1 - Review of Compressible Flows

AE664A- Applied Compressible Flows Dr. Ajay V.
Singh, IIT Kanpur
Introduction and Review

Compressible Flows
AE664A- Applied Compressible Flows Dr. Ajay V. Singh, IIT Kanpur
Definition of a Compressible Flow

 This is the flow in which the density of the fluid is not uniform i.e. density
varies and is not a constant in such flows
 Generally, if the density changes by less than 5% , flow can be considered

to be “incompressible”
 In real life, every flow is compressible to some greater or lesser extent
 Hence, a truly constant density (i.e. incompressible) flow is just a myth
 However, for liquid flows as well as flows of gases at certain conditions,

the change in density is very small and hence the flow can be considered
to be a constant density flow with reasonable accuracy
1
 The most famous “ Bernoulli’s Equation” ( po  p  V ) can be applied
2
to such flows with constant density 2
 The engineering fluid dynamic problems of the 18th , 19th , and early 20th
centuries almost always involved either the flow of liquids or the low
speed flow of gases; for both cases the assumption of constant density is
quite valid
 However, Bernoulli’s equation is not applicable to compressible flows
 You should forget Bernoulli’s equation when dealing with compressible

flows
What is Compressibility?
 Compressibility is the sensitivity of a flow to compression and can be

quantified physically
 Let us consider a small fluid element with volume “V”
 Let a pressure “p” is exerted on the fluid element
 Let the mass of this element be “m”
 Mass is a conserved quantity and cannot change

p
p+dp
V V+dV
 Therefore, compressibility is the fractional change in the volume of the

fluid element per unit change in pressure
1 dV

V dp
 But as pressure increases, volume decreases. Therefore, the above
expression should have a negative sign
1 dV
  (1)
V dp
 Rearranging the terms,

1 dp
  (2)
V dV
 Also, the density can be written as,
m 1  dV m
     d   m 2   2 dV (3)
V V m V V
 Substituting Eqn. (3) into (1), we get

1 dV   d V 2  m  d V 2  1 d
          
V dp m  dp m  Vm  dp m   dp
1 d
 (4)
 dp
d  dp (5)
 When a gas is compressed its temperature tend to increase depending on

the amount of heat transferred in and out of the system
 So, if somehow, we can keep the temperature of the fluid constant (through
some heat transfer mechanism) , then the isothermal compressibility is
defined as,
1  dV  1  d 
T        (6)
V  dp T   dp T
 If, no heat is added or taken away from the system (fluid element) and if no
other dissipative transport mechanism such as friction (viscosity) and
diffusion are not important then we arrive at a special kind of flow
 Flow without heat transfer Adiabatic Flow
 Flow without friction and diffusion Reversible Flow
 Adiabatic and Reversible flow Isentropic Flow
 Now, we arrive at the definition of an “isentropic compressibility”

 Therefore, isentropic compressibility is defined as
1  dV  1  d 
s        (7)
V  dp  s   dp  s
 Compressibility is a property of the fluid
 Speed of the sound will be different for different fluids based on the
conditions
 So far we have considered a stationary fluid element. Now assume that the
fluid is in motion
 Such flows are usually initiated and maintained by the forces acting on the
fluid. These forces are body forces and surface forces. As we usually
neglect the body forces, the dominant forces are the surface forces
 The surface forces acting on a fluid element are pressure forces and
viscous forces
 Since we are neglecting viscous forces, the only force acting on the fluid
element is due to pressure
 Therefore, the fluid flow is usually created by a change in pressure
 We will see later that high speed flows are usually accompanied by large
pressure gradients
 For a given change in pressure “dp” (due to the flow)
d  dp (5)
 Immediately, two important conclusions can be made based on the above

equation
 d is small if  is small (liquids)
 d is large if  is large (gases)

 Therefore, in liquids large pressure gradients can create large changes

in velocity without an appropriate change in density
 For gases, since  is large, moderate or large “dp” (accompanied by large

velocities) can create substantial changes in density
 Such flows are termed as “compressible flows” where  is variable

 The most convenient index to gage whether a gas flow can be
considered incompressible or whether it must be treated as
compressible is the Mach number, M
V Local flow velocity

