ON THE JOB TRAINING REPORT ON AAVIN MILK COMPANY

A project report submitted to Madurai Kamaraj University in partial fulfillment

ofthe requirement for the degree of

BACHELOR OF COMMERCE WITH COMPUTER APPLICATION

Submitted by

B. KOWSALYA (B5C15065)

A. VINITHA (B5C15097)

Under the guidance of

Ms. M. MANJULA DEVI M.COM.,M.Phil.,

Assistant professor

Department of commerce with computer Applications

Mangayarkarasi college of arts and science for women

(Affiliated to Madurai Kamaraj University)
Paravai, Madurai-625402
ISO9001:2015 Certified Institution
Accredited with ‘B’ Grade by NAAC
March-2018
Ms. M. MANJULA DEVIM.COM., M.Phil,

Assistant professor,

Department of Commerce with Computer Application,

Mangayarkarasi College of Arts and Science for Women,

Paravai, Madurai-625402

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the report entitle “ON THE JOB TRAINING REPORT
ON AAVIN MILK COMPANY” submitted by B. KOWSALYA (B5C15065) &
A. VINITHA (B5C15097)is a bonafide record of their original work carried out
under my supervision. This work has not been submitted elsewhere for any other
degree or diploma.

The project work viva voce held on

INTERNALGUIDEHEADOF THE DEPARTMENT PRINCIPAL

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

B. KOWSALYA (B5C15065)

A. VINITHA(B5C15097)

IIIB.COM (CA)

DECLARATION
We here declare that the report entitled “ON THE JOB TRAINING REPORT
ON AAVIN MILK COMPANY AT MADURAI” is a record of an original work
done by us under the guidance of Ms. M. MANJULA DEVI M.COM.,M.Phil.,
Assistant professor Department of Computer Application and this project work is
submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the Degree
of Bachelor of Commerce with Computer Application. The results embodied in
this report have not been submitted to any university or institution for award of any
degree or diploma.

Signature of thecandidates

Place: (B. KOWSALYA)

Date: (A. VINITHA)

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It was God who saw us this project report. The Path was zigzagged and
rough but the almighty god did not let me waver. So we thank Almighty for the
blessings showered on us.

We take the privilege in thanking our beloved principal

Dr.S.RajeswariM.Sc.,M.A.,M.Ed.,P,G.D.S.A.,Ph.D.,for helping us to complete
this project.

We express our sincere thanks to our Head of the Department of Commerce

with Computer Application Dr.K.BalaSathya M.Com(CA).,M.Phil.,Ph.D., for
hervaluable suggestion and guidance that she rendered throughout the project.

We would like to express our special appreciation and thanks to our advisor
Ms. M. MANJULA DEVI M.Com., M.Phil.,for being a tremendous mentor for
us.

We show our gratitude to all our Faculty Member of Department of

Commerce with Computer Application for their support in all aspects.

We render our special thanks to our parents for encouraging us while

doing this project and also for satisfying the financial requirement of this project.
S.No Generation & Description

First Generation
1

The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

Third Generation
3
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

Fourth Generation
4
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.

Fifth Generation

5
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor
based.
S.No. Type Specifications

PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having moderately powerful

1
Computer) microprocessor

It is also a single user computer system, similar to personal computer

2 Workstation
however has a more powerful microprocessor.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of users

3 Mini Computer
simultaneously.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of users

4 Main Frame
simultaneously. Software technology is different from minicomputer.

It is an extremely fast computer, which can execute hundreds of millions of

5 Supercomputer
instructions per second.

PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual
user. PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an
entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting,
desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At
home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and surfing the Internet.

Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally
linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days high-end models of the
Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end
workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

Workstation

Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,

software development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount of
computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities.

Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of
RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have
mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called diskless
workstation, comes without a disk drive.

Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC,
workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a
local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or
even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and
supports many simultaneous execution of programs.
Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of
mathematical calculations (number crunching).

For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in
petrochemical prospecting).

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oday’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for

everyone to know about computers. A computer is an electronic data
processing device, which accepts and stores data input, processes the data
input, and generates the output in a required format.

The purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you to Computers and its

fundamentals.

Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the
following five functions −

Step 1 − Takes data as input.

Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as

required.

Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.

Step 4 − Generates the output.

Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

Advantages of Computers
Following are certain advantages of computers.

High Speed
 Computer is a very fast device.

 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.

 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even

the picosecond.

 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to

man who will spend many months to perform the same task.

Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.

 The calculations are 100% error free.

 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input
is correct.

Storage Capability
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.

 It can store large amount of data.

 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and
lack of concentration.
  It can work continuously without any error and boredom.

 It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.

Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile machine.

 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.

 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.

 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the

very next moment it may be playing a card game.

Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.

 Modern electronic components have long lives.

 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine.

 Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the

computer receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer
memory, then the program and instruction can control the program
execution without human interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to
reduction in paper work and results in speeding up the process.

 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the

problem of maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.

 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it

substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction.

Disadvantages of Computers
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.
No I.Q.
 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.

 Each instruction has to be given to the computer.

 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

Dependency
 It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on
humans.

Environment
 The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and
suitable.

No Feeling
 Computers have no feelings or emotions.

 It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and

knowledge unlike humans.

There was also a parallel set of generations for software:

1. First generation: Machine language.

2. Second generation: Low-level programming languages such as Assembly language.
3. Third generation: Structured high-level programming languages such
as C, COBOL and FORTRAN.
4. Fourth generation: Domain-specific high-level programming languages such
as SQL (for database access) and TeX (for text formatting)
5. The computers of electronic age are further divided into 5 generation on
the basis of technology used by the computer. The different generations
are:
6. i) First Generation of computers
7. ii) Second generation of computers
8. iii) Third generation of computers
9. iv) Fourth generation of computers
10. v) Fifth generation of computers

11. i) First Generation of Computers

12. 1) Technology used: Vacuum tube
2) Operating speed: Millisecond range
3) Programming language used: Machine language
4) Memory used
: Primary memory: Magnetic core memory
: Secondary memory: Magnetic drum, Magnetic tape.
5) I/O device:
Punched card as input device, printing device as output device.
6) Use: Simple mathematical calculation.
7) Computers were extremely large in size, and they required special
cooling system. e.g.: ENIVAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, etc.

13. ii) Second Generation of Computers:

14. 1) Technology used: Transistor
15. 2) Operation speed: Micro second range (10-6 sec)
16. 3) Programming language used: Assembly language
17. 4) Memory used
18. : Primary memory: Magnetic core memory.
19. : Secondary memory: Magnetic drum, Magnetic tape.
20. 5) I/O: Punched card as input device, Printer as output device
21. 6) Use: Computers were used for complex scientific calculations.
22. 7) The size, cost, power requirement, heat generation decreased
compared to previous generation.
23. 8) Processing speed, storage capacity, use of the computer
increased compared to previous generation.
24. E.g.: IBM 1620, IBM 7094, LEO MARK III, etc.

25. Advantages of transistor over vacuum tube:

26. i) One transistor could replace one thousand vacuum tubes.
27. ii) Size of a transistor is 1/200 th times of a vacuum tube.
28. iii) The power requirement of a transistor is 1/20 th times of a
vacuum tube.
29. iv) Transistors are more reliable than vacuum tube.
30. iii) Third Generation of Computers
31. i) Technology used: IC (Integrated Circuit)
32. ii) Operating speed: Nanosecond range (10 -9 sec)
33. iii) Programming language used: HLL (High Level Language)
34. Like FORTAN, COBOL, PASCAL, C, C++, etc.
35. iv) Memory used:
36. Primary memory: Semiconductor memory (silicon)
37. Secondary memory: Magnetic tape, Magnetic disk like floppy
disk, hard disk, etc)
38. v) I/O device: Keyboard as input device, monitor as output device.
39. vi) Use: Computers were used for managing population census,
bank, insurance company, etc.
40. vii) Concept of database was developed and used.
41. viii) Size, cost, power requirement, heat generation decreased
compared to previous generations.
42. ix) Processing speed, storage capacity, use of the computer
increased compared to previous generations.
43. E.g.: IBM 360 series, ICL 900 series, Honeywell 200 series, etc.

44.

45. IC and its types:

46. IC is a small silicon chip which contains large number of electronic
components like transistor, resistor, capacitor, etc.
47. The process of creation of IC is called fabrication.
48. Types of IC on the basis of number of electronic components.
49. i) SSI (Small Scale Integration)
50. (1-20 components)
51. ii) MSI (Medium Scale Integration)
52. (21-100 components)
53. iii) LSI (Large Scale Integration)
54. (101-1000 components)
55. iv) VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration)
56. (1001-10000 components)
57. v) ULSI ( Ultra Large Scale Integration)
58. (More than 10000 components)
59. iv) Fourth Generation of Computers:
60. 1) Technology used:- VLSI (or Microprocessor)
61. 2) Operating speed:- Pico second range
62. 3) Programming language used: 4GL (Problem Oriented
Language)
63. 4) Memory used:
64. Primary: Semi-conductor memory
65. Secondary: Magnetic tape, Magnetic Disk, Optical
memory (CD/DVD/ Blu ray), Flash
66. memory(pen drive, memory card)
67. 5) I/O device:
68. Advanced I/O devices like mouse, touch screen, scanner,
LCD, LED, color printer, etc are developed.
69. 6) Use:
70. Computers are used for different task in different areas like
education, business, hospital, transportation, military, etc.
71. 7) Microcomputers like desktop PC, laptop, notebook, etc, are
developed.
72. 8) The popular communication media like internet, email, mobile
communication, etc were developed.
73. 9) Advanced, user friendly, web based software, etc are developed.
74. 10) Size, cost, power requirement, heat generation decreased
compared to previous generation.
75. 11) Operating speed, storage capacity, use of the computer
increased compared to previous generation.
76. E.g.: IBM desktop PC, HP laptop, Acer notebook, Mac book, etc.

