Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Project Two
Single degree of freedom analysis
Aaron Canning
Scott Harrison
Stephen Shew
David Steele
Jackson Supit
Nathan McCosker
8/3/2009
Table of contents
Project overview ..................................................................................................................................... 3
List of assumptions ................................................................................................................................. 4
Derivation of Free vibration response .................................................................................................... 5
Forced vibration addition and affect on system ..................................................................................... 6
Road forced vibration addition and affect on system ............................................................................ 8
Additional non‐linearities ..................................................................................................................... 10
Accelerometer....................................................................................................................................... 12
Reflection .............................................................................................................................................. 15
‐Real and idealised models ............................................................................................................... 15
‐Differences/advantages of frequency domain analysis .................................................................. 15
‐Brief investigation of the alternative modelling approach ie. Rotational movement ..................... 16
Appendix ‐A ‐ List of given information ................................................................................................ 19
Appendix ‐B –Free vibration modelling and free body diagrams ......................................................... 20
Appendix ‐C – Forced vibration, unbalanced engine ............................................................................ 23
Appendix ‐D – Road surface vibration .................................................................................................. 28
Appendix ‐F – Simulink diagrams used in project ................................................................................. 37
Free vibration response .................................................................................................................... 37
Engine forced vibration ..................................................................................................................... 37
Non‐linearities ................................................................................................................................... 38
Appendix ‐H – Extra Resonance calculation ......................................................................................... 41
Appendix ‐I – Force Vs Displacement: Leaf Spring ................................................................................ 42
References ............................................................................................................................................ 43
Project overview
This report is an analysis of the performance of a simple box trailer’s suspension system. The analysis
will be based on the trailer being viewed as a mechanical system with a single degree of freedom for
any movement. It will be assumed that the towbar of the trailer is connected to a single vertical
slider, hence eliminating any roll or pitch. Thus there will only be vertical motion in the system.
The system will be analysed in many different situations including free vibration, forced and road
surface forced scenarios. All of which, will be analysed regarding resonance, transmissibility factor as
well as being modelled in simulink.
List of assumptions
For the whole system
• The Maximum displacement of the trailer in the vertical direction is 0.2m. Hence the
amplitude, X, is 0.2
• Critical dampening is designed to occur when the trailer is fully loaded (2000kg). This is
assumed because generally more load means more objects will be carried and hence there
will be more protection needed.
• The trailer is stationary on level ground until the road surface analysis.
• The springs act as one in the system and are viewed as a single spring and dampener.
Engine forced vibration
• The eccentric mass of the skid mounted compressor it 100grams with an eccentricity of
10cm. It is assumed the imbalance is due to the rotation of the crankshaft as well as the
movement of pistons. The engine is very badly maintained.
• The compressor has been mounted directly over the axle of the trailer to direct the motion
of the eccentric mass through the system and simplify the calculation.
• The engine is completely fixed to the back of the trailer with no loose movement.
• The masses of the trailer and engine are used together as one mass.
Road Inducted Vibrations
• Road surface is modelled by a sine wave to simulate the trailer being pulled across
corrugations.
• Corrugations have:
o Amplitude of 0.1m
o Wavelength of 2m
• The velocity of the trailer is from 0‐120km/hr
• The tire on the trailer remains in contact with the road at all times
Derivation of Free vibration response
As there is a limit on the amount of information we have on the trailer and its load, further research
and analysis was conducted to gain all the information that was needed to describe the free
vibration response. This information can be seen on the free body diagram in appendix B. It consists
of the combined spring constants, K of the two leaf springs, the dampening supplied by the system
and the mass of the load to be carried (the skid mounted engine powered air compressor).
Equation of free vibration response;
(t) = 0
The weight of the trailer is known skid mounted engine, research was conducted to establish a
suitable device to use with the trailer. It was found that a ___________ weighing approximately
500kg was a viable option considering its size and mass. This means that the mass of the trailer will
vary from 400kg (empty) to 900kg (compressor mounted).