M a  RT
a Local speed of sound
Rule of thumb :
 If M < 0.3, the flow should be considered incompressible
 If M > 0.3, the flow should be considered compressible
 Consider a flow over an aerodynamic body ( say an airfoil). Far upstream of

the body, the flow is uniform
Freestream velocity = V
 A streamline
 is a curve in the flow field that is tangent to the local velocity
vector, V at very point along the curve
 Consider an arbitrary point in the flow field where the properties are
Local Pressure = P
Local temperature = T
Local density = ρ  All are point properties and vary
Local velocity = V from point to point in the flowfield
Local speed of sound = a
Speed of sound in the uniform freestream = a
V
Freestream Mach number, M  
a
V
Local Mach number, M
a
(i) Subsonic Flow : M < 1 everywhere in the flowfield V < a everywhere in

the flowfield.
Such a flow is characterized by (i) smooth streamlines

(ii) continuously varying properties
 Consider the figure (a) shown below. Initially straight and parallel
streamlines in the freestream begin to deflect far upstream of the body
the flow is forewarned of the presence of the body
 As the flow passes over the airfoil, the local V and M on the top surface
increases above the free stream values
 However, if M << 1, the local M will be subsonic everywhere. Typically (for

common airfoils in use) , if M   0.8 , the flowfield is completely subsonic
 Therefore, to the airplane aerodynamicist, the subsonic regime is loosely

identified with a freestream where M   0.8
Subsonic flow  M   0.8
(ii) Transonic Flow : If M   1 but close to 1 , flow expansion over the top
surface may result in locally supersonic regions (see figure (b) below). Such
mixed flow is defined as Transonic Flow
 Pockets of supersonic flows are created over the airfoil. The pocket
terminates with a shock wave across which discontinuous change in flow
properties take place (see figure (b) above )
 If M   1.2 ( but slightly higher than 1 ), the shock pattern moves to the
trailing edge of the airfoil and a second shock wave appears upstream of
the leading edge ( see figure (c) below )
 Typically, this second shock wave is a “ Bow shock” .
 In front of the bow shock, the streamlines are uniform and parallel to each
other and the freestream Mach number is uniform and supersonic
 After passing the normal portion of the bow shock, the flow becomes
subsonic
 This flow again expands over the top surface and becomes supersonic ,
terminating in trailing edge shock
 Both flow patterns sketched in Figures (b) and (c) are characterized by
mixed regions of locally subsonic and supersonic flow . Such mixed
regions are defined as transonic flows, and 0.8  M   1.2 is loosely
defined as the transonic regime
(iii) Supersonic Flow : A flowfield where M > 1 everywhere is defined as

supersonic. Consider the supersonic flow over the wedge-shaped body in
figure (d) shown on next slide
 A straight, oblique shock wave is attached to the sharp nose of the wedge
 Across this shock wave, the streamline direction changes discontinuously
 Ahead of the shock, the streamlines are straight, parallel and horizontal:
behind the shock they remain straight and parallel but in the direction of
the wedge surface
 Unlike the subsonic flow in figure (a) , the supersonic uniform freestream is
not forewarned of the presence of the body until the shock wave is
encountered
 The flow is supersonic both upstream and (usually, but not always)
downstream of the oblique shock wave
Supersonic Flow : When M > 1.0 everywhere in the flow field, typically for M   1.2
(iv) Hypersonic Flow : As M  is further increased, severe changes occur in

the flow properties across the shock waves
 For M   5 , the shock wave is very close to the surface (see figure (e)).
Flowfield between the shock and the body (called the shock layer)
becomes very hot
 Indeed, hot enough to dissociate or even ionize gases. Aspects of such

high-temperature chemically reacting flows will be discussed later
 These effects--thin shock layers and hot, chemically reacting gases—add

complexity to the analysis of such flows
 For this reason, the flow regime for M  5 is given a special label ----
Hypersonic flow
 The choice of M   5 as a dividing point between supersonic and

hypersonic flow is a rule of thumb
Illustration of different regimes of the flow

Incompressible Flows : Special case of subsonic flow
 It is interesting to note that incompressible flow is a special case of

subsonic flow; namely, it is the limiting case where M   0
V
 Since, M  we have 2 possibilities :
a
M   0 because V  0
M   0 because a  
 The former corresponds to no flow and is trivial
 The latter states that the speed of the sound in a truly incompressible flow would have
to be infinitely large
1
 2
dp
a  [Recall d  dp from Eq. (5)]
2
Also, (to be shown later)
d a
 as a   ,   0 i.e. zero compressibility
Hence incompressible !!
Also, d  dp so as   0 , d  0 for any dp & 

