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DOI:
10.6100/IR109133
Published: 01/01/1984
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M.J. HOEIJMAKERS
ON THE STEADY-STATE PERFORMANCE OF
A SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE WITH CONVERTOR
with special attention to wind energy conversion systems
PROEFSCHRIFT
DOOR
CIP-gegevens
Hoeijmakers, Martin Jacobus
On the steady.;.state performance of a synchronous machine
with convertor: witb special attention to wind energy
conversion systema I Martin Jacobus Hoeijmakers.-
[S.l. : s.n.]. -Fig. ·
Proefschrift Eindhoven. -Met lit. opg., reg.
ISBN 90-9000602-8
SISO 662 UDC 621.313.32:621.314.5 UGI 650
Trefw.: synchrone machines I vermogenselektronica.
INTRODUCTION 7
SUMMARY 188
SAMENVATTING 190
REFERENCES 197
INTRODUCTION
Pk = }(pAv) 2 = iPAv 3
where p is the air density and v is the (undisturbed) wind velocity
[Lys 82]. Only a part of this power can be converted into a more
useful kind of mechanica! power by using a wind turbine, the power
available on the shaft of which may be expressed as:
7
40
v=12 m/s
30
20
10
0
0 2 3 4
Figure 0.1 An example of the calculated power available on the
shaft of a wind turbine as a function of its
rotational frequency for a wind turbine with three
rotor-blades and a radius of 5.3 m
V
(mis)
20
10
t(s)
100 200
8
variabie-speed systems. Since power electronics, which are very
important in modern variabie-speed electromechanical systems, have
been introduced into electromechanical engineering, many overviews of
the different possible variabie-speed systems have been publisbed (see
for example [Ale 38; Sto '39; Hoe 43; Lab 61; Sch 64; Ste 67; Mag 81;
Sku 81]).
Although other systems arealso possible (see for example [Mue 79]),
the combination of a synchronous generator with a diode bridge
rectifier, a smoothing coil and an inverter with line commutation, as
it is depicted in figure 0.3, seems to be very promising. The three-
phase grid in figure 0.3 may be either a normal utility grid [Koe 79b;
Bon 80; deB 82] or an autonorneus grid [Hoe 80].
Especially because of the question what kind of synchronous machine
(a salient-pole or a cilindricàl-rotor machine; with or without damper
windings; what kind of a damper winding; with or without solid poles)
should be used in this system, a detailed computation metbod was
needed. This resulted in the research work described in this
dissertation. However, some kinds of wind turbines, for example a
Darrieus wind turbine (a turbine with a vertical axis), require of the
generator the ability to opera te as a motor (or the addition of an
auxiliary motor). For this reaso.n and for reasans of universality, the
research has not been restricted to the synchronous generator with
diodebridge rectifier, but has been done into the synchronous machine
with convertor in general. The synchronous generator with diode bridge
rectifier can be considered as a special case of the synchronous
machine with convertor. Although the knowledge of the steady-state
performance of the synchronous machine with convertor,. which is
described in this dissertation, is often sufficient for the
9
application of this system to wind energy conversion systems, the
stability problems which sametimes arise require further research into
the dynamic behaviour of the synchronous machine with convertor.
10
machine supplies the commutating voltage. However, when the system is
supplied from an alternating voltage source, this problem does not
occur because the motor current flows intermittently. In other words,
when the system is supplied from an alternating voltage source, the
commutating voltage is supplied by the line (low speed operation) or
by the laad (high speed operation). According to the publications, the
use of a commutatorless motor as a railway motor may have the
following important advantages:
- there is no commutator
- there are no serious isolation problems (the armature is on the
sta tor)
- the speed is regulated continuously
- expensive control, switchlng and reversing equipment is not
necessary (only one convertor and a very simple and cheap grid
control)
- the system can be supplied from a direct-eurrent as well as from an
alternating-current source.
In 1933 Willis mentioned a methad of starting commutation by means
of a circuit with two resistors and a condensor for the case where the
system is supplied by a direct current [Wil 33]. He also introduced
the name "thyratron commutator motor'' for the synchronous machine with
convertor. However, later on this name was contracted to "thyratron
motor". The well-known German name "Stromrichtermotor" was introduced
by Stöhr in the same year [ Sto 33] •
Stöhralsomentioned the possibility of supplying the synchronous
motor with convertor from a three-phase power system [Sto 33]. The
development of such an idea was described by Alexandersen and Mittag
[Ale 34]. The resulting motivation of a plan of applying a thyratron
motor for a draft fan in a generating station was publisbed by Sporn
and Langdon in 1935 [Spo 35]. This motor, the first thyratron motor
installed in America, was placed in regular operation at the Logan
power station of the Appalachian Electric Power Company on May 29,
1936 [Bei 38]. In spite of a comparatively large number of
difficulties, which were mainly caused by the thyratron tubes
(primarily the fragility of the catbode heater), the plant operators
were very enthusiastic about its performance [Bei 38]. In 1938 Kern
paid attention to the possible industrial application of the
synchronous motor with convertor [Ker 38].