77. vi) Fifth Generation of Computers:

78. 1) Technology to be used:- Bio-chip
79. 2) Operating speed:- Femto second range
80. (10 -15 second) / TIPS
81. 3) Programming language to be used:- Natural language
82. 4) The computers will have AI.
83. 5) The computers will be used in complex calculation where
intelligence of the computer is required.
84. 6) The computers will have parallel processing in full fledge.
 85. 7) The computers will be based on KIPS (Knowledge based
Information Processing System)

86. Related Notes:

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

Computer generations classification is mainly based on the basic devices used.

Also, the considerations are the architecture, languages, modes of operation, etc.

The function performed by the computer and the speed of their operations have

been changing since the old days to the most modern computer. Based on the

period of development and the features incorporated, the computers are

classified into different generations- First generation to Fifth generation. This is

called the computer generation.

The classification and time periods are given below:

1. First Generation Computer (1945-1955)

2. Second Generation Computer (1957-1963)
3. Third Generation Computer (1964-1971)
4. Fourth Generation Computer (1972 onward)
5. Fifth Generation Computer (Present and future)

1.) First Generation Computer (1945-1955)

Fig: First Generation Computer source: web.york.cuny.edu

First generation computers were characterized by the fact that operating

instructions were made to order for the specific task for which the computer was

to be used. It was operated on the ' Principle of Thermionic Emission".

In the first generation computer, vacuum tubes as CPU, magnetic drum for data

storage , and machines languages were used for giving instruction.The computer

of this generation was very large in size called room-sized computers.

The programming of first generation computers was done in machine languages

(0s and 1s). Afterward, assembly languages were developed and used in first

generation computer.

Features of first generation computers:

 Technology used: vacuum tube

 Machines languages were used to instruct the computer.
 Magnetic core memory was used as primary memory.
 Electrostatic tubes, Parer tape, punch card, magnetic tape
 Punched card, printing devices were used for input/output operations and store the result.
 It occupies very large space, slow processing, inefficient and unreliable due to low accuracy.
 Power consumption was very high and it generated much heat.
 It could only perform straight forward simple numerical calculation.
 Computer used to be much expensive.

The example of first generation computers is ENIAC, UNIVAC,EDVAC, and

EDSAC.
2.) Second Generation Computer (1957-1963)

Second generation computer replaced machine language with assembly

language, allowing abbreviated programming codes to replace long, difficult

binary codes.

Fig: Second Generation Computer source: www.techiwarehouse.com

The transistor was developed in this generation. A transistor transfers electric

signals across a resistor. A transistor was highly reliable compared to tubes.

The transistor was far more superior in performance on account of their

miniature size, smaller power consumption, and heat production rate. The

second generation computer used these semiconductor devices.

Some of its features are:

 Technology used: Transistor

 Operating speed was in terms of a microsecond.
 Assembly language and machines independent language such as COBOL (Common Business
Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula Translation) were introduced the size of the
computer.
  Magnetic core memory was used as primary memory.
 Magnetic drum and magnetic tape were used as secondary memory.
 Power required to operate them was low.
 It could perform scientific calculation such as solving differential equations.
 Storage capacity and use of computers are increased.

3.) Third Generation Computer (1964-1971)

Transistors were an improvement over the vacuum tube, but they still generated

a great heat, which damaged the computer's sensitive parts. The quartz

eliminated this problem.

Fig: Third Generation Computer source:www.tutorialspoint.com

Transistors were replaced with an integrated circuit known popularly as chips.

Scientist managed to fit many components on a single chip. As a result, the

computer became ever smaller as more components were squeezed on the chip.

IC was first designed and fabricated by Jack S Kilby at Texas Instrument and by

Robert S Noyce at Fairchild independently. IC is a circuit consisting of a large

number of electronic components placed on a single silicon chip by a photo-

lithographic process.
Magnetic disks began to replace magnetic tape for auxiliary and video display

terminals were introduced for the output of data. Keyboards were used for the

input of data. A new operating system was introduced for automatic processing

and multi-programming.

These computers were highly reliable, relatively expensive and faster. High-

level programming languages continued to be a developer. The example of third

generation computers is IBM-360 series, ICL-900 series, and Honeywell 200

series.

Features of the third generation computers are:

 The technology used: IC (Integrated Circuit).

 Transistors were replaced by IC in their electronic circuitry.
 High-level languages like FORTAN , BASIC and other are used to develop programs.
 Semiconductor memory like RAM and ROM were used as primary memory.
 Monitor and keyboard were introduced for data input and output respectively.
 Multiprogramming facility was developed.
 The computer was used in census calculation, military, banks and industries.
 Size, cost, power requirement and heat generation decreased.
 Processing speed and storage capacity used of computer increased.

4.) Fourth Generation Computer (1972 onward)

Fig: Fourth Generation Computer source: www.slideshare.net

The invention of microprocessor chip marked the beginning of the fourth

generation computers. Semiconductor memories replaced magnetic core

memories. The invention of microprocessors led to the development of

microcomputer or the personal computer.

The first microprocessor called Intel 4004 was developed by American Intel

Corporation 1971.

This computer has faster generation language and application software for

microcomputers became popular and allowed home and business users to adapt

their computers for word processing, spreadsheet manipulating, file handing and

graphics.

In this generation, the concept of computer networks and CD-ROMs came into

existence.

Features of the fourth generation computer are:

 Technology in use: VLSI is introduced and used Microprocessor-based technology.

 Problem-oriented fourth generation language (4GL) is used to develop the program.
 Semiconductor like RAM, ROM and cache memory is used as a primary memory.
 Magnetic disks like hard disk, optical disk (CD,DVD), Blue-ray disk, flashes memory
(memory chip, pen drive) are used as secondary memory.
 E-mail, Internet and mobile communication are developed.
 Advanced, user-friendly, web page software are developed.
 Size, cost, power requirement, heat generation decreased compared to the previous
generation.
 Operating speed, storage capacity ,use of computer increased compared to the previous
generation
The example of the fourth generation computer is IBM-PC, HP laptops, Mac

notebook etc.

5.) Fifth Generation Computer (Present and future)

Fig: Fifth generation Computer source: robot.suanier.com

The aim is to bring machines with genuine IQ, the ability to reason logically and

with real knowledge of the word. Thus, this computer will be totally different,

totally novel and totally new than last four generations of computer.

Fifth generation computer was based on Artificial Intelligence (AI) and that is

still developing process, but not yet a reality i.e this computer is incomplete.

The scientists are working on it still.

These computers will be able to converse with people and will be able to mimic

human sense, manual skills, and intelligence.

Features of the fifth generation computers are:

 Technology to be used: These machines will incorporate Bio-chip and VVLSI (Very Very
Large Scale Integration) or Ultra-Large Scale Integration (ULSI)
 The computer will have Artificial Intelligence (AI).
 Natural language will be used to develop programs.
 The computer will have parallel processing in full fledge.
 The operating speed will be in terms of LIPS(Logical Inference per Second)
 These aim is to solve highly complex problems, which require great intelligence and
expertise when solved by people.
 Quantum computation, molecular and nanotechnology will be used completely
 The first generation computers were developed during 1943-1958. It used vacuum
tubes as the active electronic components and was therefore very large. However
some of the features are as follows-
 a) They were extremely large and occupied a very large space.
 b) They used vacuum tubes as memory device.
 c) They were very expensive and consumed a lot of electrical power.
 d) The operating speed was measured in milliseconds.
 e) These computers had low level of accuracy and reliability.
 f) Storage capacity was too small only 1 to 4Kb.
 g) They used machine level programming language.
 The examples are- UNIVAC, ENIAC, EDSAC, EDVAC, and UNIVAC.
 The second generation computers were developed during 1959-1965. The invention
of the transistor by three scientists of Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1947 greatly
changed the development of computers. However some of the features are as
follows-
 a) These computers used transistor.
 b) They were smaller, faster and cheaper than first generation of computer.
 c) They consumed less electrical power than first generation.
 d) The operating speed was measured in microseconds.
 e) They were more reliable and accurate than the first generation computers.
 f) They could understand high level language such as COBOL.
 g) Magnetic tapes were used as secondary storage media.
 The examples are – IBM 1620, IBM 1401, and CDC 3600.
 The third generation computers were developed during 1966-1973. The
development of Integrated Circuit (IC) signaled the beginning of the third
generation computers. However some of the features are as follows-
 a) These computers used integrated circuits.
 b) They were small, efficient and reliable.
 c) Operating systems were developed.
 d) Monitors and keyboards were introduced for input and output of data.
 e) Magnetic disks were used for secondary storage.
 f) The operating speed was measured in nano seconds.
 g) They could understand large number of high level languages.
 The examples are – IBM 360, ICL -1900, and IBM 370 etc.
 The fourth generation computers were developed during 1974-1990. This
generation of computer is presently in use. The development of microprocessor
signaled the beginning of the fourth generation of computers. However some of
the features are as follows-
 a) These computers use LSI and VLSI technologies.
 b) Its sizes were reduced to desktop and laptop computer.
 c) These computers are highly reliable and accurate.
 d) They have a large memory and high functional speed.
 e) The operating speed is measured in beyond picoseconds and MIPS (Million of
instruction per second)
 f) Magnetic disk is the common source of external storage.
 g) Multiprocessing and multiprogramming OS (operating system) are used.
 h) 4GL are also used.
 he examples are – IBM PC, Apple/Macintosh, 8086, 80286 SX, 80386 SX etc.
 he computers having artificial intelligence (AI) and high
processing capacity undergoing on the development stage from 1990 are said to be
fifth generation computers. However some of the features are as follows-
 a) The speed will be extremely high in fifth generation computer.
 b) These computers will be using Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI) technology.