For the spring constant, K it was agreed that it should be designed for a trailer at maximum load to
withstand the stresses applied to the system. Hence, when calculating the spring constant it was
assumed that the M was the gross weight of the trailer, M = 2000kg. Using equation 1.4(Hooks law)
in appendix B and a maximum displacement/amplitude of 0.2m it was found that K= 98000 N/m.
To find the value of the dampening constant it was assumed that the trailer was at full capacity as
that is when critical dampening will be most desirable. Therefore the dampening constant of the
system was found (using equations 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3) to be 28000 N.sec/m.
With all the values of the free body diagram found they can be formed into an equation and
modelled in simulink to be graphed accordingly. The free vibration equations and the graphs can be
found in appendix B as well as the simulink model in appendix F.
It is also is noted that from equation 1.1 the resonant frequencies of the unloaded and loaded
trailers are 15.65rad/sec and 10.43rad/sec. Therefore, without sufficient dampening any excitation
force with similar frequencies could potentially cause resonance to occur.
Forced vibration addition and affect on system
To analyse forced vibration on the system, a 500Kg internal combustion compressor has been
mounted onto the back of the trailer. The compressor consists of four straight cylinders. The is a
mild imbalance within the engine which is represented by an eccentric mass with a value of 0.1 Kg
and an eccentricity of 0.1m.
Equation of the new system
Where
sin
Therefore
sin
With the values for all the variables entered into the equation;
Where is proportional to the engine speed. This function was modelled in simulink and graphed
over a set period to analyse the response of the system to the engine. The simulink model can be
found in appendix F and the graphs in appendix C.
It can be seen by the graphs in appendix C that under critical dampening the excitation from the
engine causes little or no super positioning of the system at all. However when the damping
constant is reduced to less than critical the effects becomes more observable. The transfer system is
very apparent initially and with less damping can be observed longer before a steady state is
achieved.
It can also be seen by the graphs that varying engine speeds do affect the system due however they
only become considerable around ωn of the system. By use of equation 2.1, the non‐dimensional
steady state can be found and modelled against the ratio of engine frequency , to the systems
natural frequency, . Hence the resonance of the whole system can be analysed as in appendix C
to reveal what engine speed cause resonance in the suspension to occur. This allows the RPM value
of the engine which causes resonance to be found.
From the results found in appendix C, the engine only begins to resonate with the suspension at
110RPM. The engine itself like any typical four cylinder internal combustion system operates
between 300‐6000RPM and has an idle speed of 300‐ 700RPM approximately. The only time when
the engine will be operating around 110 RPM is during the ignition phase when it is at that speed for
only an instant. Therefore even without the dampening of the suspension the engine would not be
able to achieve resonance in time to cause any serious issues.
Road forced vibration addition and affect on system
M
V
c
k
To model a trailer being towed across a corrugated road between the speeds of 0‐120km/hr, the
above system will be used to analyse the displacement of the wheel hub with time. The corrugated
road will be represented by a sine wave with a wavelength of 5m and an amplitude of 0.1m. The
vibrations of the system is excited by the motion of the system over the corrugations. Thus knowing
the spring constant, damping coefficient and frequency (due to the trailer's velocity), a graph can be
plotted to determine resonance characteristics. This can be achieved by plotting the transmissibility
factor VS Frequency ratio (as can be seen in Appendix D).
Equation of motion:
The Non‐Dimensional steady state solution of the system
And
tan
It can be seen from the graphs in appendix D, that when the system is critically damped the
suspension response is very minimal. When critically damped the trailer simply follows the
undulations of the corrugated road. However when the damping constant is lowered the effects of
the corrugated road become much more noticeable. With no damping the maximum displacement
spicks over 0.15m (an additional 30% of movement compared to critical).
Additional nonlinearities
What are some possible nonlinearities of the trailer?
