Anatony and Human Physiology

Dr S.R.
Murali HOD Biomedical RVSETGI

RVS EDUCATIONAL TRUST ‘S GROUP OF INSTITUTION DINDIGUL-5
DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
II BME
Question bank
BM6303Anatony and Human Physiology
Unit I Basic Element of Human Body
2 mark Question and Answer
1. What is meant by Active transport?(Nov2012)
These are cell membrane processes that require energy. These processes are also (as far as we can tell)
mediated by membrane carrier molecule. (Proteins) "Active Transport" "pumps" materials across the
membrane against the concentration gradient.I.e. from low concentration to high concentration therefore
requires energy. Active processes - require the expenditure of energy by cells. exocytosis and endocytosis
are the types of Active transport.
2. What is Endoplasmic reticulum? (Nov 2012)
. Endoplasmic reticulum a web-like series of membranes within the cytoplasm in the form of flattened
sheets, sacs, tubes,creates many membrane enclosed spaces - spreads throughout the cytoplasm - has
connections with the outer membrane of the nucleus and the plasma membrane. Endoplasmic reticulum is a
double membrane channel. It is continuous with the nuclear membrane. It involved in intracellular
exchange of material with the cytoplasm. Various products are transported from one portion of the cell to
another via the endoplasmic reticulum. So it is considered as intracellular transportation. It is also storage
for synthesized molecules. Together with the Golgi complex it serves as synthesis & packaging center.
3. Short notes on Mitochondria?( Nov 2011)
Mitochondria, a small, spherical, rod shaped or filamentous structure. It generates energy. Each mitochondria
posses two membrane, one is smooth (upper) membrane and the other is arranged with series of folds called
cristae. The central cavity of a mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane is the matrix .The site of oxygen
consumption within cells.• Have their own DNA that is similar to prokaryotic DNA• Have their own ribosomes
that are similar in construction to prokaryotic ribosomes • Synthesize many, but not all, of their own proteins •
Mitochondria replicate by binary fission - similar to prokaryotic cell division
4. Define isotonicity? (Nov 2010)
An isotonic solution is one in which its effective osmole concentration is the same as the solute
concentration of a cell. In this case the cell neither swells nor shrinks because there is no concentration
gradient for water across the cell membrane. Water molecules diffuse through the plasma membrane in both
directions, and as the rate of water diffusion is the same in each direction that cell will neither gain nor lose
water. An ISO-osmolar solution can be hypotonic if the solute is able to penetrate the cell membrane. For
example an ISO-osmolar urea solution is hypotonic to red blood cells causing their lysis. This is due to urea
entering the cell down its concentration gradient followed by water
5. Write the difference between Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis? (Nov 2010)
Phagocytosis and pinocytosis are active transport systems, both processes are examples of how a cell can
move a substance through the plasma membrane into the cytoplasm and isolate it. Active transport systems
move substances into cells up a concentration gradient. Phagocytosis enables a cell to engulf foreign
materias, usually solids. Leukocytes destroy bacteria by phagocytosis, they move the foreign material into
the cell using energy provided by ATP. Once inside the cytoplasm lysosomes destroy the bacteria.
Pinocytosis is similar to phagocytosis except this process moves fluids into the cell rather than solids. Both
processes rid the body of unwanted substances.
Dr S.R.Murali HOD Biomedical RVSETGI
6. Write short notes on ribosomes function? (May 2009)
A ribosome is the component of a biological cell that creates proteins from all amino acids and RNA
representing the protein. One of the central tenets of biology, often referred to as the central dogma of molecular
biology, is that DNA is used to make RNA, which is used to make protein. The DNA sequence in genes is
copied into a messenger RNA (mRNA). Ribosomes then read the information in this RNA and use it to create
proteins. This process is known as translation; the ribosome translates the genetic information from RNA into
proteins. Ribosomes do this by binding to an mRNA and using it as a template for the correct sequence of
amino acids in a particular protein. The amino acids are attached to transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which
enter one part of the ribosome and bind to the messenger RNA sequence. The attached amino acids are then
joined together by another part of the ribosome. The ribosome moves along the mRNA, "reading" its sequence
and producing a chain of amino acids.
7. What are the different types of Muscle Tissues? (May 2009)
The 3 types of muscle tissue are cardiac, smooth, and skeletal. Cardiac muscle cells are located in the walls
of the heart, appear striated, and are under involuntary control. Smooth muscle fibers are located in walls of
hollow visceral organs, except the heart, appear spindle-shaped, and are also under involuntary control.
Skeletal muscle fibers occur in muscles which are attached to the skeleton. They are striated in appearance
and are under voluntary control
8. What is the composition of Plasma membrane? (Nov 2013)
The cytoplasm of a cell is surrounded by a cell membrane or plasma membrane. The plasma
membrane in plants and prokaryotes is usually covered by a cell wall. This membrane serves to separate and
protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a double layer of lipids (hydrophobic
fat-like molecules) and hydrophilic phosphorus molecules. Hence, the layer is called a phospholipid bilayer. It
may also be called a fluid mosaic membrane. Embedded within this membrane is a variety of protein molecules
that act as channels and pumps that move different molecules into and out of the cell. The membrane is said to
be 'semipermeable', in that it can either let a substance (molecule or ion) pass through freely, pass through to a
limited extent or not pass through at all. Cell surface membranes also contain receptor proteins that allow cells
to detect external signaling molecules such as hormones
9. List the functions of Nucleus? (Nov 2013)
The cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's chromosomes, and
is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis (transcription) occur. The nucleus is spherical and
separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nucleus is the hallmark of
eukaryotic cells; the very term eukaryotic means having a "true nucleus". The nucleus is enveloped by a pair of
membranes enclosing a lumen that is continuous with that of the endoplasmic reticulum. This membrane is called
the nuclear envelop. The nuclear envelope is perforated by thousands of nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) that
control the passage of molecules in and out of the nucleus. The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA
from various molecules that could accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its processing. During
processing, DNA is transcribed, or copied into a special RNA, called messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA is then
transported out of the nucleus, where it is translated into a specific protein molecule
10. Define Action potential? (May 2009)
Action potential is a short-lasting event in which the electrical membrane potential of a cell rapidly rises and falls,
following a consistent trajectory. Action potentials occur in several types of animal cells, called excitable cells,
which include neurons, muscle cells, and endocrine cells, as well as in some plant cells. In neurons, they play a
central role in cell-to-cell communication. In other types of cells, their main function is to activate intracellular
processes. In muscle cells, for example, an action potential is the first step in the chain of events leading to
contraction. In beta cells of the pancreas, they provoke release of insulin.[a] Action potentials in neurons are also
known as "nerve impulses" or "spikes", and the temporal sequence of action potentials generated by a neuron is
called its "spike train". A neuron that emits an action potential is often said to "fire".
16 Mark Question and Answer
1. Describe the components of cell with a suitable diagram. (Nov 12)

Prokaryotic cells are simpler and smaller than the eukaryotic cells. The term prokaryote is derived from the Greek
word- “prokaryote” meaning before nuclei. These cells lack membrane bound organelles. Prokaryotic cells are
unicellular organisms, which reproduce through binary fission. In some cases few prokaryotic organisms also
reproduce by budding. Prokaryotic cells have a cell envelope, which generally consists of a capsule, cell wall,
cytoplasm, plasma membrane, cytoplasm region or nucleiod region, ribosome,plasmids,piliandflagella.
Example: Bacteria,bluegreenalgae,E.coli,etc.
Parts of Prokaryotic Cell and their Functions
Capsule: It is composed of a thick polysaccharide. It is a kind of slime layer, which covers the outside of the cell
wall. It is used to stick cells together and works as a food reserve and it also protects the cell from dryness and from
chemicals.
Cell wall: It is made from the glycoprotein murein. Cell wall provides strength and rigidity to the cell and it is
permeable to solutes.
Cytoplasm: It helps in cellular growth, metabolism and replication. Cytoplasm is the storehouses for all types of
chemicals and components that are used to sustain the life of a bacterium.
Plasma membrane: It is also known as a cell membrane.It is mainly composed of proteins, phospholipids and
carbohydrates, which forms into a fluid-mosaic. Plasma membrane surrounds the bacteria and it is a most important
organelle and plays a vital role in controlling the movement of substances in the cell.
Cytoplasm region (or) nucleiod region: An area of the cytoplasm that contains the single bacterial DNA molecule.
Ribosome: They are the smallest part of cell organelle. Ribosome plays a vital role in protein synthesis as they
consist of protein and RNA. They are located freely in the cytoplasm of attached to the rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
Mesosomes: They are the folding, present inside the plasma membrane. Mesosome plays a vital role in cellular
respirations, replication of DNA, cell division, separation of chromosomes during cell division and also performs the
role of Golgi bodies and mitochondria.
Plasmids: They are a small circle of DNA. Plasmid plays a vital role in exchanging DNA between the bacterial
cells. Bacterial cells have many plasmids.
Pili: They are short protein appendages, which fixes bacteria to surfaces. These pili are smaller than those flagella
and are used in conjugation to exchange the genetic information.
Flagella: They are rigid rotating tail. The clockwise rotation moves the cell forward and anticlockwise rotation helps
the cell to spin. The rotation is powered by H+ gradient across the cell membrane.
Eukaryotic Cell
Eukaryotic cells are those cells, which are complex and larger than the prokaryotic cells. The term eukaryote is
derived from the Greek word- â€œeukaryoteâ€ meaning true or good nuclei. This cell includes all life kingdoms
except monera. Eukaryotic cells can be easily distinguished through a membrane-bound nucleus. The life, which is
present and visible by our naked eye, is all made up of these cells. Eukaryotic cells are membrane-bound organelles,
which have a multiple membrane-bound organelles to carry out specific cell tasks. They have different internal
membranes, which are known as organelles. These organelles play a vital role in cell maintenance and other
functions. These organelles generally consist of cell wall, plasma membrane, nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts
(plastids), endoplasmic reticulum, ribosome, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, cytoplasm and chromosomes.
Parts of Eukaryotic Cell and their Functions

Cell wall: It helps in protecting the plasma membrane and plays a vital role in supporting and protecting the cells. It
is a thick outer layer made of tough cellulose. Cell walls are present in plant cells and are absent in animal cells.
Plasma membrane: The plasma membrane is present in animal cells, plant cells and even in eukaryotic cells. It is a
double layered, thin barrier, surrounding the cell that controls the entry and exit of certain substances. It also refers
to a thin, fluid entity that manages to be very flexible and it is stable. It is also called as cell membrane. It is the
living ultra thin biological membrane ranging from 6 to 8nm and composed of a dynamic layer that chemically
comprises a molecule of lipids and proteins that are arranged in a fluid mosaic pattern. It acts as a protective barrier.
This membrane plays a vital role in:
It acts as a boundary and separates the internal and external organelles of a cell.
 Transportation of materials.
 Cell to cell recognition.
 Enzymatic activity.
 Signal transduction.
Nucleus: It is present both in animal cell and in plant cells. It is large and present in the center of a cell. It contains
DNA and stores all the necessary information, which is required to control all the activities within the cell. Hence it
is also called as a brain of the cell.
Nuclear membrane: It is a double layered, which surrounds the nucleus and helps in the entry and exits of material
into the nucleus. It also separates the nucleus from the other parts of the cell.
Nucleolus: It is present in nucleus of both plant cell and animal cell. It plays a vital role in the synthesis of RNA and
in the formation of the ribosome.
Mitochondria: The organelles that convert energy into usable forms, which are used by the cell to perform their
cellular functions. They are double membranes, semi-autonomous organelles. This organelle plays a vital role in
generating and transforming the energy. Albert von Kolliker recognized the structure of the mitochondria in the year
1880. It is a powerhouse of the cell, which produces energy by breaking down fats and carbohydrates. Mitochondria
play a vital role in:
 The most important function of the mitochondria is to produce energy.
 It converts glucose to ATP.
 Helps in cellular respiration.
 It synthesizes ATP from the breakdown of sugars, fats and other fuels in the presence of oxygen.
 It plays a vital role in oxidative phosphorylation.
Chloroplast: They are the sub cellular sites of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts were discovered early in the 17th
century and were identified by a scientist named Antony van Leeuwenhoek and by another scientist named
Nehemiah Grew. Chloroplasts are important because, if there were no chloroplasts, plants cannot produce oxygen,
sugars and starches, which other animals use and eat. They also produce energy in the daylight. They are present
only in plant cells and are absent in animal cells. Chloroplasts are also found in chlorophyll bacteria, blue-green
algae, etc. It is a site for photosynthesis.
Endoplasmic reticulum: It helps in movement of materials around thecell. Its main functions are storage and
secretion. It is of two types:-
Rough endoplasmic reticulum - it manufactures proteins.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - it contains an enzymes that helps to build molecules.
Ribosome: They are biological molecule, which are composed of proteins and RNA. It is complex and smallest
organelle in the cell. It plays a vital role in synthesis millions of protein, which are required for cells to perform
several activities. These organelles are present in all animal cells and absent in plant cells.
Golgi Bodies: They are sac like structures, which are specifically used for storing or preserving all the substances
made by the cell. It helps in the movement or transportation of materials within the cell and in synthesis of plant cell
wall; hence it is also called as the post office of the cell. It also plays a vital role in the modification, transportation
and processing of macromolecules, which includes proteins and lipids. These organelles are present in all animal
cells and absent in plant cells.
Lysosomes: They are spherical organelles, which contains enzymes that help in maintaining the physiologic
turnover of cellular constituents. These organelles are present in all animal cells and absent in plant cells. They play
a vital role in breaking the food materials and making it easier to digest. The size of these Lysosomes varies from 0.1
to 1.2 Âµm. It is also called as suicidal bags as it helps in cell renewal and break down old cell parts. Lysosomes
play a vital role in:
 Removal of dead cells, hence they are named as a suicide bags.
 They protect the cell by ingestion of other dying cells or larger extracellular material like-foreign invading
microbes.
 Lysosomes attacks the foreign or disease-causing agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, food and old
organelles and break them into small pieces that can hopefully be used again.
 Lysosomes play a vital role in protecting the cell from being digested by surrounding the cell membrane.
Vacuoles: They are vesicle that helps in the digestion. They are present both in plant cells and in animal cells. In
plant cells it helps in maintaining its shape and it also stores water, food, enzymes, wastes, etc.
Cytoplasm: It refers to the jelly like material with organelles in it. It is present both in plant and in animal cells.
They consist of inner region of the plasma membrane and also the outer region of DNA. The cytoplasm is made of
components, which benefits the cell by keeping the organelles separate from each other. This helps to keep a cell in
stable. Cytoplasm also contains some important organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, mitochondria and
Golgi apparatus. Along with these organelles, it also contains chloroplast in plant cells. Every organelle is bound by
a fatty membrane, which have some specific functions. A cytoplasm plays a vital role in:
 Storage and manufacturing of energy.