) The goal of fifth generation computers is to develop machines that will be able to
think and take decisions.

 Large uses of natural language processing and user friendly.

 Able to make decisions like human beings.
The development of electronic computers can be divided into five generations
depending upon the technologies used. The following are the five generations
of computers.

First Generation of Computers (1942-

1955)

Image Courtesy: www.computerhistory.org

The beginning of commercial computer age is fromUNIVAC (Universal

Automatic Computer). It was developed by two
scientists Mauchly and Echert at the Census Department of United States in
1947.The first generation computers were used during 1942-1955. They
were based on vacuum tubes. Examples of first generation computers
are ENIVACand UNIVAC-1.

Advantages
 Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component
available during those days.
 Vacuum tube technology made possible to make
electronic digital computers.
 These computers could calculate data in millisecond.
Disadvantages
The computers were very large in size.
 They consumed a large amount of energy.

 They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum

tubes.
 They were not very reliable.

 Air conditioning was required.

 Constant maintenance was required.

 Non-portable.

 Costly commercial production.

 Limited commercial use.

 Very slow speed.

 Limited programming capabilities.

 Used machine language only.

 Used magnetic drums which provide very less data

storage.
 Used punch cards for input.

 Not versatile and very faulty.

Similar Topics: Types of Computers by Purpose | Types

of Printers
Second Generation Computers (1955-
1964)
Image Courtesy: www.ibm.com
The second generation computers used transistors. The scientists at Bell
laboratories developed transistor in 1947. These scientists include John
Barden, William Brattain and William Shockley. The size of the computers was
decreased by replacing vacuum tubes with transistors. The examples of
second generation computers are IBM 7094 series, IBM 1400
series and CDC 164 etc.

Advantages
Smaller in size as compared to the first generation
computers.
 The 2nd generation Computers were more reliable

 Used less energy and were not heated.

 Wider commercial use

 Better portability as compared to the first generation

computers.
 Better speed and could calculate data in

microseconds
 Used faster peripherals like tape drives, magnetic

disks, printer etc.

 Used Assembly language instead of Machine

language.
 Accuracy improved.

Disadvantages
 Cooling system was required
 Constant maintenance was required
 Commercial production was difficult
 Only used for specific purposes
 Costly and not versatile
  Puch cards were used for input.
Third Generation Computers (1964-1975)
Image Courtesy: www.computerhistory.org

The Third generation computers used the integrated circuits (IC). Jack Kilby
developed the concept of integrated circuit in 1958. It was an important
invention in the computer field. The first IC was invented and used in 1961.
The size of an IC is about ¼ square inch. A single IC chip may contain
thousands of transistors. The computer became smaller in size, faster, more
reliable and less expensive. The examples of third generation computers
are IBM 370, IBM System/360,UNIVAC 1108 and UNIVAC AC 9000 etc.

Advantages
 Smaller in size as compared to previous generations.
 More reliable.
 Used less energy
 Produced less heat as compared to the previous two
generations of computers.
 Better speed and could calculate data in
nanoseconds.
 Used fan for heat discharge to prevent damage.
 Maintenance cost was low because hardware failure is
reare.
 Totally general purpose
 Could be used for high-level languages.
 Good storage
 Versatile to an extent
 Less expensive
 Better accuracy
 Commercial production increased.

 Used mouse and keyboard for input.

Disadvantages
 Air conditioning was required.
 Highly sophisticated technology required for the
manufacturing of IC chips.
Fourth Generation Computers (1975-
Present)

The fourth generation computers started with the invention of Microprocessor.

The Microprocessor contains thousands of ICs. Ted Hoff produced the first
microprocessor in 1971 for Intel. It was known as Intel 4004. The technology
of integrated circuits improved rapidly. The LSI (Large Scale Integration)
circuit and VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) circuit was designed. It greatly
reduced the size of computer. The size of modern Microprocessors is usually
one square inch. It can contain millions of electronic circuits. The examples of
fourth generation computers are Apple Macintosh & IBM PC.

Advantages
 More powerful and reliable than previous generations.
 Small in size
 Fast processing power with less power consumption
 Fan for heat discharging and thus to keep cold.
 No air conditioning required.
 Totally general purpose
 Commercial production
 Less need of repair.
 Cheapest among all generations

 All types of High level languages can be used in this

type of computers
Disadvantages
 The latest technology is required for manufacturing of
Microprocessors.
Fifth Generation Computers (Present &
Beyond)
Scientists are working hard on the 5th generation computers with quite a few
breakthroughs. It is based on the technique of Artificial Intelligence
(AI). Computers can understand spoken words & imitate human reasoning.
Can respond to its surroundings using different types of sensors. Scientists
are constantly working to increase the processing power of computers. They
are trying to create a computer with real IQ with the help of advanced
programming and technologies. IBM Watson computeris one example that
outsmarts Harvard University Students. The advancement in modern
technologies will revolutionize the computer in future.
Difference Between LAN, MAN and WAN

March 29, 2016 5 Comments

The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different

computers via any medium. LAN, MAN, and WAN are the three types of
the network designed to operate over the area they cover. There are
some similarities and dissimilarities between them. One of the major
differences is the geographical area they cover, i.e. LAN covers the
smallest area; MAN covers an area larger than LAN and WAN comprises
the largest of all.

Content: LAN Vs MAN Vs WAN

 1. Comparison Chart
2. Definition
3. Key Differences
4. Conclusion

Comparison Chart

BASIS OF
LAN MAN WAN
COMPARISON

Expands to Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Wide Area Network

Network

Meaning A network that connects a It covers relatively It spans large locality and

group of computers in a large region such as connects countries together.

small geographical area. cities, towns. Example Internet.

Ownership of Private Private or Public Private or Public

Network

Design and Easy Difficult Difficult

maintenance

Propagation Short Moderate Long

Delay
 BASIS OF
LAN MAN WAN
COMPARISON

Speed High Moderate Low

Fault Tolerance More Tolerant Less Tolerant Less Tolerant

Congestion Less More More

Used for College, School, Hospital. Small towns, City. Country/Continent.

Definition of Local Area Network

LAN or Local Area Network links network devices in such a way that
personal computer and workstations can share data, tools and programs.
Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked are
limited. LAN’s cover smaller geographical area and are privately owned.
One can use it for an office building, home, hospital, schools, etc. LAN is
easy to design and maintain.

A Communication medium used for LAN has twisted pair cables and
coaxial cables. It covers a short distance, and so the error and noise are
minimized.

Definition of Metropolitan Area Network

MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that of a LAN
and smaller area as compared to WAN. It connects two or more
computers that are apart but resides in the same or different cities. It
covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet
Service Provider). It’s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area
Network.

It is costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization. The

data transfer rate of MAN is moderate.

Definition of Wide Area Network

WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a

large geographical area. A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting
to other LAN’s via telephone lines and radio waves.

Wide Area Network may or may not be privately owned. A

Communication medium used for wide area network is PSTN or Satellite
Link. Due to long distance transmission, the noise and error tend to be
more in WAN. Propagation delay is one of the biggest problems faced
here.

Key Differences Between LAN, MAN and WAN

1. The geographical area covered by LAN is small, whereas, MAN
covers relatively large and WAN covers the greatest of all.
2. LAN is confined to schools, hospitals or buildings, whereas, MAN
connects small towns or Cities and on the other hand, WAN covers
Country or a group of Countries.
3. Devices used for transmission of data are-
LAN: WiFi, Ethernet Cables.
MAN: Modem and Wire/Cable
WAN: Optic wires, Microwaves, Satellites.
4. LAN’s transmit data at a faster rate than MAN and WAN.
5. Maintenance of LAN is easier than that of MAN and WAN.
6. The bandwidth available for transmission is higher in LAN than MAN
and WAN.
7. Data transmission errors and noise are least in LAN, moderate in
MAN and high in WAN.
Conclusion

There are many advantages of LAN over MAN and WAN, such as LAN’s
provide excellent reliability, high data transmission rate, they can easily
be managed, and shares peripheral devices too. Local Area Network
cannot cover cities or towns and for that Metropolitan Area Network is
needed, which can connect city or a group of cities together. Further, for
connecting Country or a group of Countries one requires Wide Area
Network.

