Accepted Manuscript

Effective use of sawdust for the production of eco-friendly and thermal-energy

efficient normal weight and lightweight concretes with tailored fracture properties

Wisal Ahmed, Rao Arsalan Khushnood, Shazim Ali Memon, Sajjad Ahmad,
Waqas Latif Baloch, Muhammad Usman

PII: S0959-6526(18)30658-9

DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.009

Reference: JCLP 12267

To appear in: Journal of Cleaner Production

Received Date: 03 September 2017

Revised Date: 02 February 2018

Accepted Date: 01 March 2018

Please cite this article as: Wisal Ahmed, Rao Arsalan Khushnood, Shazim Ali Memon, Sajjad
Ahmad, Waqas Latif Baloch, Muhammad Usman, Effective use of sawdust for the production of
eco-friendly and thermal-energy efficient normal weight and lightweight concretes with tailored
fracture properties, Journal of Cleaner Production (2018), doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.009

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to
our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo
copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form.
Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the
content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Effective use of sawdust for the production of eco-friendly and thermal-energy efficient
normal weight and lightweight concretes with tailored fracture properties

Wisal Ahmed1, Rao Arsalan Khushnood1*, Shazim Ali Memon2*, Sajjad Ahmad3, Waqas Latif Baloch1
Muhammad Usman1

1 NUST Institute of Civil Engineering (NICE), School of Civil and Environmental Engineering (SCEE),
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Sector H-12, Islamabad-44000, Pakistan

2 Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, Nazarbayev University, Astana, Republic of

Kazakhstan

3 Department of Civil Engineering, Mirpur University of Science and Technology (MUST), Mirpur-
10250 (AJK), Pakistan
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Word count 6011

ABSTRACT

In this research, we produced eco-friendly and thermal efficient normal and lightweight concretes with
different dosages of sawdust as replacement of sand. Conventional NWC containing 0, 5, 10, and 15%
sawdust and LWC containing 0 and 10% sawdust of total dry volume of sand were evaluated in terms of
volumetric shrinkage, compressive strength, flexural strength, fracture toughness, water absorption,
density, thermal conductivity and energy efficiency. Test results showed that volumetric shrinkage and
concrete density decreased while water absorption increased with the increase in sawdust percentage. For
NWC and LWC sawdust formulations, the total fracture toughness increased by 10.71% and 14.89%
respectively while the rupture strain increased by 58.86% and 37.30% respectively. At 28 days, the
compressive strength of NWC and LWC sawdust formulations was more than 34 MPa and 21 MPa
respectively and hence these concretes can be used for structural applications. The energy analysis of
single room model prepared with sawdust formulations showed significant reduction (up to 21.42%) in
heating ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) as well as in CO2 emissions (up to 13%). Conclusively,
the utilization of sawdust provides viable source of raw materials for construction industry, eco-friendly
solution of sawdust disposal and would help in conserving natural aggregate reservoirs.

Keywords: Sawdust; Lightweight concrete; Sustainability; Energy efficiency; Volumetric stability;

Thermal insulation; Flexural strength; Fracture toughness; CO2 emissions

1
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Abbreviations

AFM Atomic force microscopy

BTU British thermal unit

DTA Differential thermal analysis

FESEM Field emission scanning electron microscopy

FTIR Fourier transform infrared radiation

LWC Lightweight concrete

NSC Normal strength concrete

NWC Normal weight concrete

SD Sawdust

TGA Thermal gravimetric analysis

TR Refrigeration ton

XRD X-ray diffraction

XRF X-ray fluorescence

10SD-NWC Normal weight concrete containing 10 percent sawdust content

10SD-LWC Lightweight concrete containing 10 percent sawdust content

2
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

1. Introduction

Global statistics of solid waste production reveal accumulation of industrial byproducts in large extent
owing to rapid increase in industrialization. These byproducts require adequate measures for effective
recycling and utilization due to environmental and economic concerns. Moreover, the natural sand
resources are depleting globally owing to excessive consumption by the construction sector, which in turn
decreased natural sand reservoirs and resulted in irreversible destruction of the environment (Farahani et
al., 2017). It is well known that construction sector is one of the largest consumers of natural aggregate
resources (Tiwari et al., 2016). Due to rapid increase in the world population as well as a boom in
infrastructure, the demand for concrete has increased (Silva et al., 2015; Singh and Siddique 2015).
Several researchers replaced natural aggregates with recycled aggregates for sustainable development of
concrete (Hanif et al., 2017; Thomas and Gupta 2015). Incorporation of solid waste materials in
conventional concrete as partial replacement of fine aggregate provides an eco-friendly and effective
disposal along with improved thermo-mechanical properties of cement composites. Various waste
materials have been explored as an alternative to natural aggregate. Some examples include incorporation
of waste polyethylene and rubber pieces (Sales et al., 2011), composite of water treatment sludge and
wood-waste (Aigbomian and Fan 2013), copper slag (Mithun and Narasimhan 2015), waste-paper and
sawdust (Yesilata et al., 2009), composite of gypsum and wood-waste (Pedreño-Rojas et al., 2017),
sandwiched newspaper (Ng and Low 2010) and coconut fiber (Hasan et al., 2012). Test results reported
significant improvement in thermal and acoustic response, however, slight reduction in the mechanical
strength of cement composites has been observed.