 Maintains the cellâ€™s shape and its consistency and provides suspension to the organelles.
 All types of cell functions like: cell expansion, growth and replication are carried out in the cytoplasm of a
cell.
 All types of cellular activities take place in this cytoplasm.
 Cytoplasm also helps in the movement of different elements or molecules present within the cell.
Chromosomes: The term chromosome is derived from the Greek wordâ€“â€œChromaâ€ meaning colour and
â€œSomesâ€ meaning the body. Chromosomes are small, coloured thread like structures present in the
nucleoplasm of living cells, which helps in the inheritance or transmission of characters in form of Genes from one
generation to another generation. It is made up of DNA and stored in the nucleus, which contains the instructions
for traits and characteristics. A chromosome plays a vital role in:
 Self-duplication.
 They help in transmitting or transferring the characters from one generation to another generation (or) from
parents to offspring.
 Controls the biological processes in the body of an organism.
 They control cell metabolism by directing the formatting of necessary proteins.
 They help in cell differentiation during development.
 A chromosome also helps in determining a sex of an individual.
Centrosomes: They are the small hollow cylindrical shaped organelles, which are composed of nine bundles of
micro tubules. They play a vital role in cell division or in the cell cycle. Centrosomes are present only in animal
cells and are absent in plant cells. Centrosomes are also called by centrioles.
2. Explain in detail about the various cellular transport mechanisms with suitable examples (Nov 10)
Transport across Membranes
Most molecules of biological origin must be transported across cellular membranes in a process that involves
specific, specialized transport proteins. Transport of molecules across membranes comes at a price (protein
synthesis, energy (in some cases), lack of direct link to environment), but affords the cell virtually complete control
of what enters and exits from it.
Energy considerations
Everyone is familiar with the process of diffusion. If one places a drop of dye into a glass of water, it will eventually
spread out evenly throughout the glass. This is the due to the process we call diffusion. The natural tendency of
materials in solution is to diffuse and remove concentration gradients. Movement of materials against a gradient
(visualized as "pumping" a substance from a low concentration to a region of even higher concentration) comes at a
price - it requires energy. Conversely, movement of materials with a gradient (from a region of high concentration to
a region of low concentration) is energetically favored.
Types of transport
There are three types of transport systems operating to move substances across membranes:
1. Passive Transport
2. Facilitated Transport
3. Active Transport
The first two mechanisms employ the power of diffusion and do not require energy for operation. Drastic differences
exist, however, for the rates of transport achieved between Passive Transport and Facilitated Transport. Click here to
see how one distinguishes Passive Transport from Facilitated Transport.
Passive Transport: Diffusion is a Passive Transport system. Diffusion processes ultimately achieve equal
concentration of molecules on either side of the membrane, but, as noted above, polar substances have difficulty
diffusing across lipid bilayer membranes. Food substances, such as sugars do not diffuse across membranes with
sufficient speed to meet a cell's energy needs.
Facilitated Transport (also called Facilitated Diffusion) uses specific molecules to enable the transfer of substrate
across a membrane and reach equilibrium. The ultimate goal of Facilitated Diffusion is the same as simple diffusion
- equal concentration of a material on both sides of a membrane. The difference, however, is that Facilitated
Diffusion speeds achievement of the equilibrium dramatically. Note that the descriptions here of movement of
materials across a membrane do not refer to just the cell membrane. Organelle membranes (such as the nucleus or
mitochondrion) too pose the same barriers to diffusion as the cell membrane (noted previously with the difficulty of
getting OAc out of the mitochondrion).
Mechanisms of Facilitated Diffusion:
 Pore-Facilitated Transport
 Carrier-Facilitated Transport
Pore-Facilitated Transport uses special protein molecules within a membrane that can open and close to allow
diffusion to occur through them. These proteins are also called channel formers. Channel formers may be thought of
as molecules that form a hole in the membrane through which selected ions can easily pass, though this is a great
simplification.
Transport of glucose occurs by what is called a "gated pore" mechanism in which the "tube" is never
"open" at both ends at once. Rather, glucose enters from the exterior, followed by closing of the exterior opening,
opening of the interior opening, release of glucose, and return to the state of binding glucose on the exterior. The
process is completely reversible, enabling diffusion of glucose in either direction depending upon concentrations.
Moreover, the careful opening and closing of the "tube" prevents diffusion of smaller ions. The mechanism for
transporting glucose is a common one for other transport systems. Facilitated diffusion works well for glucose in
erythrocytes because blood plasma has a higher concentration of glucose than cells generally, resulting in net inward
movement of glucose into erythrocytes. Further, no energy is required. If the cell needs nutrients in a higher
concentration than they are normally provided in the surroundings, active transport is necessary.
Ionophores are special type of transport molecules involved in transport of ions. Ionophores exhibit both kinds of
Facilitated Diffusion -Pore Facilitated and Carrier Facilitated.
Carrier-Facilitated Transport involves a molecule that picks up another molecule and carries it through the cell
membrane, releases it after transit, and then diffuses back across the membrane to pick up another molecule,
repeating the process until equilibrium is reached.Valinomycin is an ionophore exhibiting Carrier-Facilitated
Transport. It is able to transport as much as 10,000 potassium ions per second across a membrane. Valinomycin
binds K+ and "hides" it in the middle of the molecule ,thus shielding the charged ion from the non-polar membrane.
It should be noted that both Carriers and Pore Formers act to facilitate simple diffusion. The net effect is to equalize
concentrations of particular ions inside and outside the cell.
Active Transport
Active transport processes usually work against a concentration gradient, pumping molecules from a lower
concentration on one side of the membrane to a higher concentration on the other side of the membrane. In some
cases, the gradient can be formidable. Your book gives an example of calcium across the membranes of the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, which is maintained at a ratio of 30,000 to 1. If there were not pumping systems capable of
selectively pumping to this extent, the Delta G value of +26.6 kJ/mol would preclude its formation naturally. Active
transport mechanisms employ specific protein molecules variously called carriers, permeases, porters, translocases,
translocators, and transporters.
Cells expend energy in order to build concentration gradients of ions (for example, Na+ and K+ as described below).
This electrochemical potential gradient represents energy that can also be utilized for the purposes of the cell. As we
shall see later, mitochondria harvest energy from a proton gradient they create in order to make ATP in oxidative
phosphorylation. Energy from electrochemical potential gradients is also used by the cell to drive transport of
molecules across membranes (see Na+/glucose below).
Each of our cells transports ions such Ca++, Na+, and K+ against a concentration gradient. (Transporting "against" a
concentration gradient (pumping) means that the ion is being moved from an area of lower concentration to a area
that has a higher concentration. It is called "against" because the constant pressure due to diffusion goes in the
opposite direction.)
There are three schemes by which diffusion can be overcome in cells.
 1. A compound is bound on one side of a membrane by a molecule which carries it across the membrane,
but after it gets across the membrane, it is converted to another form. At equilibrium, the concentration on
either side of the membrane would be equal, but because the molecule is altered after transport, equilibrium
is never established, resulting in a net flow in one direction across the membrane. (Click here to see
example).
 2. Gradients of ions across cell membranes generates an electrochemical potential (voltage). This
establishes a voltage difference between inside and outside the cell. The voltage difference affects the
energy needed for transporting other molecules across a membrane (see equation). The change in
electrochemical potential involved in moving a mole of ions across a membrane from outside to inside is
given by the following equation:
Delta G = RTln(C2/C1) +ZF Delta psi
where F = 96.5 kJ/mol/volt, Delta psi is the membrane potential in volts, C1 and C2 are the concentrations
of the ion on either side of the membrane. The voltage difference may work in favor of or against the
process of diffusion, but in either case will alter the normal diffusion of a substance across a membrane.
(Click here to see one example)
 3. The transport of a molecule across the membrane can be linked to (coupled to) an energetically favorably
process, such as hydrolysis of ATP. This has the effect of using the energy of the coupled process to drive
the transport of the molecule against a concentration gradient. (Click here to see one example).
 Electroneutral transport- transport which involves no net change in charge across the membrane as a result
of the transport of molecules. An example is the chloride/bicarbonate facilitated diffusion described earlier
which exchanges one negatively charged chlorine for one negatively charged bicarbonate.
 Electrogenic transport - transport which results in a change in the net charge across the membrane as a
result of the transport of molecules. The Na+/K+ ATPase system described next is electrogenic because it
moves three positively charged Na+ ions out while moving in only two positively charged K+ ions.
Na+/K+ ATPase System (also called Sodium-Potassium Pump) of plasma membrane (is an ion pump. It functions
to transport 3 Na+ ions out as it transports 2 K+ ions in coupled to the hydrolysis of one molecule of ATP. Coupling
of this transport to ATP hydrolysis is an essential. By doing so, the energetically unfavorable reaction of moving
Na+ and K+ ions against a concentration gradient is converted to an energetically favorable reaction. The Na+/K+
ATPase system is an electrogenic reaction which functions in all animal cells to control their osmotic environment.
Nerve cells use the Na+ (conc. higher outside than inside cell) and K+ (conc. higher inside cell than outside)
gradients to rapidly propagate a signal by transiently allowing diffusion of each across their membranes. Heart cells
too use the Na+ gradient to their benefit, by allowing Na+ to flow inwards, stimulating Ca++ pumping inwards,
triggering muscle contraction.
Na+/Glucose Transport
In the Na+/glucose transport system, which is actively employed in intestinal cells, glucose and Na+ are carried into
the cell together, driven by the Na+ gradient . The Na+/glucose system is one such system. In this case, the higher
concentration of Na+ arising from the K+/Na+ pump helps to drive the reaction forward. It works as follows: Na+ is
bound to the receptor which stimulates glucose binding as well. A conformational change of the receptor ensues,
causing the receptor to close on the outside and open on the inside of the cell. Glucose is released followed by Na+
release. After this, the receptor undergoes a conformational change to the original state .Subsequently glucose is
exported out of the intestinal cell to the blood stream via another system and Na+ is pumped out again via the
Na+K+ Pump. Drugs that inhibit the Na+Glucose transport system (e.g., Phlorizin) have no effect on the passive
glucose transport system described previously. Similarly, cytochalasin B, which inhibits the passive glucose
transport system has no effect on the Na+/Glucose transport system. Clearly these two glucose transport systems are
independent of each other.
3. Discuss membrane permeability and transport of substance through lipid bilayer.(nov 2007)
Lipid bilayer
Diagram of the arrangement of amphipathic lipid molecules to form a lipid bilayer. The yellow polarhead groups
separate the grey hydrophobic tails from the aqueous cytosolic and extracellular environments.
Lipid bilayers form through the process of self-assembly. The cell membrane consists primarily of a thin layer
of amphipathic phospholipidswhich spontaneously arrange so that the hydrophobic "tail" regions are isolated from
the surrounding polar fluid, causing the more hydrophilic "head" regions to associate with the intracellular
(cytosolic) and extracellular faces of the resulting bilayer. This forms a continuous, sphericallipid bilayer. Forces
such as van der Waals, electrostatic, hydrogen bonds, and noncovalent interactions all contribute to the formation of
the lipid bilayer. Overall, hydrophobic interactions are the major driving force in the formation of lipid bilayers.
Lipid bilayers are generally impermeable to ions and polar molecules. The arrangement of hydrophilic heads and
hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent polar solutes (ex. amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins,
and ions) from diffusing across the membrane, but generally allows for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic
molecules. This affords the cell the ability to control the movement of these substances via transmembrane
protein complexes such as pores, channels and gates.
Flippases and scramblases concentrate phosphatidyl serine, which carries a negative charge, on the inner membrane.
Along with NANA, this creates an extra barrier to charged moieties moving through the membrane.
Membranes serve diverse functions in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. One important role is to regulate the
movement of materials into and out of cells. The phospholipid bilayer structure (fluid mosaic model) with specific
membrane proteins accounts for the selective permeability of the membrane and passive and active transport
mechanisms. In addition, membranes in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotes
facilitate the synthesis of ATP through chemiosmosis.
Lipid Bilayer Permeability
All living cells must be able to exchange materials (nutrients and waste products) with their external environments
in order to remain alive. Because the phospholipid bilayer is responsible for forming membranes and hence
compartments, it is important to understand how various molecules can pass through this lipid bilayer. Simply
stated, biological membranes are semipermeable lipid bilayers. Permeability refers to the ease with which
molecules cross biological membranes. Because of the chemical and structural nature of the phospholipid bilayer
(hydrophobic core), only lipid-soluble molecules and some small molecules are able to freely pass through the lipid
bilayer. Ions and large polar molecules cannot pass through the lipid bilayer. But more specifically, whether a
molecule can pass through the membrane depends on its size and its electrical nature. The membrane is highly
permeable to non-polar (fat-soluble) molecules. The permeability of the membrane to polar (water soluble)
molecules is very low, and the permeability is particularly low to large polar molecules. The permeability to charged
molecular species (ions) is very low. Therefore, the passage of most molecules and ions is aided by the presence of
specific membrane transport proteins.
The proper way to state these features is to say that the membrane is highlypermeable to lipid-soluble
molecules, or that the membrane is not permeable to ions. It may also be said that membrane permeability is high
for lipid-soluble molecules, and that membrane permeability is low for ions and polar molecules. Another way of
stating this is that lipid-soluble molecules are highly permeant, or that ions are impermeant (i.e., not permeant).
Figure 1. Permeation through a pure lipid bilayer.
Only a limited number of molecules can cross biological membranes without the aid of transport proteins.
Membrane impermeant molecules and ions require the aid of membrane transport proteins in order to cross the
membrane. See text for details. O2, oxygen; CO2, carbon dioxide, N2, nitrogen, H2O, water; Na+, sodium ion; K+,
potassium ion; H+, proton;Ca2+, calcium ion; Cl-, chloride ion.
4. Explain the types of tissue and its function.
Cells are the smallest units of life. In complex organisms, cells group together with one another based on similar
structure and function to form tissues. Tissues provide the numerous functions of organs necessary to maintain
biological life. This lab exercise seeks to introduce the various tissues found in the human body and to familiarize
you with their composition and function. The study of tissues is called histology, and is important to the
understanding of how the human body is able to function as a unit.
Classifications of Tissues:
The human body is composed of four basic types of tissues; epithelium, connective, muscular, and nervous
tissues. These tissues vary in their composition and their function. A basic understanding of the role of each tissue
makes understanding the specific functions easier.
1. Epithelium- lines and covers surfaces
2. Connective tissue- protect, support, and bind together
3. Muscular tissue- produces movement
4. Nervous tissue- receive stimuli and conduct impulses
Now that we have an understanding of the basic roles of the tissues, we turn our focus to a more thorough
investigation of the form and function of the different types of tissues in the human body.
Epithelium:
Epithelium forms the coverings of surfaces of the body. As such, it serves many purposes, including protection,
adsorption, excretion, secretion, filtration, and sensory reception. When considering the characteristics that make a
tissue epithelium, it is important to think about the following:
Polarity- Epithelium is arranged so there is one free surface (apical surface) and one attached surface (basal
surface)
Cellular nature- Cells in epithelium fit closely together side by side and sometimes atop each other to form sheets of
cells. These sheets are held together by specialized junctions.
Supported by connective tissue- Attachment to a layer of connective tissue at the basal surface forms a layer called
the basement membrane, an adhesive layer formed by secretions from the epithelial cells and the connective tissue
cells.
Avascular- Epithelium typically lacks its own blood supply.
Regeneration- Epithelium cells can regenerate if proper nourished.
Classification of epithelium is based on the shape of the cells and the arrangement of the cell within the tissue.
Arrangements:
Simple- Cells are found in a single layer attached to the basement membrane
Stratified- Cells are found in 2 or more layers stacked atop each other
Pseudostratified- a single layer of cells that appears to be multiple layers due to variance in height and location of
the nuclei in the cells.
Transitional- cells are rounded and can slide across one another to allow stretching
Shapes:
Squamous- (Latin, squama- scale)- flat, thin, scale-like cells
Cuboidal- cells that have a basic cube shape. Typically the cell's height and width are about equal.
Columnar- tall, rectangular or column-shaped cells. Typically taller than they are wide.
5. Explain the origin of membrane potential.
Electrical potentials exist across the membranes of all cells of the body. This is believed to be due to the difference
in concentration of important electrolytes and other substances in the extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid. The
extracellular fluid contains a large amount of sodium ions (142mEq/L) but only a small amount of potassium ions
(4mEq/L).The concentration of sodium and potassium is just opposite, the intracellular fluid being 14mEq/L and
140mEq/L respectively .In case of anions, chloride (103mEq/L) & bicarbonate(28mEq/L) dominate the extracellular
region, whereas phosphates (75mEq/L) and sulphates (2mEq/l) are in excess in the intracellular fluid. Such
difference of concentration of ions across the cell membrane is thought to be responsible for establishment of the
normal resting membrane potential of -90millivolts, owing to the combined effects of the following factors 1
i) Potential arising due to diffusion of Potassium ions: If the resting membrane potential is solely due
to the diffusion of K+ ion (Fig 1A) then the potential (emf) may be calculated from the Nernst equation, with the
assumptions as shown below.
Assumptions: a) that the potential in the extracellular fluid remains at zero potential and the Nernst potential is the
potential inside the membrane.
b) that the emf is said to be positive if the ion diffusing from inside to outside is a negative (–ve) ion and the emf is
said to be negative if the ion is a positive (+ve) ion.
The following equation is used to calculate the Nernst potential for any monovalent ion at 370C .
ii) Potential arising due to diffusion of Sodium ions: As the sodium ions diffuse from its region of higher
concentration to lower concentration i.e; from the extracellular region to inside the cell, the calculated Nernst
potential inside the fiber, for Na+ ion, would be +61mV {emf= − 61 =− 61 (1.1461− 2.1523) =− 61(−1.0062)=
+61.3782 mV}. But apart from K+ & Na+ there are many others ions (cations/anions) which have different
concentrations in the extracellular and intracellular regions. As the membrane is permeable to different ions, emf is
calculated, using the Goldman equation , and found to be -86mV which is quite close to the potential developed due
to the potassium ions.
iii) Potential due to NA+- K+ Pump: It arises due to the Electrogenic nature of the NA+- K+ pump (Fig1C).
The said pump moves three Na+ ions to the outside for every two K+ ions to the inside, through a complex of two
separate globular proteins called carrier proteins. Binding of two K+ ions (at extracellular region) and three Na +ions
(at intracellular region ) with the carrier protein activates the ATPase function of the protein (i.e: enzymatic action of
ATPase). Subsequently, due to the activity of the ATPase, energy in the form of inorganic phosphate (iP) is liberated
along with ADP by the cleaving of an ATP molecule. It is believed that the said liberated energy helps passage for
Na+ ions to the outside and K + to the inside (i.e: against the concentration gradient) through change in chemical and
conformational change in the carrier protein molecule. This results in positivity outside and negativity inside the
cell. The electric potential so obtained across the cell membrane by the NA+- K+ pump is therefore, termed to be
electrogenic. The fact that more Na+ ions are being pumped outside than K+ ion to the inside causes continual loss of
positive charges from inside the membrane creating an additional degree of negativity (about -4mV) on the inside
beyond what can be attributed due to the diffusion alone.
Thus the net membrane potential (-90mV) is the sum of resultant diffusion potential of K+ ion and Na+ion (-
86mV) and the electrogenic potential generated due to the NA+- K+ pump (-4mV).
Measurement of cell membrane potential: Owing to small size of most of the fibers while measuring the
membrane potential, a micro electrode consisting of a micro pipette filled with an electrolyte solution (Silver –silver
chloride solution) is used. The micro pipette is inserted through the cell membrane to the interior of the fiber, then
another electrode called the “indifferent electrode” is placed in the extracellular fluid , and the potential difference
between the inside and outside of the fiber is measured using a sophisticated voltmeter(Fig 1D). As long as the
micro electrode is outside the nerve membrane, the potential recorded is zero (i.e; emf=0), which is known as the
potential of the extracellular fluid. But as the microelectrode passes through the voltage change area at the cell
membrane, the potential decreases abruptly to -90mV and remains steady at the center1.
Actually, to create a negative potential inside the membrane, only enough positive ions to develop the electrical
dipole layer at the membrane itself must be transported outward. An incredibly small number of ions must be
transferred through the membrane to establish the normal “resting membrane potential” of -90mV inside the nerve
fiber, and thus only about 1/3,000,000 to 1/100,000,000 of the total positive charges inside the fiber must be
transferred.
It is said that so long as the membrane of the nerve fiber remains completely undisturbed , the membrane potential
remains at -90mV (approx),which is called the resting potential. However, any factor that suddenly increases the
permeability of the membrane to sodium is likely to bring a sequence of rapid changes in membrane potential lasting
a minute fraction of a second ,followed immediately thereafter by return of the membrane potential to its resting
value . This sequence of potential changes is called the action potential. The stimulation may be electrical,
chemical, mechanical ,temperature or any factor that disturbs the normal resting state of a membrane temporarily.
Unit II Skeletal and Respiratory System
1. What are the compositions of bone material?
Bone itself consists mainly of collagen fibres and an inorganic bone mineral in the form of small crystals. In
vivo bone (living bone in the body) contains between 10% and 20% water. Of its dry mass, approximately 60-70% is
bone mineral. Most of the rest is collagen, but bone also contains a small amount of other substances such as
proteins and inorganic salts. The composition of bone mineral is much more complex and contains additional ions
such as silicon, carbonate and zinc.
Collagen is the main fibrous protein in the body. It has a triple helical structure, and specific points along the
collagen fibres serve as nucleation sites for the bone mineral crystals
2. Differentiate between granulocyte and a granulocyte?
There are several different types of white blood cells. They all have many things in common, but are all distinct in
form and function. A major distinguishing feature of some leukocytes is the presence of granules ; white blood cells
are often characterized as granulocytes or agranulocytes
 Granulocytes (polymorphonuclear leukocytes): leukocytes characterised by the presence of differently

staining granules in their cytoplasm when viewed under light microscopy. These granules are membrane-
bound enzymes that act primarily in the digestion of endocytosed particles. There are three types of
granulocytes: neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils, which are named according to their staining properties.
 Agranulocytes (mononuclear leukocytes): leukocytes characterized by the apparent absence of granules in
their cytoplasm. Although the name implies a lack of granules these cells do contain non-
specific azurophilic granules, which are lysosomes.The cells include lymphocytes, monocytes,
and macrophages.
3. Define oxygen dissociation curve?( Nov 2011)
oxygen dissociation curve The S-shaped curve produced when the percentage saturation of haemoglobin with
oxygen (i.e. the percentage of binding sites of haemoglobin that are occupied by oxygen molecules) is plotted
against the partial pressure of oxygen (pO2), which is a measure of the oxygen concentration in the surrounding
medium. The steep rise of the curve indicates the high affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen: a small increase
in pO2 results in a relatively sharp increase in the percentage saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen. Therefore in
the lungs, where the pO2 is high, the blood is rapidly saturated with oxygen. Conversely, a small drop in pO2 results
in a large drop in percentage saturation of haemoglobin. Thus in tissues that utilize oxygen at a high rate, where
the pO2 is low, oxygen readily dissociates from haemoglobin and is released for use by the tissues
4. Briefly explain pulmonary ventilation?( May 2009)
pulmonary ventilation,which means the inflow and outflow of air between the atmosphere and the lung alveoli The
lungs can be expanded and contracted in two ways: (1) by downward and
upward movement of the diaphragm to lengthen or shorten the chest cavity,and (2) by elevation and depression of
the ribs to increase and decrease the anteroposterior diameter of the chest cavity. Normal quiet breathing is
accomplished almost entirely by the first method, that is, by movement of the diaphragm. During inspiration,
contraction of the diaphragm pulls the lower surfaces of the lungs downward. Then, during expiration, the
diaphragm simply relaxes, and the elastic recoil of the lungs, chest wall, and abdominal structures compresses the
lungs and expels the air
5. What is the extent of Trachea? (May 2009)
The trachea is a tube which is reinforced by cartilaginous rings that maintains it shape. The air passes down the
trachea to the bronchi Air moves into the Bronchi. The bronchi branch left and right, transporting air to the left and
right lungs. At this time air now is entering the lungs. The right lung consists of three lobes while the left lung only
has two lobes and is smaller then the right. This is because of the location of the heart. The lungs are covered by a
pleural membrane which is responsible for reducing frictions as the lungs expand. The outer layer of the pleural
membrane is attached to the inner rib cage, while the inner layer is covering the lungs.
6. Write short notes on internal respiration? (nov 2008)

Internal respiration, gas exchanges take place between the blood and the body cells, with oxygen leaving the blood
and entering the cells at the same time that carbon dioxide leaves the cells and enters the blood.
7. How the skeletal system is divided in the human body? (Nov 2008)
There are 206 named bones in the human skeleton, and they can be divided between two major
regions of the skeleton: the axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage;
the appendicular skeleton consists of the arms, pectoral girdles, legs, and pelvic girdle.
8. What are the functions of skeleton? (Nov 2007)
1. Support: it forms the internal framework that supports and anchors all soft organs.
2. Protection: bones protect soft body organs.
3. Movement: skeletal muscles attached to the skeletal system use the bone to levers to move the body and its part.
4. Storage: fat is stored in the internal cavities of bones. Bone it self-serves as a storehouse of minerals. The most
important being calcium and phosphors.
5. Blood cell formation: it occurs with in the marrow cavities of certain bones.
9. What are the movement of joints (may 2007)
• Abduction: this is the movement of a bone away from the midline.