Types of Computer Languages

with Their Advantages and
Disadvantages
Updated on August 28, 2015

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more

Contact Author
CC BY 2.0 | Source

Just as humans use language to communicate, and different regions have different languages,
computers also have their own languages that are specific to them.
Different kinds of languages have been developed to perform different types of work on the
computer. Basically, languages can be divided into two categories according to how the
computer understands them.

Two Basic Types of Computer Language

 Low-Level Languages: A language that corresponds directly to a specific machine
 High-Level Languages: Any language that is independent of the machine
There are also other types of languages, which include
 System languages: These are designed for low-level tasks, like memory and process
management
 Scripting languages: These tend to be high-level and very powerful
 Domain-specific languages: These are only used in very specific contexts
 Visual languages: Languages that are not text-based
 Esoteric languages: Languages that are jokes or are not intended for serious use
These languages are not mutually exclusive, and some languages can belong to multiple
categories. The terms low-level and high-level are also open to interpretation, and some
languages that were once considered high-level are now considered low-level as languages
have continued to develop.

Low-Level Languages
Low-level computer languages are either machine codes or are very close them. A computer
cannot understand instructions given to it in high-level languages or in English. It can only
understand and execute instructions given in the form of machine language i.e. binary. There
are two types of low-level languages:
 Machine Language: a language that is directly interpreted into the hardware
 Assembly Language: a slightly more user-friendly language that directly corresponds to
machine language

Machine Language
Machine language is the lowest and most elementary level of programming language and was
the first type of programming language to be developed. Machine language is basically the only
language that a computer can understand and it is usually written in hex.
In fact, a manufacturer designs a computer to obey just one language, its machine code, which
is represented inside the computer by a string of binary digits (bits) 0 and 1. The symbol 0
stands for the absence of an electric pulse and the 1 stands for the presence of an electric
pulse. Since a computer is capable of recognizing electric signals, it understands machine
language.

Advantages Disadvantages

Machine language makes

All operation codes have to
fast and efficient use of the
be remembered
computer.

It requires no translator to
translate the code. It is All memory addresses have
directly understood by the to be remembered.
computer.

It is hard to amend or find

errors in a program written
in the machine language.

Assembly Language
Assembly language was developed to overcome some of the many inconveniences of machine
language. This is another low-level but very important language in which operation codes and
operands are given in the form of alphanumeric symbols instead of 0’s and l’s.
These alphanumeric symbols are known as mnemonic codes and can combine in a maximum
of five-letter combinations e.g. ADD for addition, SUB for subtraction, START, LABEL etc.
Because of this feature, assembly language is also known as ‘Symbolic Programming
Language.'
This language is also very difficult and needs a lot of practice to master it because there is only
a little English support in this language. Mostly assembly language is used to help in compiler
orientations. The instructions of the assembly language are converted to machine codes by a
language translator and then they are executed by the computer.

Advantages Disadvantages

Assembly language is
Like machine language, it is
easier to understand and
also machine
use as compared to
dependent/specific.
machine language.

Since it is machine
It is easy to locate and dependent, the programmer
correct errors. also needs to understand
the hardware.

It is easily modified.

High-Level Languages
High-level computer languages use formats that are similar to English. The purpose of
developing high-level languages was to enable people to write programs easily, in their own
native language environment (English).
High-level languages are basically symbolic languages that use English words and/or
mathematical symbols rather than mnemonic codes. Each instruction in the high-level language
is translated into many machine language instructions that the computer can understand.

Advantages Disadvantages

A high-level language has

High-level languages are to be translated into the
user-friendly machine language by a
translator, which takes up
 Advantages Disadvantages

time

The object code generated

They are similar to English
by a translator might be
and use English
inefficient compared to an
vocabulary and well-known
equivalent assembly
symbols
language program

They are easier to learn

They are easier to maintain

They are problem-oriented

rather than 'machine'-
based

A program written in a
high-level language can be
translated into many
machine languages and
can run on any computer
for which there exists an
appropriate translator

The language is
independent of the
machine on which it is
used i.e. programs
developed in a high-level
language can be run on
any computer text

Types of High-Level Languages

Many languages have been developed for achieving a variety of different tasks. Some are fairly
specialized, and others are quite general.
These languages, categorized according to their use, are:
1) Algebraic Formula-Type Processing
These languages are oriented towards the computational procedures for solving mathematical
and statistical problems.
Examples include:
 BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)
 FORTRAN (Formula Translation)
 PL/I (Programming Language, Version 1)
 ALGOL (Algorithmic Language)
 APL (A Programming Language)

2. Business Data Processing

These languages are best able to maintain data processing procedures and problems involved
in handling files. Some examples include:
 COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)
 RPG (Report Program Generator)

3. String and List Processing

These are used for string manipulation, including search patterns and inserting and deleting
characters. Examples are:
 LISP (List Processing)
 Prolog (Program in Logic)

4. Object-Oriented Programming Language

In OOP, the computer program is divided into objects. Examples are:
 C++
 Java

5. Visual Programming Language

These programming languages are designed for building Windows-based
applications.Examples are:
 Visual Basic
 Visual Java
 Visual C

A Helpful Resource on Computer Languages

Classifying Computer Languages
This resource was used to help write this article. It has more information on this topic and goes
into more depth on some of the other kinds of languages and their uses. To get the most out of
it, you should have some knowledge of or background in computer science.

Operating System | Types of Operating Systems

An Operating System performs all the basic tasks like managing file,process, and memory. Thus operating
system acts as manager of all the resources, i.e. resource manager. Thus operating system becomes an
interface between user and machine.
Types of Operating Systems: Some of the widely used operating systems are as follows-
1. Batch Operating System –
This type of operating system do not interact with the computer directly. There is an operator which takes
similar jobs having same requirement and group them into batches. It is the responsibility of operator to sort
the jobs with similar needs.

Advantages of Batch Operating System:

 It is very difficult to guess or know the time required by any job to complete. Processors of the batch
systems knows how long the job would be when it is in queue
 Multiple users can share the batch systems
 The idle time batch system is very less
  It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:

The computer operators should be well known with batch systems

Batch systems are hard to debug

It is sometime costly

The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails
Examples of Batch based Operating System: Payroll System, Bank Statements etc.
2. Time-Sharing Operating Systems –
Each task has given some time to execute, so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets time of CPU as
they use single system. These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be from single
user or from different users also. The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this time
interval is over OS switches over to next task.

Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:

 Each task gets an equal opportunity
 Less chances of duplication of software
 CPU idle time can be reduced
Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:

Reliability problem

One must have to take care of security and integrity of user programs and data

Data communication problem
Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, Unix etc.
3. Distributed Operating System –
These types of operating system is a recent advancement in the world of computer technology and are being
widely accepted all-over the world and, that too, with a great pace. Various autonomous interconnected
computers communicate each other using a shared communication network. Independent systems possess their
own memory unit and CPU. These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. These
systems processors differ in sizes and functions. The major benefit of working with these types of operating
system is that it is always possible that one user can access the files or software which are not actually present
on his system but on some other system connected within this network i.e., remote access is enabled within the
devices connected in that network.
Advantages of Distributed Operating System:
 Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are independent from
each other
 Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed
 Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable
 Load on host computer reduces
 These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the network
 Delay in data processing reduces
Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:

Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication

To establish distributed systems the language which are used are not well defined yet

These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not only that the underlying
software is highly complex and not understood well yet
Examples of Distributed Operating System are- LOCUS etc.
4. Network Operating System –
These systems runs on a server and provides the capability to manage data, users, groups, security,
applications, and other networking functions. These type of operating systems allows shared access of files,
printers, security, applications, and other networking functions over a small private network. One more
important aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the users are well aware of the underlying
configuration, of all other users within the network, their individual connections etc. and that’s why these
computers are popularly known as tightly coupled systems.

Advantages of Network Operating System:

 Highly stable centralized servers
 Security concerns are handled through servers
 New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated to the system
 Server access are possible remotely from different locations and types of systems
Disadvantages of Network Operating System:
 Servers are costly
 User has to depend on central location for most operations
 Maintenance and updates are required regularly
Examples of Network Operating System are: Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows
Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD etc.
5. Real-Time Operating System –
These types of OSs serves the real-time systems. The time interval required to process and respond to inputs is
very small. This time interval is called response time.
Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements are very strict like missile systems, air traffic
control systems, robots etc.
Two types of Real-Time Operating System which are as follows:
 Hard Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are meant for the applications where time constraints are very strict and even the shortest
possible delay is not acceptable. These systems are built for saving life like automatic parachutes or air
bags which are required to be readily available in case of any accident. Virtual memory is almost never
found in these systems.
 Soft Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are for applications where for time-constraint is less strict.