Wood-waste owing to landfill space scarcity and environmental concerns is recognized as one of the
serious threats especially to developing countries as its accumulation in factories, mills and in the
household activities is growing each year. Hence, there is an immense need for its recycling and effective
utilization such as in cement based composites to ensure its effective and safe disposal. The annual
generation and non-recycled quantity of wood-waste in tonnes/year of few major states and countries
shown in Table 1 reveal lack of adequate measures for effective recycling of wood-waste. Various
researchers evaluated the performance of sawdust in cement based composites. Sales et al. (Sales et al.,
2010) evaluated the thermal properties of sawdust cement based composites and found that the
incorporation of sawdust in concrete resulted in significant reduction in thermal conductivity values (by
23.2%) compared to reference specimen. The authors concluded that this substantial decrease in thermal
conductivity was due to low-density and high porosity of sawdust modified lightweight concrete
composites. Oyedepo et al. (Oyedepo et al., 2014) investigated the use of sawdust as replacement of
natural fine aggregate (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100wt%) in normal weight concrete and found that proportion
beyond 25% replacement of sand adversely affected mechanical strength and density properties of

3
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

concrete. Similar results were reported by several other researchers while utilizing sawdust as
replacement of sand at different levels (10, 20, 30, and 40%) in concrete and suggested sawdust up to
10% replacement of sand, as it presented better results in terms of concrete density and strength properties
(Adebakin and Adeyemi 2012). Use of sawdust as replacement of fine aggregate (0% to 15%) was also
investigated by Boob (Boob 2014). The author found that the intrusion of sawdust presented better results
in terms of thermal and mechanical properties of cement based composites. Based on above literature, it
can clearly be seen that there is still a wide gap to be explored concerning the potential impact of sawdust
dosage on the pre-crack and post-crack fracture behavior of normal weight and lightweight concretes.
Moreover, as per authors’ knowledge, the shrinkage behavior and thermal-energy consumptions of NWC
and LWC prepared with different dosages of sawdust as replacement of sand have never been
investigated.

In recent years, more attention has been paid to the development of lightweight aggregate concrete
(LWC). Lightweight concrete reduces building cost, eases construction and has the advantage of being a
relatively ‘green’ building material (Cui et al., 2012). Lightweight aggregate (LWA) owing to its physical
structure result in the transformation to lightweight concrete elements with improved thermal insulation
properties (Zaetang et al., 2013). Thus, it helps in increasing energy efficiency of building structures
leading towards sustainability. Moreover, structural lightweight aggregate concrete is much beneficial in
reducing thermal bridging effects and maintaining the required level of thermal comfort inside the
buildings (Real et al., 2016). Hence, the role of sawdust as replacement of fine aggregate in LWC would
also be investigated. More specifically, in this research, conventional normal weight concrete containing
0, 5, 10, and 15% sawdust and lightweight concrete containing 0 and 10% sawdust of total dry volume of
sand would be evaluated in terms of volumetric shrinkage, compressive strength, flexural strength,
fracture toughness, water absorption, density and thermal conductivity. The energy saving potential and
reduction in greenhouse gas emissions for these concretes would also be investigated.

Table 1: Wood-waste estimation in tonnes/year of few 1major states and 2countries

Total wood-waste Non-recycled wood-
Region/Country Source/Reference
(tonnes/year) waste (tonnes/year)
United States of
64,047,240 25,764,050 (Cratkovich et al., 2014)
America1
United Kingdom2 4,600,000 1,840,000 (Poyry and Ltd 2009)
Germany2 8,800,000 3,520,000 (Poyry and Ltd 2009)
(Taylor, and Langenberg
Australia1 4,508,136 1,741,000
2005)
Pakistan2 1,730,948 346,189 (Khan et al., 2016)

4
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

2. Experimental program

2.1 Materials

2.1.1 Sawdust

Sawdust is an organic substance obtained as a result of cutting, grinding, drilling, scraping, or generally
pummeling wood with saw or any other cutting tool used in sawmills, factories, or in the household
activities. Depending upon the dimensions of tool used for processing the wood, it emanates in various
shapes and sizes. The current research investigates sawdust of hardwood (Deodar), which belongs to
Cedrus Deodara species native to the northern regions of Pakistan. The sawdust sample shown in Figure
1(a) was acquired from a local wooden factory and was used in its raw form without any type of
pretreatment. To assess the average particle size (D50) and particle size distribution of sawdust sample,
sieve analysis was performed. Sawdust grains exhibit an irregular shape having an average particle size of
594 µm as shown in Figure 1(b). The physical properties and chemical composition of sawdust obtained
through laboratory tests are presented in Table 2 and Figure 2 respectively.

a b

Figure 1: a) Sawdust sample used in the study b) Particle size distribution of sawdust

Table 2: Physical properties of sawdust

S.No Properties Sawdust

1 Bulk density (kg/m3) 290
2 Moisture content (%) 20.45
3 Specific gravity 2.17
4 Average particle Size (µm) 594

5
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

100µm

Figure 2: Elemental composition of sawdust obtained via EDX analysis

200µm 100µm

Figure 3: Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) of a single sawdust particle

Figure 4: Atomic force micrograph (AFM) of sawdust (7µm x 7µm)

6
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

The morphology of sawdust grains were analyzed using field emission scanning electron microscopy
(FESEM) as shown in Figure 3. It is evident from the micrographs that sawdust particles are irregular
shaped exhibiting well-defined channel like structure. These parallel channels have uniform and
continuous distribution of micro-pores throughout their length. The average dimension of an individual
sawdust grain varies from 500 µm to 600 µm and is in line to the attained value of D50 = 594 µm obtained
by performing sieve analysis as shown in Figure 1(b). To further elaborate the surface topography of unit
sawdust grain at nano-metric scale, atomic force microscopy (AFM) was performed. AFM micrograph of
sawdust sample shown in Figure 4 reveals relatively rough topography and laminated surface texture
containing well-defined layers with uniformly distributed micro-pores. The layered pattern may ensure an
effective interaction of individual sawdust grain with the adjacent cementitious matrix. Literature endorse
that the channel like structure with uniform distribution of micro-pores results in the phenomenon known
as conviction which is further linked to the quantity and geometry of pores and hence may result in
improved thermal-energy efficiency of concrete composites (Clarke 2003).