• Adduction: this is the movement of bone toward the midline.
• Circumduction: this is the movement of the distal end of a body part in a circle
• Rotation: a bone revolves around its own longitudinal axis. Pivot and ball-and-socket joints permit
rotation. Medial (internal) rotation and lateral (external) rotation.
• Special movements: elevation, depression, protraction, retraction, inversion, eversion, dorsiflexion,
plantar flexion, supination, pronation, opposition
10. What is the function of pulmonary alveoli? (Nov 2013)
Pulmonary alveoli – tiny sacs (air sacs) delineated by a single-layer membrane with blood capillaries at the
other end. The exchange of gases takes place through the membrane of the pulmonary alveolus, which
always contains air: oxygen (O2) is absorbed from the air into the blood capillaries and the action of the
heart circulates it through all the tissues in the body. At the same time, carbon dioxide (CO2) is transmitted
from the blood capillaries into the alveoli and then expelled through the bronchi and the upper respiratory
tract. The inner surface of the lungs where the exchange of gases takes place is very large, due to the
structure of the air sacs of the alveoli.
1. Describe in detail about the structure of lung and exchange of gases in alveolus. (Nov 2013)
The Lungs
The lungs are the organs in which external respiration takes place through the extremely thin and delicate lung
tissues. The two lungs, set side by side in the thoracic cavity, are constructed in the following manner: Each
bronchus enters the lung at the hilus and immediately subdivides. Because the subdivision of the bronchi resembles
the branches of a tree, they have been given the common name bronchial tree. The bronchi subdivide again and
again, forming progressively smaller divisions, the smallest of which
are called bronchioles. The bronchi contain small bits of cartilage, which give firmness to the walls and serve to hold
the passageways open so that air can pass in and out easily. However, as the bronchi become smaller, the cartilage
decreases in amount. In the bronchioles there is no cartilage at all; what remains is mostly smoothly muscle, which
is under the control of the autonomic nervous system.
At the end of each of the smallest subdivisions of the bronchial tree, called terminal bronchioles, is a cluster of air
sacs, resembling a bunch of grapes. These sacs are known as alveoli. Each alveolus is a single-cell layer of
squamous (flat) epithelium. This very thin wall provides easy passage for the gases entering and leaving the blood as
it circulates through millions of tiny capillaries of the alveoli. Certain cells in the alveolar wall produce surfactant, a
substance that prevents the alveoli from collapsing by reducing the surface tension (“pull”) of the fluids that line
them. There are millions of alveoli in the human lung. Because of the many air spaces, the lung is light in weight;
normally a piece of lung tissue
dropped into a glass of water will float. The pulmonary circuit brings blood to and from the lungs. In the lungs bl9od
passes through the capillaries around the alveoli, where the gas exchange takes place
The Lung Cavities
The lungs occupy a considerable portion of the thorax cavity, which is separated from the abdominal cavity by the
muscular partition known as the diaphragm. Each lung is enveloped in a double sac of serous membrane called the
pleura. The portion of the pleura that is attached to the chest wall is called parietal pleura, while the portion that is
reflected onto the surface of the lung is called visceral pleura. The pleural cavity around the lungs is an air-tight
space with a partial vacuum, which causes the pressure in this space to be less than atmospheric pressure. Because
the pressure inside the lungs is higher than that in the surrounding pleural cavity, the lungs tend to remain inflated.
The entire thoracic cavity is flexible, capable of expanding and contracting along with the lungs. The region between
the lungs, the mediastinum, contains the heart, great blood vessels, esophagus, trachea, and lymph nodes
Exchange of gases in alveolus

Both oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported around the body in the blood – through arteries, veins
andcapillaries. They bind to haemoglobin in red blood cells although this is more effective with oxygen. Carbon
dioxide also dissolves in the plasma or combines with water to form bicarbonate ions (HCO−3). This reaction is
catalysed by the carbonic anhydrase enzyme in red blood cells:[4]
The main respiratory surface in humans are the alveoli.[5] Alveoli are small air sacs branching off from
thebronchioles in the lungs. They are one-cell thick and provide a moist and extremely large surface area for gas
exchange to occur. Capillaries carrying deoxygenated blood from the pulmonary artery run across the alveoli - they
are also extremely thin so the total distance gases must diffuse across is only around 2-cells thick. An adult male has
about 300 million alveoli which range in size from 75 to 300 microns in diameter.
Inhaled oxygen is able to diffuse into the capillaries from the alveoli, while carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses
in the opposite direction into the alveoli. The waste carbon dioxide can then be exhaled out of the body. Continuous
blood flow in the capillaries as well as constant breathing maintains a steep concentration gradient
2. Discuss various types of joints. (Nov 2007)
Joints:
1. Fibrous joints, united by fibrous connective tissue; have no joint cavities
- may be rigid to slightly movable; 3 types
A) sutures – found only in skull; interlocking; immovable; synarthrotic joints
B) syndesmoses – joint held by collagenous fibers or interosseous ligaments; permits only slight
movement; amphiarthrotic joints
C) Gomphoses – occur between teeth and the supporting bones of the jaws; where root of tooth is attached
to
periodontal ligament of tooth socket; synarthrotic joint
2.Cartilaginous joints – bone ends are joined by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage; limited motion, amphiarthrotic;
two types
A) symphyses – bones separated by pad of fibrocartilage; allows slight movement
EX: Symphysis pubis and intervertebral discs
B) Synchondroses – cartilaginous joints that have hyaline cartilage between bones

EX: Immature long bone where an epiphysis is connected to a diaphysis by a band of hyaline
cartilage (the epiphyseal disk); movement no longer occurs in adult; synarthrotic
3. Synovial joints - Joint cavities –; allow free movement – diarthrotic; those in which articulating bone ends are
separated
by a joint cavity containing synovial fluid; all have 4 distinguishing features
1) articular cartilage – covers ends of bones
2) fibrous articular capsule – joint surfaces are enclosed by a sleeve or capsule of fibrous connective tissue
and the
capsule is lined with a smooth synovial membrane which secretes fluid
3) joint cavity – articular capsule encloses a cavity which contains lubricating synovial fluid (Greek = egg
white)
4) Reinforcing ligaments – fibrous capsule is usually reinforced with ligaments located within the joint
cavity or on outside of capsule
-bursae - fluid-filled synovial membrane sacs - often found cushioning tendons where they cross
bone
-menisci – tough, fibrous pads located within capsule of some joints; cushion & guide articulating
bones
Synovial joints provide a wide range of motion which may be determined by three factors
• The structure of the bones involved in the articulation (processes may limit motion)
• The strength and tautness of ligaments, tendons, and joint capsule
• The size, arrangement, and action of muscles spanning joints
• Double-jointed?? no extra joints; many are able to stretch ligaments surrounding joints
Six types of Synovial Joints

1. Plane joints (Gliding)- articulating surfaces are nearly flat or slightly curved
-allows only sliding or back-and-forth motion
-includes joints within the wrist and ankle, and those between articular processes of adjacent vertebrae
2. Pivot joints -cylindrical surface of one bone rotates within a ring formed of bone and fibrous tissue
- motion limited to rotation around central axis
- includes joint between proximal ends of radius and ulna, and in neck as atlas rotates around odontoid
process of axis
3. Hinge joint - convex surface on one bone fits into concave surface of another
-resembles hinge of door; permits movement in one plane only
-includes elbow and joints of phalanges
4. Condyloid joint - ovoid condyle of one bone fits into the elliptical cavity of another bone
-permits variety of movement in different planes; no rotational
- includes joints between metacarpals and phalanges
5. Saddle joint - formed between bones whose articulating surfaces have both concave and convex regions
-surface of one bone fits the complementary surface of the other
-permits variety of movement
-includes joint between carpal and metacarpal of thumb
6.Ball and socket joint - consists of bone with globular head that articulates with the cup- shaped cavity of another
-allows for wider range of motion than any other kind of joint
-movements in all planes; includes rotation around central axis
-includes joints of hip and shoulder
Synovial Joints: Knee

- Largest and most complex joint of the body
- Allows flexion, extension and some rotation
- Three joints in one surrounded by a single joint cavity
- Femoropatellar joint
- Lateral and medial tibiofemoral joints
- Knee Ligaments and Tendons

- Anterior: - Posterior:
- Tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle - Adductor magnus tendon
- Lateral and medial patellar retinacula - Articular capsule
- Fibular and Tibial collateral ligaments - Oblique popliteal ligament
- Patellar ligament
- Arcuate popliteal ligament
3. Describe the anatomy of Lungs. (May 2008) - Semimembranosus tendon
Anatomy of the Lungs
Pleura
The pleura are double-layered serous membranes that surround each lung. Attached to the wall of the thoracic
cavity, the parietal pleura forms the outer layer of the membrane. The visceral pleura forms the inner layer of the
membrane covering the outside surface of the lungs.
Between the parietal and visceral pleura is the pleural cavity, which creates a hollow space for the lungs to expand
into during inhalation. Serous fluid secreted by the pleural membranes lubricates the inside of the pleural cavity to
prevent irritation to the lungs during breathing.
External Anatomy
Occupying most of the space within the thoracic cavity, the lungs extend laterally from the heart to the ribs on both
sides of the chest and continue posteriorly toward thespine. Each soft, spongy lung is roughly cone-shaped with the
superior end of the lung forming the point of the cone and the inferior end forming the base. The superior end of the
lungs narrows to a rounded tip known as the apex. The inferior end of the lungs, known as the base, rests on the
dome-shaped diaphragm. The base of the lungs is concave to follow the contour of the diaphragm.
The left lung is slightly smaller than the right lung because 2/3 of the heart is located on the left side of the body.
The left lung contains the cardiac notch, an indentation in the lung that surrounds the apex of the heart.
Each lung consists of several distinct lobes. The right lung (the larger of the two) has 3 lobes – the superior, middle,
and inferior lobes. The horizontal fissure separates the superior lobe from the middle lobe, while the right oblique
fissure separates the middle and inferior lobes. The smaller left lung only has 2 lobes – superior and inferior –
separated by the left oblique fissure.
Air enters the body through the nose or mouth and passes through the pharynx,larynx, and trachea. Just before
reaching the lungs, the trachea then splits into the left and right bronchi – large, hollow tubes made of hyaline
cartilage and lined with ciliated pseudostratified epithelium. The hyaline cartilage of the bronchi forms incomplete
rings shaped like the letter “C” with the open part of the ring facing toward the posterior end of the bronchi. The
rigid hyaline cartilage prevents the bronchi from collapsing and blocking airflow to the lungs. Pseudostratified
epithelium lines the inside of the hyaline ring and connects the unfinished ends of the ring to form a hollow tube
shaped like the letter “D” with the flat part of the tube facing the posterior direction. Each lung receives air from a
single, large primary bronchus.
As the primary bronchi enter the lungs, they branch off into smaller secondary bronchi that carry air to each lobe of
the lung. Thus, the right bronchus branches off into 3 secondary bronchi while the left lung branches off into 2
secondary bronchi. The secondary bronchi further branch into many smaller tertiary bronchi within each lobe. The
secondary and tertiary bronchi improve the efficiency of the lungs by distributing air evenly within each lobe of the
lungs.
The pseudostratified epithelium that lines the bronchi contains many cilia and goblet cells. Cilia are small hair-like
cellular projections that extend from the surface of the cells. Goblet cells are specialized epithelial cells that secrete
mucus to coat the lining of the bronchi. Cilia move together to push mucus secreted by the goblet cells away from
the lungs. Particles of dust and even pathogens like viruses, bacteria and fungi in the air entering the lungs stick to
the mucus and are carried out of the respiratory tract. In this way mucus helps to keep the lungs clean and free of
disease.
Bronchioles
Many small bronchioles branch off from the tertiary bronchi. Bronchioles differ from bronchi both in size (they are
smaller) and in the composition of their walls. While bronchi have hyaline cartilage rings in their walls, bronchioles
are made of elastin fibers and smooth muscle tissue. The tissue of the bronchiole walls allows the diameter of
bronchioles to change to a significant degree. When the body requires greater volumes of air entering the lungs, such
as during exercise, the bronchioles dilate to permit greater airflow. In response to dust or other environmental
pollutants, the bronchioles can constrict to prevent the pollution of the lungs.
The bronchioles further branch off into many tiny terminal bronchioles. Terminal bronchioles are the smallest air
tubes in the lungs and terminate at the alveoli of the lungs. Like bronchioles, the terminal bronchioles are elastic,
capable of dilating or contracting to control airflow into the alveoli.
Alveoli
Alveoli are the functional units of the lungs that permit gas exchange between the air in the lungs and the blood in
the capillaries of the lungs. Alveoli are found in small clusters called alveolar sacs at the end of the terminal
bronchiole. Each alveolus is a hollow, cup-shaped cavity surrounded by many tiny capillaries.
The walls of the alveolus are lined with simple squamous epithelial cells known as alveolar cells. A thin layer of
connective tissue underlies and supports the alveolar cells. Capillaries surround the connective tissue on the outer
border of the alveolus. The respiratory membrane is formed where the walls of a capillary touch the walls of an
alveolus. At the respiratory membrane, gas exchange occurs freely between the air and blood through the extremely
thin walls of the alveolus and capillary. Septal cells and macrophages are also found inside the alveoli. Septal cells
produce alveolar fluid that coats the inner surface of the alveoli.
Alveolar fluid is extremely important to lung function, as it is a surfactant that moistens the alveoli, helps maintain
the elasticity of the lungs, and prevents the thin alveolar walls from collapsing. Macrophages in the alveoli keep the
lungs clean and free of infections by capturing and phagocytizing pathogens and other foreign matter that enter the
alveoli along with inhaled air.
4. What are the types of synovial joint Present in human body. (May 2008)
Synovial joint, also known as diarthrosis, is the most common and most movable type of joint in the body of a
human. As with most other joints, synovial joints achieve movement at the point of contact of the articulating bones.
Types of Synovial Joints
Synovial joints are the most common type of joints in your body. They're the joints that allow you to perform the
most movements, like bending your knees, running, whirling your arms about you. The entire joint is located in a
capsule and this capsule is positioned along with the synovial membrane and contains synovial fluid, which greases
the joints and makes movement possible and painless.
Types of Synovial Joints
Whenever anyone mentions your joints, you probably think about one of your synovial joints. Below are the six
types of synovial joints, briefly explained:
1. Gliding Joints
Gliding joints, otherwise known as plane joints are, as their name suggests, when two plates move against one
another. Examples of gliding joints include the joints in your wrists and ankles. One example of this joins
functioning is when you wave your hand side to side?you're moving your wrist left and right. Your gliding joint
makes this possible.
2. Hinge Joints
Hinge joints are just like door hinges?they open and close. One example of your hinge joints is your elbow. Think of
your biceps and triceps as two people standing at opposite ends of a wall (your upper arm bone). Both are reaching
out to the door (your lower arm bones). The biceps close the door through contraction, while the triceps through
pulling, open the door.
3. Ball-and-Socket Joints
Ball and socket joints are the most "moveable" joints. Two examples are the joints in your shoulders and your hip.
These joints allow you to move forward and backwards and also allow you to move in circular rotation.
4. Condyloid Joints
Condyloid joints are a bit like ball-and-socket joints, but without a socket. The ball in the condyloid joints instead
just rests on another bone.
5. Saddle Joints
Saddle joints allow you to make several types of movements. Saddle joints can allow you to move your thumb
toward and away from your finger and it can also stretch to touch your pinky finger.
6. Pivot Joints
Your pivot joints make it possible for you to move around an axis. One example is how you are able to move your
head from one side to the other?there's a pivot joint at the top of your spine that allows this movement
Functions of Synovial Joints
1. Blood Supply
The arteries give off epiphyseal and articular blanches to form a peri-articular arterial plexus. Countless blood
vessels form the plexus thread through the fibrous capsule to form a rich vascular plexus within the deeper section of
the synovial membrane. The vessels of synovial membrane finally stop at the articular margins and around the
circulus vasculosus which supplies the epiphyses, capsule and synovial membrane.
2. Lymphatic Drainage
The subintima of synovial membrane and a plexus are formed from lymphatics which drain along the vessels to the
deeper regional nodes.
3. Stability Maintenance
Below is a list of factors that help maintain the stability at your synovial joints, listen in order of importance:
 Muscles are probably one of the most important factors that helps keep your joints working properly and
safe. Without your muscles for support, the joints in your knees and shoulders would have been unbalanced?to
name just one example of their importance.
 Ligaments are imperative in the role of preventing extensive movement and avoiding extra joint stress than
can lead to injury. On the other hand, they don't guard against continuous stress since they may not be able to
return to their original position after being stretched out for too long. In these instances, elastic ligaments are
more useful as they work like elastic bands and stretch then contract again.
 Bones help maintain the stability of certain types of joints, like your hip and ankle joints.
Movements of Synovial Joints
 Abduction. This is when you move away from the mid-line of your body.
 Adduction. This is when you move towards the mid-line of your body.
 Extension. This is when you straighten your limbs at a joint.
 Flexion. This is when you bend your limbs around a joint.
 Rotation. This is when you make any circular movement in one place.
 Circumduction. This is when you perform any combination of abduction, adduction, extension and
flexion.
5. Explain the acid base balance in respiratory system. ((Nov 2011)
Acid-Base Balance
Acid-base balance is maintained by chemical buffering and pulmonary.
Chemical buffering:
Chemical buffers are solutions that resist changes in pH. Intracellular and extracellular buffers provide an immediate
response to acid-base disturbances. Bone also plays an important buffering role, especially of acid loads. A buffer is
made up of a weak acid and its conjugate base. The conjugate base can accept H + and the weak acid can relinquish
it, thereby minimizing changes in free H + concentration. A buffer system works best to minimize changes in pH near
its equilibrium constant (pKa); so, although there are potentially many buffer pairs in the body, only some are
physiologically relevant. The relationship between the pH of a buffer system and the concentration of its
components is described by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
where pKa is the dissociation constant of the weak acid
The most important extracellular buffer is the HCO3−/CO2 system, described by the equation:
An increase in H+ drives the equation to the right and generates CO2. This important buffer system is highly
regulated; CO2 concentrations can be finely controlled by alveolar ventilation, and H + and HCO3− concentrations can
be finely regulated by renal excretion.
The relationship between pH, HCO3−, and CO2 in the system as described by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is
thus:
Or similarly, by the Kassirer-Bleich equation, derived from the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
Note: to convert arterial pH to [H+] use: 10
or
Both equations illustrate that acid-base balance depends on the ratio of P CO2and HCO3−, not on the absolute value of
either one alone. With these formulas, any 2 variables can be used to calculate the third.
Other important physiologic buffers include intracellular organic and inorganic phosphates and proteins, including
Hb in RBCs. Less important are extracellular phosphate and plasma proteins. Bone becomes an important buffer
after consumption of an acid load. Bone initially releases sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3) and calcium bicarbonate
(Ca(HCO3)2) in exchange for H+. With prolonged acid loads, bone releases calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) and calcium
phosphate (CaPO4). Long-standing acidemia therefore contributes to bone demineralization and osteoporosis.
Pulmonary regulation:
CO2 concentration is finely regulated by changes in tidal volume and respiratory rate (minute ventilation). A
decrease in pH is sensed by arterial chemoreceptors and leads to increases in tidal volume or respiratory rate; CO 2 is
exhaled and blood pH increases. In contrast to chemical buffering, which is immediate, pulmonary regulation occurs
over minutes to hours. It is about 50 to 75% effective and does not completely normalize pH.
Acid–base imbalance occurs when a significant insult causes the blood pH to shift out of the normal range (7.35 to
7.45). An excess of acid in the blood is called acidemia and an excess of base is called alkalemia. The process that
causes the imbalance is classified based on the etiology of the disturbance (respiratory or metabolic) and the
direction of change in pH (acidosis or alkalosis). There are four basic processes: metabolic acidosis, respiratory
acidosis, metabolic alkalosis, and respiratory alkalosis. One or a combination may occur at any given time.
Blood carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ions (H+) between tissues and the lungs. The majority of
CO2 transported in the blood is dissolved in plasma (primarily as dissolved bicarbonate; 60%). A smaller fraction is
transported in red blood cells combined with the globin portion of hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin. This is the
chemical portion of the red blood cell that aids in the transport of oxygen and nutrients around the body, but, this
time, it is carbon dioxide that is transported back to the lung.
Acid–base imbalances that overcome the buffer system can be compensated in the short term by changing the rate of
ventilation. This alters the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood, shifting the above reaction according to Le
Chatelier's principle, which in turn alters the pH. The basic reaction governed by this principle is as follows:
H2O + CO2 <--> H2CO3 <--> H+ + CO3-
When blood pH drops too low (acidemia), the body compensates by increasing breathing thereby expelling CO2,
shifting the above reaction to the left such that less hydrogen ions are free; thus the pH will rise back to normal. For
alkalemia, the opposite occurs
Unit III Circulatory System
1. Define heart sounds. (Nov 2008)
Heart sounds are the noises generated by the beating heart and the resultant flow of blood through it. Specifically,
the sounds reflect the turbulence created when the heart valves snap shut. In cardiac auscultation, an examiner may
use astethoscope to listen for these unique and distinct sounds that provide important auditory data regarding the
condition of the heart.In healthy adults, there are two normal heart sounds often described as a lub and
a dub (or dup), that occur in sequence with each heartbeat. These are the first heart sound (S1) and second heart
sound (S2), produced by the closing of the AV valves and semilunar valves, respectively.
2. What are the compositions of blood. (May 2009)
Blood contains a nonliving fluid matrix (plasma) in which living cells (formed elements) are suspended. Blood
contains 55% plasma and 45% formed elements.
 Plasma is over 90% water. It also contains electrolytes (salts), plasma proteins, and substances transported
by blood (i.e. nutrients, hormones, etc.).
 The three types of formed elements are erythrocytes (RBCs), leukocytes (WBCs), and platelets.
3. Define ECG and its significance. (Nov2011)
An electrocardiogram (e-lek-tro-KAR-de-o-gram), also called an EKG or ECG, is a simple, painless test that records
the heart's electrical activity. To understand this test, it helps to understand how the heart works. With each heartbeat,
an electrical signal spreads from the top of the heart to the bottom. As it travels, the signal causes the heart to
contract and pump blood. The process repeats with each new heartbeat.The heart's electrical signals set the rhythm
of the heartbeat
An EKG shows:
 How fast your heart is beating