Non‐linearities can occur if the force exerted by the leaf spring is a nonlinear function of the
displacement. A real life example of this is if the wheel becomes air born or if the spring becomes
fully compressed , when referring to a suspension system such as on the trailer it can be said that
the suspension has been bottomed out. Once the spring cannot compress any more non‐linearities
occurs. As for if the tyre becomes air born the displacement of the spring overtime would not be in a
linear form, due to the characteristics and nature of the kinematic equation. In addition to this the
spring could be stretched to yield by the means of the mass of axel and wheel rims tyres etc.
However in this particular model this was not examined.
In a more complex model rather than the spring having a constant k value it changes throughout
each leaf spring. This can be seen in the below FEA simulations1
1
Source: 2002 ABAQUS Users’ Conference
Simulink model including nonlinearities
The simulink model and input values can be found on Appendix F.
As it can be seen from the below graph that initialy the model is out of an acceptable range with a
peak at 1.5m obviously the leaf springs should not travel these types of distances. However after a
period of time it settles down to about 100‐125mm which would then be in an acceptable range
before being compressed. After much tweaking of the model it has become apparent that the range
values which are entered into the model must be further examined. Although, it appears that the
model is actually simulating correctly resulting in a true response and output. Errors can occur such
as identifying that the response is in metres and not in centre metres and the range values are
correct.
Accelerometer
An accelerometer is an instrument that measures the acceleration of a vibrating body. When the
natural frequency of the device is high compared to that of the vibration to be measured, the
instrument indicates acceleration.
An accelerometer based on spring mass system has been designed to measure the measure the
vertical motion of the trailer. The configuration has a maximum error of 0.01% within the frequency
range of 0 to 20 Hz.
Model:
k β
Specifications:
Mass, m = 5 grams
Spring stiffness, k = 4500 N/m
Damping coefficient, c = 6.64 Nm/s
Damping factor = 0.7
Assumptions:
Accelerometer is firmly mounted on the chassis of the trailer
The maximum frequency of the road surface to be driven on is 18Hz
The accelerometer response is a measure of the movement or vibration of the device. To calculate
the accelerometer response, the following equation is used
The graph of response shows that the instrument is functional at low frequency and thus it is an
accelerometer. In fact, if the measured frequencies are higher that the natural frequency of the
accelerometer, the amplitude response becomes flat.
Accelerometer Response
1
0.8
0.6 Damping
IZ/YI
Factor
0.4 0
0.7
0.2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
ω/ωn
The useful range of the accelerometer, the accelerometer error, can be calculated using the
equation
1
1 2
The error in the accelerometer is negligible within the frequency range of 0 to 20Hz. The reading
accuracy decreases if the device is used outside of this range. The graph below, acceleration error vs
frequency with ζ as a parameter, shows that 0.7 is an ideal damping factor. In addition, ζ = 0.7
extends the useful frequency range and also permits to get the least amplitude distortion.
Reflection
Real and idealised models
The Importance of considering nonlinearities
Non‐linearities of the system should be considered to increase the accuracy of the simulink model so
that it reasonbles that of a real life situation.
By considering the non‐linerarites of the system can also prevent and detect design flaws for the
operation of the component or object. When modelling in simulink the input and output is
determined on the structuring of the model as a result if the model doesn’t accommodate for any
non‐lineraties (only considers linear) the system may become unstable in real life which may cause a
fault under certain operational conditions, however the computer model may reasonable a stable
output result.
The key point when comparing real and idealised models is you only get what you put in, for other
words if you put incorrect values into the system or the simulink system is not design for those input
values obvisaly only incorrect solutions will be returned to the output.
Sometimes it is near impossible to simulate the “real life” model, however the idealised model may
be close enough and be in the range that it doesn’t matter that every single variable has been taken
into account. Such as for the trailer the leaf springs has been modelled in ABAQUS and it was
discovered that for the leaf arrangement which would be very simulink to the trailer that force
displacement is so close to linear it can be assumed to be linear2 , however the system would be in a
non‐linear form depending on the desired trend line. So this leaves two options; make the model
more complex and include non‐linearities resulting in more chances to make a programming mistake
or take the second option of just using linear arrangement which would be less problematic and give
such the same output result of the other option.