Advantages of RTOS:
 Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and system,thus more output from all the
resources
 Task Shifting: Time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems are very less. For example in older
systems it takes about 10 micro seconds in shifting one task to another and in latest systems it takes 3
micro seconds.
 Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance to applications which are in
queue.
 Real time operating system in embedded system: Since size of programs are small, RTOS can also
be used in embedded systems like in transport and others.
  Error Free: These types of systems are error free.
 Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these type of systems.
Disadvantages of RTOS:
 Limited Tasks: Very few task run at the same time and their concentration is very less on few
applications to avoid errors.
 Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so good and they are expensive
as well.
 Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the designer to write on.
 Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and interrupt signals to
response earliest to interrupts.
 Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are very less pron to switching
tasks.
Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are: Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems,
industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
Answer: Following are the differences between multiprocessing and
multiprogramming.

Sr. No. Multiprocessing Multiprogramming

1 Multiprocessing refers to Multiprogramming keeps several

processing of multiple programs in main memory at the same
processes at same time by time and execute them concurrently
multiple CPUs. utilizing single CPU.

2 It utilizes multiple CPUs. It utilizes single CPU.

3 It permits parallel processing. Context switching takes place.

4 Less time taken to process More Time taken to process the jobs.
the jobs.

5 It facilitates much efficient Less efficient than multiprocessing.

utilization of devices of the
computer system.

6 Usually more expensive. Such systems are less expensive.

supercomputer

Posted by: Margaret Rouse

WhatIs.com

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A supercomputer is a computer that performs at or near the currently

highest operational rate for computers. Traditionally, supercomputers
have been used for scientific and engineering applications that must
handle very large databases or do a great amount of computation (or
both). Although advances like multi-core
processors and GPGPUs (general-purpose graphics processing
units) have enabled powerful machines for personal use (see: desktop
supercomputer, GPU supercomputer), by definition, a supercomputer is
exceptional in terms of performance
Supercomputers: Advantages and Disadvantages
Supercomputers

Advantages:
• Solve bigger problems
• Run more problems in shorter time
• May save money
• Allows for virtual testing
• Can be used for R&D

Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive
• Takes up a lot of space
• May only be good for specific applications
• Does not replace physical testing
• Requires trained staff

NETWORK
There are so many different types of computer networks in existence, it can be hard to understand the
differences between them, particularly the ones with very similar-sounding names. This lesson
explains the structures and functions of some of the most popular computer networks.

Types of Networks
There are several different types of computer networks. Computer networks can be characterized by
their size as well as their purpose.
The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area they occupy and the number of
computers that are part of the network. Networks can cover anything from a handful of devices
within a single room to millions of devices spread across the entire globe.
Some of the different networks based on size are:

 Personal area network, or PAN

 Local area network, or LAN
 Metropolitan area network, or MAN
  Wide area network, or WAN

In terms of purpose, many networks can be considered general purpose, which means they are used
for everything from sending files to a printer to accessing the Internet. Some types of networks,
however, serve a very particular purpose. Some of the different networks based on their main
purpose are:

 Storage area network, or SAN

 Enterprise private network, or EPN
 Virtual private network, or VPN

Let's look at each of these in a bit more detail.

Personal Area Network

A personal area network, or PAN, is a computer network organized around an individual person
within a single building. This could be inside a small office or residence. A typical PAN would
include one or more computers, telephones, peripheral devices, video game consoles and other
personal entertainment devices.
If multiple individuals use the same network within a residence, the network is sometimes referred to
as a home area network, or HAN. In a very typical setup, a residence will have a single wired
Internet connection connected to a modem. This modem then provides both wired and wireless
connections for multiple devices. The network is typically managed from a single computer but can
be accessed from any device.
This type of network provides great flexibility. For example, it allows you to:

 Send a document to the printer in the office upstairs while you are sitting on the couch with
your laptop.
 Upload a photo from your cell phone to your desktop computer.
 Watch movies from an online streaming service to your TV.

If this sounds familiar to you, you likely have a PAN in your house without having called it by its
name.

Local Area Network

A local area network, or LAN, consists of a computer network at a single site, typically an
individual office building. A LAN is very useful for sharing resources, such as data storage and
printers. LANs can be built with relatively inexpensive hardware, such as hubs, network adapters and
Ethernet cables.
The smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs can accommodate thousands of
computers. A LAN typically relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and security, but
wireless connections can also be part of a LAN. High speed and relatively low cost are the defining
characteristics of LANs.
LANs are typically used for single sites where people need to share resources among themselves but
not with the rest of the outside world. Think of an office building where everybody should be able to
access files on a central server or be able to print a document to one or more central printers. Those
tasks should be easy for everybody working in the same office, but you would not want somebody
just walking outside to be able to send a document to the printer from their cell phone! If a local area
network, or LAN, is entirely wireless, it is referred to as a wireless local area network, or WLAN.
Characteristics of a LAN include:

 Limited geographic operation up to 10 Km

 High speed data transfer rates
 Full time connectivity to local services
 Generally lower in cost than a WAN
 It uses mainly bus, ring and star topology
 LAN support a variety of transmission medium such as Ethernet ,fiber, wireless etc
 Requires little wiring, typically a single cable connecting to each device

Advantages and Disadvantages of LAN

Advantages

 Lower in cost
 Sharing of Resources
 High Speed
 Security

Disadvantages

 When number of nodes became increases then performance became decrease.

 Area covered is limited.

Metropolitan Area Network

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, consists of a computer network across an entire city,
college campus or small region. A MAN is larger than a LAN, which is typically limited to a single
building or site. Depending on the configuration, this type of network can cover an area from several
miles to tens of miles. A MAN is often used to connect several LANs together to form a bigger
network. When this type of network is specifically designed for a college campus, it is sometimes
referred to as a campus area network, or CAN.

Advantages and Disadvantages of MAN

Advantages

 It is wider area than a LAN

  It is a large network connectedness, information can be disseminated more widely, rapidly
and significantly.

Disadvantages

 Data rate is slow compare to LAN

 Cost is higher than LAN, required more devices and cables to covered large area.
 It is difficult to mange

Wide Area Network

A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an entire country or the entire
world. A WAN can contain multiple smaller networks, such as LANs or MANs. The Internet is the
best-known example of a public WAN.
Advantages and Disadvantages of WAN
Advantages

 large geographical area

Disadvantages

 Complicated and complex

 High cost
 Required high performance devices
 low security
 WANs use very expensive network equipment.

Key Differences Between LAN, MAN and WAN

1. The geographical area covered by LAN is small, whereas, MAN
covers relatively large and WAN covers the greatest of all.
2. LAN is confined to schools, hospitals or buildings, whereas, MAN
connects small towns or Cities and on the other hand, WAN covers
Country or a group of Countries.
3. Devices used for transmission of data are-
LAN: WiFi, Ethernet Cables.
MAN: Modem and Wire/Cable
WAN: Optic wires, Microwaves, Satellites.
4. LAN’s transmit data at a faster rate than MAN and WAN.
 5. Maintenance of LAN is easier than that of MAN and WAN.
6. The bandwidth available for transmission is higher in LAN than MAN
and WAN.
7. Data transmission errors and noise are least in LAN, moderate in
MAN and high in WAN.

Conclusion

There are many advantages of LAN over MAN and WAN, such as
LAN’s provide excellent reliability, high data transmission rate,
they can easily be managed, and shares peripheral devices too.
Local Area Network cannot cover cities or towns and for that
Metropolitan Area Network is needed, which can connect city or a
group of cities together. Further, for connecting Country or a
group of Countries one requires Wide Area Network.

Time-sharing operating systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various
terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same time. Time-
sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming.
Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is
termed as time-sharing.

The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-

Sharing Systems is that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the
objective is to maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems,
the objective is to minimize response time.

Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the
switches occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate
response. For example, in a transaction processing, the processor executes
each user program in a short burst or quantum of computation. That is,
if n users are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the
user submits the command, the response time is in few seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to
provide each user with a small portion of a time. Computer systems that
were designed primarily as batch systems have been modified to time-
sharing systems.

Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

 Provides the advantage of quick response.

 Avoids duplication of software.

 Reduces CPU idle time.

Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

 Problem of reliability.

 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.

 Problem of data communication.

Difference Between Multiprogramming,

Multitasking, Multiprocessing and
Multithreading
In this tutorial you will learn about difference between multiprogramming,
multitasking, multiprocessing and multithreading.
Although these terms seems similar but there are some differences between
them which are given below.
Multiprogramming
Multiprogramming is also the ability of an operating system to execute more
than one program on a single processor machine. More than one
task/program/job/process can reside into the main memory at one point of
time. A computer running excel and firefox browser simultaneously is an
example of multiprogramming.
 Memory layout for Multiprogramming System

A multiprogramming is a parallel processing in which the multiple

programs can run simultaneously.

 Multiprogramming is the allocation of more than one concurrent

program on a computer system and its resources.
 Multiprogramming allows using the CPU effectively by allowing
various users to use the CPU and I/O devices effectively.
 Multiprogramming makes sure that the CPU always has something
to execute, thus increases the CPU utilization

Multiprogramming or multitasking operating systems are those which

consumes CPU or ram efficiently. That mean the CPU keep all times
busy and all tasks are given time. In these systems users get quick
response time. But if there are many tasks running on the RAM then it
stops lXDoading more tasks and in that case hard drive will be used for
storing some processes.