 Whether the rhythm of your heartbeat is steady or irregular
 The strength and timing of electrical signals as they pass through each part of your heart
4. Define systole and diastole. (Nov2010)
Systolic: The blood pressure when the heart is contracting. It is specifically the maximum arterial pressure during
contraction of the left ventricle of the heart. The time at which ventricular contraction occurs is called systole. In a
blood pressure reading, the systolic pressure is typically the first number recorded. For example, with a blood
pressure of 120/80 ("120 over 80"), the systolic pressure is 120. By "120" is meant 120 mm Hg (millimeters of
mercury). A systolic murmur is a heart murmur heard during systole, the time the heart contracts, between the
normal first and second heart sounds.
.Diastolic: Referring to the time when the heart is in a period of relaxation and dilatation (expansion).The diastolic
pressure is specifically the minimum arterial pressure during relaxation and dilatation of the ventricles of the heart
when the ventricles fill with blood. In a blood pressure reading, the diastolic pressure is typically the second number
recorded. For example, with a blood pressure of 120/80 ("120 over 80"), the diastolic pressure is 80. By "80" is
meant 80 mm Hg (millimeters of mercury). A diastolic murmur is a heart murmur heard during diastole, the time the
heart relaxes.
5. List the events involved in cardiac cycle. (Nov 2010)
The cardiac cycle refers to a complete heartbeat from its generation to the beginning of the next beat, and so
includes the diastole, the systole and the intervening pause. The frequency of the cardiac cycle is described by
the heart rate, which is typically expressed as beats per minute. Each beat of the heart involves five major stages.
The first two stages, often considered together as the "ventricular filling" stage, involve the movement of blood from
the atria into the ventricles. The next three stages involve the movement of blood from the ventricles to
the pulmonary artery (in the case of the right ventricle) and the aorta (in the case of the left ventricle)
6. Write a short note on cardiac muscle. (Nov 2012)
Cardiac muscle (heart muscle) is involuntary striated muscle that is found in the walls and histological foundation
of the heart, specifically the myocardium. Cardiac muscle is one of three major types of muscle, the others
being skeletal and smooth muscle. These three types of muscle all form in the process of myogenesis. The cells that
constitute cardiac muscle, called cardiomyocytesor myocardiocytes, contain only three nuclei. The myocardium is
the muscle tissue of the heart, and forms a thick middle layer between the outer epicardium layer and the
inner endocardium layer.
7. Brief about pacemaker potential (Nov 2012)
pacemaker potential (also called the pacemaker current) is the slow, positive increase in voltage across the cell's
membrane (the membrane potential) that occurs between the end of one action potential and the beginning of the
next action potential. This increase in membrane potential is what causes the cell membrane, which typically
maintains a resting membrane potential of -70 mV,[1] to reach the threshold potential and consequently fire the next
action potential; thus, the pacemaker potential is what drives the self-generated rhythmic firing (automaticity) of
pacemaker cells, and the rate of change (i.e., the slope) of the pacemaker potential is what determines the timing of
the next action potential and thus the intrinsic firing rate of the cell. In a healthy sinoatrial node (SAN, a complex
tissue within the right atrium containing pacemaker cells that normally determine the intrinsic firing rate for the
entire heart), the pacemaker potential is the main determinant of the heart rate. Because the pacemaker potential
represents the non-contracting time between heart beats (diastole), it is also called the diastolic depolarization. The
amount of net inward current required to move the cell membrane potential during the pacemaker phase is extremely
small, in the order of few pAs, but this net flux arises from time to time changing contribution of several currents
that flow with different voltage and time dependence.
8. Write a note on blood group antigen (Nov2013)
The antigens which determine blood types belong to glycoproteins and glycolipids. There are three types of
blood-group antigens: O, A, and B. They differ only slightly in the composition of carbohydrates.
9. Classify the WBC. (Nov2013)
White blood cells, or leukocytes, are classified into two main groups: granulocytes and nongranulocytes (also
known as agranulocytes).
 The granulocytes, which include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils, have granules in their cell
cytoplasm. Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils also have a multilobed nucleus. As a result they are
also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes or "polys." The nuclei of neutrophils also appear to be
segmented, so they may also be called segmented neutrophils or "segs."
 The nongranuloctye white blood cells, lymphocytes and monocytes, do not have granules and have
nonlobular nuclei. They are sometimes referred to as mononuclear leukocytes.
10. What is the advantages of using pacemaker.(Nov 2013)
A pacemaker is a small device that's placed in the chest or abdomen to help control abnormal heart rhythms. This
device uses electrical pulses to prompt the heart to beat at a normal rate.Pacemakers are used to treat arrhythmias
(ah-RITH-me-ahs). Arrhythmias are problems with the rate or rhythm of the heartbeat. During an arrhythmia, the
heart can beat too fast, too slow, or with an irregular rhythm.A heartbeat that's too fast is called tachycardia (TAK-
ih-KAR-de-ah). A heartbeat that's too slow is called bradycardia (bray-de-KAR-de-ah).During an arrhythmia, the
heart may not be able to pump enough blood to the body. This can cause symptoms such as fatigue (tiredness),
shortness of breath, or fainting. Severe arrhythmias can damage the body's vital organs and may even cause loss of
consciousness or death.A pacemaker can relieve some arrhythmia symptoms, such as fatigue and fainting. A
pacemaker also can help a person who has abnormal heart rhythms resume a more active lifestyle.
1. Discuss in detail about the function of Blood (Nov 2011)
Blood is basically a type of a connective tissue which is found in the human body in fluid state. It is made
up of plasma which is a highly viscous liquid and 3 different types of blood cells that are floating around in
it. Almost 92% of the plasma is water while the rest consists of enzymes, hormones, antibodies, nutrients,
gases, salts, proteins and metabolites of various kinds. Besides plasma, the cellular constituents of blood are
red and white blood cells and platelets. What are the functions of blood? What about the functions for each
blood component?
Functions of Blood
1. Transportation
 Blood is the primary means of transport in the body that is responsible for transporting important
nutrients and materials to and from the cells and molecules that make up our body. It is the duty of blood
to first take the oxygen processed by the lungs to all the cells of the body and then to collect the carbon
dioxide from the cells and deliver it to the lungs.
 It is also tasked with the job of collecting metabolic waste from up and down the body and take it to
the kidneys for excretion.
 Blood also has to perform the task of delivering the nutrients and glucose generated by the organs of
the digestive system to the other parts of the body including the liver.
 In addition to these tasks, blood also has to carry out the transportation of hormones produced by the
glands of the endocrine system.
2. Protection
Blood performs the important task of protecting the body from the threat of infections and disease causing
bacteria. The white blood cells found in blood are responsible for safeguarding the different organs of the
body by producing antibodies and proteins which are capable of fighting off and killing the germs and
viruses that can causes serious damage to the body cells. The platelets present in blood handle the task of
limiting blood loss in the wake of an injury by helping the blood to clot quickly.
3. Regulation
Blood is also a regulator of many factors in the body. It oversees the temperature of the body and maintains
it to a level that is tolerated by the body with ease. Blood is also responsible for controlling the
concentration of Hydrogen ions in the body, which are also known as pH balance. The administration of the
levels of water and salt required by each cell of the body also falls under the regulation duties of blood.
Another regulatory task performed by blood is to control the blood pressure and restrict it under a normal
range.
2. Discuss briefly about event during cardiac cycle. (Nov 2012).
CARDIAC CYCLE
The cardiac cycle is a period from the beginning of one heart beat to the
beginning of the next one. It consists of two parts:
1. Ventricular contraction called systole.
2. Ventricular relaxation called diastole.
Each part of the cardiac cycle consists of several phases characterized by either
a strong pressure change with constant volume or a volume change with a relatively
small change in pressure.
Systole includes:
 1.Isovolumic contraction.
 2. Ejection.
Diastole includes:
 3. Isovolumic relaxation.
 4. Rapid ventricular filling.
 5. Slow ventricular filling (diastasis).
6. Atrial contraction.
The duration of the cardiac cycle is inversely proportional to the heart rate. The
cardiac cycle duration increases with a decrease in the heart rate and on the other
hand it shortens with increasing heart rate. At a normal heart rate of 75 beats per
minute, one cardiac cycle lasts 0.8 second. Under resting conditions, systole
occupies ⅓ and diastole ⅔ of the cardiac cycle duration. At an increasing heart rate
(e.g. during an intensive muscle work), the duration of diastole decreases much more
then the duration of systole.
In the following six chapters the individual phases of the cardiac cycle are
described. The description contains:
 Mechanical events in the heart (the contraction on pictures is represented by a
colour change of the myocardium).

 Pressure and volume changes in both the atria and the ventricles. The pressure
changes in the right atrium are seen in the recording of the venous pulse.
 Pressure changes in the arteries – arterial pulse.
 Electrical activity of the heart – electrocardiogram (ECG)
 Heart sounds or phonocardiogram.
3. Explain the structure of Heart.(Nov 2012).

STRUCTURE OF THE HEART
The human heart is a four-chambered muscular organ, shaped and sized roughly like a man's closed fist with two-
thirds of the mass to the left of midline.
The heart is enclosed in a pericardial sac that is lined with the parietal layers of a serous membrane. The visceral
layer of the serous membrane forms the epicardium.
Layers of the Heart Wall
Three layers of tissue form the heart wall. The outer layer of the heart wall is the epicardium, the middle layer is the
myocardium, and the inner layer is the endocardium.
Chambers of the Heart
The internal cavity of the heart is divided into four chambers:
 Right atrium
 Right ventricle
 Left atrium
 Left ventricle
The two atria are thin-walled chambers that receive blood from the veins. The two ventricles are thick-walled
chambers that forcefully pump blood out of the heart. Differences in thickness of the heart chamber walls are due to
variations in the amount of myocardium present, which reflects the amount of force each chamber is required to
generate.
The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from systemic veins; the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from
the pulmonary veins.
Valves of the Heart
Pumps need a set of valves to keep the fluid flowing in one direction and the heart is no exception. The heart has
two types of valves that keep the blood flowing in the correct direction. The valves between the atria and ventricles
are called atrioventricular valves (also called cuspid valves), while those at the bases of the large vessels leaving the
ventricles are called semilunar valves.
The right atrioventricular valve is the tricuspid valve. The left atrioventricular valve is the bicuspid, or mitral, valve.
The valve between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk is the pulmonary semilunar valve. The valve between the
left ventricle and the aorta is the aortic semilunar valve.
When the ventricles contract, atrioventricular valves close to prevent blood from flowing back into the atria. When
the ventricles relax, semilunar valves close to prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles.
Pathway of Blood through the Heart
While it is convenient to describe the flow of blood through the right side of the heart and then through the left side,
it is important to realize that both atria and ventricles contract at the same time. The heart works as two pumps, one
on the right and one on the left, working simultaneously. Blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle, and
then is pumped to the lungs to receive oxygen. From the lungs, the blood flows to the left atrium, then to the left
ventricle. From there it is pumped to the systemic circulation.
Blood Supply to the Myocardium
The myocardium of the heart wall is a working muscle that needs a continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients to
function efficiently. For this reason, cardiac muscle has an extensive network of blood vessels to bring oxygen to the
contracting cells and to remove waste products.
The right and left coronary arteries, branches of the ascending aorta, supply blood to the walls of the myocardium.
After blood passes through the capillaries in the myocardium, it enters a system of cardiac (coronary) veins. Most of
the cardiac veins drain into the coronary sinus, which opens into the right atrium.
4. Describe the functions of RBC and WBCs in detail. (Nov 2013)
FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS BLOOD CELLS
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
The main function of Red blood Cells (R B C) are to carry oxygen to all parts of the body and to bring carbon
dioxide to the lungs. The haemoglobin in the red blood cell is the carrier for oxygen and carbon dioxide. So, for the
transportation of oxygen and Carbon dioxide, adequate number of matured and functioning red blood cells must be
available. RBC must also contain appropriate amount of haemoglobin.
LEUKOCYTES (White Blood Cells)

Leukocytes (WBC) are chiefly responsible for fighting infection by identifying, engulfing, and destroying foreign
organisms . They are active in the immune response by producing antibodies to foreign organisms . There are 5
different types of WBCs . They are Granulocytes (polymorphonuclear leukocytes) or neutrophils, eosinophils,
basophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes.
Granulocytes (Neutrophils) are the main mediators of bacterial defence and inflammation.
Monocytes, the largest white blood cells, act as phagocytes for bacteria, viral material, and removal of cellular
debris or foreign materials from the blood.
Eosinophils - The main function of eosinophils appears to be to prevent the excessive spread of inflammation .
These cells also respond to allergic disorders and parasitic infections .
Basophils appear to be responsible for allergy symptoms.
Lymphocytes are the effectors of immune responses mediated both by antibodies and by cellular mechanisms.
Thrombocytes (Platelets)
Thrombocytes, also called platelets plays a key role in the haemostatic reactions that prevent bleeding after
minimal injury to blood vessels. Without an adequate number of functioning platelets, an individual would bleed
to death.
Plasma
Plasma, the fluid or liquid component of blood, is about 90% water. The remaining constituents of plasma include a
variety of substances either dissolved or suspended in this watery medium: proteins; minerals such as calcium,
potassium, and sodium; glucose; lipids; cholesterol; and waste products. Other components include antibodies,
enzymes, and hormones. The primary functions of plasma are to transport nutrients and
other necessarychemicals to all body cells and to bring waste products to the body systems and organs that serve as
waste disposal centers.
5. How will you identify the blood group? Explain their advantages in medical science.(Nov 2013)
Blood groups
Your blood group is identified by antigens and antibodies present in the blood. Antigens and antibodies are your
blood's natural defences against foreign substances.
Antigens are protein molecules found on the surface of red blood cells. Antibodies are found in plasma. Antibodies
recognise anything foreign in your body and alert your immune system so that it can destroy it.
The ABO system
Blood groups are defined by the ABO system.

 blood group A has A antigens on the red blood cells with anti-B antibodies in the plasma
 blood group B has B antigens with anti-A antibodies in the plasma
 blood group O has no antigens but both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma
 blood group AB has both A and B antigens but no antibodies

Group O is the most common blood group in the UK, with 44% of the population having group O blood (37% O+
and 7% O-).
Receiving blood from the wrong ABO group could be life threatening because antibodies in a person with group A
blood will attack group B antigens and vice versa. This will cause a severe reaction in the person receiving the
blood.
As group O red blood cells do not have any A or B antigens, it can safely be given to any other group.
The NHS Blood and Transplant website has moreinformation about the different blood groups.
The Rh system
Red blood cells sometimes have another antigen, a protein known as the RhD antigen. If this is present, your blood
group is RhD positive. If it is absent, your blood group is RhD negative. This means that you can be one of eight
blood groups:
 A RhD positive (A+)
 A RhD negative (A-)
 B RhD positive (B+)
 B RhD negative (B-)
 O RhD positive (O+)
 O RhD negative (O-)
 AB RhD positive (AB+)
 AB RhD negative (AB-)
About 85% of the UK population is RhD positive.