Sawdust is an organic substance which mainly comprises of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and various
hydroxyl groups such as tannins or other phenolic compounds (Sidiras et al., 2011). To identify various
functional groups attached to the structure of these compounds, FTIR analysis was performed. The FTIR
analysis of sawdust sample presented in Figure 5 portrays strong peaks at wavenumbers 3338 cm-1 and
2880 cm-1, in which the former indicates the single –OH stretching of phenol group of cellulose and
lignin, while the latter depicts stretching of single –CH2 functional group of aliphatic compounds present
in sawdust (Can 2015). The subsequent two peaks at wavenumbers 1710 cm-1 and 1650 cm-1 indicate
stretching of C=O of the aldehyde group and C=C of the phenol group, respectively (Can 2015). The
projections at wavenumbers 1502 cm-1, 1440 cm-1 and 1360 cm-1 can be attributed to the presence of C=C
of benzene aromatic ring, single –CH2 bending and C-O-H bending respectively, while the peaks in the
range 1260 cm-1 to 1000 cm-1 indicate C-O stretching of the phenolic group (Can 2015).

Figure 5: FTIR spectrum of sawdust sample

7
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

To study crystallography of sawdust particles, x-ray diffraction (XRD) was performed on sawdust sample
as shown in Figure 6. Sawdust mainly comprises of cellulose, hemi-cellulose and lignin. Cellulose
exhibits highly organized crystallinity while hemi-cellulose and lignin both are amorphous in nature. The
XRD spectrum shows two significant peaks at 2Ө orientations (22˚ and 16˚). The primary peak indicates
the presence of well-organized crystalline cellulose while the small peak observed at 16˚ indicates a less
organized polysaccharide (Sidiras et al., 2011).

Figure 6: XRD spectrum of sawdust sample

2.1.2 Lightweight aggregate

Lightweight aggregate (shale) due to its better thermal insulation properties, reduced density and local
availability, were selected to produce lightweight concrete. The lightweight aggregate conforming to
ASTM specification (ASTM C332-09), were acquired from council for works and housing research
(CWHR), Karachi, Pakistan. Physical properties of lightweight aggregate including specific gravity,
water absorption, bulk density are presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Physical properties of materials used in the study

Fine Normal weight Light weight
aggregate aggregate (NWA) aggregate (LWA)
Specific gravity 2.48 2.64 2.32
Water absorption (%) 1.62 1.21 7.14
Maximum size (mm) ─ 12.5 12.5
Bulk density (kg/m3) 1557.84 1546.63 841.52

For the production of both normal weight concrete (NWC) and lightweight concrete, ordinary portland
cement (OPC) Type-I conforming to ASTM C150 (ASTM C150/C150M-15) and having a specific
gravity of 3.15 was used. Natural fine aggregate having fineness modulus of 2.25 and coarse aggregate
with maximum size of 12.5 mm conforming to ASTM C33 (ASTM C33-03) gradation standard, were

8
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

acquired from the local sources. The water absorption, density and specific gravity of coarse aggregate
and sand were determined as per ASTM standard (ASTM C127-01) and (ASTM C128-01) guidelines
respectively. The materials were used in saturated surface dry condition in order to get the required
workability of the resultant concrete composites.

2.2 Mix design and sample preparation

For this research, NWC and LWC with different dosages of sawdust were prepared with water to cement
ratio of 0.5. The quantity of water absorbed by sawdust grains was compensated in the formulated mix
proportion. Four specimens were fabricated with normal weight aggregate containing 0%, 5%, 10%, and
15% content of sawdust by total dry volume of sand in replacement mode, while the remaining two
formulations were prepared using lightweight aggregate (shale) containing 0% and optimum percentage
(10%) of sawdust by dry volume of sand. The specimens were water cured in a controlled environment
(95% relative humidity and 23˚C temperature) up to the specified age of testing. Details of mixture
proportions for the analyzed formulations are summarized in Table 4.

Table 4: Composition of different formulations

Cement Fine aggregate NWA LWA Sawdust
Denotation
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
NWC 416.65 624.97 1041.63 ─ 0.00
05SD-NWC 416.65 593.72 1041.63 ─ 5.25
10SD-NWC 416.65 562.47 1041.63 ─ 10.50
15SD-NWC 416.65 531.22 1041.63 ─ 15.75
LWC 328.08 492.12 ─ 820.20 0.00
10SD-LWC 328.08 442.91 ─ 820.20 10.50
* For each formulation 0.5 water/cement ratio was used

2.3 Testing program

To investigate the effect of sawdust on early shrinkage response of cement based formulations with and
without sawdust, shrinkage apparatus (Schwindrine Germany) that follows linear protocol (ASTM
C1698-09) was used (Figure 7). For this purpose, four cement mortar formulations containing 0%, 5%,
10% and 15% sawdust of total dry volume of sand were selected. Furthermore, water absorption at the
age of 28 days and density of sawdust modified NWC and LWC in its hardened state were studied as per
ASTM standard (ASTM C642-13) guidelines.

9
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Figure 7: Schwindrine German shrinkage apparatus used in the study

For fracture properties of concrete in terms of pre-crack and post-crack responses, concrete prisms having
dimensions of 150mm x 150mm x 750mm and cured for 7 and 28 days, were tested using strain
controlled SHIMADZU universal testing machine (UTM). The specimens were tested in 3-point bending
at a controlled strain rate of 0.01 mm/min (ASTM C293-02) to sensitively capture the initiation and
propagation of cracks. The specimens were placed in the frame to act as a simply support with a clear
span of 600mm. Test setup made for 3-point bend test is shown in Figure 8(a). The compression strength
of both sawdust modified normal weight concrete and sawdust modified lightweight concrete having
dimensions of 150mm x 150mm x 150mm and cured for 7 and 28 days, were tested using SHIMADZU
universal testing machine (UTM) at controlled loading rate of 0.2 MPa per second in accordance to
(ASTM C39-16). Figure 8(b) shows test setup made for measuring compression strength of concrete
samples. Finally, to study the heat flow pattern through control and sawdust modified specimens; guarded
heat flow meter technique was used. Both NWC and LWC specimens with different dosages of sawdust
were tested under control conditions as per (ASTM E1530-11).