However the truth is, if you have to make the model as realistic as possible to reflect the behaviour
of the component or object non‐linearites must be considered.
Differences/advantages of frequency domain analysis
The difference between frequency domain analysis and time domain analysis includes the method
for graphing the data. Frequency domain analysis plots the frequency ratio of against the non‐
2
Refer to Appendix I outsourced 2002 ABAQUS Users’ Conference
MX
dimensional amplitude , am the resulting graph will show the large influence that the damping
has over the system when near resonance. Through inspection of frequency domain analysis plots,
the inertia and damping forces can be observed to be large, small, or balanced by other forces,
depending on values of .
the larger inertia force is balanced by the spring force, and the damping force is overcome by
impressed forces. When the value of is larger the impressed force is expended almost entirely in
overcoming the large inertia force.
There are some advantages to using time domain over frequency domain analysis. It is easier to
identify and fix problems or inconsistencies in the design, and through the use of Simulink it is also
easier to create and efficient system and make changes in the design so it suits the conditions it will
be applied to.
The disadvantages include not being able to accurately reflect on the physical properties of the
system, and relying on the skills and knowledge of the operator using the Simulink program to
effectively apply the physical model to the program.
Brief investigation of the alternative modelling approach ie. Rotational
movement
The springs of the box trailer are in the simplest form of a single degree freedom model. They can
either be modelled moving translation along one direction (vertically) or can rotate about one axis
(rotational motion) which will be discussed briefly showing the difference in equations and how it
would affect the resonance of the springs. The equations below are the most important equations
that were used in the completion of our spring modelling therefore they can be viewed against one
another.
Vertical Motion Rotational Motion
Cc = c / 4 (sqrt root k.m)
X = M (F0/ K) (;) = M (M0/K0’)
Resonance of a mechanical system is the state of the system in which an abnormally large vibration
is produced in response to an external stimulus, occurring when the frequency of the stimulus is the
same, or nearly the same, as the natural vibration frequency of the system. The comparison of
resonance from the vertical motion to that of the rotational motion can be viewed below as the
response times a different.
Vertical resonance
Resonant frequencies of the unloaded and loaded trailers are 15.65rad/sec and
10.43rad/sec.
Rotational resonance
Resonant frequencies of the unloaded and loaded trailers are 31.30rad/sec and
20.85rad/sec. There is a larger time frame of resonance between the unloaded and loaded trailer
when looking at the spring of the box trailer from a rotational motion view. The response times
differ considerably, the loaded trailer being 10.4rad/sec and the unloaded trailer 15.65rad/sec. The
response times are double that of the vertical motion times
Appendix A List of given information
Specifications
Type: El’Cheapo
Mass: (Tare) 400 kg
Mass: (Gross) 2000 kg
Chassis – Dimensions:
Overall length: 3600mm
Overall Width: 1700mm
Overall Height: 800mm
Box Length: 2100mm
Box width: 1200mm
Box height: 400mm
Axle position: 1100 mm from the front of the trailer
Tyres: 185 mm x 355 mm (Rim diameter)
Appendix B –Free vibration modelling and free body diagrams
Layout and dimensions of the trailer
Free body diagram Functional diagram
Equations used to derive the modelling equation
Equation 1.1 – √
Equation 1.2‐ 2
Equation 1.4‐ Hooks law,
From diagram, the following equation can be formed;
0
Using the information found, the equation for the unloaded trailer is;
and for the loaded trailer is;
The graphs on the following page have been made to show what the equation represents and to
display it in different situations primarily focusing on different values of C. They show the
displacement of the trailers axle in metres (centre point of the wheel) with respect to time in
seconds.
