NPSH

A very large part of a pump installation�s longevity has to do with selection of
the proper pump for

the application. Improper selection leads to premature pump failure, increased
repair costs, unnecessary
downtime, and in the case of a manufacturing environment, higher production costs.
One critical aspect
of determining the pump application is the basis for this course: the analysis of
Net Positive Suction Head.
Net Positive Suction Head is an important element in the proper selection of both
centrifugal and positive
displacement type pumps and each type has its own set of considerations. This
course is limited to the
study of centrifugal pumps.
For a very good reason, we will begin our discussion of Net Positive
Suction Head by first
addressing a directly related problematic phenomenon known as cavitation.
Liquid cavitation has a
deleterious effect on a pump�s internal parts and as a result reduces the pump�s
efficiency, performance,
and ultimately, reliability. One might initially think this course should be re-
titled Understanding Liquid
Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps, but be assured, the main purpose of this course is
to fully understand
Net Positive Suction Head by defining, identifying, and quantifying the concept.
We will learn that Net Positive Suction Head exists in two forms and that the
numerical comparison
of these forms is a useful tool in the prediction of potential liquid cavitation
conditions. Moving from a
predictive viewpoint to a reactive one, we will learn to identify some of the
root causes, and possible
solutions, when faced with pump cavitation.
Understanding Net Positive Suction Head
� 2009 Randall W. Whitesides, CPE PE Page 1
www.PDHcenter.com PDH Course No. M124 www.PDHonline.org
Centrifugal Pump Fundamentals
Pumps are broadly classified as kinetic
or positive displacement. One of the
subclassifications of the kinetic pump
branch is the centrifugal type. It consists
of the �wet end� which is made up of a
rotating impeller within a casing with inlet
and outlet connections, which is coupled
to either a constant or variable speed drive.
Of all of the types of pumps, the
centrifugal pump is the most commonly
used. It has found favor because of its
many advantages: simple construction,
low relative cost, low maintenance, quiet operation, and reliability.
Unfortunately, centrifugal pumps
experience difficulty when handling liquids with large quantities of vapor or
entrained gases.
Liquid is conveyed by the centrifugal pump by virtue of the kinetic energy
imparted to the liquid by the rotating impeller. For a given diameter impeller at
a
given speed, a finite amount of energy (foot pounds) is transferred to each pound
of
liquid pumped regardless of the weight (density) of the liquid. This fact gives
rise
to the axiom that the resulting fluid height produced from this pumping operation,
but not the pressure developed at the base of this fluid column, is
identical
irrespective of the liquid pumped. Liquid heights are referred to as heads. More
on
this later.
Liquid Cavitation
A pressure reduction occurs when a liquid moves from the
pump inlet (suction connection) to the point at which it receives
energy from the impeller. You may recall that liquids can vaporize
(boil) at very low temperatures when they are subjected to low
pressures. Liquid cavitation is the sudden formation and collapse
of low pressure bubbles (cavities) in the pumped liquid caused by
the mechanical rotation of the pump impeller. Other terms for
cavitation are partial vaporization and liquid flashing. It is well
documented that this process causes noise, vibration, and
damage to many of the pump�s internal components. Liquid
cavitation has been acoustically characterized as the sound
produced by a centrifugal pump attempting to convey small rocks in fluid
suspension. The resulting noise
and vibration range from barely discernible to quite loud and violent. In order to
determine if cavitation
will occur, the reduced pressure at the pump inlet must be compared to the vapor
pressure of the pumped
liquid.
Interesting facts (and myths) about cavitation are presented in
PDHcenter.com course
number M225.
INTERESTING FACT:
In centrifugal pumps the incoming liquid is most
likely to vaporize in the vicinity of the vane tips in
the eye of the impeller.
INTERESTING FACT:
In addition to the destructive characteristic of
cavitation is the fact that a pump�s performance
suffers because it is attempting to convey a
binary mixture of liquid and vapor.
SUMMARY
? Pumps are kinetic or positive displacement.
? The most prevalent kinetic pump type is the centrifugal.
? Pumps have trouble conveying liquid/vapor mixtures.
? Liquid cavities can be created by a spinning pump impeller.
Liquid Cavitation
Before we can begin a discourse on Net Positive Suction Head there are other fluid
properties and
terms that must be fully understood. These are:
1. Vapor pressure;
2. Absolute pressure;
3. Specific gravity.
Vapor pressure is defined as that pressure exerted by
the gaseous state of a liquid, that is in equilibrium with its
liquid phase. Better still, try this definition: Vapor pressure
is that pressure at which a liquid begins to vaporize, i.e.
boil. Vapor pressure is usually given in units of millimeters
of mercury (mm Hg) or pounds per square inch but must be
converted to feet of liquid absolute in order to maintain
consistency in the Net Positive Suction Head formula that
will be presented shortly. (See the section entitled
Conversion of Pressure Units to Feet of Liquid
on page 10).
How do we determine the vapor pressure of pumped liquid? If water is being pumped
the method is
relatively simple. Absolute pressure for water vapor at any temperature can be
found in the ASME steam
tables. If a liquid other than water is being pumped, published technical
references and physical property
data for the particular fluid should be consulted to accurately ascertain the
correct vapor pressure. The
vapor pressure of liquids varies directly with temperature.
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATION
When a range of liquid temperatures will be encountered
during the pumping process, the most elevated temperature
should be used in order to account for corresponding higher
value of vapor pressure.
A DIFFERENT PERSEPCTIVE
Vapor pressure is a measure of the propensity of a liquid to
boil (evaporate). An example of a low vapor pressure liquid is
lube oil; a highly volatile liquid is diethyl ether.
Absolute pressure is an observed pressure (say by means of a
pressure gage) that has been corrected for ambient atmospheric pressure.
In its classical form it is expressed:
= +
P P P
ABS GAGE ATMOS
The units denoted by the letters P in the above expression are pounds per square
inch (psi) but any
system of consistent units, such as pounds per square foot (psf) or feet of fluid,
are just as applicable. In
many cases, and for practical considerations, the atmospheric pressure value is
taken as standard at sea
level, or 14.7 psi, which for clean water at 60? F converts to 33.9 feet of
liquid. As the local altitude
increases, the lower atmospheric pressure must be taken into consideration in order
to properly evaluate
Net Positive Suction Head.
INTERESTING FACT:
The atmospheric pressure reduces approximately 1.2
feet of H
2
O for every increase of 1,000 feet of
elevation.
Liquid specific gravity, denoted by S, is the dimensionless ratio of any liquid�s
weight density at a
specific temperature to that of water at 60? F.
SUMMARY
? A liquid begins a phase change at its vapor pressure.
? When atmospheric pressure is added to gage pressure, absolute pressure
results.
? Specific gravity is a measure of a liquid�s density.
Net Positive Suction Head Defined
There are really two approaches that can be taken to effectively define Net
Positive Suction Head:
1. A semantic approach whereby we examine the words that comprise the term and,
2. A classical or mathematical approach whereby we explore the numerical
components of a simple linear equation.
It is recommended that the student progress through both of the following sections;
however, those
students who are familiar with hydraulics may wish to move directly to the more
classical explanation
which is presented below in the course section under the heading Classical
Definition of Net Positive
Suction Head .
Semantic or Literal Definition
Net Positive Suction Head exists in two forms: Available and Required. For now,
we will limit
our discussion to the former and will explain in detail later in the course the
difference between the two
types.
Let�s take a look at the phrase Net Positive Suction Head by breaking the
expression down and
defining each word in reverse sequence:
Head
Although used extensively within the hydraulic engineering community, the
term head is a
somewhat archaic word whose etymology is from the Middle English. Its original
meaning was literally a
body of water kept in reserve at a height. Today the dictionary definition is:
1. The difference in elevation between two points in a body of fluid;
2. The resulting pressure of the fluid at the lower point expressible as this
height; broadly, pressure of a fluid..