10
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

a b

Figure 8: a) Strain-controlled 3-point bend test setup

b) Load-controlled compression test setup

3. Results and discussions

3.1 Volumetric shrinkage

Since the aspect of volumetric shrinkage is much significant and has vital contribution in the initiation
and progression phases of cracks, therefore the volumetric shrinkage of cement based formulations
containing different percentages of sawdust (0%, 5%, 10% and 15% by volume) as replacement of sand
was investigated. The results of early shrinkage response of four different formulations are presented in
Figure 9. It was observed that the incorporation of sawdust in cementitious system resulted in significant
reduction in the values of early shrinkage. The shrinkage of sawdust formulations decreased with the
increase in the percentage of sawdust in cement based composites. Sawdust formulations containing 15%
sawdust displayed maximum decrease in shrinkage by (42%). This decrease in shrinkage of sawdust
formulations is due to the internal curing action of sawdust that provided the internal requisite moistness
and hence improved the shrinkage response of the resultant mixed formulations.

11
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Figure 9: Total linear shrinkage of mortar formulations with varying sawdust loads

3.2 Fracture properties

3.2.1 Compressive strength

The compressive strength values of NWC and LWC prepared with and without sawdust as replacement of
fine aggregate in concrete at different ages are shown in Figure 10. As expected, the compressive
strength for both types of concrete increased with the increase in the age of testing. It can also be seen that
at 7 and 28 days, the compression strength of NWC and LWC specimens decreased with the increase in
sawdust quantity. In comparison to control NWC, the percentage reduction in compressive strength at the
age of 28 days for NWC containing 5, 10 and 15% sawdust content was found to be 2.95%, 7.70% and
12.32% respectively. In case of LWC, sawdust modified specimens showed 7.36% decrease in
compressive strength at the age of 28 days. The reduction in compressive strength is related to the
strength of individual components of concrete. As sawdust particles are more porous and weaker (Figure
3) than natural sand, therefore the compressive strength of sawdust concrete was found to be less than the
control concrete (NWC and LWC). Another possible reason for this decrease in compressive strength
might be related to the availability of high initial free water content rendering bleeding and poor
interfacial bonding between cement paste and aggregates. However, both NWC and LWC formulations
(at 28 days) with different percentages of sawdust as fine aggregate displayed compressive strength of
more than the structural concrete requirement laid by ACI 318 standard i.e. 17MPa (2500psi) and hence
are acceptable for structural applications (ACI Committee 318-08).

Another important parameter of concrete is modulus of elasticity (Ec), which is closely related to its
stiffness and is defined as the slope of stress strain response of concrete in elastic range. Values of Ec
determined as the slope of stress stain curve corresponding to 40% of ultimate stress as per ASTM C39

12
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

(ASTM C39-16), are summarized in Table 5. For both NWC and LWC formulations, the modulus of
elasticity decreased with the increase in the dosage of sawdust at the age of 7 and 28 days. This might be
associated to the weaker interfacial transition zone, reduced strength of individual components of concrete
due to porous nature of sawdust and reduced density of sawdust modified concrete.

45 NWC
05SD-NWC
40
10SD-NWC
35 15SD-NWC
Compressive Strength (MPa)

30 LWC
10SD-LWC
25

20

15

10

0
7 28
Age (Days)

Figure 10: Compressive strength of sawdust modified NWC and LWC

Table 5: Flexural response of NWC and LWC containing various percentages of sawdust

Modulus of Flexural Ist crack Total fracture Rupture

Denotation elasticity strength toughness toughness strain
(MPa) (MPa) (KJm-3) (KJm-3) (%)
7 7
28 days 28 days 7 days 28 days 7 days 28 days 28 days
days days
NWC 24.44 21.87 42.81 61.16 349.90 529.35 372.23 551.41 2.65
05SD-NWC 22.94 16.56 39.55 55.07 357.67 546.38 380.50 563.28 2.86
10SD-NWC 21.56 14.03 38.19 52.02 384.19 558.34 408.71 575.61 3.35
15SD-NWC 20.53 9.56 36.24 48.02 401.47 595.85 427.10 610.50 4.21
LWC 17.40 14.86 27.55 37.23 186.50 276.00 198.40 287.50 2.52
10SD-LWC 16.23 12.89 26.48 34.22 216.76 320.10 230.60 330.31 3.46

3.2.2 Stress-strain response in flexure

The stress-strain response of NWC and LWC specimens in flexure containing different dosages of
sawdust is presented in Figure 11 and Figure 12 respectively. It can be seen that the flexural strength
increased with the increase in the age of testing. In comparison to control NWC, the sawdust formulations
with 5%, 10% and 15% dosage displayed 7.62%, 10.79% and 15.35% reduction in flexure strength at 7
days while at 28 days, these formulations showed 9.96%, 14.94% and 21.48% reduction in flexural

13
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

strength. The response reveals proportional decrement in the value of flexural strength with corresponding
increase in sawdust content. FESEM micrograph shown in Figure 13 revealed the presence of sawdust
particle as a sort of heterogenic discontinuity in the cementitious matrix with weaker interfacial transition
zone. In case of lightweight concrete, similar trend of flexural strength degradation was observed with the
additions of sawdust grains. LWC containing 10% sawdust showed 3.89% and 8.08% strength
degradation compared with reference LWC formulation at 7 and 28 days curing period respectively.
However, the strength reduction in 10SD-LWC specimen was smaller as compared to 10SD-NWC
specimen. Concrete density and strength exhibit direct relation as the later increases with increase in the
former and vice versa (Bederina et al., 2007). It would also be shown later that the intrusions of sawdust
adversely affect density and hence result in strength degradation. Moreover, the modulus of rupture of
both sawdust modified NWC and LWC shown in Figure 14 decreased with the corresponding increase in
sawdust content. This decrement in modulus of rupture might be associated to the weaker interaction of
sawdust grains with the adjacent concrete matrix.