Note: The empty (M=400kg) and loaded (M=900kg) systems were inputted into simulink however
the only notable change detected was in amplitude where the loaded system ranged higher by a
very small amount. With this small difference detected all further analysis will be conducted with the
loaded trailer due to the variation being found in this initial test.
Unloaded Loaded
Under dampened Critical dampening
No Dampening Over Damped
The effects of different damping values on the system can be observed.
Appendix C – Forced vibration, unbalanced engine
Diagram of engine affecting the trailer
Equations used in the analysis
Equation 2.1, from page 54 of Theory of vibration with applications 5th edition,
1 2ξ
Where the damping ratio is represented by .
• Equation of system when loaded;
• For the Laplace transform;
Let X(s) = x, Therefore;
• For the transfer function;
Simulink graphs displaying dampening and engine speed effects on the system
No damping with force at resonance frequency Forced vibration with critical damping resonance frequency
Forced vibration with very little damping at resonance frequency Little damping with engine at 3000RPM
Little after resonant frequency with little damping Little before resonant frequency with little damping
Plots of forced vibration with rotating unbalance (damping constant = (1/2.8)
1.6 MX/me Vs w/wn
1.4
1.2
1
MX/me
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
w/wn
From above it can be seen that at resonance the frequency ratio is about 1.1. Considering that a
system with no damping would have a ratio of 1, the effect of the damping is somewhat evident.
Without such a function the trailers suspension would reach resonance at a ratio of 1 causing large
excitation of the system potentially damaging the trailer.
Dampening factor of 1, hence critical dampening
In this graph the system is at critical dampening which makes determining an approximate point of
resonance from it impossible. This is the perfect setting for the trailer as the dampening nullifies a
large amount of impact and stoped the system from resonating.
From The first graph of MX/me Vs the frequency ratio was determined to be at approximately
1.1 when the system tented towards resonance. From this the engine speed can be determined and
accommodated for.
=1.1,
Were 10.43 rad/sec from equation 1.1
Where M= mass of entire system = 900Kg (note the mass of the entire system and not the eccentric
mass was taken)
K = 98000 N/m
and C =10000
Therefore ω = 11.48 rad/sec and 109.61 RPM
From this it can be said that for a system damped partially, the engine will start to resonate with the
suspension at 100 ‐ 110RPM. To stop this from happening, the trailer has been damped sufficiently
as in the second graph where it can be seen as the engine approaches approximately 110RPM (value
changes with a different C) resonance is not existent.
A small observation that was made was that the resonance frequency increases with dampening.
With no dampening the system reaches resonance at 100RPM, with C=10000 the system resonates
at 110RPM as above.
Appendix D – Road surface vibration
No Dampening
Underdamped
Critical
Simulink Model: Road Surface induced Vibration
Resonance Inducted by Road
Knowing the spring constant, damping coefficient and frequency (due to the trailer's velocity), a
graph can be plotted to determine resonance characteristics. This can be achieved by plotting the
transmissibility factor VS Frequency ratio as can be seen below.
Spring Constant of 28000Ns/m (critical damping)
Resonance Induced by Road
At 28 000Ns/m the system is critically damped and doesn't allow the system to resonate at any
speed. This is why this dampening constant was chosen for the dampener in our trailer because it
would prevent any unexpected resonance that could make the trailer bounce violently over the road
under the right conditions. Yet the dampener is still soft enough to absorb any impact and then
return to the systems to its natural position.
Spring Constant of 15000Ns/m (underdamped)
Resonance Induced by Road
Transmissibility VS Frequency Ratio
1.800
1.600
1.400
1.200
Transmissibility X/y
1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.30
1.40
1.50
1.60
1.70
1.80
1.89
1.99
2.09
2.19
2.29
2.39
2.49
For illustrative purposes, it can seen that with a reduced damping constant of 15000Ns/m resonance
occurs when the frequency ratio is approximately 0.8. As the damping constant approaches 0, the
frequency ratio at which resonance will occur will approach 1. (with no damping resonance will
occur at 1.) The speed at which resonance will occur can then be calculated.