Head is simply a pressure unit that is
commonly used in hydraulic engineering that is
expressed in feet of pumped fluid. That is to say, it is
the pressure that is exerted from the weight of a height
of a given liquid; hence the unit of feet. There are
numerous forms and references to hydraulic head, such
as,
1. Fluid friction head;
2. Static suction head;
3. Pump discharge head.
For a better understanding of hydraulic head, let�s digress momentarily from the
suction aspects of
a pump arrangement and discuss what may be a more common consideration: pump
discharge pressure. It
is convenient to conceptualize discharge head by visualizing a single
vertical pipe, infinitely long,
connected to the outlet of a centrifugal pump. When operated, this pump�s
developed discharge pressure
would �lift� the pumped liquid to an equilibrium height in the vertical pipe,
identical to the pressure that
would be produced by the weight of that same column of liquid.
Suction
In pump hydraulics, suction refers to the inward movement of liquid through a
conduit, such as a
section of pipe, into the pump and ultimately to the eye of the impeller. Suction
is the negative pressure
induced by the rotating impeller that draws the pumped liquid to a point such that
energy may be imparted
to it from the impeller vanes. The opposite of suction is discharge. The word
suction is used as an
adjective in many hydraulic terms, all of which of course refer to the inlet side
of a pumping system.
Positive
In the context of centrifugal pump suction side analyses, positive refers to the
fact that while the
resulting overall evaluated pressure quantity can mathematically be less than zero,
desirably it will always
be greater than zero.