11
Although several research workers were investigating the extra
dissipation in the synchronous machine caused by the use of the
machine in combination with a convertor (see for example [Poh 35;
Kue 39]), an important part of the fundamental research into the field
of the synchronous machine with convertor was done by Stöhr [Sto 33;
Sto 38a; Sto 38b; Sto 40']. Considering the number of valves in the
convertor and the utilization of the armature winding as well as the
valves, it follows from his publications, that the three-phase star-
connected synchronous machine with bridge convertor as depicted in
figure 0.5 may be preferred. Later research on this field led to the
same result [Lei 75]. The term synchronous machine with convertor when
used later on in this dissertation, refers to the system as depicted
in figure 0. 5.
When the circuit as shown in figure 0.5 has to be supplied from a
three-phase power system, normally the system as depicted in figure
0.6 is used. Nowadays, the German term "Stromrichtermotor" mostly
refers to this system, In spite of the advantages of this system, Stöhr
12
preferred the system as shown in figure 0.7 because of the commutation
probieros in the machine convertor at low eperating speeds. A
13
and steel rolling mills inthesteel industry [Mor 79]. The
cycloconvertor mayalso be used forship propulsion systems [Sti 78].
When the speed range of large drive systems (some megawatts) is not
limited to half the supply frequency, the system as depicted in figure
0.6 ("Stromrichtermotor") is chosen frequent ly. The fact is that many
different solutions for the low-speed commutation of the machine
inverter have been found (see for example [Ker 31a; Wil 33; Kue 58;
Lab 61; Koe 67; Ohn 67; Ste 78; Int 79; Wil 80]). However, thesolutien
as described by Labahn turns out to be the most practical solution for
many applications [Lab 61]. He proposed to intermit the current in the
intermediate direct-eurrent link (and also in the synchronous
machine) at the instant at which this current has to transfer from one
armature winding to the next. This current can be interrupted by using
the (controllable) rectifier (the left-hand convertor in figure 0.6).
For this purpose this rectifier may even be used as an inverter. For
reasous of a rapid decrease of the current in the direct-eurrent link,
the smoothing coil is sametimes short-circuited by means of a
so-called by-pass thyristor (see for example [Mau 75]).
The introduetion of the thyristors into power electranies [Joe 60]
and the introduetion of the transistors into the control equipment for
the inverter-fed synchronous machine [Lab 61] were very important
contributions to the development of the inverter-fed synchronous
machine. Since these introductions, the system as depicted in figure
0.6 ("Stromrichtermotor") has been used for numerous applications,
such as, large variabie-speed pump and fan drives [Eek 81; Wal 82],
the starting of pumped starage generator/motors [Pet 72], the starting
of large drive systems for paper mills [Coe 80], and other large
variabie-speed drives [Eek 81]. Moreover, other ideas for applications
have been published, for example a variable-speed drive for a pumped
hydro plant [Ker 80].
In recent years many refinements to the inverter-fed synchronous
machine have been introduced. One of these improvements was the
application .of brushless excitation systems which can operate when the
machine is at standstill (see for example [Nit 73]). Other
improvements have been obtained thanks to the development of the
control system, so that the shaft-position sensor (distributor) is not
necessary any more (see for example [Sch 78; LeH 82]) and the
utilization of the machine has been improved (see for example [Led 78;
14
Sau 81]). Another development is the application of microprocessors in
the control system of the inverter-fed synchronous machine (see for
example [Ric 81]).
In special cases, for example when a low torque ripple is required
or when the power dissipation in the rotor caused by the armature-
current harmonies should be very low (very large drives), a twelve-
pulse inverter-fed synchronous machine is applied. The synchronous
machines in these systems have two separate three-phase windings
displaced ~ (electric) radians from each other. Each of these three-
phase windings is connected to a thyristor bridge; the mutual
conneetion of these bridges may be realized in different ways (see for
example [Sku 81; Mey 82]), An example of the application of this
twelve-pulse system is an inverter-fed railway motor [Ham 82].