Figure 11: Stress-strain response of NWC in flexure with added loads of sawdust

Figure 12: Stress-strain response of LWC in flexure with added loads of sawdust

14
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Sawdust particle

Sawdust ─ concrete
interface

Cement matrix

Crack blunting
200µm

Micro-crack
100µm

Figure 13: Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) of sawdust modified concrete
3.00

2.75
y=2.82e-0.087x
R2=0.983
2.50
Modulus of Rupture (N/mm2)

2.25
y=3.59e-0.132x
2.00 R2=0.998

1.75

1.50

1.25

1.00
NWC 05SD-NWC 10SD-NWC 15SD-NWC LWC 10SD-LWC

Figure 14: Tailored modulus of rupture with added sawdust loads in NWC and LWC

3.2.3 Fracture toughness

Fracture toughness of concrete is the amount of energy absorbed by a particular concrete specimen under
third point loading till its failure and is determined in terms of areas under the load deflection curve
(ASTM C1018-97). The stress-strain response shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12 revealed marginal
increase in the value of first crack toughness with the corresponding increase in the content of sawdust
particles. At 28 days, an overall improvement of 3.22%, 5.47% and 12.56% in the values of pre-crack

15
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

toughness and 2.15%, 4.38% and 10.71% in the values of total fracture toughness was successfully
attained in NWC formulations modified with 5%, 10% and 15% of sawdust intrusions. Similarly LWC
containing 10% sawdust displayed 15.97% and 14.89% increase in pre-crack toughness and total fracture
toughness respectively at the age of 28 days. This improvement in first crack toughness without any
contribution to post fracture response might be associated to the non-interference of sawdust particles in
crack bridging but involved in crack blunting phenomenon as evident through micrographs displayed in
Figure 13.

Furthermore, test results depicted significant improvement in ultimate rupture strain with the increase in
sawdust content. An overall increase in the values of rupture strain by 58.86% and 37.30% was observed
in 15SD-NWC and 10SD-LWC formulations respectively. The added heterogeneity in the form of
sawdust grains disturbs the failure trajectory of controlled specimens via crack blunting and crack
branching phenomenon at multiple micro-sites as evidenced in FESEM micrograph (Figure 13). The
diversion of cracks leads to the volumetric fracture instead of surface fracture, thereby increases the
fracture energy requisite to initiate and propagate cracks. This, in turn, indirectly contributes in enhanced
fracture toughness and increased rupture strain (Ahmad et al., 2015; Khushnood et al., 2016). The tortured
surfaces of cracked specimens in Figure 15 (a) and (b) also endorse this fact.

The inclusion of sawdust increased crack resistance of concrete which is similar to fiber. However, unlike
fiber-typed additives sawdust grains were uniformly distributed in the matrix and no signs of
agglomeration were noticed as evident in the tortured surface of sawdust modified concrete specimen
(Figure 16). Furthermore, it is suggested that detailed scientific investigation to evidence the effective
dispersion of saw dust particles in cementitious matrix and its role on the properties of concrete should be
evaluated.

16
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

a b

5cm 5cm

Figure 15: Tortured surface of a) NWC b) 15SD-NWC specimen tested in flexure (3-point bend test)

Sawdust particle

Sawdust particle

1cm

5cm

Figure 16: Tortured surface of sawdust modified concrete specimen

3.3 Absorption and density

The results of water absorption of concrete specimens with various dosages of sawdust are presented in
Figure 17. For NWC containing different percentages of sawdust, the water absorption increased with the
increase in the percentage of sawdust in cement based formulations. A gradual increase in water
absorption of concrete was observed from 1.42 to 3.62% as sawdust content increased from 5 to 15%.
Similarly, the lightweight concrete formulations displayed water absorption of 3.21% when 10% of
sawdust was added as replacement of sand. This increase in water absorption is related to the porous

17
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

nature of sawdust as well as the existence of continuous channels, evident from FESEM micrograph
(Figure 3). Another possible reason for the increase in the water absorption is related to the availability of
high initial free water content, which may consequently result in the formation of capillaries as reported
by Andrade et al. (Andrade et al., 2007) for concrete mixes containing bottom ash. However, these values
are still less than the maximum allowable water absorption of 10% for construction materials (Cheah and
Ramli 2011).

Unlike water absorption, the concrete density decreased with the increase in content of sawdust in NWC.
For NWC formulations (with and without sawdust content), the density values varied from 2361.48 to
2172.96 kg/m3, showing 7.98% decrease in hardened concrete density. As far as the density of 10SD-
LWC formulation is concerned, the density was found to be 1743.96 kg/m3 and was 4.55% less than
control LWC. The decrease in density is related to the low specific gravity of sawdust (2.17), when
compared with fine aggregate (2.48). However, the concrete samples meet the ACI structural concrete
density requirements for both normal and lightweight concrete (ACI Committee 318-08).

Polynomial regression equation is plotted (Figure 17) for NWC formulations from which the behavior of
water absorption can be interpolated. The trend line has positive slope indicating that with the increase in
percentage of sawdust replacement, the amount of water absorption increased. The correlation coefficient
was found to be 0.999. For NWC, the relation between compressive strength and density is presented in
Figure 18. The concrete density and compressive strength exhibit direct relation while sawdust content
exhibit an inverse relation with compressive strength of concrete, as evident from the test results.

Figure 17: Regression equation for water absorption corresponding to different replacement
level of sawdust

18
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Figure 18: Relationship between compressive strength and density of hardened concrete

3.4 Chemical interactions between sawdust and concrete matrix

To identify the possibility of any chemical interaction between sawdust grains and the host media, FTIR
spectroscopy was employed. For this purpose, NWC and sawdust modified concrete (10SD-NWC)
formulations were selected. The FTIR spectrum of normal weight concrete and sawdust modified
concrete (10SD-NWC) presented in Figure 19, revealed no significant difference in peaks. The control
specimen showed two distinct projections at 1401 cm-1 and 872 cm-1, which corresponds to the stretching
and bending of the C-O bonds of CH and CaCO3 obtained as a result of reaction between Ca(OH)2 and
CO2 (Biricik and Sarier 2014). While in case of sawdust modified concrete, the same peaks were found at
1406 cm-1 and 871 cm-1 respectively. The peaks at wavenumbers 1099 cm-1 and 1113 cm-1 in control and
sawdust specimens correspond to the stretching vibrations of S-O bond of ettringite and gypsum
respectively (Fernández-Carrasco et al., 2009). The strong projections at wavenumbers 961 cm-1 and 709
cm-1 in control specimen correspond to in-plane bending vibrations of the Si-O bonds in tri-calcium
silicates (C3S) and di-calcium silicates (C2S) respectively, while the same occurs for sawdust modified
concrete at wavenumbers 942 cm-1 and 710 cm-1 respectively (Fernández-Carrasco et al., 2009). The
similarity in FTIR spectrum of normal weight concrete (with and without sawdust) clearly shows that
sawdust particles exhibited no chemical interaction with the host concrete matrix.