Net
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Hydraulic static heads are referred to a common datum: the
centerline of the pump suction nozzle or the pump drive shaft.
As an adjective, this means the remainder after all deductions have been taken.
In a hydraulic
sense, this word is derived from the fact that differences in pressure are being
examined. That is to say, the
helpful (additive) aspects of components of the suction system are being combined
with the subtractive
(negative) aspects to arrive at an overall (or net) condition.
So, combining these individual definitions yields an overall definition of Net
Positive Suction
Head that can be summarized as:
Net positive suction head is a pressure, associated with the intake of a pump,
expressed in feet of
pumped liquid, resulting from the algebraic evaluation of both the accretive and
depletive aspects of
that suction system.
Net Positive Suction Head is almost universally denoted by the expression:
NPSH
and this abbreviation will be utilized throughout this course content when it is
appropriate. This term
should not be confused as the product of separate variables as is customary in
mathematics.
Classical Definition of NPSH
According to the latest edition of the Hydraulic Institute Standards, Net Positive
Suction Head
available (NPSH
A
) is defined as:
The total suction head in feet of liquid absolute, determined at the suction nozzle
and corrected to
datum, less the vapor pressure of the liquid in feet absolute.
In somewhat simpler terms, NPSH
is the absolute pressure in feet of liquid at pumping
temperature available at the pump suction flange, above vapor pressure.
Mathematically this looks like,
Where,
h
S
A
= � - + -
NPSH h h h h
A S L A V
= Static suction head (+) or static suction lift (-), feet
h
L
= Suction line losses (friction, entrance and fittings), feet
h
A
= Absolute pressure at the liquid's free surface, in feet of liquid pumped
h
V
= Vapor pressure of liquid at pumping temperature, converted to ft. of liquid
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATION
With regards to the calculation of NPSH
A
it is important
that liquid density be considered when considering those
terms that involve the liquid�s weight density, namely, h
A
and h
.
V
SUGGESTION
It is always good to include the adjective minimum with NPSH
A
to reinforce
the
fact
that
all
possible
suction
arrangement
scenarios
that
would
yield the lowest value have been considered.
Conversion of Pressure Units to Feet of Liquid
Consistent pressure units in feet absolute of liquid pumped are required in the
NPSHA equation. To
convert pounds per square inch (psi) to feet of liquid use the following
relationship:
h
P
2 31.
S
=
To convert millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) to feet of liquid use the relationship:
h
P
S
=
22 4.
Net Positive Suction Head Required
The technical definition of Net Positive Suction Head required (NPSH
) is: The reduction in total
head as the liquid enters the pump. NPSH
R
R
is experimentally determined by several methodologies. One
procedure is operate the pump under study with clear water while incrementally
reducing NPSH
by
throttling a suction valve. The on-set of cavitation is then observed and recorded
at controlled flow rates.
How do we accurately determine the on-set of cavitation? It is an approximation at
best, but has been
officially defined as corresponding to a 3% drop in total developed pump pressure,
i.e., discharge head.
Obviously there is sufficient cavitation that is already occurring to produce this
3% reduction in discharge
pressure. The actual start of cavitation is known as incipient cavitation and it
always occurs well before
the point of NPSH
R
is reached.
An important consideration with respect to the evaluation of NPSH
R
is that of the liquid�s vapor
pressure. Pump performance curves plot NPSH
R
versus flow; these data points are experimentally
determined by conducting tests utilizing water. If in the practical application
the fluid being pumped
exhibits a vapor pressure exceeding that of water, it should be intuitively
obvious that NPSH
R
values
provided on the pump manufacturer�s standard performance curve cannot be considered
reliable.
INTERESTING FACT:
Limited tests have indicated that in some cases a reduction in
NPSH
R
can be considered with liquids at elevated temperatures,
i.e., elevated vapor pressures.
Examples of liquids with high vapor pressures are:
1. Hydrocarbons;
2. Condensate (hot water);
3. Solvents.
The relationship of NPSH
R
to a pump�s capacity (flow) is depicted in Figure 1.
A
The method used by pump manufacturers to present NPSH
R
data on pump performance curves is
not standardized. In some cases this information could resemble Figure 1. In
contrast, some manufactures
plot constant values of NPSH
R
for a given pump on performance curves. These are usually a family of
curves, really usually parallel dashed negatively sloped straight lines, that are
superimposed over all the
other proliferation of data and plots shown on a typical pump curve. Take a look
at the typical pump
performance curve in Figure 2 and see if you can find the lines of constant NPSH
R
values.
To a limited extent, changes in the value of NPSH
can be estimated when a pump�s variables are
manipulated. See PDHcenter.com course number M125 for more information on this
topic.
The Desired Inequality of NPSH
A
and NPSH
Theoretically, to preclude liquid cavitation,
R
R
OBSERVATION
Pump manufacturer�s performance curves provide an abundance of data usually
condensed into a small space. In addition to a family of multiple impeller diameter
head
and capacity curves plotted on a cartesian coordinate plane are: plots of hydraulic
efficiencies; lines of constant NPSH
R
; and brake horsepower. At first glance a pump
performance curve can be quite intimidating especially when it is presented in a
tight
grid background.
SUMMARY
? Head is a pressure term expressed in liquid height.
? Pressures must be converted to heads to properly analyze NPSH
.
? Specific gravity is a measure of a liquid�s density.
? NPSH
is dictated by the equipment. It is relatively easy to determine; it is pro-
vided by the pump manufacturer.
? NPSH
R
is defined by the system within which the pump operates. It is more
difficult to determine; it must be calculated.
A
=
NPSH NPSH
A R
A
Practically, in order to compensate for system variations and incorrect analytical
assumptions,
> >
NPSH NPSH
A R
It has been recommended in some technical circles that a differential of 1 to 2
feet between the two
net positive suction heads be considered as a minimum to introduce a margin of
safety against liquid
cavitation when pumping water and water-similar liquids. Margins of 20% to 30% are
not uncommon
when the properties of the liquid being pumped are doubtful or unknown.
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the Hydraulic Institute
collaborated to
produce a guidance document in 1998 entitled Centrifugal and Vertical Pump NPSH
Margin (standard
9.6.1) that addressed this subject. Unfortunately this standard was �withdrawn� in
2003 as a result of that
organization's periodic 5 year review policy. Until a replacement standard is
issued, the information
contained in the withdrawn version is still felt to be useful,
considering the limited availability of
information on the matter.
Note: A considerable amount of information regarding NPSH margins is provided in
PDHcenter.com course number M225, �Interesting Facts (and Myths) about Cavitation�.
Examples
Let�s take a look at the various pump suction arrangements that can exist and see
how the NPSH
A
is calculated for each arrangement.
Shown on the next page in Figure 3, is a typical pump and tank
arrangement that is often
encountered: a tank whose contents are open to the atmosphere and from which the
pump takes suction.
Because the liquid level is above the reference datum, i.e. suction nozzle
centerline, the value of h
S
is
positive and is referred to as the Static Suction Head. The pump shown in the
arrangement of Figure 3 is
said to have a flooded suction.
Figure 3 � Flooded suction open top tank
EXAMPLE 1 (Static Suction Head-Open Top Vessel)
Given:
Arrangement: Figure 3
Liquid: Water
Temperature: 100EF
Static Suction Head: 18 feet
Altitude: Sea level
Calculated Line Losses: 1.7 feet
Find:
(1) The Net Positive Suction Head available (NPSHA).
(2) The maximum acceptable Net Positive Suction Head required (NPSHR).
