A species is a group of organisms that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile, viable offspring

 Members of a single species are unable to produce fertile, viable offspring with members from a
different species
 When two different species do produce offspring by cross-breeding, these hybrids are reproductively
sterile (e.g. liger, mule)

A population is a group of organisms of the same species that are living in the same area at the
same time
 Organisms that live in different regions (i.e. different populations) are reproductively isolated and
unlikely to interbreed, however are classified as the same species if interbreeding is functionally
possible

Species Comparisons

Species:
 A group of organisms that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile, viable offspring
Population:
 A group of organisms of the same species, living in the same area at the same time
Community:
 A group of populations living together and interacting with each other within a given area
Habitat:
 The environment in which a species normally lives, or the location of a living organism
Ecosystem:
 A community and its abiotic environment (i.e. habitat)
Ecology:
 The study of the relationship between living organisms, or between living organisms and their
environment
 Autotrophs
 Synthesises its own organic molecules from simple inorganic substances (e.g. CO 2, nitrates)
 Energy for this process is derived from sunlight (photosynthesis) or via the oxidation of inorganic
molecules (chemosynthesis)
 Because autotrophs synthesise their own organic molecules they are commonly referred to
as producers
Heterotrophs
 Obtains organic molecules from other organisms (either living / recently killed or their non-living
remains and detritus)
 Because heterotrophs cannot produce their own organic molecules and obtain it from other sources,
they are called consumers
Mixotrophs
 Certain unicellular organisms may on occasion use both forms of nutrition, depending on resource
availability
 Euglena gracilis possess chlorophyll for photosynthesis (autotrophic) but may also feed on detritus
(heterotrophic)
Species can be classified according to their mode of nutrition
 Autotrophs produce their own organic molecules using either light energy or energy derived from the
oxidation of chemicals
 Heterotrophs obtain organic molecules from other organisms via one of three methods:
 Consumers ingest organic molecules from living or recently killed organisms
 Detritivores ingest organic molecules found in the non-living remnants of organisms (e.g. detritus,
humus)
 Saprotrophs release digestive enzymes and then absorb the external products of digestion
(decomposers)

Classifying Different Modes of Nutrition

Autotrophs synthesise organic molecules from simple inorganic substances
 Most autotrophs derive the energy for this process from sunlight (via photosynthesis)
 Some may derive the needed energy from the oxidation of inorganic chemicals (chemosynthesis)

Autotrophs obtain the simple inorganic substances required for this process from the abiotic
environment
 These nutrients – including carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen and phosphorus – are obtained from
the air, water and soil

Heterotrophs also may obtain some simple inorganic substances from the environment, but
principally obtain their carbon and nitrogen from the organic molecules produced by autotrophs

Autotrophic Nutrition

Heterotrophs obtain organic molecules from other organisms via different feeding mechanisms and
different food sources
 Consequently, heterotrophs can be differentially classified according to their feeding pattern

Consumers
Consumers are heterotrophs that feed on living organisms by ingestion
 Herbivores are consumers that feed principally on plant matter (e.g. cows, sheep, rabbits)
 Carnivores are consumers that feed principally on animal matter (e.g. crocodiles, wolves, tigers)
 Omnivores are consumers that have a principle diet composed of both plant and animal matter (e.g.
pandas, humans)

Scavengers
Scavengers are a type of consumer that principally feed on dead and decaying carcasses rather than
hunting live prey
 Examples of scavengers include hyenas, vultures and carrion birds (such as crows)

Detritivores
Detritivores are a type of heterotroph that obtains nutrients from non-living organic sources, such as
detritus and humus
 Detritus is dead, particulate organic matter – such as decaying organic material and fecal matter
 Humus is the term given specifically to the decaying leaf litter intermixed within the topsoil
 Detritivores include dung beetles, earthworms, woodlice, snails and crabs

Saprotrophs
Saprotrophs live on (or in) non-living organic matter, secrete digestive enzymes into it and absorbing
the products of digestion
 Unlike other types of heterotrophs, saprotrophs do not ingest food but use enzymatic secretion to
facilitate external digestion
 Because saprotrophs facilitate the breakdown of dead organic material, they are commonly referred
to as decomposers
 Examples of saprotrophs include bacteria and fungi
 Nutrients refer to the material required by an organism, and include elements such as carbon,
nitrogen and phosphorus
 The supply of inorganic nutrients on Earth is finite – new elements cannot simply be created and so
are in limited supply

Hence chemical elements are constantly recycled after they are used:
 Autotrophs obtain inorganic nutrients from the air, water and soil and convert them into organic
compounds
 Heterotrophs ingest these organic compounds and use them for growth and respiration, releasing
inorganic byproducts
 When organisms die, saprotrophs decompose the remains and free inorganic materials into the soil
 The return of inorganic nutrients to the soil ensures the continual supply of raw materials for the
autotrophs

Nutrient Cycling
5.1.5 Describe what is meant by a food web.
A food web is a diagram that shows all the feeding relationships in a community with arrows which show the direction
of the energy flow.