19
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

NWC
10SD-NWC
Trasmittance (%)

1099
1401

709
961
872
1113

710
942
1406

871
3650 3150 2650 2150 1650 1150 650
Wavenumber cm-1

Figure 19: FTIR spectrum of NWC and 10SD-NWC

3.5 Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity test results of control and sawdust modified specimens shown in Figure 20
revealed that thermal conductivity of both NWC and LWC specimens decreased with the increase in
sawdust percentage as partial replacement of fine aggregate. NWC samples containing maximum content
of sawdust displayed 10% reduction in thermal conductivity compared to control specimen, while the
other two modified formulations 05SD-NWC and 10SD-NWC displayed 2.70% and 4.95% decrease in
thermal conductivity respectively. Sawdust owing to its lightweight and porous structure results in a low
density structure and thus reduces the thermal conductivity of concrete (Aigbomian and Fan 2013).
According to available literature (Clarke 2003), it may also be attributed to the phenomenon known as
convection, which is associated to the quantity and geometry of pores generated inside the concrete
matrix. For NWC, the relation between thermal conductivity and density is presented in Figure 21. It can
be seen that the thermal conductivity and density exhibit direct relation with correlation coefficient of
0.993. As far as the LWC formulations are concerned (Figure 20), the 10SD-LWC sample showed 4.7%
reduction in thermal conductivity when compared to control LWC. It is known that lightweight aggregate
tend to decrease density of concrete and result in more porous structure and hence reduce the thermal
conductivity of concrete (Topçu and Uygunoǧlu 2007). The NWC and LWC used in the current research
work displayed thermal conductivity in the range 2.00 to 2.22 W/m-K and 1.70 to 1.79 W/m-K
respectively.

20
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

2.50

2.25

Thermal Conductivity (W/m-K)

2.00

1.75

1.50

1.25

1.00
NWC 05SD-NWC 10SD-NWC 15SD-NWC LWC 10SD-LWC

Figure 20: Thermal conductivity test results of NWC and LWC

Figure 21: Relationship between thermal conductivity and density of hardened concrete

3.6 Energy efficiency and CO2 emissions

The addition of sawdust in cement composites results in low density products with improved
sustainability and energy efficiency thus reduces the energy requirement for heating ventilation and air-
conditioning (HVAC) systems in building. In order to investigate this potential impact of sawdust NWC
and LWC formulations on energy performance of building structure, a single room having dimensions
(365cm x 365cm x 335cm) as shown in Figure 22 was selected. The effective heat energy in British
thermal unit (BTU) and refrigeration ton (TR) were calculated using equation (I) and (II).

𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴Δ𝑇……. (I)

1 1 𝛥𝑥 1
𝑈 = 𝑓0 + 𝑘𝑐 + 𝑓𝑖……. (II)

21
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Where ‘Q’ is the total heat in watts, ‘U’ is the overall heat transfer coefficient in W/m2-K, ‘A’ is the area
of component in m2, ‘fo/fi’ is the film co-efficient, ‘∆x’ is the thickness of concrete, ‘kc’ thermal
conductivity of concrete, and ‘∆T’ is the outside and inside temperature difference. For the selected room,
it was assumed that the roof slab and walls are made of concrete having thickness of 13cm and 15cm
respectively. A conventional door and window were installed as per the scaled dimension on the front and
rare wall respectively. For each component, overall heat transfer coefficient (U) was calculated which was
then used for determining the effective heat gained (Q) by that component. The total heat gain for four
cases designated as case-I, case-II, case-III and case-IV comprising of conventional normal weight
concrete (NWC), sawdust modified normal weight concrete (10SD-NWC), lightweight concrete (LWC)
and sawdust modified lightweight concrete (10SD-LWC) respectively were calculated. The summary of
calculations in Table 6 reveals an overall heat reduction of 13.09%, 16.66% and 21.42% for 10SD-NWC,
LWC and 10SD-LWC respectively when compared with reference NWC.

In order to show the eco-friendly nature of adopting sawdust formulations in construction, the annual
carbon emissions for the above four cases was evaluated. Literature shows that the average carbon
production of 1.5 ton air-conditioner is 5.7 kg per day if it operates on an average 8 hours per day, which
approaches to 1368 kg per annum if it works for 20 days per month on an average (Kumar et al., 2013).
Based on this assumption, the total annual estimated CO2 emissions for the four cases were calculated. In
comparison to control NWC, the 10SD-NWC sawdust formulation showed 13.1% reduction in CO2
emissions while 10SD-LWC showed 5.7% reduction in CO2 emissions when compared with control
LWC. These figures suggest significant reduction in annual CO2 emissions for sawdust formulations,
which in turn, provides an eco-friendly solution along with effective utilization and recycling of wood-
waste.