Solution:
All the necessary information is provided to calculate NPSH
A
= � - + -
NPSH h h h h
A S L A V
using the standard equation:
The first step is to determine the vapor pressure of water at 100EF. Referring to
the ASME Saturated
Steam Temperature Table corresponding to a temperature of 100EF shows that the
vapor pressure is
0.94924 psia. In order to maintain unit consistency, we must convert this to feet
of water thus,
Note: The specific gravity of water at 100EF is 0.994.
Next we need to convert the atmospheric pressure to feet of water. Because we are
at sea level, a
standard pressure of 14.7 psia will be used,
With the necessary pressures converted we are ready to calculate NPSHA,
Because the liquid involved is H
2
h
P
V
h
P
A
= = =
2 31 2 31 0 94924
. ( . )( . )
.
S
= = =
2 31 2 31 14 7
. ( . )( . )
.
S
0 994
2 2
0 994
34 2
= � - + NPSH
NPSH h h h h
NPSH
A S L A V
A
A
= + - + =
18 1 7 34 2 2 2
48 3
. . .
. feet
. feet
O at a moderate temperature, and there is no mention of entrained
gases or other suction conditions that would infer unusual circumstances, we can
proceed with:
NPSH NPSH
NPSH
A R
R
= +
= - =
2
48 3 2 46 3. . feet
In the above example situation at least, we would search for a pump whose
capacity and total
dynamic head are satisfied and whose NPSH
R
would not exceed 46.3 feet.
. feet
Now let�s look at another situation that might be encountered. In Figure 4 a
railcar unloading
system is diagrammatically depicted. The car contains a 50% concentration of
sodium hydroxide at 86?F.
At its lowest point, the liquid level in the car reaches an elevation 9 feet
above the centerline of the
unloading pump. In order to prime the pump and to insure a vacuum is not
formed, the railcar is
pressurized to 15 psi with an air blanket. Here again we have a static suction
head present. What is the
NPSH
A
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATION
Since comparisons of available versus required Net Positive Suction
Heads are made in units of whole feet, it makes little sense to calculate
these values to an accuracy of finer than � 0.1 feet.
with this pump arrangement?
Figure 4 � Pressurized vessel
EXAMPLE 2 (Static Suction Head - Pressurized Vessel)
Given:
Liquid: 50% Sodium Hydroxide
Temperature: 86? F
Static Suction Head: 9 feet
Altitude: Sea level
Blanket Pressure: 15 psig
Find:
(1) The Net Positive Suction Head available (NPSH
).
(2) The maximum acceptable Net Positive Suction Head required (NPSH
Solution:
A
= � - + -
NPSH h h h h
A
R
).
A S L A V
The first step is to determine the liquid�s physical properties at the pumping
temperature of 86EF. There
are many sources to find this type of information. Particularly useful is product
manufacturer�s literature
which generally contains tables and graphs of the various physical properties.
Consulting such a source
for 50% sodium hydroxide at 86EF provides the following information:
Vapor pressure: 3.9 mm Hg
Specific gravity: 1.514
Viscosity: 42 cP
Note: The significance of the viscosity value will be examined momentarily.
Next we need to convert the liquid�s vapor pressure to feet of 50% sodium hydroxide
solution absolute,
h
P
V
= = =
22 4
S
3 9
22 4 1 514
.
( . )( . )
0 1
.
. feet NaOH
Finally we need to convert the railcar blanket pressure to an absolute value and
then to feet of 50%
sodium hydroxide solution absolute. Because we are at sea level, a standard
pressure of 14.7 psia will
be used,
h
P
A
= =
+
=
2 31 2 31 15 14 7
. ( . )( . )
.
S
With the necessary pressures converted we are ready to calculate NPSH
A
= � - + NPSH
NPSH h h h h
NPSH
A S L A V
A
A
= + - + =
9 2 5 45 3 0 1
51 7
. . .
. feet
,
While this liquid has a very low vapor pressure we still need to take into
consideration the fact that it is
moderately viscous at the pumping temperature. The exact effect of viscosity on
NPSHR generally is not
available in technical literature but it is known to increase the value of NPSHR.
As stated earlier, values
for NPSHR provided on pump performance curves are for water. We may therefore want
to increase the
margin of safety to say maybe 10 feet to rule out any potential for cavitation.
Keep in mind that there
exists no precise engineering rules for assigning a value to head margin.
NPSH NPSH
NPSH
A R
R
1 514
45 3
= +
= - =
10
51 7 10 41 7. . feet
. feet NaOH
In this situation at least, we would search for a pump whose NPSHR would not exceed
41.7 feet at the
required capacity.
Here is another example. As part of a hot water heating system, a pump and tank are
arranged as
shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 � Hot water tank with suction lift
Here is what the analysis would look like:
EXAMPLE 3 (Static Suction Lift � Open Top Hot Water Tank)
Given:
Liquid: Hot water
Temperature: 180? F
Static Suction Lift: 6 feet
Altitude: + 2,000 MSL
Find: (1) The Net Positive Suction Head available (NPSH
).
(2) The maximum acceptable Net Positive Suction Head required (NPSH
Solution:
A
A
R
).
NPSH h h h h
The first step is to determine the vapor pressure of water at 180EF. Referring to
the ASME Saturated
Steam Temperature Table corresponding to a temperature of 180EF shows that the
vapor pressure is
7.5 psia. In order to maintain unit consistency, we must convert this to feet of
water:
Note: The specific gravity of water at 180EF is 0.97.
= � - + -
A S L A V
h
P
V
= = =
2 31 2 31 7 5
. ( . )( . )
.
S
0 97
17 9
Next we need to convert the atmospheric pressure to feet of water. Because we are
at an elevation
substantially above sea level, we need to convert the lower atmospheric pressure of
13.66 psia which
exists at +2,000 MSL. (Data, graphs, and charts are readily available in the open
literature on standard
atmospheric pressure values at various altitudes above sea level).
h
P
A
= = =
2 31 2 31 13 66
. ( . )( . )
.
S
0 97
32 5
With the necessary pressures converted we are ready to calculate NPSHA,
= � - + NPSH
NPSH h h h h
NPSH
A S L A V
A
A
= - - + =
6 2 32 5 17 9
6 6
. .
. feet
. feet
. feet
Because the liquid involved is H2O at a moderate temperature, and there is no
mention of entrained
gases or other suction conditions that would infer unusual circumstances, we can
proceed with:
NPSH NPSH
NPSH
A R
R
= +
= - =
2
6 6 2 4 6. . feet
Selecting a suitable pump for the low NPSH
presented by the configuration of this last suction
arrangement example would present a challenge.
Causes of Inadequate NPSH
A
A
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Normally centrifugal pumps are not recommended for atmospheric suction lifts > 20
feet because they experience difficulty in maintaining prime regardless of NPSH
A
.
Loss-of-prime and �vapor lock� are common terms used by operations personnel to
describe the cessation of flow. Pumps especially designed for extremely low NPSH
A
are purposely situated below suction sources so that in the event of momentary
lossof-prime
they
can
recover
prime
by
virtue
of
gravity
flow.
It is one thing to identify a potential cavitation problem because of inadequate
NPSH
, and then
quite another to identify measures that can be taken to rectify the problematic
situation. To get an answer
or develop a list of solutions, let�s first list the causes of inadequate NPSH
. We have already mentioned
most of them.
We only have to look at the right side of the classical NPSH
A
A
equation to begin an understanding of
contributing factors to inadequate NPSH
A
. If one or more of the negative terms, i.e., static suction lift (h
),
suction line loss (h
L
), or liquid vapor pressure (h
V
) are excessive, the resulting NPSH
will be reduced. Of
course the simplest method to eliminate a documented problem with inadequate NPSH
A
, albeit radical and
certainly expensive, is to substitute a suitable pump. In essence, of course, what
is being accomplished
here is the effective substitution of a lower alternative NPSH
Manipulating the System Variables
R
.
Obvious physical system changes than might be possible, before a compete pump
change-out is
undertaken are:
A
A
S
1. Raise the liquid level in the suction vessel or, alternatively, lower the pump's
elevation;
2. Decrease the fluid's operating temperature, i.e., vapor pressure of the liquid;
3. If applicable, increase the superimposed pressure in the suction vessel vapor
space;
4. Increase the suction line size or shorten its length, thereby lowering the
frictional head
A detailed treatment of practical pump suction arrangements is presented in