In most cases, O RhD negative blood can safely be given to anyone. However, this depends on specific antibodies
and antigens being present in the blood.
Read more about what blood is used for.
Blood group test
To work out your blood group, your red cells are mixed with different antibody solutions. If, for example, the
solution contains anti-B antibodies and you have B antigens on your cells, it will clump together.
If the blood does not react to any of the anti-A or anti-B antibodies, it is blood group O. A series of tests with
different types of antibody can be used to identify your blood group, including groups other than the main ABO and
RhD groups.
If you have a blood transfusion (where blood is taken from one person and given to another), your blood will be
tested against a panel of donor cells that contain all of the clinically significant antigens. If there is no reaction,
donor blood with the same ABO and RhD type can be used.
Blood transfusion
Transfusion medicine is a specialized branch of hematology that is concerned with the study of blood groups, along
with the work of a blood bank to provide a transfusion service for blood and other blood products. Across the world,
blood products must be prescribed by a medical doctor (licensed physician or surgeon) in a similar way as
medicines.
Much of the routine work of a blood bank involves testing blood from both donors and recipients to ensure that
every individual recipient is given blood that is compatible and is as safe as possible. If a unit of incompatible blood
is transfused between a donor and recipient, a severe acute hemolytic reaction with hemolysis (RBC
destruction), renal failure and shock is likely to occur, and death is a possibility. Antibodies can be highly active and
can attack RBCs and bind components of the complement system to cause massive hemolysis of the transfused
blood.
Patients should ideally receive their own blood or type-specific blood products to minimize the chance of
a transfusion reaction. Risks can be further reduced by cross-matching blood, but this may be skipped when blood is
required for an emergency. Cross-matching involves mixing a sample of the recipient's serum with a sample of the
donor's red blood cells and checking if the mixture agglutinates, or forms clumps. If agglutination is not obvious by
direct vision, blood bank technicians usually check for agglutination with a microscope. If agglutination occurs, that
particular donor's blood cannot be transfused to that particular recipient. In a blood bank it is vital that all blood
specimens are correctly identified, so labelling has been standardized using a barcode system known as ISBT 128.
The blood group may be included on identification tags or on tattoos worn by military personnel, in case they should
need an emergency blood transfusion. Frontline German Waffen-SS had blood group tattoos during World War II.
Rare blood types can cause supply problems for blood banks and hospitals. For example, Duffy-negative blood
occurs much more frequently in people of African origin,[20] and the rarity of this blood type in the rest of the
population can result in a shortage of Duffy-negative blood for these patients. Similarly for RhD negative people,
there is a risk associated with travelling to parts of the world where supplies of RhD negative blood are rare,
particularly East Asia, where blood services may endeavor to encourage Westerners to donate blood.[21]
Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)
A pregnant woman can make IgG blood group antibodies if her fetus has a blood group antigen that she does not
have. This can happen if some of the fetus' blood cells pass into the mother's blood circulation (e.g. a small
fetomaternal hemorrhage at the time of childbirth or obstetric intervention), or sometimes after a therapeutic blood
transfusion. This can cause Rh disease or other forms of hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) in the current
pregnancy and/or subsequent pregnancies. If a pregnant woman is known to have anti-D antibodies, the Rh blood
type of a fetus can be tested by analysis of fetal DNA in maternal plasma to assess the risk to the fetus of Rh disease.
[22]
One of the major advances of twentieth century medicine was to prevent this disease by stopping the formation of
Anti-D antibodies by D negative mothers with an injectable medication calledRho(D) immune globulin.[23]
[24]
Antibodies associated with some blood groups can cause severe HDN, others can only cause mild HDN and
others are not known to cause HDN.[3]
Unit IV Urinary and Special Sensory System

1. What are Nephrons? (Nov 2011)
The Nephron
The nephron (right) is a tube; closed at one end, open at the other. It consists of a:
 Bowman's capsule. Located at the closed end, the wall of the nephron is pushed in forming a double-
walled chamber.
 Glomerulus. A capillary network within the Bowman's capsule. Blood leaving the glomerulus passes into
a second capillary network surrounding the
 Proximal convoluted tubule. Coiled and lined with cells carpeted with microvilli and stuffed with
mitochondria.
 Loop of Henle. It makes a hairpin turn and returns to the
 Distal convoluted tubule, which is also highly coiled and surrounded by capillaries.
 Collecting duct. It leads to the pelvis of the kidney from where urine flows to the bladder and,
periodically, on to the outside world.
2. Define dialysis? (Nov 2010)
Dialysis is the artificial process of eliminating waste (diffusion) and unwanted water (ultrafiltration) from the blood.
Our kidneys do this naturally. Some people, however, may have failed or damaged kidneys which cannot carry out
the function properly - they may need dialysis. There are three primary and two secondary types of
dialysis: hemodialysis (primary), peritoneal
dialysis (primary), hemofiltration (primary), hemodiafiltration (secondary), andintestinal dialysis (secondary).
3. Draw a neat diagram of the eye and label it. (Nov2010)
4. What is Glomerular filtration rate.(Nov 2010)
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the volume of fluid filtered from the renal (kidney) glomerular capillaries into
the Bowman's capsule per unit time.[2] Central to the physiologic maintenance of GFR is the differential basal tone of
the afferent and efferent arterioles (see diagram).
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is equal to the Clearance Rate when any solute is freely filtered and is neither
reabsorbed nor secreted by the kidneys. The rate therefore measured is the quantity of the substance in the urine that
originated from a calculable volume of blood. Relating this principle to the below equation - for the substance used,
the product of urine concentration and urine flow equals the mass of substance excreted during the time that urine
has been collected. This mass equals the mass filtered at the glomerulus as nothing is added or removed in the
nephron. Dividing this mass by the plasma concentration gives the volume of plasma which the mass must have
originally come from, and thus the volume of plasma fluid that has entered Bowman's capsule within the
aforementioned period of time. The GFR is typically recorded in units of volume per time, e.g., milliliters per
minute mL/min. Compare to filtration fraction.
5. What are the layers of eyes.(Nov 2008)
Composed of 3 concentric layers: 1. External Layer a. Sclera b. Cornea

2. Middle layer (Vascular Layer) a. Choroid b. Ciliary body c. Iris
3. Inner layer of nerve tissue a. Retina
6. Mention the functions of kidney. (nov 2007)
The major role of the kidneys is to remove waste from the blood and eliminate it in the urine. To remove this waste
and extra water, blood enters the kidney through the renal artery; blood is then cleaned in thekidney as it passes
through tiny filters called nephrons
7. Write notes on Glomerulus. (Nov 2013)
The glomerulus is surrounded by Bowman's capsule. The blood plasma is filtered through the capillaries of the
glomerulus into the Bowman's capsule. The Bowman's capsule empties the filtrate into a tubule that is also part of
the nephron.
A glomerulus receives its blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal circulation. Unlike most other capillary
beds, the glomerulus drains into an efferent arteriole rather than a venule. The resistance of these arterioles results in
high pressure within the glomerulus, aiding the process of ultrafiltration, where fluids and soluble materials in the
blood are forced out of the capillaries and into Bowman's capsule
8. What is renal cortex?

The renal cortex is the outer part of the kidney and has a reddish colour (shown as very pale brown above). It has a
smooth texture and is the location of the Bowman's Capsules and the glomeruli, in addition to the proximal and
distal convoluted tubules and their associated blood supplies (these structures are part of the kidney nephrons -
described in further detail on the page about kidney nephrons).
9. Define Diabetes insipidus?
This disorder is characterized by: excretion of large amounts of a watery urine (as much as 30 liters — about 8
gallons — each day!) and unremitting thirst.
It can have several causes: Insufficient secretion of vasopressin and Inheritance of two mutant genes for the
vasopressin receptor (V2).
10. List out the parts of ear.
The ear is made up of three parts: the outer, middle, and inner ear. All three parts of the ear are important for
detecting sound by working together to move sound from the outer part through the middle and into the inner part of
the ear. Ears also help to maintain balance.
1. Explain the mechanism of urine formation .(Nov 2011)

Production of Urine
The blood from the afferent arteriole, which enters the Bowman’s capsule, is rich in nutrients such as glucose, fatty
acids, amino acids, vitamins, proteins, urea and excess salts.
The membranes of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule are permeable to small molecules and ions, such as water,
urea and salts, but are not permeable to large particles such as proteins and red blood cells. Because the lumen of the
afferent arteriole is significantly smaller than the efferent arteriole there is a large amount of pressure in the
glomerulus. This pressure forces substance such as water, salts, urea and other solutes into the kidneys. Larger
particles such as proteins and red blood cells do not pass through the walls of the glomerulus and pass through to the
efferent arteriole. This process is called ultra-filtration and the fluid which passes into the Bowman’s capsule is
known as the glomerular filtrate.
Re-absorption from the Convoluted Tubules
The glomerular filtrate moves along the proximal convoluted tubule where the absorption of most of its contents
takes place. The absorption occurs across the surrounding capillaries which branch from the efferent arteriole. About
80% of the water entering the Bowman’s capsule is absorbed into the surrounding capillaries, as well all as glucose
and other nutrients. Variable amount of salts are also absorbed, by active transport. The remaining solution passes
along the Loop of Henle to the second convoluted tubule which joins the collecting duct. Fine tuning of the water
and salt concentration takes place at these sections to maintain a suitable concentration in the blood. The reabsorbed
substances are returned to the general circulation by the renal vein. The fluid entering the collecting duct is much
more concentrated than the glomerular filtrate, and it contains mostly water, urea and some salts.
Osmoregulation
This is the regulation of the amount of water present in the human body. The human body is approximately 70%
water, as such, a certain level of water must be maintained. If the body fluids become too diluted, water will enter
cells by osmosis causing them to swell or even burst. If the body fluids become too concentrated, then water is
drawn from the cell. This is similar to what happens when animal cells are placed in hypotonic and hypertonic
solutions.
In mammals the kidney ensures that the correct balance is maintained by regulating the amount of water and salt re-
absorbed into the blood from the fluid in the proximal and distal convoluted tubules. This process is controlled by
the hormone ADH (anti-diuretic hormone). ADH affects the permeability of the walls of the kidney tubules
allowing more water to be re-absorbed from the tubules into the blood.
The Hypothalamus controls the secretion of ADH. The Hypothalamus has cells sensitive to blood concentration
and will send a signal to the pituitary gland for the secretion of ADH depending on the concentration of the blood.
For example, if the blood is too concentrated (very little water), the pituitary gland releases ADH. ADH increases the
permeability of the walls of the kidney tubules, resulting in a large amount of water being reabsorbed into
circulatory system, reducing the concentration of the blood (or increase the water concentration of blood). As a
result less water will be lost through urine. The opposite is true if the blood is too dilute; no ADH will be released
from the pituitary and no water will be re-absorbed from the kidney tubules.
2. Describe the structure and function of kidney.(Nov 2010)

Diagram of the Structure of the Kidney (Gross Anatomy of the Kidney)
Links to definitions of:
 Renal hilus
 Renal vein
 Renal artery
 Ureter
 Interlobular vein
 Interlobular artery
 Renal capsule
 Renal cortex
 Renal Medulla
 Renal Pyramids
 Renal Pelvis
 Kidney Nephron
 Collecting Duct (Kidney)
Short descriptions of the parts of the kidney labelled above:

Renal hilus:
The renal hilus is an indentation near to the centre of the concave area of the kidney. This is the area of the
kidney through which the ureter leaves the kidney and the other structures including blood vessels
(illustrated), lymphatic vessels, and nerves enter/leave the kidney.
Renal capsule:
The renal capsule is a smooth, transparent, fibrous membrane that surrounds, encloses, and protects the
kidney. Each kidney has it's own renal capsule (outer layer), which helps to maintain the shape of the
kidney as well as protecting it from damage.
The renal capsule is itself surrounded by a mass of fatty tissue that also helps to protect the kidney by
damage by cushioning it in cases of impact or sudden movement.
Renal cortex:
The renal cortex is the outer part of the kidney and has a reddish colour (shown as very pale brown above).
It has a smooth texture and is the location of the Bowman's Capsules and the glomeruli, in addition to the
proximal and distal convoluted tubules and their associated blood supplies (these structures are part of the
kidney nephrons - described in further detail on the page about kidney nephrons).
Renal medulla:
The renal medulla is the inner part of the kidney. "Medulla" means "inner portion". This area is a striated
(striped) red-brown colour.
Renal pyramids:
There are approx. 5 - 18 striated triangular structures called "Renal Pyramids" within the renal medulla of
each kidney. The apperance of striations is due to many straight tubules and blood vessels within the renal
pyramids.
Renal pelvis:
The renal pelvis is the funnel-shaped basin (cavity) that receives the urine drained from the kidney
nephrons via the collecting ducts and then the (larger) papillary ducts..
Renal artery:
The renal artery delivers oxygenated blood to the kidney. This main artery divides into many smaller
branches as it enters the kidney via the renal hilus. These smaller arteries divide into vessels such as the
segmental artery, the interlobar artery, the arcuate artery and the interlobular artery. These eventually
seperate into afferent arterioles, one of which serves each nephron in the kidney.
Renal vein:
The renal vein receives deoxygenated blood from the peritubular veins within the kidney. These merge into
the interlobular, arcuate, interlobar and segmental veins, which, in turn, deliver deoxygenated blood to the
renal vein, through which it is returned to the systemic blood circulation system.
Interlobular artery:
The interlobular artery delivers oxygenated blood at high pressure to the glomerular capillaries.
Interlobular vein:
The interlobular vein receives deoxygenated blood (at lower pressure) that it drains away from the
glomerular filteration units and from the Loops of Henle.
Kidney nephron:
Kidney nephrons are the functional units of the kidneys. That this, it is the kidney nephrons that actually
perform the kidney's main functions. There are approx. a million nephrons within each kidney. To find out
more about these, visit the page about Kidney Nephrons.
Collecting Duct (Kidney):

The collecting duct labelled in the diagram above is part of the kidney nephron (shown much enlarged).
The distal convoluted tubules* (term explain on the page about kidney nephrons) of many nephrons empty
into a single collecting duct. Many such collecting ducts unite to drain urine extracted by the kidney into
papillary ducts, then into a minor calyx, then the major calyx (at the centre of the kidney), and finally into
the ureter through which the urine leaves the kidney en-route to the urinary bladder.
Ureter:
The ureter is the structure through which urine is conveyed from the kidney to the urinary bladder.
3. Explain the structure of ear and explain the mechanism of hearing (Nov2010)
THE OUTER EAR

The outer ear includes the portion of the ear that we see—the pinna/auricle and the ear canal.
Pinna
The pinna or auricle is a concave cartilaginous structure, which collects and directs sound waves traveling in air into
the ear canal or external auditory meatus.
Ear Canal
The ear canal or external auditory meatus is approximately 1.25 inches long and .25 inch in diameter. The inner two-
thirds of the ear canal is imbedded in the temporal bone. The outer one-third of the canal is cartilage. Although the
shape of each ear canal varies, in general the canal forms an elongated "s" shape curve. The ear canal directs
airborne sound waves towards the tympanic membrane (eardrum). The ear canal resonates sound waves and
increases the loudness of the tones in the 3000-4000 Hz range.
The ear canal maintains the proper conditions of temperature and humidity necessary to preserve the elasticity of the
tympanic membrane. Glands, which produce cerumen (earwax) and tiny hairs in the ear canal, provide added
protection against insects and foreign particles from damaging the tympanic membrane.
MIDDLE EAR
The middle ear is composed of the tympanic membrane and the cavity, which houses the ossicular chain.
Tympanic Membrane
The tympanic membrane or eardrum serves as a divider between the outer ear and the middle ear structures. It is
gray-pink in color when healthy and consists of three very thin layers of living tissue.
The eardrum is very sensitive to sound waves and vibrates back and forth as the sound waves strike it. The eardrum
transmits the airborne vibrations from the outer to the middle ear and also assists in the protection of the delicate
structures of the middle ear cavity and inner ear.
Middle Ear Cavity

The middle ear cavity is located in the mastoid process of the temporal bone. The middle ear cavity extends from the
tympanic membrane to the inner ear. It is approximately two cubic centimeters in volume and is lined with mucous
membrane. The middle ear cavity is actually an extension of the nasopharynx via the eustachian tube.
Eustachian Tube
The eustachian tube acts as an air pressure equalizer and ventilates the middle ear. Normally the tube is closed but
opens while chewing or swallowing. When the eustachian tube opens, the air pressure between the outer and middle
ear is equalized. The transmission of sound through the eardrum is optimal when the air pressure is equalized
between the outer and middle ear. When the air pressure between the outer and middle ear is unequal, the eardrum is
forced outward or inward causing discomfort and the ability of the eardrum to transmit sound is reduced.
Ossicular Chain
The middle ear is connected and transmits sound to the inner ear via the ossicular chain. The ossicular chain
amplifies a signal approximately 25 decibels as it transfers signals from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear.
The ossicular chain consists of the three smallest bones in the body: the malleus, incus, and stapes. The malleus is
attached to the tympanic membrane. The footplate of the stapes inserts into the oval window of the inner ear. The
incus is between the malleus and the stapes.
Attached to the ossicular chain are two tiny muscles, the stapedius and tensor tympani muscles. These muscles
contract to protect the inner ear by reducing the intensity of sound transmission to the inner ear from external sounds
and vocal transmission.
THE INNER EAR
The inner ear is composed of the sensory organ for hearing—the cochlea, as well as for balance—the vestibular
system. The systems are separate, yet both are encased in the same bony capsule and share the same fluid systems.
Vestibular or Balance System

The balance part of the ear is referred to as the vestibular apparatus. It is composed, in part, of three semicircular
canals located within the inner ear. The vestibular system helps to maintain balance, regardless of head position or
gravity, in conjunction with eye movement and somatosensory input. The semicircular canals are innervated by the
VIIIth cranial nerve.
Cochlea
The hearing part of the inner ear is the cochlea. The cochlea is spiral-shaped, similar to the shape of a snail.
The cochlea is composed of three fluid-filled chambers that extend the length of the structure. The two outer
chambers are filled with a fluid called perilymph. Perilymph acts as a cushioning agent for the delicate structures
that occupy the center chamber. It is important to note that perilymph is connected to the cerebrospinal fluid that
surrounds the brain and the spinal column. The third fluid filled chamber is the center chamber, called the cochlear
duct. The cochlear duct secretes a fluid called endolymph, which fills this chamber.
The cochlear duct contains the Basilar membrane upon which lies the Organ of Corti. The Organ of Corti is a
sensory organ essential to hearing. It consists of approximately 30,000 finger-like projections of cilia that are
arranged in rows. These cilia are referred to as hair cells. Each hair cell is connected to a nerve fiber that relays
various impulses to the cochlear branch of the VIIIth cranial nerve or auditory nerve. The "pitch" of the impulse
relayed is dependent upon which areas of the basilar membrane, and hence, which portions of the Organ of Corti are
stimulated. The apical portion of the basilar membrane (the most curled area of the cochlea) transfers lower
frequency impulses. The basal end relays higher frequency impulses.
The VIII cranial nerve (VIII C.N.) or auditory C.N. carries the impulses generated from the Organ of Corti to the
brainstem. From the brainstem, nerve pathways extend through numerous nuclei to the cerebral cortex in the
temporal lobes of the brain. It is in the temporal lobes of the brain that meaning is associated with the various
patterns of nerve impulses.
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF HEARING

The process of hearing begins with the occurrence of a sound. Sound is initiated when an event moves and causes a
motion or vibration in air. When this air movement stimulates the ear, a sound is heard.
In the human ear, a sound wave is transmitted through four separate mediums along the auditory system before a
sound is perceived: in the outer ear—air, in the middle ear— mechanical, in the inner ear liquid and to the brain—
neural.
Sound Transmission through the Outer Ear

Air transmitted sound waves are directed toward the delicate hearing mechanisms with the help of the outer ear, first
by the pinna, which gently funnels sound waves into the ear canal, then by the ear canal.
Sound Transmission through the Middle Ear

When air movement strikes the tympanic membrane, the tympanic membrane or eardrum moves. At this point, the
energy generated through a sound wave is transferred from a medium of air to that which is solid in the middle ear.
The ossicular chain of the middle ear connects to the eardrum via the malleus, so that any motion of the eardrum sets
the three little bones of the ossicular chain into motion.
Sound Transmission through the Inner Ear

The ossicular chain transfers energy from a solid medium to the fluid medium of the inner ear via the stapes. The
stapes is attached to the oval window. Movement of the oval window creates motion in the cochlear fluid and along
the Basilar membrane. Motion along the basilar membrane excites frequency specific areas of the Organ of Corti,
which in turn stimulates a series of nerve endings.
Sound Transmission to the Brain