Hence incompressible !!
 There are other ways of classifying flowfields. For example, flows where the
effects of viscosity, thermal conduction and mass diffusion are important
are called viscous flows
 Such phenomenon are dissipative effects that change the entropy of the
flow, and are important in regions of large gradients of velocity,
temperature, and chemical composition
 Examples are boundary layer flows, flow in long pipes, thin shock layer on
high altitude hypersonic vehicles, friction drag, flowfield separation, and
heat transfer all involve viscous effects
 In contrast, flows in which viscosity, thermal conduction, and diffusion are

ignored are called inviscid flows. There are a number of important
applications that do not involve flows with large gradients. In such cases,
we can readily assume the flow to be inviscid
 Examples are the large regions of flow over wings and bodies outside the thin
boundary layer on the surface, flow through wind tunnels and rocket engine nozzles,
and the flow over compressor and turbine blades for jet engines
 Surface pressure distributions, as well as aerodynamic lift and moments on some

bodies, can be accurately determined by means of the assumption of inviscid flow
 We always consider the gas to be a continuum. This assumption is valid since a gas
usually contains a large number of molecules (over 2 109 molecules/cm^3 for air at
normal room conditions), and hence on a macroscopic basis, the fluid behaves as if it
were a continuous material
 This continuum assumption is violated only when the mean distance an atom or
molecule moves between collisions (the mean free path) is so large that it is the same
order of magnitude as the characteristic dimension of the flow. This implies low density
or rarefied flow
 The extreme situation , where the mean free path is much larger than the characteristic
length and where virtually no molecular collisions take place in the flow, is called free
molecular flow. In this case the flow is essentially a stream of remotely spaced particles
 Occurs in flight only at very high altitudes (above 200,000 ft)

Review of Thermodynamics
Study of gas dynamics (compressible flows) is a study of
fluid mechanics + thermodynamics
 The kinetic energy per unit mass of a high speed flow is large. High–speed
flows and compressible flows are synonymous
 In high speed flows, local velocity and hence local kinetic energy changes
as the flow moves over solid bodies or through ducts
 In contrast to low-speed or incompressible flow, these energy changes are

substantial enough to strongly interact with other properties of the flow
 Energy concepts, therefore, play a huge role in the study and

understanding of compressible flow
 Science of energy and entropy is thermodynamics
 Thermodynamics is an essential ingredient in the study of compressible

flow
Concept of a Perfect Gas
 A gas is a collection of particles (molecules, atoms, ions, electrons, etc.) that

are in more or less random motion
 Due to the electronic structure of these particles, a force field pervades the
space around them
 The force field due to one particle reaches out and interacts with
neighbouring particles, and vice versa. Hence, these fields are called
intermolecular forces
 The intermolecular forces varies with distance between particles; for most
atoms and molecules it takes the form of a weak attractive force at large
distance, changing quickly to a strong repelling force at close distance
 In general, these intermolecular forces influence the motion of the particles;

hence they also influence the thermodynamic properties of the gas, which are
nothing more than the macroscopic ramification of the particle motion
Concept of a Perfect Gas

 At temperatures and pressures characteristic of many compressible flow
applications, the gas particles are, on the average, widely separated
 The average distance between particles is usually more than 10 molecular

diameters, which corresponds to a very weak attractive force
 In a large number of engineering applications, the effect of intermolecular

forces on the gas properties is negligible
 A perfect gas is one in which intermolecular forces are neglected
 By ignoring intermolecular forces, the equation of state for a perfect gas can
be derived. The empirical result of such an analysis was
pV  mRT (8)
where ,
p  Pressure (N/m 2 )
V  Volume of the System (m 3 )
m  Mass of the system (kg)
R  Specific gas constant (J/kgK)
T  Tempearture (K)
 For per unit mass, Equation of state can be written as,
V 1
p  RT where    specific volume (m / kg ) 
3
(9)
m 
1
 Since the density, is   , we have

p  RT (10)
 Along another track that is particularly useful in chemically reacting

systems, the equation of state can also be written as
pV  NRuT (11)
N  Number of moles of gas in the system

Ru  Universal gas constant  8314 J/ (kg mol K)
Ru
R  Specific gas constant  [ For air at standard conditions, R  287 J/(kg K) ]
MW
MW  Molecular weight
 1 mol of different gases always contains the same number of molecules,

i.e., 1 kg mol always contains 6.02  10 molecules, independent of the
26
species of the gas
 Consider Eq. (11), dividing by the number of moles of the system yields
p  RuT (12)
  molar volume [m / kg mol ] 3
 Of more use in gas dynamic problems is a form obtained by dividing eq.