PDHcenter.com
course number M134.
Alternative Pump Designs
Very briefly, the NPSH
can be significantly reduced by the use of slower rotational speeds as a
result of a concept that was developed in 1937-8 known as Suction Specific Speed.
A full explanation
R
and detailed treatment of Suction Specific Speed is presented in PDHcenter.com
course number
M136. It is defined as,
Where, N = pump rotational speed, rpm
Q = pump capacity, gallons per minute
Historically, a knowledge base has been developed that indicates that cavitation
usually occurs
when values of N
exceed ?10,000 and that for a given application, a pump that results in a
lower
calculated suction specific speed should be considered over that of higher value,
all other conditions being
equal.
SS
It has been demonstrated that double suction designs can offer reductions in NPSH
of over 20%.
Use of a larger impeller eye reduces NPSH
R
N
N Q
=
SS
R
NPSH
0 75.
by reducing the entrance fluid velocities.
R
Summary
One of the most important considerations in selecting and applying a centrifugal
pump is the
conditions existing in the pump�s suction system. Too often in the centrifugal
pump selection exercise,
disproportionate attention is given to satisfying the parameters of total dynamic
head (TDH) and capacity.
The significance of suction conditions is frequently discarded and gives
rise to pump operational
problems. The determination of a pump�s Net Positive Suction Head is the
analytical tool for ascertaining
suitability to suction conditions.
I. Review of Term and Definitions
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) � the total suction head in feet of liquid
absolute determined
at the suction nozzle and referred to datum, less the vapor pressure of the liquid
in feet absolute.
Note that NPSH is an ABSOLUTE
pressure, not a relative or gauge pressure. In the absolute
pressure scale, �0� is a perfect vacuum, and approximately 33 feet of water
corresponds to a �0�
gauge pressure.
Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHR) � the amount of total suction head in
feet of
liquid absolute, less the vapor pressure, required to prevent more than 3% loss in
total head when
operating at a certain flow rate. NPSH Required values are determined at various
flow rates by
the pump manufacturer. Plots of typical NPSHR tests and a general description of
the most
common test methods will be given later.
Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) � the total suction head in feet of
liquid
absolute, determined at the impeller datum, less the absolute vapor pressure of the
liquid. The
pump system designer must calculate the NPSH Available, which changes with flow
rate and
liquid level in the sump or suction tank. The general formula used by system
designers is:
NPSHA = (Pt � Pv) / sg + Z � Hf
where Pt = absolute pressure on free surface of liquid (ft.)
Pv = vapor pressure of the liquid at pumping temperature (ft.)
sg = specific gravity of the liquid (water = 1.0)
Z = vertical distance between free surface and pump datum (ft., + or -)
Hf = friction loss in suction line and entrance losses
USING CONSISTENT UNITS IS IMPORTANT, as always. Note that there is no Velocity
Head term [V^2/(2g)] in the equation above. This is because velocity head energy is
lost
accelerating the fluid from the sump or tank into the suction pipe. That energy is
then recovered
in the suction pipe. When using this equation at the design stage, the velocity
head terms cancel
out. When taking actual field test data with gauges, velocity head must always be
added in.
Gauges always measure static pressure.
Cavitation � the formation and subsequent collapse of vapor-filled cavities in a
liquid. The
cavities may be bubbles or vapor-filled pockets, or a combination of both. The
local pressure
must be at or below the vapor pressure of the liquid for cavitation to begin. And
the cavities must
encounter a region of pressure higher than the vapor pressure to collapse. Bubbles
which
collapse on a solid boundary (such as an impeller vane or shroud wall) will cause
pitting,
damage, and some vibration. Cavitation pitting is evident slightly down-stream from
the inlet
edge of the impeller vane because it's the bubble collapse that does the damage,
not the bubble
formation.
4
System Head - the sum of the static head between suction and discharge liquid
levels, the pipe
friction head, and the head lost through fittings and valves. In many systems, the
static head
varies because suction and discharge liquid levels vary. Friction head generally
increases at a
rate approximately equal to the square of the flow through the system. Friction
head is affected
by changes in pipe condition and valve opening.
II. NPSH Available vs. NPSH Required
A. Consider two factors when deciding on the margin between