With the initiation of the nerve impulses, another change in medium occurs: from fluid to neural. Nerve impulses are
relayed through the VIII C.N., through various nuclei along the auditory pathway to areas to the brain. It is the brain
that interprets the neural impulses and creates a thought, picture, or other recognized symbol.
4. Describe the structure of nephron with diagram and its blood flow (Nov 2009)
Structure and Function of the Nephron
The nephron is a long tube that runs from the cortex into the medulla and back again to the cortex before joining
another tube called the collecting duct. The nephron starts as a small cup-like structure known as the Bowman’s
capsule and leads into what is known as the first convoluted tubule (also known as the proximal convoluted tubule).
It descends into the medulla as the loop of Henle then back into the cortex to become the distal convoluted tubule.
These tubules drain into the collecting duct. Several convoluted tubules drain into each collecting duct, these
collecting ducts empty into the renal pelvis. From the renal pelvis the excretory product, urine, drains into the ureter.
The ureter from each kidney empties into the bladder, and urine leaves the body via the urethra.
There is a branch of the renal artery, the afferent arteriole, entering the small cup-like space of the Bowman’s
capsule as a network of blood capillaries. This network is known as the glomerulus. Emerging from this network,
the capillaries re-unite to form a small arteriole, known as the efferent arteriole. As the efferent arteriole continues it
twines around the proximal and distal convoluted tubule. The efferent arteriole divides into capillaries at several
points along the length of the tubules, absorbing various substances. These capillaries eventually reunite to drain
into the renal vein. The efferent arteriole is smaller than the afferent arteriole. This difference in diameter helps to
raise the glomerular pressure and aids in ultra filtration.
Some animals do not have a well developed kidney; they may have structures called nephridia. Animals such as
earthworms that are simple tube-like structures have nephridia that have the same role as the more complex
nephrons in the kidneys.
Production of Urine
The blood from the afferent arteriole, which enters the Bowman’s capsule, is rich in nutrients such as glucose, fatty
acids, amino acids, vitamins, proteins, urea and excess salts.
The membranes of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule are permeable to small molecules and ions, such as water,
urea and salts, but are not permeable to large particles such as proteins and red blood cells. Because the lumen of the
afferent arteriole is significantly smaller than the efferent arteriole there is a large amount of pressure in the
glomerulus. This pressure forces substance such as water, salts, urea and other solutes into the kidneys. Larger
particles such as proteins and red blood cells do not pass through the walls of the glomerulus and pass through to the
efferent arteriole. This process is called ultra-filtration and the fluid which passes into the Bowman’s capsule is
known as the glomerular filtrate.
Re-absorption from the Convoluted Tubules
The glomerular filtrate moves along the proximal convoluted tubule where the absorption of most of its contents
takes place. The absorption occurs across the surrounding capillaries which branch from the efferent arteriole. About
80% of the water entering the Bowman’s capsule is absorbed into the surrounding capillaries, as well all as glucose
and other nutrients. Variable amount of salts are also absorbed, by active transport. The remaining solution passes
along the Loop of Henle to the second convoluted tubule which joins the collecting duct. Fine tuning of the water
and salt concentration takes place at these sections to maintain a suitable concentration in the blood. The reabsorbed
substances are returned to the general circulation by the renal vein. The fluid entering the collecting duct is much
more concentrated than the glomerular filtrate, and it contains mostly water, urea and some salts.
Osmoregulation
This is the regulation of the amount of water present in the human body. The human body is approximately 70%
water, as such, a certain level of water must be maintained. If the body fluids become too diluted, water will enter
cells by osmosis causing them to swell or even burst. If the body fluids become too concentrated, then water is
drawn from the cell. This is similar to what happens when animal cells are placed in hypotonic and hypertonic
solutions.
In mammals the kidney ensures that the correct balance is maintained by regulating the amount of water and salt re-
absorbed into the blood from the fluid in the proximal and distal convoluted tubules. This process is controlled by
the hormone ADH (anti-diuretic hormone). ADH affects the permeability of the walls of the kidney tubules
allowing more water to be re-absorbed from the tubules into the blood.
The Hypothalamus controls the secretion of ADH. The Hypothalamus has cells sensitive to blood concentration
and will send a signal to the pituitary gland for the secretion of ADH depending on the concentration of the blood.
For example, if the blood is too concentrated (very little water), the pituitary gland releases ADH. ADH increases the
permeability of the walls of the kidney tubules, resulting in a large amount of water being reabsorbed into
circulatory system, reducing the concentration of the blood (or increase the water concentration of blood). As a
result less water will be lost through urine. The opposite is true if the blood is too dilute; no ADH will be released
from the pituitary and no water will be re-absorbed from the kidney tubules.
5. Explain the structure and function of eye with neat diagram(Nov 2008)\
Eye Structure:
Cornea - A clear, dome-shaped window in the very front of the eye. It acts as a window for light to pass in.
Sclera – The sclera is what is known as the “white” of the eye. It serves as the eye’s protective coat.
Lens – The lens is a crystalline structure that focuses light into the retina. In a healthy eye, the lens changes shape to
adjust for close or distance vision. Aging will cause the lens to harden and therefore, limit its adjusting power.
Aqueous and Vitreous – The aqueous is located in between the cornea and the lens and is a very thin fluid. It gives
the front of the eye its shape as well as nourishes the cornea and lens. The Vitreous is a thicker substance that gives
the inner eye it essential shape. With age, it thins and can cause damage to the retina.
Retina – The retina is the sensory tissue that lines the inner layer of the eye, and converts light rays into electrical
impulses that communicate with the brain. It is made up millions of photoreceptors known as rods and cones. (For
More Information,See Retina page).
Structure of the eye
(www.stlukeseye.com/Anatomy.asp)
Vision:
Normal physiological vision is created when light waves come in contact with the rods and cones on the outer
surface of the retina. This induces photochemical transduction in the form of an electrical impulse which is then sent
through the bipolar cells (Alfaro). These cells then relay the electrical message directly or indirectly through
amacrine cells to the ganglion cells. All of axons of the ganglion cell come together to form what is known as the
optic nerve. Then the signal reaches the optic chiasm and is sent down the optic tract. At a point, the signal turns into
optic radiation, and proceeds to the primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe (Alfaro). From there, the message is
sent to other processing and association areas of the brain.
.
Unit V Nervous System
1. What is the effect of withdrawal reflex. (Nov 2012)
The withdrawal reflex (nociceptive or flexor withdrawal reflex) is a spinal reflex intended to protect the body
from damaging stimuli.[1] It is polysynaptic, causing stimulation of sensory, association, and motor neurons
2. Write a note on EEG wave pattern in sleep.(Nov 2012)
Electrophysiological Activity in Sleep
What are brain "waves"?
In the brain, the total sum of the electrical activity of millions of neurons,
located principally in the cortex, can be observed with the
electroencephalograph (EEG), a device that registers the brain's cells
[activity] through a person's several states, from the awaken state to deep
sleep.
Nervous cells present electrical potential differences with relation to the liquid in which it is immersed. The action
potential refers to a brief fluctuation of the electrical charge in the membrane of the neuron, caused by the fast
opening and closing of ionic channels, which depends on the voltage (ion flux).
The action potential flows as waves through the neurons' axons, transferring information from one place to the other
in the nervous system. A wave can be of high or low amplitude (voltage) and high or low frequency (regularity).
3. Define synapse.(Nov 2011)
Synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to
another cell (neural or otherwise. Synapses are essential to neuronal function: neurons are cells that are specialized
to pass signals to individual target cells, and synapses are the means by which they do so. At a synapse, the plasma
membrane of the signal-passing neuron (the presynaptic neuron) comes into close apposition with the membrane of
the target (postsynaptic) cell. Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic sites contain extensive arrays of molecular
machinery that link the two membranes together and carry out the signaling process. In many synapses, the
presynaptic part is located on an axon, but some presynaptic sites are located on a dendrite or soma.Astrocytes also
exchange information with the synaptic neurons, responding to synaptic activity and, in turn,
regulating neurotransmission
4. What is Aphasia? (Nov 2010)
Aphasia is a disturbance of the comprehension and expression of language caused by dysfunction in the brain. This
class of language disorder ranges from having difficulty remembering words to losing the ability to speak, read, or
write. This also affects visual language such as sign language. Aphasia is usually caused by brain damage, most
commonly caused by stroke. Brain damage linked to aphasia can also be caused by other brain diseases, including
cancer, epilepsy and Alzheimer's disease.
5. Write note on characteristic of neuron.(Nov 2013)
A neuron also known as a neurone or nerve cell) is an electrically excitable cell that processes and transmits
information through electrical and chemical signals. These signals between neurons occur via synapses, specialized
connections with other cells. Neurons can connect to each other to form neural networks. Neurons are the core
components of the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord and the ganglia of the peripheral nervous
system (PNS) which comprises the central nervous system
6. Define synaptic transmission.(Nov 2013)
Neurotransmission, also called synaptic transmission, is the process by which signaling molecules called
neurotransmitters are released by a neuron, and bind to and activate the receptors of another neuron.
7. What is the importance of EEG.
Electroencephalography (EEG) is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp. EEG measures voltage
fluctuations resulting from ionic current flows within the neurons of the brain. In clinical contexts, EEG refers to the
recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time, usually 20–40 minutes, as
recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. Diagnostic applications generally focus on the spectral
content of EEG, that is, the type of neural oscillations that can be observed in EEG signals.
EEG is most often used to diagnose epilepsy, which causes obvious abnormalities in EEG readings. It is also used to
diagnose sleep disorders, coma, encephalopathies, and brain death
8. What are neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron (braincell) to
another 'target' neuron.[1] They are packaged into synaptic vesicles clustered beneath the membranein the axon
terminal located at the presynaptic side of a synapse. Neurotransmitters are released into and diffused across
the synaptic cleft, where they bind to specific receptors in the membrane on the postsynaptic side of the synapse
9. What are the types of synapses.
There are two fundamentally different types of synapses:
 In a chemical synapse, electrical activity in the presynaptic neuron is converted (via the activation
of voltage-gated calcium channels) into the release of a chemical called aneurotransmitter that binds
to receptors located in the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic cell. The neurotransmitter may initiate an
electrical response or a secondary messenger pathway that may either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron.
Chemical synapses can be classified according to the neurotransmitter released: glutamatergic(often
excitatory), GABAergic (often inhibitory), cholinergic (e.g. vertebrate neuromuscular junction),
and adrenergic (releasing norepinephrine). Because of the complexity of receptor signal transduction, chemical
synapses can have complex effects on the postsynaptic cell.
 In an electrical synapse, the presynaptic and postsynaptic cell membranes are connected by special
channels called gap junctions that are capable of passing electric current, causing voltage changes in the
presynaptic cell to induce voltage changes in the postsynaptic cell. The main advantage of an electrical synapse
is the rapid transfer of signals from one cell to the next.[6]
10. What are the types of reflex.
A list of reflexes in humans.
 Accommodation reflex — coordinated changes in the vergence, lens shape and pupil size when looking at
a distant object after a near object.
 Acoustic reflex or stapedius reflex or attenuation reflex — contraction of the stapedius and tensor
tympani muscles in the middle ear in response to high sound intensities.
 Ankle jerk reflex — jerking of the ankle when the Achilles tendon is hit with a tendon hammer while the
foot is relaxed, stimulating the S1 reflex arc.
 Arthrokinetic reflex — muscular activation or inhibition in response to joint mobilization
 Asymmetric tonic neck reflex (ATNR) or tonic neck reflex — in infants up to four months of age, when
the head is turned to the side, the arm on that side will straighten and the contralateral arm will bend.
 Babinski reflex — in infants up to one year of age, and also in older individuals with neurological damage,
a spreading of the toes and extension of the big toe in response to stroking the side of the foot.
 Baroreflex or baroreceptor reflex — homeostatic countereffect to a sudden elevation or reduction in

blood pressure detected by the baroreceptors in the aortic arch, carotid sinuses, etc.
 Bezold-Jarisch reflex — involves a variety of cardiovascular and neurological processes which cause
hypopnea and bradycardia.
 Biceps reflex — a jerking of the forearm when the biceps brachii tendon is struck with a tendon hammer,
stimulating the C5 and C6 reflex arcs.
 Blushing — a reddening of the face caused by embarrassment, shame, or modesty.
 Brachioradialis reflex — a jerking of the forearm when the brachioradialis tendon is hit with a tendon
hammer while the arm is resting, stimulating the C5 and C6 reflex arcs.
 Cervico-collic reflex
 Cervico-Spinal reflex
 Churchill cope reflex
 Corneal reflex — blinking of both eyes when the cornea of either eye is touched.
 Cough reflex — a rapid expulsion of air from the lungs after sudden opening of the glottis, and usually
following irritation of the trachea.
 Cremasteric reflex — elevation of the scrotum and testis elicited by stroking of the superior and medial
part of the thigh.
 Crossed extensor reflex — a contraction of a limb in response to ipsilateral pain, and extension of the
contralateral limb.
 Galant reflex — in infants up to four months of age, a rotation of the upper body towards one or other side
of the back when that side is stroked.
 Glabellar reflex
 Golgi tendon reflex
 Hering–Breuer_reflex — is a reflex triggered to prevent over-inflation of the lung
 Jaw jerk reflex
 Knee jerk or patellar reflex — a kick caused by striking the patellar tendon with a tendon hammer just
below the patella, stimulating the L4 and L3 reflex arcs.
 Mammalian diving reflex
 Moro reflex — only in all infants/newborns up to 4 or 5 months of age: a sudden symmetric spreading of
the arms, then unspreading and crying, caused by an unexpected loud noise or the sensation of being dropped. It
is the only unlearned fear in humans.
 Palmar grasp reflex — in infants up to six months of age, a closing of the hand in response to an object
being placed in it.
 Photic sneeze reflex — a sneeze caused by sudden exposure to bright light.
 Plantar reflex — in infants up to 1 year of age, a curling of the toes when something rubs the ball of the
foot.
 Pupillary accommodation reflex — a reduction of pupil size in response to an object coming close to the
eye.
 Pupillary light reflex — a reduction of pupil size in response to light.

 Rooting reflex — turning of an infant's head toward anything that strokes the cheek or mouth.
 Shivering — shaking of the body in response to early hypothermia in warm-blooded animals.
 Sneeze or sternutation — a convulsive expulsion of air from the lungs normally triggered by irritation of
the nasal mucosa in the nose.
 Startle reflex — see Moro reflex above.
 Sternutation — see Sneeze above.
 Suckling reflex — sucking at anything that touches the roof of an infant's mouth.
 Stretch reflex
 Triceps reflex — jerking of the forearm when the triceps tendon is hit with a tendon hammer, stimulating
the C7 and C6 reflex arcs.
 Vagovagal reflex — contraction of muscles in the gastrointestinal tract in response to distension of the
tract following consumption of food and drink.
 Vestibulo-collic reflex
 Vestibulo-spinal reflex
 Vestibulo-ocular reflex —
1. Explain automatic Nervous system.(Nov 2011)
Introduction
1. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates the activity of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and
certain glands.
2. The ANS includes:
i. autonomic sensory neurons
ii. integrating centers in the CNS
iii. autonomic motor neurons
3. The ANS is regulated by centers in the brain, primarily the hypothalamus and brain stem.
B. Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems

1. In the somatic nervous system:
i. sensory neurons transmit information from receptors for the special senses and somatic senses
ii. these sensations are (normally) consciously perceived
iii. somatic motor neurons innervate skeletal muscle to:
a. produce voluntary movement
b. cause excitation, i.e., contraction
iv. each somatic motor pathway consists of a single somatic motor neuron that extends from the
CNS to skeletal muscle
v. somatic motor neurons release acetylcholine (ACh)
2. In the autonomic nervous system:
i. autonomic sensory (afferent) neurons transmit information from interoceptors, such as
chemoreceptors
ii. sensations are usually not consciously perceived
iii. autonomic motor (efferent) neurons innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands to:
a. produce activities that are usually not under conscious control
b. cause excitation or inhibition of effector tissue activity
iv. autonomic motor pathways consist of sets of two motor neurons in series:
a. the first neuron has its cell body in the CNS and its myelinated axon extends from the
CNS to an autonomic ganglion
b. the second neuron has its cell body in the autonomic ganglion and its unmyelinated
axon extends directly to the autonomic effector
v. autonomic motor neurons release either acetylcholine or norepinephrine (NE)
vi. the output (motor) part of the ANS has two divisions:
a. sympathetic division
b. parasympathetic division
- most autonomic effectors have dual innervation
3. Table 20.1 provides an excellent summary of the similarities and differences between the somatic and
autonomic nervous systems.
C. Anatomy of Autonomic Motor Pathways

1. Anatomical components:
i. The first of the two autonomic motor neurons is called a preganglionic neuron:
a. its cell body is in the brain or spinal cord
b. its myelinated axon exits the CNS as part of a cranial or spinal nerve, separates from
the nerve, and extends to an autonomic ganglion where it synapses with a
postganglionic neuron
ii. The postganglionic neuron is the second of the two autonomic motor neurons and is located
entirely outside the CNS:
a. its cell body and dendrites are located in the autonomic ganglion, where it synapses
with one or more preganglionic fibers
b. its unmyelinated axon extends to a visceral effector
2. Preganglionic neurons:
i. In the sympathetic division:
a. preganglionic neurons have their cell bodies in the lateral gray horns of the 12 thoracic
segments and the first two lumbar segments of the spinal cord
b. therefore, the sympathetic division is also called the thoracolumbar division and the
axons of the sympathetic preganglionic neurons are known as the thoracolumbar
outflow
ii. In the parasympathetic division:
a. preganglionic neurons have their cell bodies located in the brain stem nuclei of four
cranial nerves (III, VII, IX, and X) and in the lateral gray horns of the second through
fourth sacral segments of the spinal cord
b. therefore, the parasympathetic division is also called the craniosacral division and the
axons of the parasympathetic preganglionic neurons are known as the craniosacral
outflow
3. Autonomic ganglia:
i. Sympathetic ganglia include:
a. sympathetic trunk ganglia that are a series of ganglia that lie in a vertical row on
either side of the vertebral column, extending from the base of the skull to the coccyx
- they are also called vertebral chain ganglia or paravertebral ganglia
- due to the close proximity of these ganglia to the spinal cord, most
sympathetic preganglionic axons are relatively short
- postganglionic axons, in general, innervate organs above the diaphragm
- examples include the superior, middle, and inferior cervical ganglia
b. prevertebral (collateral) ganglia that are located anterior to the spine and close to the
large abdominal arteries
- postganglionic axons, in general, innervate organs below the diaphragm
- examples include the celiac ganglion, superior and inferior mesenteric
ganglia
ii. Parasympathetic ganglia:
a. parasympathetic preganglionic fibers extend to terminal (intramural) ganglia which
are located very close to or within the wall of a visceral organ
- therefore, parasympathetic preganglionic axons tend to be relatively long
axons
- examples include the ciliary ganglion and otic ganglion
iii. In the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis, axons of both sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons
form tangled networks called autonomic plexuses, many of which lie along major arteries that
they are named after; examples include the cardiac plexus, pulmonary plexus, celiac (solar)
plexus, superior and inferior mesenteric plexuses, hypogastric plexus, and the renal
plexuses.
4. Postganglionic neurons:
i. Axons of sympathetic preganglionic neurons extend to sympathetic trunk ganglia:
a. some axons synapse with postganglionic neurons in these ganglia
b. some axons ascend or descend to a higher or lower ganglion before synapsing with
postganglionic neurons
c. other axons continue, without synapsing, through the sympathetic trunk ganglion to
end at a prevertebral ganglion where they synapse with postganglionic neurons
d. some axons extend to and terminate in the adrenal medulla
e. in most cases, a single sympathetic preganglionic fiber may synapse with 20 or more
postganglionic neurons, i.e., there is divergence and therefore sympathetic responses
tend to be widespread throughout the body; postganglionic fibers typically innervate
several visceral effectors
ii. Axons of parasympathetic preganglionic neurons extend to terminal ganglia where they
synapse with 4 or 5 postganglionic neurons, all of which innervate a single visceral effector;
therefore, parasympathetic effects tend to be localized.
5. Structure of the Sympathetic Division:
i. The myelinated sympathetic preganglionic axons leave the lateral gray horns of all thoracic
and the first two lumbar segments of the spinal cord; they leave along with somatic motor
fibers via the anterior root of a spinal nerve.
ii. After exiting through the intervertebral foramina, the preganglionic axons enter a short
pathway called a white ramus before extending to the nearest sympathetic trunk ganglion on
the same side; collectively, the white rami are called white rami communicantes.
iii. The paired sympathetic trunk ganglia are located anterior and lateral to the spine, one on either
side; typically, they include:
a. 3 cervical sympathetic trunk ganglia
b. 11 or 12 thoracic sympathetic trunk ganglia
c. 4 or 5 lumbar sympathetic trunk ganglia
d. 4 or 5 sacral sympathetic trunk ganglia
e. 1 coccygeal ganglion
iv. Although the sympathetic trunk ganglia extend downward along the entire length of the spine,
the ganglia receive preganglionic fibers only from the thoracic and lumbar segments of the
spinal cord.
v. The cervical portion of each sympathetic trunk is subdivided into:
a. superior cervical ganglion whose postganglionic fibers serve the head and heart
b. middle cervical ganglion whose postganglionic fibers innervate the heart
c. inferior cervical ganglion whose postganglionic fibers also innervate the heart
vi. The thoracic portions of the sympathetic trunk ganglia receive most of the sympathetic
preganglionic fibers; the postganglionic fibers from these ganglia innervate thoracic viscera
and skin structures.
vii. Unmyelinated postganglionic fibers from the lumbar and sacral sympathetic trunk ganglia
enter a short pathway called a gray ramus and then merge with a spinal nerve or join the
hypogastric plexus in the pelvis via direct visceral branches; the gray ramus communicans is
the structure containing the postganglionic fibers that connect the ganglion to the spinal nerve.
viii. As preganglionic fibers extend from a white ramus communicans into the sympathetic trunk,
they give off several axon collaterals that terminate and synapse in several ways; among these
are some which pass up or down the sympathetic trunk for a variable distance to form the
sympathetic chains along which the ganglia are strung.
ix. Some preganglionic fibers pass through the sympathetic trunks without terminating; beyond
the trunks, they form nerves called splanchnic nerves which extend to and terminate in
prevertebral ganglia.
x. Splanchnic nerves from the thoracic area terminate in the celiac ganglion or, in other
instances, pass through this ganglion to terminate in other nearby ganglia; postganglionic
fibers from all of these ganglia innervate abdominal viscera.
xi. Similarly, postganglionic fibers serviced by the lumbar splanchnic nerve innervate abdominal
and pelvic visceral effectors.
xii. Sympathetic preganglionic fibers also extend to the adrenal medullae which are modified
sympathetic ganglia, and their cells are similar to sympathetic postganglionic neurons; these
cells secrete the hormones norepinephrine (about 20%) and epinephrine (about 80%) plus a
trace amount of dopamine into the blood (this is one exception to the usual pattern of two
efferent neurons in an autonomic motor pathway).
6. Structure of the Parasympathetic Division:
i. Cell bodies of parasympathetic preganglionic neurons are located in brain stem nuclei and the
lateral gray horns of the second through fourth sacral segments of the spinal cord.
ii. The cranial parasympathetic outflow consists of preganglionic axons that emerge from the
brain stem in four cranial nerves; these preganglionic fibers end in terminal ganglia where they
synapse with postganglionic neurons.
iii. The sacral parasympathetic outflow consists of preganglionic axons that emerge in anterior
roots of the second through fourth sacral nerves; these preganglionic fibers also end in terminal
ganglia where they synapse with postganglionic neurons.
iv. The cranial outflow has 5 components:
a. ciliary ganglia
b. pterygopalatine ganglia
c. submandibular ganglia
d. otic ganglia
- postganglionic axons from these four pairs of ganglia innervate structures
in the head
e. preganglonic fibers that leave the brain as part of the vagus (X) nerves
- the vagus nerves carry preganglionic fibers that comprise nearly 80% of the
total craniosacral outflow
- these preganglionic fibers extend to many terminal ganglia in the thorax
and abdomen
- postganglionic fibers from these terminal ganglia travel relatively short
distances to innervate many organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities
v. The sacral parasympathetic outflow consists of preganglionic axons from the anterior roots of
the second through fourth sacral nerves and collectively form the pelvic splanchnic nerves;
these nerves extend to terminal ganglia where they synapse with postganglionic neurons that
innervate smooth muscle and glands in the walls of abdominal and pelvic organs.
D. ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors

1. Based on the neurotransmitter they release, autonomic neurons are classified as either cholinergic or
adrenergic; the neurotransmitter receptors are integral membrane proteins in the plasma membrane of the
postsynaptic neuron or effector cell.
2. Cholinergic Neurons and Receptors:
i. Cholinergic neurons release acetylcholine (ACh) and include:
a. all sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons
b. all parasympathetic postganglionic neurons
c. sympathetic postganglionic neurons that innervate most sweat glands
- ACh binds to cholinergic receptors on the postsynaptic cell to cause
excitation or inhibition; there are two types of cholinergic receptors,
nicotinic receptors and muscarinic receptors.
- ACh is quickly inactivated by acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and therefore
its effects on postsynaptic cells are brief.
ii. Adrenergic neurons release norepinephrine (NE) or noradrenalin; most sympathetic
postganglionic neurons are adrenergic and secrete norepinephrine whose effect on postsynaptic
cells is to cause excitation or inhibition
- adrenergic receptors bind both norepinephrine and
epinephrine
- there are two main types of adrenergic receptors, alpha () receptors
and beta () receptors
- the effects of norepinephrine are terminated when the NE is taken up by
the axon that released it or when the NE is enzymatically inactivated by
catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) or monoamine oxidase
(MAO)
- since NE lingers in the synaptic cleft longer than ACh, the effects triggered
by adrenergic neurons are longer lasting than those triggered by cholinergic
neurons
E. Functions of the ANS

1. Most autonomic effectors have dual innervation; the two divisions generally have opposing effects with
one division causing excitation and the other division causing inhibition.
2. The hypothalamus regulates the balance of sympathetic versus parasympathetic activity.
3. The two divisions have opposing effects because their postganglionic neurons release different
neurotransmitters and the effectors have different neurotransmitter receptors.
4. Some autonomic effectors receive only sympathetic innervation; they include:
i. sweat glands
ii. arrector pili muscles
iii. kidneys
iv. spleen
v. most blood vessels
vi. adrenal medullae
5. Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Responses:
i. The sympathetic division:
a. is dominant over the parasympathetic division during times of physical or emotional
stress
b. high sympathetic activity favors body functions that can support vigorous physical
activity and rapid ATP production
c. elicits, along with adrenal medullary hormones, a series of physiological responses
collectively called the fight-or-flight response
d. these effects are longer lasting and more widespread than the effects of
parasympathetic stimulation
ii. The parasympathetic division:
a. enhances “rest-and-digest” activities that support body functions that conserve and
restore body energy during times of rest or recovery
b. is normally dominant over the sympathetic division in affecting the organs of the
digestive system
c. elicits “SLUDD” responses:
- salivation
- lacrimation
- urination
- digestion
- defecation
d. also decreases heart rate, decreases bronchiole diameter, and decreases pupil diameter
iii. Table 20.2 compares the structural and functional features of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions of the ANS.
iv. Table 20.3 summarizes the responses of glands, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle to
stimulation by the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS.
F. Integration and Control of Autonomic Functions

1. Autonomic reflexes adjust the activities of visceral effectors (e.g., heart, blood vessels, bronchioles, GI
tract, etc.) and therefore play a key role in activities involved in homeostasis.
2. An autonomic reflex arc has 5 components:
i. receptor
ii. sensory neuron
iii. integrating center in the CNS
iv. motor neurons:
a. preganglionic neuron
b. postganglionic neuron
v. effector, i.e., smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, or gland
G. Autonomic Control by Higher Centers

1. The hypothalamus is the major control and integration center of the ANS.
2. The hypothalamus receives sensory input related to visceral functions, olfaction, gustation, body
temperature, osmolarity, and levels of various substances in the blood; it also receives input relating to
emotions from the limbic system.
3. Output from the hypothalamus influences autonomic centers:
i. Axons from hypothalamic nuclei form tracts that lead to sympathetic and parasympathetic
nuclei in the brain stem and spinal cord through relays in the reticular formation.
ii. The posterior and lateral portions of the hypothalamus control the sympathetic division.
iii. The anterior and medial portions of the hypothalamus control the parasympathetic division
2. Explain the brain cortical function.(Nov 2011)
The cerebral cortex is the layer of the brain often referred to as gray matter. The cortex (thin layer of tissue) is gray
because nerves in this area lack the insulation that makes most other parts of the brain appear to be white. The cortex
covers the outer portion (1.5mm to 5mm) of the cerebrum and cerebellum. The portion of the cortex that covers the
cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex.
The cerebral cortex consists of folded bulges called gyri that create deep furrows or fissures called sulci. The folds
in the brain add to its surface area and therefore increase the amount of gray matter and the quantity of information
that can be processed.
The cerebral cortex is divided into right and left hemispheres. It encompasses about two-thirds of the brain mass and
lies over and around most of the structures of the brain. It is the most highly developed part of the human brain and
is responsible for thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language. It is also the most recent structure in
the history of brain evolution.
Most of the actual information processing in the brain takes place in the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is
divided into lobes that each have a specific function. For example, there are specific areas involved in vision,
hearing, touch, movement, and smell. Other areas are critical for thinking and reasoning. Although many functions,
such as touch, are found in both the right and left cerebral hemispheres, some functions are found in only one
cerebral hemisphere. For example, in most people, language abilities are found in the left hemisphere.
CerebralCortexLobes
Parietal Lobe - involved in the reception and processing of sensory information from the body.
Frontal Lobe -involved with decision-making, problem solving, and planning.
OccipitalLobe -involvedwithvision.
Temporal Lobe - involved with memory, emotion, hearing, and language.
In summary, the cerebral cortex is responsible for sensing and interpreting input from various sources and
maintaining cognitive function. Sensory functions interpreted by the cerebral cortex include hearing, touch, and
vision
Function:
The cerebral cortex is involved in several functions of the body including:
 Determining Intelligence
 Determining Personality
 Motor Function
 Planning and Organization
 Touch Sensation
3. What is synapse and explain its condition.(Nov 2012)
Nerve cells (neurons) are specialized so that at one end there is a flared structure termed the dendrite. At the
dendrite, the neuron is able to process chemical signals from other neurons and endocrine hormones. If the signals
received at the dendrite end of the neuron are of a sufficient strength, and properly timed, they are transformed into
action potentials that sweep down the neural cell body (axon) from the dendrite end to the other end of the neuron,
the presynaptic portion of the axon that ends at the next synapse (the extra cellular gap between neurons)in the
neural pathway. The arrival of the action potential at the presynaptic terminus causes the release of ions and
chemicals (neurotransmitters) that travel
across the synapse, the gap or intercellular space between neurons, to act as the stimulus to create another action
potential in the next neuron, and thus perpetuate the neural impulse.
Nerve impulses are transmitted through the synaptic gap via chemical signals in the form of a specialized group of
chemicals termed neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters can also pass the neural impulse on to glands and muscles.
Except where the neural synapses terminates on a muscle (neuromuscular synapse) or a gland (neuroglandular
synapse), the synaptic gap is bordered by a presynaptic terminal portion of one neuron and the dendrite of the
postsynaptic neuron.
As the action potential sweeps into presynaptic region, there is a rapid influx of calcium from the extra cellular fluid
into a specialized area of the presynaptic terminus termed the synaptic knob. Via the process of exocytosis, specific
neurotransmitters are then released from synaptic vesicles into the synaptic gap. The neurotransmitters diffuse across
the synaptic gap and specifically bind to specialized receptor sites on the dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron.
Neurotransmitters are capable of exciting (creating an action potential) or inhibiting, the postsynaptic neuron.
Excitation results from neurotransmitter driven shifts in ion balance that results in a depolarization. Inhibitory
neurotransmitters generally work by inducing a state of hyperpolarization.
Excitatory neurotransmitters work by causing changes in sodium ion balance that, if the stimulus is strong enough
(i.e., sufficient neurotransmitter binds to dendrite receptors) results in the postsynaptic neuron reaching threshold
potential and the creation of an electrical action potential.
Excitation can also result from a summation of chemical neurotransmitters released from several presynaptic
neurons that terminate on one postsynaptic neuron. In addition to such spatial control mechanisms, there are
mechanisms that are time-dependent (temporal controls). Because neurotransmitters remain bound to their receptors
for a time, excitation can also result from an increased rate of release of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic
neuron.
Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause membrane changes that result in a movement of ions across the postsynaptic
neural cell membrane that move the electrical potential away from the threshold potential.
Neural transmission across the synapse is, however, a result of a complex series of interactions that is far from the
one-to-one presynaptic-postsynaptic neuron and many neurons can converge on a postsynaptic neuron.
Within the neuron, the mechanism of transmission is via the transmission of an electrical action potential that
represents a change in electrical potential from the rest state the neuronal cell membrane. Electrical potentials are
created by the separation of positive and negative ionic electrical charges that vary in distribution and strength on
the inside and outside of the cell membrane. There are a greater number of negatively charged proteins on the inside
of the cell, and an unequal distribution of positively charges cations both inside and outside the membrane.
The standing potential is maintained because, although there are both electrical and concentration gradients (a
variation of high to low concentration) that induce the excess sodium cations to enter the cell and potassium cations
to migrate out, the channels for such movements are normally closed so that the neural cell membrane remains
impermeable or highly resistant to ion passage in the rest state.
The structure of the cell membrane and a physiological sodium-potassium pump maintain the neural cell resting
membrane potential (RMP). Driven by an ATPase enzyme, a physiological sodium potassium pump moves three
sodium cations from the inside of the cell for every two potassium cations that it moves back in. The ATPase is
necessary because of this movement of cations against their respective resting concentration and electrical gradients.
Neural transmission, in the form of the creation of action potentials, results from sufficient electrical, chemical, or
mechanical stimulus to the postsynaptic neuron that is greater than or equal to a threshold stimulus. The creation of
an action potential is an "all or none" event and the level and form of stimulus must be sufficient and properly timed
to create an action potential. When threshold stimulus is reached in the postsynaptic neuron, there is a rapid
movement of ions and the resting membrane potential changes from -70mv to +30mv. This change of approximately
100mv is an action potential that travels down the neuron like a wave, altering the RMP in successively adjacent
regions of neural cell membrane as it passes, until the action potential arrives at the presynaptic region of the axon to
initiate the mechanisms of synaptic transmission.
Neural transmission is also subjected to refractory periods in which further excitation of the postsynaptic neuron is
not possible. In addition, varying types of nerve fibers (e.g., myelinated or demyelinated) exhibit differences in how
the action potential moved down the axon, or in the speed of transmission of the action potential.
4. Explain briefly about the various biochemical events in the conduction of action potential in a neuron along
with cortical localization of function. ( Nov 2010)
Action potentials result from the presence in a cell's membrane of

special types of voltage-gated ion channels. A voltage-gated ion
channel is a cluster of proteins embedded in the membrane that has
three key properties:
1. It is capable of assuming more than one conformation.

2. At least one of the conformations creates a channel through
the membrane that is permeable to specific types of ions.
3. The transition between conformations is influenced by the
membrane potential.
Thus, a voltage-gated ion channel tends to be open for some values of the membrane potential, and closed for others.
In most cases, however, the relationship between membrane potential and channel state is probabilistic and involves
a time delay. Ion channels switch between conformations at unpredictable times: The membrane potential
determines the rate of transitions and the probability per unit time of each type of transition.
Voltage-gated ion channels are capable of producing action potentials because they can give rise to positive
feedback loops: The membrane potential controls the state of the ion channels, but the state of the ion channels
controls the membrane potential. Thus, in some situations, a rise in the membrane potential can cause ion channels
to open, thereby causing a further rise in the membrane potential. An action potential occurs when this positive
feedback cycle proceeds explosively. The time and amplitude trajectory of the action potential are determined by the
biophysical properties of the voltage-gated ion channels that produce it. Several types of channels that are capable of
producing the positive feedback necessary to generate an action potential exist. Voltage-gated sodium channels are
responsible for the fast action potentials involved in nerve conduction. Slower action potentials in muscle cells and
some types of neurons are generated by voltage-gated calcium channels. Each of these types comes in multiple
variants, with different voltage sensitivity and different temporal dynamics.
The most intensively studied type of voltage-dependent ion channels comprises the sodium channels involved in fast
nerve conduction. These are sometimes known as Hodgkin-Huxley sodium channels because they were first
characterized by Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley in their Nobel Prize-winning studies of the biophysics of the
action potential, but can more conveniently be referred to as NaV channels. (The "V" stands for "voltage".)
An NaV channel has three possible states, known as deactivated, activated, and inactivated. The channel is
permeable only to sodium ions when it is in the activated state. When the membrane potential is low, the channel
spends most of its time in the deactivated (closed) state. If the membrane potential is raised above a certain level, the
channel shows increased probability of transitioning to theactivated (open) state. The higher the membrane potential
the greater the probability of activation. Once a channel has activated, it will eventually transition to
the inactivated(closed) state. It tends then to stay inactivated for some time, but, if the membrane potential becomes
low again, the channel will eventually transition back to the deactivatedstate. During an action potential, most
channels of this type go through a cycle deactivated→activated→inactivated→deactivated. This is only the
population average behavior, however — an individual channel can in principle make any transition at any time.
However, the likelihood of a channel's transitioning from the inactivated state directly to theactivated state is very
low: A channel in the inactivated state is refractory until it has transitioned back to the deactivated state.
The outcome of all this is that the kinetics of the NaV channels are governed by a transition matrix whose rates are
voltage-dependent in a complicated way. Since these channels themselves play a major role in determining the
voltage, the global dynamics of the system can be quite difficult to work out. Hodgkin and Huxley approached the
problem by developing a set of differential equations for the parameters that govern the ion channel states, known as
the Hodgkin-Huxley equations. These equations have been extensively modified by later research, but form the
starting point for most theoretical studies of action potential biophysics.
As the membrane potential is increased, sodium ion channels open, allowing the entry of sodium ions into the cell.
This is followed by the opening of potassium ion channels that permit the exit of potassium ions from the cell. The
inward flow of sodium ions increases the concentration of positively charged cations in the cell and causes
depolarization, where the potential of the cell is higher than the cell's resting potential. The sodium channels close at
the peak of the action potential, while potassium continues to leave the cell. The efflux of potassium ions decreases
the membrane potential or hyperpolarizes the cell. For small voltage increases from rest, the potassium current
exceeds the sodium current and the voltage returns to its normal resting value, typically −70 mV.[1][2][3] However, if
the voltage increases past a critical threshold, typically 15 mV higher than the resting value, the sodium current
dominates. This results in a runaway condition whereby the positive feedback from the sodium current activates
even more sodium channels. Thus, the cell fires, producing an action potential.[1][4][5][note 1] The frequency at which
cellular action potentials are produced is known as its firing rate.
Currents produced by the opening of voltage-gated channels in the course of an action potential are typically
significantly larger than the initial stimulating current. Thus, the amplitude, duration, and shape of the action
potential are determined largely by the properties of the excitable membrane and not the amplitude or duration of the
stimulus. Thisall-or-nothing property of the action potential sets it apart from graded potentials such as receptor
potentials, electrotonic potentials, and synaptic potentials, which scale with the magnitude of the stimulus. A variety
of action potential types exist in many cell types and cell compartments as determined by the types of voltage-gated
channels, leak channels, channel distributions, ionic concentrations, membrane capacitance, temperature, and other
factors.
The principal ions involved in an action potential are sodium and potassium cations; sodium ions enter the cell, and
potassium ions leave, restoring equilibrium. Relatively few ions need to cross the membrane for the membrane
voltage to change drastically. The ions exchanged during an action potential, therefore, make a negligible change in
the interior and exterior ionic concentrations. The few ions that do cross are pumped out again by the continuous
action of the sodium–potassium pump, which, with other ion transporters, maintains the normal ratio of ion
concentrations across the membrane. Calcium cations and chloride anions are involved in a few types of action
potentials, such as the cardiac action potential and the action potential in the single-cell alga Acetabularia,
respectively.
Although action potentials are generated locally on patches of excitable membrane, the resulting currents can trigger
action potentials on neighboring stretches of membrane, precipitating a domino-like propagation. In contrast to
passive spread of electric potentials (electrotonic potential), action potentials are generated anew along excitable
stretches of membrane and propagate without decay. [6] Myelinated sections of axons are not excitable and do not
produce action potentials and the signal is propagated passively aselectrotonic potential. Regularly spaced
unmyelinated patches, called the nodes of Ranvier, generate action potentials to boost the signal. Known as saltatory
conduction, this type of signal propagation provides a favorable tradeoff of signal velocity and axon diameter.
Depolarization of axon terminals, in general, triggers the release of neurotransmitterinto the synaptic cleft. In
addition, backpropagating action potentials have been recorded in the dendrites of pyramidal neurons, which are
ubiquitous in the neocortex.[c] These are thought to have a role in spike-timing-dependent plasticity.
CerebralCortexLobes
Parietal Lobe - involved in the reception and processing of sensory information from the body.
Frontal Lobe -involved with decision-making, problem solving, and planning.
OccipitalLobe -involvedwithvision.
Temporal Lobe - involved with memory, emotion, hearing, and language.
In summary, the cerebral cortex is responsible for sensing and interpreting input from various sources and
maintaining cognitive function. Sensory functions interpreted by the cerebral cortex include hearing, touch, and
vision
Function:
The cerebral cortex is involved in several functions of the body including:
 Determining Intelligence
 Determining Personality
 Motor Function
 Planning and Organization
 Touch Sensation
5. Explain synaptic transmission and add note on the sensory parts of nervous system.
Neurons receive information from sensory organs, send information to motor organs, or share information with other
neurons. The process of communicating information is very similar, whether it is to another neuron or to a muscle or
gland cell. However, by far the largest number of neuronal connections is with other neurons. The rest of this tutorial
therefore focuses on inter-neuronal communication. The transmission of information is accomplished in two ways:
 Electrically: the neuron is directly adjacent to other neurons. Small holes in each cell's membrane,
called gap junctions, are juxtaposed so that as the action potential reaches the end of the axon (at the
terminal boutons), the depolarization continues across the membrane to the postsynaptic neuron directly.
 Chemically: there is a space (the synaptic cleft) between the axon terminus and the adjacent neuron. As the
action potential reaches the end of the axon, a chemical is released that travels across the synaptic cleft to
the next neuron to alter its electric potential.
With very few exceptions, mammalian organisms use chemical means to transmit information.
Synapse Structure
 The part of the synapse that belongs to the initiating neuron is called the presynaptic membrane.
 The part of the synapse that belongs to the receiving neuron is called the postsynaptic membrane.
 The space between the two is called the synaptic cleft. It is approximately 20 nm wide (20 x 10-9 m).
 Presynaptic terminals contain numerous synaptic vesicles
 Synaptic vesicles contain Neurotransmitters, chemical substances which ultimately cause postsynaptic
changes in the receiving neuron, is contained within the synaptic vesicles. Common neurotransmitters
include:
o Acetylcholine
o Dopamine
o Norepinepherine (a.k.a., noradrenaline)
o Serotonin
Transmission
Electrical transmission occurs by virtue of the fact that the cells are in
direct contact with each other: depolarization of the presynaptic cell
membrane causes a depolarization of the postsynaptic cell membrane, and
the action potential is propagated further. Here transmission of information
is always excitatory: the conduction of information always causes a depolarization of the adjacent cell's membrane.
Chemical transmission, albeit more complex allows for far more control, including the ability to excite or inhibit the
postsynaptic cell. Here the conduction of information can cause either depolarization or hyperpolarization,
depending on the nature of the chemical substance.
The sequence of events that lead to postsynaptic changes is as follows:
1. The action potential signal arrives at the axon terminal (the bouton).
2. The local depolarization causes Ca2+ channels to open. (Is this channel voltage, chemically, or mechanically
gated? Answer.)
3. Ca2+ enters the presynaptic cell because its concentration is greater outside the cell than inside.
4. The Ca2+, by binding with calmodulin, causes vesicles filled with neurotransmitter to migrate towards the
presynaptic membrane.
5. The vesicle merges with the presynaptic membrane.
6. The presynaptic membrane and vesicle now forms a continuous membrane, so that the neurotransmitter is
released into the synaptic cleft. This process is called exocytosis.
7. The neurotransmitter diffuses through the synaptic cleft and binds with receptor channel membranes that
are located in both presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes. (Are these channels voltage, chemically, or
mechanically gated? Answer.)
8. The time period from neurotransmitter release to receptor channel binding is less than a millionth of a
second.
The process is depicted in the diagram below:
Direct and Indirect Binding to Postsynaptic Receptor