Advantages of multiprogramming systems

 CPU is used most of time and never become idle
 The system looks fast as all the tasks runs in parallel
 Short time jobs are completed faster than long time jobs
 Multiprogramming systems support multiply users
 Resources are used nicely
 Total read time taken to execute program/job decreases
 Response time is shorter
 In some applications multiple tasks are running and multiprogramming
systems better handle these type of applications
Disadvantages of multiprogramming systems
 It is difficult to program a system because of complicated schedule handling
 Tracking all tasks/processes is sometimes difficult to handle
 Due to high load of tasks, long time jobs have to wait long

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Multiprogramming operating

systems?
Advantages of multiprogramming operating system:
i) It increases CPU utilization.
ii) It decreases total read time needed to execute a job.
iii) It maximizes the total job throughput of a computer.

25Y Disadvantages of multiprogramming operating system:

i) It is fairly sophisticated and more complex
ii) A multiprogramming operating system must keep track of all
kinds of jobs it is concurrently running.
Multitasking

Multitasking is the ability of an operating system to execute more than one task
simultaneously on a single processor machine. Though we say so but in reality
no two tasks on a single processor machine can be executed at the same time.
Actually CPU switches from one task to the next task so quickly that appears as
if all the tasks are executing at the same time. More than one
task/program/job/process can reside into the same CPU at one point of time.
 Multitasking System

Multiprocessing
Multiprocessing is the ability of an operating system to execute more than one
process simultaneously on a multi processor machine. In this, a computer uses
more than one CPU at a time.

Multiprocessing System

Multithreading
Multithreading is the ability of an operating system to execute the different
parts of a program called threads at the same time. Threads are the light wait
processes which are independent part of a process or program. In
multithreading system, more than one threads are executed parallely on a
single CPU.

Multiprogramming or multitasking operating systems are

those which consumes CPU or ram efficiently. That mean the CPU keep
all times busy and all tasks are given time. In these systems users get
quick response time. But if there are many tasks running on the RAM
then it stops loading more tasks and in that case hard drive will be used
for storing some processes.

Advantages of multiprogramming systems

 CPU is used most of time and never become idle
 The system looks fast as all the tasks runs in parallel
 Short time jobs are completed faster than long time jobs
 Multiprogramming systems support multiply users
 Resources are used nicely
 Total read time taken to execute program/job decreases
 Response time is shorter
 In some applications multiple tasks are running and multiprogramming
systems better handle these type of applications
Disadvantages of multiprogramming systems
 It is difficult to program a system because of complicated schedule handling
 Tracking all tasks/processes is sometimes difficult to handle
 Due to high load of tasks, long time jobs have to wait long

Following are some of the common advantages of multithreading:

 Enhanced performance by decreased development time
 Simplified and streamlined program coding
 Improvised GUI responsiveness
 Simultaneous and parallelized occurrence of tasks
 Better use of cache storage by utilization of resources
 Decreased cost of maintenance
 Better use of CPU resource
Multithreading does not only provide you with benefits, it has its disadvantages too. Let us
go through some common disadvantages:
  Complex debugging and testing processes
 Overhead switching of context
 Increased potential for deadlock occurrence
 Increased difficulty level in writing a program
 Unpredictable results

Multi Tasking Operating System

Definition:

 This is any operating system which is capable of running more than one program at a time.
 Most modern machines are designed to be able to handle various programs which can work
together simultaneously (apart from various specifically developed machines which are designed for
use in specific businesses.
 As with most technology today, multi tasking
operating systems are constantly evolving, and will
continue to change over time.

Features:

 · This is the type of operating system you would

find on your personal computer. It is designed
mainly with on user in mind, but can handle many
different applications at one time.
 · It has to handle running many different programs
at the same time, unlike a Single Use, Single
Application operating system.
 · The memory available is very different to Single
Application operating system. It is quite normal to
have Gigabytes of RAM available on a PC. This is
what allows it to run so many applications at the
same time.

Advantages of Multi Tasking

 Operating Systems:

 The main advantage for the user is that one has the ability to have several applications open at the
same time.
 For example, you could be editing a file on one application while another application is recalculating
spreadsheet, or even downloading and installing a new application.
 The an application developer, the advantage of multitasking is the ability to create applications that
use more than one process and to create processes that use more than one thread of execution.
 For example, a process can have a user interface thread that manages interactions with the user
(keyboard and mouse input), and worker threads that perform other tasks while the user interface
thread waits for user input. If you give the user interface thread a higher priority, the application will
be more responsive to the user, while the worker threads use the processor efficiently during the
times when there is no user input.

Disadvantages of Multi Tasking Operating Systems:

 To multitask, the CPU speed must be very high.

 If we are performing multiple tasks at a single time, then sometimes there may be chances that a
computer can hang.
 Can generate stress, fatigue and pressure because of all the applications running at once and
thinking that you can do a lot of things at once.

Uses of Multi Tasking Operating Systems:

 The main use of a multi tasking operating system is to have the ability to basically use many different
applications on the computer at the same time.
 This is something that had previously not been able to be done. but due to technology advancing, it
is now easy to use different programs at one time without running down your system.
WHAT IS
HARDWARE AND
SOFTWARE?
Home » Learn Technology » What is hardware and Software?

A computer, also called PC, is a device that allows us to process information and calculate
results,of course that this classic definition is somewhat outdated, as it is currently very wide range
of tasks that can be performed with this device.
Currently with a computer, we can draw, write, play and communicate with others around the
world without matter the distance, and being faithful to the original definition, we can process
information using pure data through software programs.

Are hundreds of thousands the applications that we can install on a computer, each user can choose
the necessary software that best fits your needs and requirements for each task begins.
What is a computer?
Basically a computer consists of two parts: hardware and software.
The hardware is a generic term used to designate all physical component parts of a
computer,namely the cabinet, monitor, motherboard, RAM, processor, video card and others.
In the other hand, the software is the code in form of program responsible for providing the
necessary instructions to the computer to perform a certain action. This category includes the
operating system, games, device drivers, etc.
What is the hardware?
As well as the computer is divided into hardware and software, the hardware is also divided into
two categories, called basic hardware and complementary hardware.
While the basic hardware includes all the necessary components for the operation of the
computer, such as motherboard, monitor, keyboard and mouse, being in this case the
motherboard, RAM and CPU the most important components of the whole.

On the other hand we have the complementary hardware, hardware that is not needed for a
computer to function normally. Examples of such hardware are printers, scanners, flash drives and
others.
Another way to differentiate the type of computer hardware is based on the role within it. In
the following paragraphs we will know how this hardware are divided.
Input Devices: Devices that allow the entry of information to the computer.
Chipset: Chip integrated on the motherboard, the chipset allows traffic information between the
microprocessor and other components that make up the PC.
CPU: This device has the task of interpreting and executing instructions sent from the operating
system, and manages the requests made by users through the programs.
RAM: The RAM, acronym of Random Access Memory, is where the computer stores the
programs, data and results processed by the CPU, allowing quick retrieval by the system, providing
better performance than retrieving it directly from the hard disk.

Storage drives: This devices are intended for storing data both the user and the system. I.e. they are
the physical space where are stored the files of the operating system, programs and user
documents. These can be hard disks, CD, DVD or Blu Ray, flash drives or external removable
drives.

Output Devices: These are the devices that show the user the results of its operations. This group
includes monitors, printers and everything that serves the purpose of offering the user the
ability to see the result of their work.
Mixed devices: This group includes all those devices that are capable of receiving and delivering
information. Examples of these devices are network cards, modems and communication
ports,among others.
What is the software?
The software is a computer code written in a programming language and compiled in the form
of application that you use to perform a particular task. Also as in the case of hardware, the
software should be divided into categories based on the role within the system.
Software Concepts
The software basically is a sequence of instructions that are interpreted and / or implemented to
manage, redirect or modify a data / information or event.

Software is also a product which is developed by software engineering, and includes not only the
program for your computer, but also manuals and technical documentation. Currently, these
manuals generally are provided in PDF format.
Computer software applications comprises a sequence of instructions that is interpreted and executed
by a processor or a virtual machine. In a functional software, that sequence follows specific
standards that result in a certain behavior.
In our computer, all applications we use are software: Windows, Outlook, Firefox, Internet Explorer,
Google Chrome, and even the antivirus apps.
A software can be executed by any device capable of interpreting and executing instructions for
which it is created. When software is represented as instructions that can be executed directly by a
processor, we say that is written in machine language.
The execution of a software can also be performed through an interpreter, responsible program to
understand and execute each of its instructions. A special category of interpreters and remarkable
are the virtual machines such as the Java (JVM) virtual machine.
The best-known device that has a processor is the computer. Nevertheless, there are other
programmable machines such as mobile phones, industrial automation machines, etc.
Software Rating
System Software: This group includes the operating system, device drivers, system utilities and all
the tools necessary to control the specific characteristics of these computers.
Software Implementation: It is called application software to all programs used by the user to
perform a particular task. This group includes the office software, graphic design, accounting and
electronic, to cite just one small fraction of all categories of applications that we can find in the
market.