NPSHA and NPSHR
NPSH Available must ALWAYS exceed NPSH Required (NPSHA > NPSHR). Margin is the
amount that NPSHA exceeds NPSHR. Margin can be expressed in two ways:
� as a difference (NPSHA - NPSHR)
� or as a ratio (NPSHA / NPSHR)
An adequate MARGIN is both necessary and important because:
1) Cavitation has already begun and is well established at the published NPSH
Required (3%
head drop) value. Incipient cavitation usually starts at suction pressures TWO or
MORE TIMES
HIGHER than the published NPSHR (3% head drop) value. The deterioration of pump
performance as suction conditions approach the NPSHR value will be graphically
presented in
the next section.
2) Frequently, the ACTUAL pump operating flow rate exceeds the DESIGN flow rate
because
system heads are often over-estimated. Also, the actual head developed by the pump
at the rated
flow will exceed the rated head because of test code requirements. Both of these
factors reduce
NPSH margin, as we will see later when the interaction of these factors is
presented.
B. How NPSHR is determined by the pump manufacturer
There are two types of NPSH test setups generally used by pump manufacturers.
Probably the
one most often used is the SUCTION SUPPRESSION test. Here a constant level open
sump is
used, and NPSH Available is slowly reduced by partially closing a suction valve. To
obtain the
most accurate results, the flow must enter the impeller eye uniformly
, therefore there must be at
least 5 � 10 diameters of straight pipe between the pump suction flange and the
suppression
valve. The second NPSHR test setup is the CLOSED LOOP test with vacuum control.
This setup
often gives more accurate results at low NPSH values. The suction tank is a closed
vessel, and a
5
vacuum pump is used to reduce the pressure in this closed vessel, and thereby
reduce the
NPSHA.
With either the SUCTION SUPPRESSION or CLOSED LOOP setup for NPSH testing, air
entering the pump suction is always a possible problem, and the enemy to an
accurate test.
Suction pressures, and possibly pressure at the pump shaft seal, will be below
atmospheric
pressure during most of the NPSH test. Therefore suction piping joints and suction
valve stems
must be air tight. Pump shaft packing should be flushed with external water and
adjusted
relatively tight during testing, or use a double mechanical seal with flush.
The NPSH test results, as shown in Figure 1, were produced by holding the flow rate
constant at
1000, 1500, 2000, and 2250 GPM respectively, while reducing the NPSH Available on
the
suction side of the pump. Differential head was measured to determine the 3% head
drop point.
Each constant flow rate is a separate test, and represents one data point on the
published FLOW
vs. NPSHR curve.
Once again, to emphasize the point that cavitation is well established when a pump
is operated
with a suction pressure equal to its NPSH Required, let's look at the 2000 GPM data
in Figure 1.
At ample suction pressures (NPSHA above 42 feet), the head developed is 105 feet.
As suction
pressure is lowered, the total developed head is reduced until it reaches just
under 102 feet (3%
drop off) at an NPSH value of 32 feet. At 2000 GPM, the NPSHR = 32 feet. But if
full published
head performance is expected at 2000 GPM flow, an NPSHA value above the published
NPSHR
value must be maintained. Remember that 32 feet NPSH (absolute pressure) would
roughly
correspond to a suction gauge reading just below zero (gauge pressure) for cool
water. Please
study the NPSH data presented in Figure 1 at all four flow rates.
6
Fig. 1 Typical NPSH Testing at Several Flow Rates
7
C. System head calculations can affect actual NPSH margin
The previous NPSH Required data came from a wastewater pump with 6� suction and
discharge,
13� impeller, operating at 1780 RPM. Continuing on with that same example, we will
show how
the interaction between the pump head � capacity curve, the calculated
system head curve, and
the actual
system head curve can have an adverse effect on NPSH margin. For this example, the
rated condition point specified by the system designer is 2000 GPM (gallons per
minute) at 100
feet of head.
Figure 2 shows the actual head vs. flow (H-Q) performance curve for the pump
mentioned above
at 13� impeller diameter at 1780 RPM. This pump would meet the 2000 GPM at 100 feet
rating.
The first thing to note is the actual
head produced at 2000 GPM is approximately 105 feet, not
100 feet. Typical test standards used in the USA allow only a positive tolerance on
head. The
pump supplied will always meet, or more likely exceed, the rated head. Common
International
(ISO) test standards provide for a bi-lateral (+ / -) tolerance on head.
The actual pump operating point will be where the actual
H-Q curve intersects with the actual
system head curve. The dashed system head curve in Figure 2 is the one calculated
during
system design. The solid system head curve is the actual result once the system is
in operation.
Typically the system designer will be conservative in estimating friction losses,
resulting in the
calculated
system head curve being above the actual system head curve. This factor, plus the
positive test tolerance on head that the pump manufacturer must meet, has led to an
actual
operating point of 2160 GPM, instead of 2000 GPM in this example.
8
Fig. 2 � Pump Performance & System Head
9
What has this done to the NPSH margin that the system designer expected? Figure 2
shows
NPSH Required vs. Flow. This information is supplied by the pump manufacturer, and
is based
on the data given in Figure 1. Figure 2 also shows the NPSH Available as calculated
by the
system designer. At the rated flow of 2000 GPM, the calculated
or expected NPSH margin was:
NPSHA � NPSHR = 40 feet � 32 feet = 8 feet
OR NPSHA / NPSHR = 40' / 32' = 1.25
However, at the actual flow rate of 2160 GPM, the actual
NPSH margin is:
NPSHA � NPSHR = 37.7 feet � 34.5 feet = 3.2 feet OR
NPSHA / NPSHR = 37.7' / 34.5' = 1.09
The reality of the ACTUAL operating flow rate being greater than the RATED
condition has led
to a loss of NPSH safety margin in the design. Study Figure 2 carefully to
understand how these
factors have interacted.
D. NPSH Margin Guidelines
The following table presents recommended NPSH margins (ratios) for various
applications.
Safety margins are always subjective, and the actual margin used is always a
balance between
avoiding potential cavitation damage and initial cost. However, the cost of
correcting cavitation
problems after construction can be significant.
APPLICATION MARGIN (NPSHA / NPSHR)
Chemical 1.1* - 1.3
Electric Power 1.1* - 1.5
Water / Wastewater 1.3 � 1.7
General Industry 1.2 � 1.7
Pulp & Paper 1.1* - 1.4
Building Trades 1.2* - 1.5
Cooling Tower 1.4* - 1.7
* = or 5 feet difference, whichever is greater
10
Remember our previous example for a design of 2000 GPM at 100 feet. The pump used
in that
example was a wastewater pump. The original design at 2000 GPM did not quite meet
the
minimum recommended NPSH margin given above (1.3). At the design flow of 2000 GPM,
the
margin was 1.25 (40' / 32'). After construction and commissioning, the actual
system head
turned out to be lower than calculated, and the actual operating point was 2160
GPM. At that
actual flow rate, the NPSH margin further deteriorated to a 1.09 ratio or 3.2'
(difference).
Using Fig. 2, we can see there is 37.7' NPSHA at 2160 GPM. From Fig.1, we can
interpolate
between the 2000 and 2250 GPM NPSH test data to see that at 37.7' NPSHA, the
developed head
is about 1.5% below the full head you could expect at high NPSHA levels (like 45'
NPSHA or
higher).
In this example, the pump actually operates about half way towards its 3% head loss
NPSHR
condition. Some cavitation is well established at that point. Note also from the
NPSH test curves
in Figure 1, just below the 3% head drop point (the published NPSHR value) the
developed head
starts dropping more rapidly. This is typical for many centrifugal pump designs,
and this
�slippery slope� is one you don't want to get near.
If increased NPSH margin is desired, either the NPSHA of the system must be raised
or the
NPSHR of the pump must be lowered.
Changes to the system that will increase the NPSH Available include:
a) Increase the supply tank elevation, or raise the minimum tank (wet well) level.
b) Lower the pump relative to the supply tank

