compaction
 Moisture Content

GRADATION CONTROL

 All subbases & Bases in Standard Specifications except cement mod subbase
have gradation requirements

 Gradation requirements are a means of specifying distribution of particle

sizes which make up an aggregate.

 Normally specified as % passing a particular sieve.

 Ex. Macadam Base (sec. 305.2.5.5)

Sieve % by wgt.pass.
2” 100
1-1/2” 95-100
1” 70-80
1/2” 48-75
#4 30-50
#30 11-30
#200 0-12

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 One Point Proctor Test
for
Typical Soils in South Carolina

(Family of Curves)

Introduction
Compaction is a key factor in highway
construction
Must know maximum dry density and
optimum moisture content of soil
Time consuming laboratory and field tests
– AASHTO T-99 - Several Moisture Contents

27
Procedure Development
SCDOT Research and Materials Laboratory
performed research for better procedure
Wanted maximum dry density and optimum
moisture content of soils faster and more
accurately
Louisiana had a successful approach using a
family of curves - SCDOT would use
similar method (Ohio - 1949)

Procedure Implementation
Procedure discussed with FHWA and field
personnel training requested (Spring 1970)
– Dropped supplemental sand curves
Developed SC-T-29:
– Field Determination of Maximum Dry Density and
Optimum Moisture Content of Soils by One-Point
Proctor Method
Report completed in 1972
Procedure conveyed to construction personnel
for use on projects throughout the state

28
SC-T-29
Determine weight of standard proctor mold
(without collar or base plate) to nearest
gram.

29
SC-T-29
Place standard mold (with base plate and
collar attached) on block of concrete.

SC-T-29
Obtain approx. 2500 gms of material (tested
for in-place density and moisture content)
and sieve through No. 4 sieve. Discard
material retained on the sieve.

30
SC-T-29
Mix 2500 gm sample to obtain uniform
moisture content.

SC-T-29
Place 1/3 of sample in proctor mold and
compact with 25 blows of 5.5 lb. Hammer
at 12” height of drop

31
SC-T-29
Add another 1/3 of original sample and
compact again (25 blows, etc.)
Repeat above step one last time.

SC-T-29
Remove extension collar and carefully trim
the compacted soil with a straightedge
(even with top of mold).

32
SC-T-29
Remove base plate from mold and weigh
mold and specimen to nearest gram.

SC-T-29
Remove the material from the mold and
slice vertically through the center.

33
SC-T-22
Take a representative sample of the material
from one of the cut faces and determine the
moisture content by use of the speedy
moisture tester.
Clean all old reagent from the previous test.

SC-T-22

Place 3 scoops of
reagent into the
speedy cavity.
Place 2 steel balls
into the cavity
and invert the
cap.

34
SC-T-22

Weigh the
appropriate
amount of
material (20 g. or
26 g.) depending
on the type
speedy you have.

SC-T-22
Place the material
in the cap and turn
cavity horizontal.
Place the cap on
the cavity without
mixing the
material with the
reagent. Then
tightened the cap
and begin shaking
horizontally.

35
SC-T-22

Shake the
material for
approximately 3
minutes or until
needle stops
rising.

SC-T-22

Check moisture
every minute or
so.
If the moisture
reading looks to
be over 20, then
stop the procedure
and add the 10g or
13g weight and
run again.

36
SC-T-22

Read moisture to
the nearest 10th
and Turn to
moisture
correction chart
in Sec. L and
convert the
speedy reading to
oven moisture.

SC-T-22

Check for
material that has
not completed
the chemical
reaction (wet
material or clay
balls). If found
then run test
again.

37
SC-T-29
Determine the weight of the specimen by
subtracting weight of mold.

38
SC-T-29
Determine wet density of soil specimen by
multiplying the mold constant (stamped on
the base plate) by the weight of the soils
specimen.

SC-T-29
Using the computed moisture content and
determined wet density, plot the one point
on the Family of Curves

39
SC-T-29
If the point falls on one of the curves, the
maximum dry density and optimum
moisture content may be read from table

SC-T-29
If the point does not fall on one of the
curves, it is necessary to interpolate
between the curves and then use the table

40
SC-T-29
Example Calculation
• Weight of mold and soil = 4006 gms
• Weight of mold = 2074 gms
• Weight of soil = A - B = 4006 - 2074= 1932 gms
• Wet density of soil = (Mold k) * (soil wt.)
• = 0.06638 * 1932 = 128.2 pcf
• Speedy Moisture Reading (from Speedy) = 11.3
• % Moisture (Converted to Oven Moisture) = 11.8%
• Falls between Curves 8 and 9:
• Maximum dry density (Family of Curves) = 116.6 pcf
• Optimum moisture content (Family of Curves) = 12.5%

Comments
May not be applicable to all soils in SC
May need to conduct more detailed test
• SC-T-25
Decision is left to the Resident Constr. Engr.

41
Determine Actual Density with
Nuclear Gauge

Obtain Second Speedy Moisture

42
Determine % Compaction

Compare “Theoretical” density from One-

Point Proctor with “Actual” or “In-Place”
density from Nuclear Gauge
Calculate as a percentage (percent
compaction)

Comparison of Methods
Old Way… New Way…
Several densities in lab One density in field
Field density by Actual density by
balloon or sand cone nuclear gauge
methods Moisture by Speedy
Moisture by pan Moisture gauge
drying Easier and faster for
Time Consuming! inspectors

43
Any Questions?

44