Table 6: Thermal efficiency and CO2 emissions of sawdust modified normal weight and lightweight
concrete
Cooling load
Total heat gain CO2 emissions
Compositions reduction
(BTUs) (TR) (%) (per annum (kg)1)
case-I NWC 10080 0.84 … 766.08
case-II 10SD-NWC 8760 0.73 13.09 665.76
case-III LWC 8400 0.70 16.66 638.40
case-IV 10SD-LWC 7920 0.66 21.42 601.92
1 At 1368 kg of CO2 emissions per annum for 1.5 TR

22
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Figure 22: Architectural drawing of single room model sketched on Autocad and Google sketchup

4. Conclusions and Recommendation

In this research, we suggested eco-friendly solution for disposing sawdust by utilizing it as replacement of
fine aggregate in NWC and LWC. Based on the results and observations of this experimental work, the
following conclusions are drawn:

a) From material characterization results, it was found that sawdust has an average particle size of
594μm and well-defined channel like structure with continuous distribution of micro-pores along
its length. The presence of cellulose, hemi-cellulose, lignin and various hydroxyl compounds in
sawdust was confirmed by FTIR and XRD results. From FTIR analysis, it was also found that
sawdust is chemically compatible with cement paste.
b) The volumetric shrinkage decreased with the increase in the percentage of sawdust in cement
based formulations. The inclusion of 15% sawdust as a partial replacement of fine aggregate
resulted in 42% reduction in the values of shrinkage, which is significant.
c) The compressive strength of NWC and LWC increased with the increase in the age of testing
while the compressive strength decreased with the increase in the percentage of sawdust in the
mixes. The NWC and LWC formulations containing sawdust showed compressive strength of
more than 34 MPa and 21 MPa respectively (at 28 days) and hence these concretes can be used
for structural applications.
d) The added dosage of sawdust as replacement of fine aggregate proportionally contributed to
improve first crack and total fracture toughness of concrete matrix along with significant
increase in the values of rupture strain. At 28 days, an overall increase of 10.71% and 14.89% in
the values of total fracture toughness and 58.86% and 37.30% in the values of rupture strain was
attained by NWC and LWC formulations containing sawdust.

23
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

e) The density of concrete decreased with the increase in content of sawdust. In comparison to
control NWC and LWC formulations, the maximum decrease in density for sawdust
formulations was found to be 7.98% and 4.55% respectively. The decrease in unit weight is
desirable in the context of reducing cross sectional dimensions of structural elements and dead
load. Moreover, reducing dead load is important to decrease the earthquake damage.
f) The water absorption of NWC and LWC increased with the increase in the percentage of
sawdust in cement based formulations. In comparison to control NWC and LWC formulations,
the maximum increase in water absorption for sawdust formulations was found to be 3.62% and
3.21% respectively. These values are within the maximum allowable water absorption of 10%
for construction materials.
g) The thermal conductivity values decreased with the increase in content of sawdust. In
comparison to control NWC and LWC formulations, the maximum decrease in thermal
conductivity for sawdust formulations was found to be 10% and 4.7% respectively. The
utilization of construction materials in buildings having low thermal conductivity may help in
improving the energy efficiency of building structures.
h) The energy analysis of single room model prepared with modified sawdust formulations showed
better energy efficiency by significantly reducing the heating ventilation and air-conditioning
loads (up to 21.42%) and substantial decrease (up to 13%) in CO2 emissions.
i) It is recommended to carry out detailed numerical simulation for the validation of performed
experiments to simulate concrete failure with varying loads of sawdust.

24
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

REFERENCES

ACI Committee 318, 2008. Building code requirements for structural concrete (ACI 318M-08).

Adebakin, I. H., Adeyemi, A. A., Adu, J. T., Ajayi, F. A., Lawal, A. A., Ogunrinola, O. B., 2012. Uses of
sawdust as admixture in production of lowcost and light-weight hollow sandcrete blocks. American
Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research 3, 458-463.

Ahmad, S., Khushnood, R. A., Jagdale, P., Tulliani, J., Ferro, G. A., 2015. High performance self-
consolidating cementitious composites by using micro carbonized bamboo particles. Materials and Design
76, 223-229.

Aigbomian, E. P., Fan, M., 2013. Development of wood-crete building materials from sawdust and waste
paper. Construction and Building Materials 40, 361-366.

Andrade, L. B., Rocha, J. C., Cheriaf, M., 2007. Evaluation of concrete incorporating bottom ash as a
natural aggregates replacement. Waste Management 27, 1190-1199.

ASTM C 33-03, 2003. Standard specifications for coarse aggregate. ASTM International.

ASTM C 39-16, 2016. Standard test method for compressive strength of cylindrical concrete specimens.
ASTM International.

ASTM C 127-01, 2001. Standard test method for density, relative density (specific gravity), and
absorption of coarse aggregate. ASTM International.

ASTM C 128-01, 2001. Standard test method for density, relative density (specific gravity), and
absorption of fine aggregate. ASTM International.

ASTM C 150/C150M-15, 2015. Standard specification for portland cement. ASTM International.

ASTM C 293-02, 2002. Standard test method for flexural strength of concrete (using sample beam with
center-point loading). ASTM International.

ASTM C 332-09, 2009. Standard specification for lightweight aggregate for insulating concrete. ASTM
International.

ASTM C 642-13, 2013. Standard test method for density, absorption, and voids in hardened concrete.
ASTM International.

ASTM C 1018-97, 1997. Standard test method for flexural toughness and first-crack strength of fiber
reinforced concrete (using beam with third point loading). ASTM International.

25
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

ASTM C 1698-09, 2014. Standard test method for autogenous strain of cement paste and mortar. ASTM
International.

ASTM E 1530-11, 2016. Standard test method for evaluating the resistance to thermal trasmission of
materials by the guarded heat flow meter technique. ASTM International.

Bederina, M., Marmoret, L., Mezreb, K., Khenfer, M. M., Bali, A., Queneudec, M., 2007. Effect of the
addition of wood shavings on thermal conductivity of sand concretes: Experimental study and modelling.
Construction and Building Materials 21, 662-668.

Biricik, H., Sarier, N., 2014. Comparative study of the characteristics of nano-silica, silica-fume and fly
ash incorporated cement mortars. Materials Research 17, 570-582.

Boob, T. N., 2014. Performance of sawdust in low cost sandcrete blocks. American Journal of
Engineering Research 3, 197-206.

Can, M., 2015. Equilibrium, kinetics and process design of acid yellow 132 adsorption onto red pine
sawdust. Water Science and Technology 71, 1901-1911.

Ban, C. C., Ramli, M., 2011. The implementation of wood waste ash as a partial cement replacement
material in the production of structural grade concrete and mortar: An overview. Resources, Conservation
and Recycling 55, 669-685.

Clarke, D. R., 2003. Materials selection guidelines for low thermal conductivity thermal barrier coatings.
Surface & Coatings Technology 163, 67-74.