c) Increase suction pipe size to reduce flow velocity and friction loss.
d) Add a booster pump.
e) Reduce the liquid temperature, thus reducing the vapor pressure.
Changes to the pump that will reduce the NPSH Required include:
a) Select a different pump with lower NPSHR. This may mean using a larger pump at
lower
speed. Both pump and motor will have higher initial costs, but operating costs may
be
lower with reduced cavitation, reduced vibration, reduced wear if abrasives are
present,
and longer seal life. Going back to our previous example, for the design point of
2000
11
GPM at 100 feet, a 6� suction and 6� discharge pump with 13� impeller at 1780 RPM
was selected. NPSHR at 2000 GPM was 32 feet. An alternate selection could have been
a
6� suction and 6� discharge pump with 16.5� impeller at 1180 RPM, which has an
NPSHR of 16' at 2000 GPM (40'/16' = 2.5 NPSH Margin). This is huge increase in
margin from the original 1.25 margin, along with a higher initial cost for the pump
and
motor. But these additional upfront costs will likely result in longer pump wear
life, and
lower noise and vibration due to cavitation.
b) Add an inducer to the impeller inlet. This is sometimes done in low NPSH
applications.
Inducers act as first stage impellers with low inlet angles, and reduce the NPSHR
in the
flow range they are designed for. Inducers are sometimes used in chemical pump
applications on clear liquids. Because of their low inlet angles and high vane
overlap,
their ability to pass spheres is very limited.
III. Good Practices in Suction Piping
The previous section dealt with delivering sufficient suction pressure (NPSH) to
avoid cavitation
damage and its detrimental effects on vibration, bearing life, and seal life. That
turns out to be
only half the battle.
To avoid hydraulic noise and the associated vibration, you must also deliver a
uniform flow
velocity distribution to the pump inlet. A centrifugal pump that lacks a straight
and uniform flow
pattern at its inlet will not respond properly, or perform to its maximum
capability. A nonuniform
or swirling
flow
profile can lead to noisy
operation, random
axial
load oscillations, and
15
Vertically oriented pumps can be direct-driven by a motor mounted on top of the