Software is a general term used to describe a collection of computer

programs, procedures, and documentation that perform some task on a
computer system. Practical computer systems divide software systems
into three major classes: system software, programming software,
and application software, although the distinction is arbitrary and often
blurred. Software is an ordered sequence of instructions for changing
the state of the computer hardware in a particular sequence. Software
is typically programmed with a user-friendly interface that allows
humans to interact more more efficiently with a computer system.
Hardware is best described as a device, such as a hard drive, that is
physically connected to the computer or something that can be
physically touched. A CD-ROM, computer display monitor, printer, and
video card are all examples of computer hardware. Without any
hardware, a computer would not function, and software would have
nothing to run on. Hardware and software interact with one another:
software tells hardware which tasks it needs to perform.
There are several differences between computer hardware and
software.
Comparison chart
Hardware versus Software comparison chart
Hardware
Definition Devices that are required to store and execute (or
run) the software.
Types Input, storage, processing, control, and output
devices.
Function Hardware serve as the delivery system for software
solutions. The hardware of a computer is
infrequently changed, in comparison with software
and data, which are “soft” in the sense that they are
readily created, modified, or erased on the comput
Examples CD-ROM, monitor, printer, video card, scanners ,
label makers, routers and modems.
Inter Hardware starts functioning once software is
dependency loaded.
Failure Hardware failure is random. Hardware does have
increasing failure at the last stage.
Durability Hardware wears out over time.
Nature Hardware is physical in nature.
Software
Collection of instructions that enables a user to
interact with the computer. Software is a
program that enables a computer to perform a
specific task, as opposed to the physical
components of the system (hardware).
System software, Programming software, and
Application software.
To perform the specific task you need to
complete. Software is generally not needed to
for the hardware to perform its basic level tasks
such as turning on and reponding to input.
QuickBooks, Adobe Acrobat, Google Chrome,
Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Apple Maps
To deliver its set of instructions, Software is
installed on hardware.
Software failure is systematic. Software does
not have an increasing failure rate.
Software does not wear out over time.
However, bugs are discovered in software as
time passes.
Software is logical in nature.
Online processing systems are used all over the internet nowadays.
Small to enterprise web based and desktop applications use online
processing for their customers. For example when we purchase
something on internet then it is handled by online processing systems.

Online processing system

So today I have going to tell some of advantage and disadvantages of

these systems.

Advantages of online processing systems:-

 Easy to use to do shopping online
 These systems have quick response time
 It is easy to use just form filling and your job get processed automatically by
web and database servers
 Online banks nowadays use online processing systems for money
transactions
 Usage of credit cards is also handled by these systems
 You can access anything worldwide online and purchase it on the spot by
bank wire transfer, credit cards, and online banks. All these systems are
handled by online processing
Disadvantages of online processing systems:-
 There occurs millions of requests to banks at a time which is difficult to
handle
 During purchases if servers hang out for few seconds then transactions get
interrupted, so not good for big websites and organization and high traffic
sites
 All user data like credit card details, email addresses are kept on database
servers so if website get hacked or data loosed then it creates problem. For
example Linkedin website which get hacked and email and password get
accessed by hackers and then displayed credential details of users on internet
by hackers
 If any hardware failure occurs in online processing systems then visitors of
website get in trouble and online transaction get stopped and effected
 Electricity problem is another issue i.e. if electric supply get off so backup of
generators and hardware devices in better
 Online processing involves lot of staff to maintain inventory
 There should be make some relation with banks so if any transaction problem
occurs then banks handle it correctly
 Transferring products to people physically is also another problem
 Some issue also get involved during creation of new accounts by visitors

a. Batch Processing

An efficient way of processing high/large volumes of data is what you call

Batch Processing. It is processed, especially where a group of transactions is
collected over a period of time. In this process, At first, data is collected,
entered and processed. Afterwards, it produces batch results. We can
say Hadoop works on batch data processing. For input, process, and output,
batch processing requires separate programs. Payroll and billing systems are
beautiful examples of batch processing.
Let’s understand batch processing with some scenario. While sales
team/employees would gather information throughout a specified period of
time. Afterwards, all that information would be entered into the system all at
once. This whole procedure is known as Batch Processing. Generally, it
works for printing shipping labels, packing slips and payment processing. In
other words, this method also means waiting to do everything at once. Also,
it means relying on the ability of your system to handle it all.
We can say, batch processing system

 Batch processing access to all data.

 It might compute something big and complex.
 Generally, it is very concerned with throughput. Rather than the latency of
individual components of the computation.
 Batch processing has latency measured in minutes or more.
i. Advantages of Batch Processing

 Batch Processing is Ideal for processing large volumes of data/transaction. It

also increases efficiency rather than processing each individually.
 Here, we can do processing independently. Even during less-busy times or at a
desired designated time.
 For the organization by carrying out the process, it also offers cost efficiency.
 Also, allows good audit trail.

ii. Disadvantages of Batch Processing

 The time delay between the collection of data and getting the result after the
batch process.
 In the batch processing master file is not always kept up to date.
 Here, a one-time process can be very slow.
Batch vs Real Time Processing

Test Your Spark Knowledge

b. Real-Time Processing

Real-Time Processing involves continuous input, process, and output of data.

Hence, it processes in a short period of time. There are some programs
which use such data processing type. For example, bank ATMs, customer
services, radar systems, and Point of Sale (POS) Systems. Every transaction
is directly reflected the master file, with this data process. So, that it will
always be up-to-date.
If you want analytics results in real time, Spark Real-Time processing is key.
We can feed data into analytics tools, by building data streams, as soon as it
is generated. Moreover, it gets near-instant analytics results by using
platforms like Spark Streaming.
In addition, for tasks like fraud detection, real-time processing is very
useful. Basically, if process transaction data, we can detect that signal fraud
in real time. Also, can stop fraudulent transactions before they take place,
through real-time processing.
We can say, Real-Time processing system

 Real-Time processing helps to compute a function of one data element. Also,

can say it computes a smallish window of recent data.
 Real-Time processing computes something relatively simple
 While we need to compute in near-real-time, only seconds at most, we go for
real-time processing.
 In real-time processing, computations are generally independent.
 They are asynchronous in nature. It means a source of data doesn’t interact
with the stream processing directly.

i. Advantages of Real-Time Processing

 While performing real-time processing, there is no significant delay in response.

 In real-time processing, information is always up to date. Hence, it makes
organization able to take immediate action. Also, when responding to an event,
issue or scenario in the shortest possible span of time.
 It also makes organization able to gain insights from the updated data. Even
helps to detect patterns of possible identification of either opportunities or
threats.

ii. Disadvantages of Real-Time Processing

 Real-Time processing is very complex as well as expensive processing.

 Also turns out to be very difficult for auditing.
 Real-Time processing is a bit tedious processing.

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3. Conclusion
As a result, we have seen a comparison between Batch Processing vs Real-Time
processing in spark in detail. Hence, making a decision of selecting method depends
on the current business system. Basically, there are various conditions on which it
depends, whether to use one over the other. For example, type & volume of data
and time that the data needs to be processed. Thus, select the one that best suits
your business system. Hope we have answered all the
questions regarding Batch Processing vs Real Time Processing.

For reference.
 Transaction processing system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search

Transaction processing is a way of computing that divides work into individual, indivisible operations,
called transactions.[1] A transaction processing system (TPS) is a software system, or
software/hardware combination, that supports transaction processing.

Contents

 1History
 2List of transaction processing systems
 3Processing types
o 3.1Batch processing
o 3.2Real-time processing
o 3.3Transaction processing
 4Transaction processing system features
o 4.1Performance
o 4.2Continuous availability
o 4.3Data integrity
o 4.4Ease of use
o 4.5Modular growth
 5Types of transaction processing
o 5.1Processing in a batch
o 5.2Processing in real-time
 6Databases for transaction processing
 7Backup procedures
o 7.1Recovery process
o 7.2Types of back-up procedures
 7.2.1Grandfather-father-son
 7.2.2Backup plus journal
 8See also
 9References
 10Further reading
History[edit]
The first transaction processing system was SABRE, made by IBM for American Airlines, which
became operational in 1970. Designed to process up to 83,000 transactions a day, the system ran
on two IBM 7090 computers. SABRE was migrated to IBM System/360 computers in 1972, and
became an IBM product first as Airline control Program (ACP) and later as Transaction Processing
Facility (TPF). In addition to airlines TPF is used by large banks, credit card companies, and hotel
chains.
The Hewlett-Packard NonStop system (formerly Tandem NonStop) was a hardware and software
system designed for Online Transaction Processing (OLTP) introduced in 1976. The systems were
designed for transaction processing and provided an extreme level of availability and data integrity.