Bratkovich, S., Howe, J., Bowyer, J., Pepke, E., Frank, M., Fernholz, K., 2014. Municipal solid waste
(Msw) and construction and demolition (C&D) wood waste generation and recovery in the United States,
0-16.

Cui, H., Lo, Y. T., Memon, S. A., Xing, F., Shi, X., 2012. Analytical model for compressive strength,
elastic modulus and peak strain of structural lightweight aggregate concrete. Construction and Building
Materials 36, 1036-1043.

Taylor, J., Langenberg, K.V., 2005. Wood management, handling and combustion technologies to
quantifying and effectively extracting wastes from industrial landfills and the Urban wastes stream.
Residues to Revenues, 17-18.

Farahani, J. N., Shafigh, P., Alsubari, B., Shahnazar S., Mahmud, H. B., 2017. Engineering properties of
lightweight aggregate concrete containing binary and ternary blended cement. Journal of Cleaner

26
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Production 149, 976-988.

Fernández-Carrasco, L.,Vázquez, E., 2009. Reactions of fly ash with calcium aluminate cement and
calcium sulphate. Fuel 88, 1533-1538.

Hanif, A., Kim, Y., Lu, Z., Park, C., 2017. Early age behavior of recycled aggregate concrete under steam
curing regime. Journal of Cleaner Production 152, 103-114.

Hasan, N. M. S., Sobuz, H. R., Sayed, M. S., Islam, M. S., 2012. The use of coconut fibre in the
production of structural lightweight concrete. Journal of Applied Sciences 12, 831-839.

Khan, J., Harijan, K., Uqaili, M. A., Gillmore, G., Nixon, J. D., 2016. Municipal solid waste to energy in
Pakistan: A case study of Haripur district (Pakistan). 4th International Conference on Energy,
Environment and Sustainable Development, 0-7.

Khushnood, R. A., Ahmad, S., Restuccia, L., Spoto, C., Jagdale, P., Tulliani, J., Ferro, G. A., 2016.
Carbonized nano/microparticles for enhanced mechanical properties and electromagnetic interference
shielding of cementitious materials. Frontiers of Structural and Civil Engineering 10, 209-213.

Kumar, R., Aggarwal, R. K., Gupta, D., Sharma, J. D., 2013. Carbon emissions from air-conditioning.
American Journal of Engineering Research 02, 72-74.

Mithun, B. M., Narasimhan, M. C., 2015. Performance of alkali activated slag concrete mixes
incorporating copper slag as fine aggregate. Journal of Cleaner Production, 6-13.

Ng, C. S., Low, K. S., 2010. Thermal conductivity of newspaper sandwiched aerated lightweight concrete
panel. Energy and Buildings 42, 2452-2456.

Oyedepo, O. J., Oluwajana, S. D., Akande, S. P., 2014. Investigation of properties of concrete using
sawdust as partial replacement for sand. Civil and Environmental Research 6, 35-42.

Pedreño-Rojas, M. A., Morales-Conde, M. J., Pérez-Gálvez, F., Rodríguez-Liñán, C., 2017. Eco-efficient
acoustic and thermal conditioning using false ceiling plates made from plaster and wood waste. Journal of
Cleaner Production 166, 690-705.

Poyry., 2009. Wood waste market in the UK. Forest Industry Consulting Ltd, and Oxford Economics Ltd.

Real, S., Gomes, M. G., Rodrigues, A. M., Bogas, J. A., 2016. Contribution of structural lightweight
aggregate concrete to the reduction of thermal bridging effect in buildings. Construction and Building
Materials 121, 460-470.

27
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Sales, A., Souza, F. R. D., Santos, W. N. D., Zimer, A. M., Almeida, F. D. C. R., 2010. Lightweight
composite concrete produced with water treatment sludge and sawdust: Thermal properties and potential
application. Construction and Building Materials 24, 2446-2453.

Sales, A., Souza, F. R. D., Almeida, F. D. C. R., 2011. Mechanical properties of concrete produced with a
composite of water treatment sludge and sawdust. Construction and Building Materials 25, 2793-2798.

Sidiras, D., Batzias, F., Schroeder, E., Ranjan, R., Tsapatsis, M., 2011. Dye adsorption on autohydrolyzed
pine sawdust in batch and fixed bed systems. Chemical Engineering Journal 171, 883-896.

Silva, R. V., Brito, J. D., Dhir, R. K., 2016. Establishing a relationship between modulus of elasticity and
compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete. Journal of Cleaner Production 112, 2171-2186.

Singh, M., Siddique, R., 2015. Effect of coal bottom ash as partial replacement of sand on workability
and strength properties of concrete. Journal of Cleaner Production, 1-11.

Thomas, B. S., Gupta, R. C., 2015. Properties of high strength concrete containing scrap tire rubber.
Journal of Cleaner Production, 1-7.

Tiwari, A., Singh, S., Nagar, R., 2016. Feasibility assessment for partial replacement of fine aggregate to
attain cleaner production perspective in concrete: A review. Journal of Cleaner Production 135, 490-507.

Topcu, I. B., Uygunoglu, T., 2007. Properties of autoclaved lightweight aggregate concrete. Building and
Environment 42, 4108-4116.

Yesilata, B., Isiker, Y., Turgut, P., 2009. Thermal insulation enhancement in concretes by adding waste
PET and rubber pieces. Construction and Building Materials 23, 1878-1882.

Zaetang, Y., Wongsa, A., Sata, V., Chindaprasirt, P., 2013. Use of lightweight aggregates in pervious
concrete. Construction and Building Materials 48, 585-591.

28
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Highlights:
Eco-friendly disposal of Wood-waste was addressed by using it as fine aggregates
Addressed the issue of depleting natural sand reservoirs
Sawdust mixes improved shrinkage (up to 42%), rupture strain (up to 58.86%) etc
Sawdust mixes can be used for structural applications
Sawdust mixes reduced HVAC energy (up to 21.42%) and CO2 emissions (up to 13%)