pump, or
driven through line shafting connected to a motor at a higher elevation. In either
case, the pump
manufacturer must supply a suction elbow mounted directly in front of the impeller
inlet. Here
the suction elbow is a necessary evil. However, we can diminish the evil by making
smart
choices.
One principle to remember is that flow through CONVERGENT channels produces uniform
flow, while flow through DIVERGENT channels produces non-uniform flow patterns.
Therefore, the best designs for vertical pumps incorporate REDUCING ELBOWS on the
suction, or LONG RADIUS ELBOWS. Thesn elbow right in front of the impeller inlet.
How do they get away with that?
One such group of pumps are dry-pit vertical wastewater pumps used in the sewage
treatment
industry. Vertical pumps are often preferred here for their smaller floor space
requirements.
pump, or
case, the pump
inlet. Here
smart
choices.
suction, or LONG RADIUS ELBOWS. These two choices result in the most uniform flow
for
the impeller inlet. Short radius, non-reducing elbows would be the least desirable
choice for an
elbow just in front of the impeller inlet.
Another pump design that incorporates �elbows� just ahead of the impeller inlet is
a double
suction or split-case pump, such as previously shown in Figures 3 and 5. Again, the
turn in the
suction passage (built into the casing), just ahead of each impeller inlet, is a
necessary evil in this
design. Casing suction passage areas must be generous. See Figure 6. The area at
�AF� should be
at least 1.5 times the impeller eye area �D�.
Once again, convergent flow in the suction passage of the pump casing (due to
reducing areas
leading to the impeller inlet on each side) should result in reasonably uniform
flow at the
impeller eye. Good double suction pump inlet designs also feature anti-rotation
baffles to
suppress swirl at the impeller inlet. Note the anti-rotation baffle shown in Figure
6. Be wary of
double suction pump designs where the casing suction passage looks unusually
compact in the
axial direction (shaft axis). These designs could produce greater hydraue two
choices result in the most uniform flow for
choice for an
a double
turn in the
�AF� should be
reducing areas
flow at the
baffles to
6. Be wary of
compact in the
axial direction (shaft axis). These designs could produce greater hydraur inlet.
Another pump design that incorporatn elbow right in front of the impeller inlet.
treatment
requirements.
pump, or
case, the pump
inlet. Here
smart
choices.
for
choice for an
elbow just in front of tn elbow right in front of the impeller inlet. How do they
get away with that?
One such group of pumn elbow right in front of the impeller inlet. How do they get
away with that?
treatment
requirements.
pump, or
driven through line sn elbow right in front of the impeller inlet. How do they get
away with that?
treatment
requirements.
pump, or
case, the pump
inlet. Here
smart
choices.
Therefore, the best designs for vn elbow right in front of the impeller inlet. How
do they get away with that?
treatment
requirements.
pump, or
case, the pump
inlet. Here
smart
choices.
for
choice for an
a double
turn in the
�AF� should be
reducing areas
flow at the
baffles to
6. Be wary of
compact in the
axial direction (shaft axis). These designs could produce greater hydrauertical
pumps incorporate REDUCING ELBOWS on the
for
choice for an
a double
turn in the
�AF� should be
reducing areas
flow at the
baffles to
6. Be wary of
compact in the
axial direction (shaft axis). These designs could produce greater hydrauhafting
connected to a motor at a higher elevation. In either case, the pump
inlet. Here
smart
choices.
for
choice for an
a double
turn in the
�AF� should be
reducing areas
flow at the
baffles to
6. Be wary of
compact in the
axial direction (shaft axis). These designs could produce greater hydraus are dry-
pit vertical wastewater pumps used in the sewage treatment
requirements.
pump, or
case, the pump
inlet. Here
smart
choices.
for
choice for an
a double
turn in the
�AF� should be
Once again, convergent flow in elbow right in front of the impeller inlet. How do
they get away with that?
treatment
requirements.
pump, or
case, the pump
inlet. Here
smart
choices.
for
choice for an
a double
turn in the
�AF� should be
Once again, convergent flow in the sun elbow right in front of the impeller inlet.
treatment
requirements.
pump, or
case, the pump
inlet. Here
smart
choices.
for
choice for an
a double
turn in the
�AF� should be
reducing areas
flow at the
baffles to
6. Be wary of
compact in the
axial direction (shaft axis). These designs could produce greater hydrauction
passage of the pump casing (due to reducing areas
flow at the
baffles to
6. Be wary of
compact in the
axial direction (shaft axis). These designs could produce greater hydraun the
suction passage of the pump casing (due to reducing areas
flow at the
baffles to
6. Be wary of
compact in the
axial direction (shaft axis). These designs could produce greater hydrauhe impeller
inlet.
a double
turn in the
�AF� should be
reducing areas
flow at the
baffles to
6. Be wary of
compact in the
axial direction (shaft axis). These designs could produce greater hydraues �elbows�
just ahead of the impeller inlet is a double
turn in the
�AF� should be
reducing areas
flow at the
baffles to
6. Be wary of
compact in the
axial direction (shaft axis). These designs could produce greater hydrau preferred
here for their smaller floor space requirements.
pump, or
case, the pump
inlet. Here
smart
choices.
flow, while flow through DIVERGn elbow right in front of the impeller inlet. How do
treatment
requirements.
pump, or
case, the pump
inlet. Here
smart
choices.
for
choice for an
a double
turn in the
�AF� should be
reducing areas
flow at the
baffles to
6. Be wary of
compact in the
axial direction (shaft axis). These designs could produce greater hydrauENT
channels produces non-uniform flow patterns.
suction, or LONG RADIUS ELBOWS.n elbow right in front of the impeller inlet. How do
treatment
requirements.
pump, or
case, the pump
inlet. Here
smart
choices.
for
choice for an
a double
turn in the
�AF� should be
reducing areas
flow at the
baffles to
6. Be wary of
compact in the
axial direction (shaft axis). These designs could produce greater hydrau These two
choices result in the most uniform flow for
choice for an
a double
turn in the
�AF� should be
reducing areas
flow at the
baffles to
6. Be wary of
compact in the
axial direction (shaft axis). These designs could produce greater hydraulic noise.
The pump manufacturer has the primary responsibility for supplying proper suction
elbows for
vertical pumps, and designing suction passages in split-case pump casings. But
better informed
pump users and system designers can assure that the best choices are made for
suction elbows on
16
vertical pumps. And that double suction pumps with unusually small casing suction
passages are
avoided.
Fig. 6 � Double Suction Casing Inlet
17

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A very large part of a pump installation�s longevity has to do with selection of

the proper pump for

height; broadly, pressure of a fluid..

be greater than zero.

A detailed treatment of practical pump suction arrangements is presented in

A. Consider two factors when deciding on the margin between

b) Lower the pump relative to the supply tank

Vertically oriented pumps can be direct-driven by a motor mounted on top of the

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