Although in most applications the inverter-fed synchronous motor is
supplied via a controllable rectifier, by means of which the current
in the intermediate direct-eurrent link is controlled, it may also be
supplied by a (nearly) constant voltage source, such as a battery. The
use of the inverter-fed synchronous motor in an electric motor-car is
an example of this application (see for example [Fuc 83]).
Although in literature more attention has been paid to the motor
operation of the inverter-fed synchronous machine than to the
generator operation, this system is much more applied to generate
electricity (the synchronous generator with rectifier): nearly each
modern motor-car is equipped with such a system for charging its
battery. Besides these small systems, the synchronous generator with
rectifier is also used for high power applications, such as some
systemsfor generating direct voltage for the direct-eurrent motors in
ship propulsion systems (see for example [Sti 78]).
15
be supplied by the generator. For similar reasons, the largest
possible value of the delay angle of the line-commutated inverter will
be preferred (see sectien 3.3).
As a result, the direct voltage in the intermediate direct-eurrent
link is (nearly) constant, which allows for various generators with
rectifier to be connected in parallel on the direct-eurrent side ofthe
inverter without hardly any mutual influence (see figure 0.8) [Koe 79b].
16
p
17
the synchronous machine with convertor are given in chapter 4. The
most important part of this dissertation (in the author's opinion) is
chapter 5, in which a metbod of computing the steady-state performance
of the synchronous machine with convertor in details is described. In
chapter 6, the results obtained by means of this computation metbod
are compared with experimental results for a synchronous generator
with diode bridge rectifier. However, other aspects of the synchronous
generator with diode bridge are also dealt with in this chapter.
18
THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
1.1
~
d
I
Figure 1.1.1 Schematic diagram of the synchronous machine.
19
- The reference directions of current and flux correspond as do the
direction of rotatien and the direction of advance of a right-handed
screw.
- The magnetic circuit of the rotor is symmetrical to two mutually
perpendicular axes: the direct and the quadrature axis.
- The excitation winding, the field axis of which is the direct axis,
is the only accessible rotor winding. Skin effects in this winding
are neglected. However, other closed electric circuits on the rotor
are possible: eddy-current paths in solid steel or damper windings
which are distributed symmetrically witb respect to the direct axis
and to the quadrature axis.
- The stator windings are sinusoidally distributed along the stator
circumference. These distributions are described by:
za î sin as (l.l.1a)
~ = z sin(as - 2
-Tt)
3
(1.1.1b)
20
1.2 The general equations of the synchronous machine
A i Zsin o. (1.2.1a)
a a s
. - . ( 2 ) (1.2.1b)
l.bZsl.n o.s- 31T
A 1.. -Zs1.n
. ( o. - -4'1T ) (1.2.1c)
c c s 3
The total effect of these current distributions is the same as the
effect of the superposition of these distributions:
A( o.s ) = -{ . .
Z J.asJ.nO.s+ . . (
l.bSJ.n 2 )
o.s- 31T . . (
+ l.cSJ.n 4 )}
as- 31T ( 1 .2. 2)
(1.2.3)
will be used. The choice of the factor ~ in the expression for the
current space phasor is more or less arbitrary. One of the advantages
of this choice is that the per-~nit value of the modulus of this
phasor will be 1, when the machine is used with a symmetrical three-
phase system of sinusoidal armature currents of rated value (section
1. 7).
Using the current space phasor according to (1.2.4), the current
distribution given by (1.2.3) can be expressed as:
21
(1.2.5)
-j(y- ~'IT)
ie (1.2.7)
22
can be used to represent the current distribution according to (1.2.6):
(1 .2.8)
(1.2.9)
! 1 Bd n (id)cos{n(ar -!n)}
Bd(a r ,id) = n= n=1,3,5, .. (1.2.11)
23
Bd(ar ,jd) = n=r 1 Bd n (jd)cos{n(a r -i~)} n=1,3,5, •• (1.2.13)
n=1,3,5, •. (1.2.14)
B (a ,i ) =
q r q
r
n= 1
B (i )cos(na )
qn q r
(1.2.15)
n=1,3,5, .• (1.2.16)
B
q
(a )
r
r
= n= 1{Bqn (i q )
+ (j )}cos(na )
qn q
B
r
= r B cos(na ) n= 1 , 3, 5, •. (1.2.17)
n= 1 qn · r
With (1.2.14) and (1.2.17) the total air-gap induction can be given:
B(a )
r
= Bd(a r ) + B (a )
q r
=
= n=r1{Bdncos(n(ar -iff)) + B
qn
cos(na )}
r n=1,3,5, .. (1.2.18)
24
Figure 1.Z.Z The determination of the flux
associated with an armature winding.