5.1.6 Define trophic level.

Trophic level: the trophic level of an organism is its position in the food chain. Producers, primary consumers,
secondary consumers and tertiary consumers are examples of trophic levels.

5.1.7 Deduce the trophic level of organisms in a food chain and a food web.
Plants or any other photosynthetic organisms are the producers. Primary consumers are the species that eat the
producers. Secondary consumers are the species that eat the primary consumers and tertiary consumers in turn eat
the secondary consumers.

5.1.8 Construct a food web containing up to 10 organisms, using appropriate information.

 Figure 5.1.2 - Food web

5.1.9 State that light is the initial energy source for almost all communities.
Light is the initial energy source for almost all communities.

5.1.10 Explain the energy flow in a food chain.

Producers receive their energy from light energy (the sun) by means of photosynthesis. After this, the energy in
organic matter flows from producers to primary consumers to secondary consumers to tertiary consumers. This is
because producers will be eaten by primary consumers which in turn will be eaten by secondary consumers and so on.
However, between these trophic levels, energy is always lost. All of the trophic levels lose energy as heat through cell
respiration. Also, as the organic matter passes from one trophic level to the next, not all of it is digested and so we
 have loss of energy in organic matter through feces. This energy then passes on to the detritivores and saprotrophs.
Another energy loss occurs through tissue loss and death which can happen at any trophic level. Once again, this
energy would be passed on to detritivores and saprotrophs as they digest these. Detritivores and saprotrophs in turn
lose energy as heat through cell respiration.
Summary:

1. Energy flows from producers to primary consumers, to secondary consumers, to tertiary consumers...
2. Energy is lost between trophic levels in the form of heat through cell respiration, faeces, tissue loss and death.
3. Some of this lost energy is used by detritivores and saprotrophs. These in turn also lose energy in the form of heat through cell
respiration.

5.1.11 State that energy transformations are never 100% efficient.

Energy transformations are never 100% efficient.

5.1.12 Explain reasons for the shape of pyramids of energy.

5.1.13 Explain that energy enters and leaves ecosystems, but nutrients must be recycled.
Energy is not recycled. It is constantly being supplied to ecosystems through light energy and then flows through the
trophic levels. As it flows through the trophic levels energy is lost in feces, tissue loss and death. This energy from
these losses is passed on to detritivores and saprotrophs. However the energy is then lost from the ecosystem as the
remaining energy in the trophic levels and the energy in the saprotrophs and detritivores is lost through cell
respiration in the form of heat. As a result, energy needs to be constantly supplied to the ecosystems. Nutrients on
the other hand are different as they constantly have to be recycled. Carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus are all examples
of nutrients. There is only a limited supply of these as they are not resupplied to the ecosystems like energy. Therefor
they have to be recycled over and over. They are absorbed from the environment, used by living organisms and then
returned to the environment.
Summary:

1. Energy is not recycled. Constantly being supplied to the ecosystem through light energy.
2. Energy is lost from the ecosystem in the form of heat through cell respiration.
3. Nutrients must be recycled as there is only a limited supply of them.
4. They are absorbed by the environment, used by organisms and then returned to the environment.

5.1.14 State that saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) recycle nutrients.
Saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) recycle nutrients.

5.1.1 Define species, habitat, population, community, ecosystem and ecology

Species: A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile, viable offspring
Habitat: The environment in which a species normally lives or the location of a living organism
Population: A group of organisms of the same species who live in the same area at the same time
Community: A group of populations living and interacting with each other in an area
Ecosystem: A community and its abiotic environment
Ecology: The study of relationships between living organisms and between organisms and their
environment
5.1.2 Distinguish between autotroph and heterotroph
Autotroph: An organism that synthesises its organic molecules from simple inorgance substances
(e.g. CO2 and nitrates) - autotrophs are producers
Heterotroph: An organism that obtains organic molecules from other organisms - heterotrophs
are consumers
5.1.3 Distinguish between consumers, detritivores and saprotrophs
Consumer: An organism that ingests other organic matter that is living or recently killed
Detritivore: An organism that ingests non-living organic matter
Saprotroph: An organism that lives on or in non-living organic matter, secreting digestive enzymes
into it and absorbing the products of digestion

5.1.4 Decribe what is meant by a food chain, giving three examples, each with at least three linkages
(four organisms)
A food chain shows the linear feeding relationships between species in a community
The arrows represent the transfer of energy and matter as one organism is eaten by another (arrows
point in the direction of energy flow)
The first organism in the sequence is the producer, followed by consumers (1°, 2°, 3°, etc.)