(11) by the mass of the system
p  RuT (13)
  Specific volume as before

  Mole - mass ratio [(kg mol / kg)]
 Also, Eq. (11) can be divided by the system volume, yielding
p  CRuT (14)
C  Concentration [(kg mol / m 3 )]

 Finally, the equation of state can be expressed in terms of particles. Let NA
be the number of particles in a mole (Avogadro’s number, which for a
kilogram-mole is 6.02  10 26 particles)
 Multiplying and dividing Eq. (14) by NA

 Ru 
p   N AC  T (15)
 NA 
N AC is physically the number density (number of particles per unit volume)
Ru N A is the gas constant per particle, which is precisely the Boltzmann constant, k
 Hence, eq. (15) becomes,

p  nkT (16)
n  Number density
k  1.38  10 - 23 J/K
How accurate is the assumption of a perfect gas?
 It has been experimentally determined that, at low pressures (near 1 atm

or less) and at high temperatures (273 K and above), the value p / RT
for most pure gases deviates from unity by less than 1 %
 However, at very cold temperatures and high pressures, the molecules of

the gas are more closely packed together, and consequently
intermolecular forces become more important
 Under these conditions, the gas is defined as a real gas

 In such cases, the perfect gas equation of state must be replaced by more
accurate relations such as the van der Waals equation
 a 
 p  2   b   RT
   (17)
a and b are constants that depend on the type of gas
 As a general rule of thumb, deviations from the perfect gas equation of

3
state vary approximately as p T
 In the vast majority of gas dynamic applications, the temperatures and

pressures are such that perfect gas equation of state can be applied with
confidence

1 - Review of Compressible Flows

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

1 - Review of Compressible Flows

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

AE664A- Applied Compressible Flows Dr. Ajay V.

Singh, IIT Kanpur

Introduction and Review

Definition of a Compressible Flow

 Generally, if the density changes by less than 5% , flow can be considered

 In real life, every flow is compressible to some greater or lesser extent

 Hence, a truly constant density (i.e. incompressible) flow is just a myth

 However, for liquid flows as well as flows of gases at certain conditions,

to such flows with constant density 2

 However, Bernoulli’s equation is not applicable to compressible flows

 You should forget Bernoulli’s equation when dealing with compressible

 Compressibility is the sensitivity of a flow to compression and can be

 Let us consider a small fluid element with volume “V”

 Let a pressure “p” is exerted on the fluid element

 Let the mass of this element be “m”

 Mass is a conserved quantity and cannot change

 Therefore, compressibility is the fractional change in the volume of the

 Rearranging the terms,

 Also, the density can be written as,

 Substituting Eqn. (3) into (1), we get

 When a gas is compressed its temperature tend to increase depending on

 Flow without heat transfer Adiabatic Flow

 Flow without friction and diffusion Reversible Flow

 Adiabatic and Reversible flow Isentropic Flow

 Now, we arrive at the definition of an “isentropic compressibility”

 Therefore, isentropic compressibility is defined as

 Compressibility is a property of the fluid

 Therefore, the fluid flow is usually created by a change in pressure

 For a given change in pressure “dp” (due to the flow)

 Immediately, two important conclusions can be made based on the above

 d is small if  is small (liquids)

 d is large if  is large (gases)

 Therefore, in liquids large pressure gradients can create large changes

 For gases, since  is large, moderate or large “dp” (accompanied by large

 Such flows are termed as “compressible flows” where  is variable

V Local flow velocity

 Consider a flow over an aerodynamic body ( say an airfoil). Far upstream of

(i) Subsonic Flow : M < 1 everywhere in the flowfield V < a everywhere in

Such a flow is characterized by (i) smooth streamlines

the flow is forewarned of the presence of the body

 However, if M << 1, the local M will be subsonic everywhere. Typically (for

 Therefore, to the airplane aerodynamicist, the subsonic regime is loosely

Subsonic flow  M   0.8

 Typically, this second shock wave is a “ Bow shock” .

(iii) Supersonic Flow : A flowfield where M > 1 everywhere is defined as

 Across this shock wave, the streamline direction changes discontinuously

(iv) Hypersonic Flow : As M  is further increased, severe changes occur in

 Indeed, hot enough to dissociate or even ionize gases. Aspects of such

 These effects--thin shock layers and hot, chemically reacting gases—add

 The choice of M   5 as a dividing point between supersonic and

Illustration of different regimes of the flow

Incompressible Flows : Special case of subsonic flow

 It is interesting to note that incompressible flow is a special case of

Also, d  dp so as   0 , d  0 for any dp & 

 In contrast, flows in which viscosity, thermal conduction, and diffusion are

 Surface pressure distributions, as well as aerodynamic lift and moments on some

 Occurs in flight only at very high altitudes (above 200,000 ft)

 In contrast to low-speed or incompressible flow, these energy changes are

 Energy concepts, therefore, play a huge role in the study and

 Science of energy and entropy is thermodynamics

 Thermodynamics is an essential ingredient in the study of compressible

Concept of a Perfect Gas

 A gas is a collection of particles (molecules, atoms, ions, electrons, etc.) that

 In general, these intermolecular forces influence the motion of the particles;