List of transaction processing systems[edit]

 IBM Transaction Processing Facility (TPF) – 1960. At Amity Unlike most other transaction
processing systems TPF is a dedicated operating system for transaction processing on IBM
System z mainframes. Originally Airline Control Program (ACP).
 IBM Information Management System (IMS) – 1966. A joint hierarchical database and
information management system with extensive transaction processing capabilities. Runs
on OS/360 and successors.
 IBM Customer Information Control System (CICS) – 1969. A transaction manager designed for
rapid, high-volume online processing, CICS originally used standard system datasets, but now
has a connection to IBM's DB/2 relational database system. Runs on OS/360 and
successors and DOS/360 and successors, IBM AIX, VM, and OS/2. Non-mainframe versions
are called TXSeries.
 Tuxedo – 1980s. Transactions for Unix, Extended for Distributed Operations developed by AT&T
Corporation, now owned by Oracle Corporation. Tuxedo is a cross-platform TPS.
 UNIVAC Transaction Interface Package (TIP) – 1970s. A transaction processing monitor
for UNIVAC 1100/2200 series computers.[2]
 Burroughs Corporation supported transaction processing capabilities in its MCP operating
systems using GEMCOS (Generalized Message Control System of 1980). As of
2012 UNISYS ClearPath Enterprise Servers include Transaction Server, "an extremely flexible,
high-performance message and application control system."[3]
 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) Application Control and Management System (ACMS) –
1985. "Provides an environment for creating and controlling online transaction processing
(OLTP) applications on the VMS operating system."[4][5] Runs on VAX/VMS systems.
 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) Message Control System (MCS-10) for PDP-10 TOPS-
10 systems.
 Honeywell Multics Transaction Processing. Feature (TP) – 1979.[6]
 Transaction Management eXecutive (TMX) was NCR Corporation's proprietary transaction
processing system running on NCR Tower 5000-series systems. This system was used mainly
by financial institutions in the 1980s and 1990s.
 Hewlett-Packard NonStop system – 1976. NonStop is an integrated hardware and software
system specifically designed for transaction processing. Originally from Tandem Computers.
 Transarc Encina – 1991.[7] Transarc was purchased by IBM in 1994. Encina was discontinued as
a product and folded into IBM's TXSeries.[8] Encina support was discontinued in 2006.

Processing types[edit]
Transaction processing is distinct from other computer processing models – batch processing, time-
sharing, and real-time processing.[9]
Batch processing[edit]
Main article: Batch processing

Batch processing is execution of a series of programs (jobs) on a computer without manual

intervention. Several transactions, called a batch are collected and processed at the same time. The
results of each transaction are not immediately available when the transaction is being
entered;[1] there is a time delay.
Real-time processing[edit]
Main article: Real-time computing

"Real time systems attempt to guarantee an appropriate response to a stimulus or request quickly
enough to affect the conditions that caused the stimulus."[9] Each transaction in real-time processing
is unique; it is not part of a group of transactions.
Transaction processing[edit]
Main article: Transaction processing

A Transaction Processing System (TPS) is a type of information system that collects, stores,
modifies and retrieves the data transactions of an enterprise. Transaction processing systems also
attempt to provide predictable response times to requests, although this is not as critical as for real-
time systems. Rather than allowing the user to run arbitrary programs as time-sharing, transaction
processing allows only predefined, structured transactions. Each transaction is usually short duration
and the processing activity for each transaction is programmed in advance.

Transaction processing system features[edit]

The following features are considered important in evaluating transaction processing systems.[9]
Performance[edit]
Fast performance with a rapid response time is critical. Transaction processing systems are usually
measured by the number of transactions they can process in a given period of time.
Continuous availability[edit]
The system must be available during the time period when the users are entering transactions. Many
organizations rely heavily on their TPS; a breakdown will disrupt operations or even stop the
business.
Data integrity[edit]
The system must be able to handle hardware or software problems without corrupting data. Multiple
users must be protected from attempting to change the same piece of data at the same time, for
example two operators cannot sell the same seat on an airplane.
Ease of use[edit]
Often users of transaction processing systems are casual users. The system should be simple for
them to understand, protect them from data-entry errors as much as possible, and allow them to
easily correct their errors.
Modular growth[edit]
The system should be capable of growth at incremental costs, rather than requiring a complete
replacement. It should be possible to add, replace, or update hardware and software components
without shutting down the system.

Types of transaction processing[edit]

Processing in a batch[edit]
Transactions may be collected and processed as in batch processing. Transactions will be collected
and later updated as a batch when it's convenient or economical to process them. Historically, this
was the most common method as the information technology did not exist to allow real-time
processing.
Processing in real-time[edit]
This is the immediate processing of data. It provides instant confirmation of a transaction. It may
involve a large number of users who are simultaneously performing transactions which change data.
Because of advances in technology (such as the increase in the speed of data transmission and
larger bandwidth), real-time updating is possible.

Databases for transaction processing[edit]

Main article: Database

A database is an organized collection of data. Databases offer fast retrieval times for non-structured
requests as in a typical transaction processing application.
Databases for transaction processing may be constructed using hierarchical, network, or relational
structures.

 Hierarchical structure: organizes data in a series of levels. Its top-to-bottom-like structure

consists of nodes and branches; each child node has branches and is only linked to one higher
level parent node.
 Network structure: network structures also organizes data using nodes and branches. But,
unlike hierarchical, each child node can be linked to multiple, higher parent nodes.
 Relational structure: a relational database organizes its data in a series of related tables. This
gives flexibility as relationships between the tables are built.
 A relational structure.

A hierarchical structure.
A network structure.

The following features are desirable in a database system used in transaction processing systems:

 Good data placement: The database should be designed to access patterns of data from many
simultaneous users.
 Short transactions: Short transactions enables quick processing. This avoids concurrency and
paces the systems.
 Real-time backup: Backup should be scheduled between low times of activity to prevent lag of
the server.
 High normalization: This lowers redundant information to increase the speed and improve
concurrency, this also improves backups.
 Archiving of historical data: Uncommonly used data are moved into other databases or
backed up tables. This keeps tables small and also improves backup times.
 Good hardware configuration: Hardware must be able to handle many users and provide
quick response times.

Backup procedures[edit]
Main article: Backup

A Dataflow Diagram of backup and recovery procedures

Since business organizations have become very dependent on transaction processing, a breakdown
may disrupt the business' regular routine and stop its operation for a certain amount of time. In order
to prevent data loss and minimize disruptions there have to be well-designed backup and recovery
procedures. The recovery process can rebuild the system when it goes down.
Recovery process[edit]
A TPS may fail for many reasons such as system failure, human errors, hardware failure, incorrect
or invalid data, computer viruses, software application errors or natural or man-made disasters. As
it's not possible to prevent all failures, a TPS must be able to detect and correct errors when they
occur and cope with failures. A TPS will go through a recovery of the database which may involve
the backup, journal, checkpoint, and recovery manager:

 Journal: A journal maintains an audit trail of transactions and database changes. Transaction
logs and Database change logs are used, a transaction log records all the essential data for
each transactions, including data values, time of transaction and terminal number. A database
change log contains before and after copies of records that have been modified by transactions.
 Checkpoint: The purpose of checkpointing is to provide a snapshot of the data within the
database. A checkpoint, in general, is any identifier or other reference that identifies the state of
the database at a point in time. Modifications to database pages are performed in memory and
are not necessarily written to disk after every update. Therefore, periodically, the database
system must perform a checkpoint to write these updates which are held in-memory to the
storage disk. Writing these updates to storage disk creates a point in time in which the database
system can apply changes contained in a transaction log during recovery after an unexpected
shut down or crash of the database system. If a checkpoint is interrupted and a recovery is
required, then the database system must start recovery from a previous successful
checkpoint. Checkpointing can be either transaction-consistent or non-transaction-
consistent (called also fuzzy checkpointing). Transaction-consistent checkpointing produces a
persistent database image that is sufficient to recover the database to the state that was
externally perceived at the moment of starting the checkpointing. A non-transaction-consistent
checkpointing results in a persistent database image that is insufficient to perform a recovery of
the database state. To perform the database recovery, additional information is needed, typically
contained in transaction logs. Transaction consistent checkpointing refers to a consistent
database, which doesn't necessarily include all the latest committed transactions, but all
modifications made by transactions, that were committed at the time checkpoint creation was
started, are fully present. A non-consistent transaction refers to a checkpoint which is not
necessarily a consistent database, and can't be recovered to one without all log records
generated for open transactions included in the checkpoint. Depending on the type of database
management system implemented a checkpoint may incorporate indexes or storage pages (user
data), indexes and storage pages. If no indexes are incorporated into the checkpoint, indexes
must be created when the database is restored from the checkpoint image.
 Recovery Manager: A recovery manager is a program which restores the database to a correct
condition which allows transaction processing to be restarted.
Depending on how the system failed, there can be two different recovery procedures used.
Generally, the procedures involves restoring data that has been collected from a backup device and
then running the transaction processing again. Two types of recovery are backward
recovery and forward recovery:

 Backward recovery: used to undo unwanted changes to the database. It reverses the changes
made by transactions which have been aborted.
 Forward recovery: it starts with a backup copy of the database. The transaction will then
reprocess according to the transaction journal that occurred between the time the backup was
made and the present time.
 See also: Checkpoint restart
I believe some of the main advantages and disadvantages or TPSs are as follows:

Advantages
o Can handle several thousand operations at once
o Access to untapped markets. Allows people across the world to access and buy a business’s
goods and services
Disadvantages
o Complex system may not be large enough to utilize TPS
o Security and hardware problems
o Perhaps too much consolidation is required