Examples of Food Chains

5.1.5 Describe what is meant by a food web

A food web is a diagram that shows how food chains are linked together into more complex feeding
relationships within a community
There can be more than one producer in a food web, and consumers can occupy multiple positions
(trophic levels)

5.1.6 Define trophic level

An organism's trophic level refers to the position it occupies in a food chain
Producers always occupy the first trophic level, while saprotrophs would generally occupy the
ultimate trophic level of a given food chain or food web
The trophic levels in a community are:
 5.1.7 Deduce the trophic levels of organisms in a food web and food chain
The trophic level of an organism can be determined by counting the number of feeding relationships
preceding it and adding one (producer always first)
Trophic Level = Number of arrows (in sequence) before organism + 1
In food webs, a single organism may occupy multiple trophic levels

5.1.8 Construct a food web containing up to 10 organisms, using appropriate information

Hint: When constructing a food web, always try to position an organism relative to its highest trophic
level (to keep all arrows pointing in same direction)

Food web (trophic levels in red)

5.1.9 State that light is the initial energy source for almost all communities
 All green plants, and some bacteria, are photo-autotrophic - they use light as a source of energy for
synthesising organic molecules
 This makes light the initial source of energy for almost all communities
 Some bacteria are chemo-autotrophic and use energy derived from chemical processes (e.g.
nitrogen-fixating bacteria)

5.1.10 Explain the energy flow in a food chain

 Energy enters most communities as light, where it is absorbed by autotrophs (e.g. plants) and
converted into chemical energy via photosynthesis
 Energy then gets passed to the primary consumer (herbivore) when they eat the plant, and then gets
passed to successive consumers (carnivores) as they are eaten in turn
 Only ~10% of energy is passed from one trophic level to the next, the rest is lost
 Because ~90% of energy is lost between trophic levels, the number of trophic levels are limited as
energy flow is reduced at higher levels

Summary of Energy Flow in a Food Chain

5.1.11 State that energy transformations are never 100% efficient

 When energy transformations take place in living organisms the process is never 100% efficient
 Typically, energy transformations in living things are ~10% efficient, with about 90% of the energy lost
between trophic levels
 This energy may be lost as heat, be used up during cellular respiration, be excreted in faeces or
remain unconsumed as the uneaten part of food

5.1.12 Explain the reason for the shape of pyramids of energy

 A pyramid of energy is a graphical representation of the amount of energy of each tropic level in a
food chain
 They are expressed in units of energy per area per time (e.g. kJ m2 year -1)
 Pyramids of energy will never appear inverted as some of the energy stored in one source is always
lost when transferred to the next source
 This is an application of the second law of thermodynamics
 Each level of the pyramid of energy should be approximately one tenth the size of the level preceding
it, as energy transformations are ~10% efficient

5.1.13 Explain that energy enters and leaves ecosystems, but nutrients must be recycled
 The movement of energy and matter through ecosystems are related because both occur by the
transfer of substances through feeding relationships
 However, energy cannot be recycled and an ecosystem must be powered by a continuous influx of
new energy from an external source (e.g the sun)
 Nutrients refer to material required by an organism, and are constantly being recycled within an
ecosystem as food (either living or dead)
 The autotrophic activities of the producers (e.g. plants) produce organic materials from inorganic
sources, which are then fed on by the consumers
 When heterotrophic organisms die, these inorganic nutrients are returned to the soil to be reused by
the plants (as fertiliser)
 Thus energy flows through ecosystems, while nutrients cycle within them

5.1.14 State that saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) recycle nutrients
 In order for organisms to grow and reproduce, they need a supply of the elements of which they are
made
 The saprotrophic activity of decomposers (certain bacteria and fungi), free inorganic materials from
the dead bodies and waste products of organisms, ensuring a continual supply of raw materials for
the producers (which can then be ingested by consumers)
 Thus saprotrophic bacteria and fungi play a vital role in recycling nutrients within an ecosystem

species
a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
habitat
an environment in which a species normally lives or the location of a living organism
population
a group of organisms of the same species which live in the same area at the same time
community
a group of populations living and interacting with each other in an area
ecosystem
a community and its abiotic environment
ecology
the study of relationships between living organisms and between organisms and their environment
environment
everything that surrounds an organism
components of environment
hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere
abiotic
non-living component
autotroph
an organism capable of making its own organic molecules as a food source; also called producer
heterotroph
an organism that cannot make its own food from inorganic matter and must obtain organic molecules
from another organism; also called consumer
detritivore
an organism that feeds on non-living organic matter
saprotroph
an organism that lives in non-living organic matter and secretes digestive enzymes into the matter to
absorb the products of digestion
food chain
a sequence showing the feeding relationship and energy flow between species
food web
an interconnecting series of food chains
trophic levels
an organism's position in a food chain
pyramid of energy
shows how much and how fast energy flows from one trophic level to the next in a community
decomposer
breaks down the body parts of dead organisms; i.e. saprotrophs and detritivores
Species
A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
Habitat
The environment in which a species normally lives or the location of a living organism
Population
A group of organisms of the same species who live in the same place at the same time
Community
A group of populations living and interacting with each other in an area
Ecosystem
A community and its abiotic environment
Ecology
The study of relationship between living organisms and between organisms and their environment
Autotroph
An organism that synthesizes its organic molecules from inorganic compounds
Heterotroph
An organism that obtains organic molecules from other organisms
Consumers
An organism that ingests other organic matter that is living or recently killed
Detritivore
An organism that ingests non-living organic matter
Saprotroph
An organism that lives in or on non-living organic matter, secreting digestive enzymes into it and
absorbing the products of digestion