There are two kinds of receptor channels: direct and indirect
1. Direct: the receptor channel allows ions to pass through
the membrane. The neurotransmitter acts like a key
which opens the ion channel. This is the fastest kind of
channel (about 0.5 ms). This is called an ionotropic
receptor.
2. Indirect: the binding of neurotransmitter to the receptor
channel causes the release of a molecule, called a secondary messenger, that indirectly activates nearby ion
channels. This is called a metabotropic receptor.
o This process is much slower than direct receptor ion channels: from 30 ms up to 1 second.
o However, this is the most common type of postsynaptic receptor channel
Postsynaptic Stimulation
Once the postsynaptic ion channel is opened, whether directly or indirectly, the effect can be either excitatory
(depolarizing) or inhibitory (hyperpolarizing).
 Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSP)
o
Excitatory ion channels are permeable to Na+ and K+
o
Because of the electrical and concentration gradient, more Na+ moves into the cell than K+
o
The inside of the cell becomes more positive, hence causing a local depolarization
o
If enough depolarization occurs (for example, because the neurotransmitter released caused nearby
ion channels to open), an action potential is generated
 Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials (IPSP)
o
Inhibitory ion channels are permeable to Cl- and K+
o
Because of the concentration gradient (not electrical), Cl - moves into the cell and K + moves out of
the cell
o
The inside of the cell thus becomes more negative, hence causing a local hyperpolarization
o
The hyperpolarization will make it more difficult for the cell membrane potential to reach
threshold, thereby making it less likely that an action potential will be generated
Neurotransmitter Deactivation
If neurotransmitters were continually in the synaptic cleft, the postsynaptic channels would be continually stimulated
and the membrane potential would not be able to become stable. There are three ways in which neurotransmitter is
deactivated:
1. Degradation: Enzymes located in the synaptic cleft break down the neurotransmitter into a substance which
has no effect on the receptor channel
2. Reuptake: The neurotransmitter can reenter the presynaptic cell through channels in the membrane.
3. Autoreceptors: Receptors for a particular neurotransmitter are located on the presynaptic membrane that act
like a thermostat. When there is too much neurotransmitter released in the synapse, it decreases the release
of further neurotransmitter when the action potential arrives at the presynaptic membrane. It may
accomplish this by decreasing the number of Ca 2+channels that open when the next action potential arrives
at the presynaptic terminal
Neurotransmitters
A molecule is considered a neurotransmitter if it meets the following criteria:
 Synthesis of the neurotransmitter occurs in the neuron itself
 It can be found in the presynaptic membrane (because it was carried there from the soma, or because it was
synthesized there directly)
 Its release into the synaptic cleft causes a change in the postsynaptic membrane
 Its effect on a neuron is the same whether released exogenously (i.e., from outside the organism as a drug)
or endogenously (from the presynaptic terminal)
 Once released, the molecule is specifically removed from the synaptic cleft either by reuse or degradation
There are two classes of neurotransmitters:
 Small molecules, such as acetylcholine (ACh) or dopamine
o Are packaged in small vesicles
o Are released by exocytosis at active zones associated with Ca2+ channels
 Large molecules made up of chains of amino acids
o Are packaged in large vesicles (which can contain small molecules as well)
o Are released by exocytosis generally anywhere from the presynaptic membrane
Most neurons contain both types of vesicles, but in different concentrations
Sensory systems
A sensory system is a part of nervous system consisting of sensory receptors that receive stimuli frominternal and
external environment, neural pathways that conduct this information to brain and parts of brain that processes this
information. The information is called sensory information and it may or may not lead to conscious awareness. If it
does, it can be called sensation.
Receptors
Specialized endings of afferent neurons or separate cells that affect ends of afferent neurons. They collect
information about external and internal environment in various energy forms-and energy that activates a receptor is
called a stimulus. Stimulus energy is first transformed into graded or receptor potentials and the process by which a
stimulus is transformed into an electrical response is called stimulus transduction.
Each receptor is specific to a certain type of stimulus, which is called its adequate stimulus. Specificity also exists
in the range of stimulus energies that the receptor responds to. However, a receptor can be activated by a nonspecific
stimulus if its intensity is sufficiently high.
Receptor Potential
Gating of ion channels in specialized receptor membranes allows a change in ion fluxes across the membrane,
generating a graded receptor potential. The graded potential initiates an action potential, frequency and NOT
magnitude of which is determined by magnitude of the graded potential. Magnitude of the receptor potential is
determined by stimulus strength, summation of receptor potentials, and receptor sensitivity. The decrease in
sensitivity with a constant stimulus is called adaptation.
Neural Pathways in Sensory Systems
A single afferent neuron with all its receptor endings makes a sensory unit. When stimulated, this is the portion of
body that leads to activity in a particular afferent neuron is called the receptive field of that neuron.
Afferent neurons enter the CNS, diverge and synapse upon many interneurons. These afferent neurons are called
sensory or ascending pathways and specific ascending pathways if they carry information about a single type of
stimulus. The ascending pathways reach the cerebral cortex on the side opposite to where their sensory receptors are
located.
Specific ascending pathways that transmit information from somatic receptors and taste buds go to somatosensory
cortex (parietal lobe), the ones from eyes go to visual cortex (occipital lobe), and the ones from ears go to auditory
cortex (temporal lobe).
Olfaction is NOT represented in cerebral cortex.
Nonspecific ascending pathways consist of polymodal neurons and are activated by sensory units of several types.
These pathways are important in alertness and arousal.
Cortical association areas, lying outside primary cortical sensory areas, participate in more complex analysis of
incoming information such as comparison, memory, language, motivation, emotion etc.
Primary Sensory Coding
Sensory systems code 4 aspects of a stimulus:
(1) Stimulus Type (modality). All receptors of a single afferent neuron are sensitive to the same type of stimulus.
(2) Stimulus Intensity. An increased stimulus results in a larger receptor potential,, leading to a higher frequency
of action potential. Stronger stimuli also affect a larger area and recruit a larger number of receptors.
(3) Stimulus Location. Coded by site of the stimulated receptor. The precision of location, called acuity, is
negatively correlated with the amount of convergence in ascending pathways, size of the receptive field and overlap
with adjacent receptive fields. Response is highest at the center of receptive field since receptor density is the
highest there. Using lateral inhibition, a process by which information from neurons at the edge of a stimulus is
inhibited, acuity can be increased.
(4) Stimulus Duration. Rapid adapting receptors respond rapidly at the onset of stimulus but slow down or stop
firing during the remainder of stimulus (they adapt quickly). They are important in signaling rapid change. Slow
adapting receptors maintain their response at or near the initial level of firing through the duration of stimulus and
are important in signaling slow changes.
Somatic Sensation
Sensations from skin, muscles, bone are initiated by somatic receptors. Receptors for visceral sensations are similar.
Touch-Pressure
Mechanoreceptors in the skin are of 2 types, rapid and slow adapting ones.
Posture and Movement
Muscle-spindle stretch receptors, occurring in skeletal muscles respond to the absolute magnitude and the rate of
muscle stretch. Mechanoreceptors in joints, tendons, ligaments and skin also participate.
Temperature
Thermoreceptors are of two types, one that responds to an increase and the other that responds to a decrease in
temperature.
Pain
Nociceptors respond to intense mechanical deformation, excessive heat etc. which cause tissue damage and many
chemicals that are released by damaged cells or cells of immune system.
If the initial stimulus of pain leads to an increased sensitivity to subsequent painful stimuli it is called hyperalgesia.
If descending pathways inhibit the transmission of pain stimuli, it leads to a suppression of pain and this is called
stimulation-produced analgesia.
If both visceral and somatic afferent converge on the same interneuron, excitation of one can lead to excitation of the
other, leading to the pain being felt at a site different from the actual injured part. This is called referred pain.
Stimulating non-pain afferent fibers can inhibit neurons in the pain pathway and this therapy is called transcutaneous
electric nerve stimulation (TENS). Rubbing on a painful area and acupuncture work for the same reason.
Vision
Optics
Receptors in eye are sensitive to only the visible light of electromagnetic spectrum. Lens and cornea focus
impinging light rays into an image at fovea centralis area of retina. Light passing from air into cornea is bent and the
curved surface of cornea plays the major role in focusing.
Changes in lens shape make adjustments (accommodation) for distance. Lens shape is controlled by zonular fibers
that are in turn controlled by the smooth ciliary muscle. To focus on distant objects, the lens is pulled into a flattened
oval shape. For near vision, the pull is removed to make the lens more spherical and provide additional bending for
light rays.
Cells of the lens lose their organelles and are therefore transparent. The lens become progressively opaque as newer
cells replace older ones, which accumulate in the lens. This is called cataract.
If the lens loses its elasticity (due to age) and cannot assume a spherical shape, it leads to loss of near vision and this
is called presbyopia.
If images of far objects focus at a point in front of retina, the eye is nearsighted or myopic and far vision is poor. If
images of near objects focus at a point behind retina, the eye is farsighted or hyperopic and near vision is poor. If the
lens or cornea is not smooth, it is called astigmatism.
The lens separates an anterior chamber filled with aqueous humor and a posterior chamber filled with vitreous
humor. If aqueous humor is formed faster than it is removed, it results in an increased pressure within the eye. This
can cause irreversible blindness with the death of optic nerves and it is called glaucoma.
The pigmented, opaque iris that has a central hole, the pupil, controls amount of light entering the eye. The iris has
smooth muscles, innervated by autonomic nerves. Stimulation of the sympathetic nerves dilates the pupil to let in
mare light when light is poor and stimulation of the parasympathetic nerves constricts the pupil to allow in less light
when light is bright.
Photoreceptor Cells
Rods - sensitive and responding to low light and cones - less sensitive and responding to bright light. There are three
kinds of cones containing red-, green-, or blue sensitive pigment.
Photoreceptors contain photopigments, which absorb light. There are 4 photopigments, rhodopsin in the rods and
one in each of the 3 cone types. Each photopigment contains an integral membrane protein, opsin, which binds a
light sensitive chromatophore molecule. The chromatophore - retinal (a derivative of vitamin A) is the same in all
the 4 photopigments. The opsin is different in each type of photopigment, absorbing light at different wavelengths of
the spectrum.
Light activates retinal, causing it to change shape and triggering a hyperpolarization in the bipolar cells, which
synapse with the photoreceptor cells. After its activation, retinal changes back to its resting shape by light-
independent mechanisms and the photoreceptor cell is depolarized
Neural Pathways
Photoreceptor cells synapse with neurons called bipolar cells which, in turn, synapse with ganglion cells that
produce the first action potentials in the chain. Axons from ganglion cells form the optic nerve, which crosses over
to the opposite side of the optic chiasm.
Sound Transmission in the Ear
Outer Ear (Pinna/Auricle) - Directs and amplifies sound waves.
External Auditory Canal –the ear canal leading from the outside to the middle ear cavity
Tympanic membrane (Eardrum) - Vibrates at the frequency of sound waves.
Middle Ear Cavity - Filled with air. Has a movable chain of 3 bones, the malleus, incus and stapes that couple and
amplifies the vibrations in the tympanic membrane to the
Oval window- a membrane covered opening separating the middle ear and the
Inner Ear (cochlea)
Scala vestibuli - Filled with fluid
Cochlear duct - Lined by the basilar membrane upon which sits the organ of Corti containing the receptor cells.
Organ of Corti
Receptor cells of the organ of Corti, the hair cells, are mechanoreceptors that have hairlike stereocilia. Vibration of
the basilar membrane, with which the hair cells are attached, stimulates the hair cells and the pressure waves are
transformed into receptor potentials.
Neural Pathways
Afferent neurons from the hair cells form the cochlear nerve.
Hearing
Entire audible range extends from 20 to 20,000 Hz.
Vestibular System
A series of fluid filled tubes in the inner ear that connect with each other and the cochlear duct containing hair cells
that detect changes in motion
2 Parts:
Semicircular Canals
Detect angular acceleration during rotation of the head along the three axes.
Utricle and Saccule
Provide information about linear acceleration and changes in head position relative to gravity.
Vestibular Information
Information from hair cells in the vestibular apparatus is transmitted to the parietal lobe and is integrated with
information from other parts of body, leading to sense of posture and movement. Unexpected inputs from the
vestibular system leads to vertigo or motion sickness.
Chemical Tastes
Taste
Taste buds found on the tongue respond to 4 basic modalities, sweet, sour, salty and bitter. Each groups has a distinct
transductional system. Organized into independent pathways but a single receptor cell may respond to more than one
taste category in various degrees.
Smell
Odor is related to chemical structure of a substance. Olfactory receptor cells lie in the olfactory epithelium in upper
part of nasal cavity. These cells have several long, non-motile cilia, which contain binding sites for olfactory stimuli.
Each cell contains one type of receptor. Axons of olfactory receptor cells of same specificity synapse together.
Information is passed into the olfactory cortex in the limbic system

Anatony and Human Physiology

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Murali HOD Biomedical RVSETGI

2 mark Question and Answer

1. What is meant by Active transport?(Nov2012)

2. What is Endoplasmic reticulum? (Nov 2012)

3. Short notes on Mitochondria?( Nov 2011)

4. Define isotonicity? (Nov 2010)

5. Write the difference between Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis? (Nov 2010)

6. Write short notes on ribosomes function? (May 2009)

7. What are the different types of Muscle Tissues? (May 2009)

8. What is the composition of Plasma membrane? (Nov 2013)

9. List the functions of Nucleus? (Nov 2013)

10. Define Action potential? (May 2009)

16 Mark Question and Answer

1. Describe the components of cell with a suitable diagram. (Nov 12)

Parts of Prokaryotic Cell and their Functions

Parts of Eukaryotic Cell and their Functions

Rough endoplasmic reticulum - it manufactures proteins.

 Storage and manufacturing of energy.

Transport across Membranes

Mechanisms of Facilitated Diffusion:

There are three schemes by which diffusion can be overcome in cells.

Delta G = RTln(C2/C1) +ZF Delta psi

4. Explain the types of tissue and its function.

5. Explain the origin of membrane potential.

2 mark Question and Answer

1. What are the compositions of bone material?

 Granulocytes (polymorphonuclear leukocytes): leukocytes characterised by the presence of differently

3. Define oxygen dissociation curve?( Nov 2011)

4. Briefly explain pulmonary ventilation?( May 2009)

5. What is the extent of Trachea? (May 2009)

6. Write short notes on internal respiration? (nov 2008)

8. What are the functions of skeleton? (Nov 2007)

9. What are the movement of joints (may 2007)

• Abduction: this is the movement of a bone away from the midline.

10. What is the function of pulmonary alveoli? (Nov 2013)

16 Mark Question and Answer

Exchange of gases in alveolus

2. Discuss various types of joints. (Nov 2007)

B) Synchondroses – cartilaginous joints that have hyaline cartilage between bones

Six types of Synovial Joints

Synovial Joints: Knee

- Knee Ligaments and Tendons

Anatomy of the Lungs

 Extension. This is when you straighten your limbs at a joint.

 Flexion. This is when you bend your limbs around a joint.

5. Explain the acid base balance in respiratory system. ((Nov 2011)

where pKa is the dissociation constant of the weak acid

Or similarly, by the Kassirer-Bleich equation, derived from the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:

Note: to convert arterial pH to [H+] use: 10

Unit III Circulatory System

2 mark Question and Answer

1. Define heart sounds. (Nov 2008)

2. What are the compositions of blood. (May 2009)

3. Define ECG and its significance. (Nov2011)

 How fast your heart is beating

4. Define systole and diastole. (Nov2010)

5. List the events involved in cardiac cycle. (Nov 2010)

6. Write a short note on cardiac muscle. (Nov 2012)

7. Brief about pacemaker potential (Nov 2012)

8. Write a note on blood group antigen (Nov2013)

9. Classify the WBC. (Nov2013)

16 Mark Question and Answer