0.8
7 rad/s from equation 1.1
0.8x7
5.6 /
Find Frequency
2
2
0.89
Find Velocity
0.89x5
4.45 /
16 /
Therefore at 16km/hr and a damping constant of 15000Ns/m the trailer will be at resonance.
Magnification Factor
The magnification factor is a non‐dimensional expression for the amplitude of oscillation. This is
determined from:
1
1 ⁄ 2 ⁄
Magnification Factor Vs Frequency Ratio
1.2
1
Magnification Factor
0.8
15000Ns/m
28000Ns/m
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 1.99 2.19 2.39
It can be seen from the graph above that with a damping constants of 15000Ns/m the amplitude of
oscillation is always greater than that of the chosen damper of 28000Ns/m. Once again this is why a
damping constant of 28 000Ns/m was used to dampen the trailers displacement.
Deriving the Transfer Function
Equation of motion
Laplace Integral Transform
Therefore Transfer Function
Matlab can now used to graph a bode plot for the system.
Bode Plot: Road Inducted Vibrations
The above bode plot shows that at very low frequencies and frequencies just below 10 the
suspension response of the trailer is minimal. Around a frequency ratio of 10 the suspension system
is shown to be inaccurate. After this point the frequency of the road surface becomes so high that
the trailer feels little impact from the roads surface. This is because the trailer wheel no longer
follows the profile of the road's surface and lift off occurs.
Matlab Code
num=[28000 98000]
den=[2000 28000 98000]
sys=tf(num,den)
bode(sys)
margin(sys)
Appendix F – Simulink diagrams used in project
Free vibration response
Engine forced vibration
Nonlinearities
Appendix H – Extra Resonance calculation
EXTRA‐ Eccentric mass used for engine
1.6
MX/me Vs w/wn
1.4
1.2
0.8
MX/me
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
‐0.2
w/wn
Using the same working as appendix C and the critical dampening constant of 28000,
ωn = 989.95 rad/sec
From the graph, resonance is approached at approx 1.1.
Therefore w = 1088.94 rad/sec = 10398.65 RPM.
The RPM value for the eccentric mass to reach resonance with the dampener and spring of the
trailer was found to be 10400RPM. Which like the appendix C results is also outside of the operating
range of the engine.
Appendix I – Force Vs Displacement: Leaf Spring
References
• William T. Thomson & Marie Dillon Dahleh, Theory of vibration with applications 5th Edition,
Prentice Hall, Upper saddle river NJ, published 1998
• Charles M. Close, Dean K Frederick, Jonathan C.Newell, Modelling and Analysis od dynamic
systems 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc. published 2002
• “Welcome to Vibration Data Laplace Transform Table”, Tom Irvine, VibrationData(search
engine and tutorial site), viewed 31/07/09
• http://www.vibrationdata.com/Laplace.htm
• Gillespie, T. D., “Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics”, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc,
1992.
• Liu, W., “Nonlinear Analysis Theory of Single Leaf Steel Springs”, SAE Paper 881744, 1988.
• SAE, “Manual on Design and Application of Leaf Spring”, SAE HS788, APR80.
• SAE, “Spring Design Manual”, SAE AE‐21, 1996
• SAE Standard, “Leaf Springs for Motor Vehicle Suspension—Made to Customary U.S. Units—
SAE
• J510 NOV92”, SAE Handbook, Vol. 2, p20.09, 1998.
• Tavakkoli, S, Aslani, F., and Rohweder, D, “Analytical Prediction of Leaf Spring Bushing Loads
• Using MSC/NASTRAN and MDI/ADAMS”, MSC World Users’ Conference, 1996.
• Wachtel, D. W., Adkins, D. E., May, J. M., and Hohnstadt, W. E., “Advances in the Design,
Analysis,and Manufacturing of Steel Leaf Springs”, SAE Paper 872256, 1987.