sides are located at the positions a' and Zet -a' is:
r o r
et'
r
J B(et )lrda .
za -a, r r
o r
So, the flux associated with rZsin(a'-a )det turns at the positions
r o r
a'r and Zet o--a'r is:
a~. )
rÎsin(a'- a ) {
r
f B(et )lrda ;da •
o Za -a, r rJ r
o r
a +TI a1
0
J rZsin(et'-
et ){ { B(et )lrda }da' (1.Z.ZO)
a0 r
o ct -a' r r r
o r
Substituting (1.Z.18) in (1.Z.ZO) gives
Z5
This expression can be simplified by using the flux space phasor:
(1.2.23)
where the subscript m stands for main field. Using (1.2.23), the main
flux associated with an armsture winding with its axis on a ;a
r o is
given by:
(1.2.24)
( 1.2 .25)
Using this expression, the main fluxes associated with the armsture
windings a, b and c are given by:
(1.2.27a)
d1jJb
~
= -Ra i b -dt (1.2.27b)
dljlc
uc = -Ra i c -dt (1.2.27c)
26
The flux associated with an armature winding consists of a main flux
(according to (1.2.26)) and a leakage flux [Hum 40]. This leakage flux
is supposed to be independent of the rotor position. On the basis of
armature symmetry the fluxes associated with the armature windinga
can be represented by:
where the inductances Lao a and L aboa are introduced. Although Labocr
will be positive in most cases, it might be negative_.
Using the homapolar component of the three-phase system of armature
currents:
• 1 (. • • ) (1.2.29)
10 =3 1 a+ 1 b+ 1 c
$c = 1/Jmc+ (L +L )i - 31 (1.2.30c)
aocr abocr c aboio
In many cases the homapolar component i is zero; in those cases the
0
leakage inductance L is effective in each phase:
aa
(1.2.31)
i Re i+ io ( 1.2. 32a)
a
ib Re{a 2 i} + io (1.2.32b)
i Re{!_i) + i 0 (1.2.32d)
c
Using the homapolar inductance
L
0
= L aocr - 21
abocr
(1.2.33)
27
Wa = Re{~+ Laoi} + Loio (1.2.34a)
;pc = Re{a(lji
- ---m
+ L ~i)} + L i
av- 0 0
(1. 2. 34c)
lji=w+L i ( 1. 2 .36)
- ao-
"""!11
u. = Re{a2
D -
(-aa-i - d.!l!_\;}
dt
+ { -R i -
\ a 0
dljJ0)
dt
(1.2.38b)
u
c
= Re{i ~
-R i -
a- dt
)}+ (,
d.!l!_ -R i -
a 0 dt
1
dV o\} (1.2.38c)
28
u =u+ ju = ue-j(y-in) ( 1.2.42)
-=dq q d -
~ = ~ + j~ = ~e-j(y-5n) (1.2.43)
~q q d -
and using expression (1.2.7), the voltage equation (1.2.39) can be
expressed in the rotor coordinate system:
d~
. .:.dn ., , dy
u = -R 1 - ~- J't'1 (1.2.44)
-=dq a-=dq dt 2:.dq -dt
when this expression is divided into its real and its imaginary
parts, the well-known two-axis voltage equations of the synchronous
machine are found (using (1.2.9), (1.2.42), and (1.2.43)):
d~
dy
i - ___.9:. + lj!ddt
u = -R (1.2.45a)
q a q dt
. dlj;d
-R1 - - - 1jJ dy ( 1.2.45b)
ud a d dt q dt
(1.2.46a)
(1.2.46b)
(1.2.46c)
where:
2
cosy cos(y- Jff) cos(y- 4n)
3
2
C=3 sin y sin(y- ~1T) sin(y- .in)
3
(1.2.46d)
i i
cosy sin y
2
c-1 = cos(Y- 3) sin(Y- ~
3
) (1.2.46e)
sin(y- ~ )
4
cos(y- -)
3
29
The voltage equation of the excitation winding is given by:
. dlj!f
uf = Rflf+ ïfi: (1.2.47)
(1.2.49)
(1.2.50)
As mentioned before, the flux ~md is the main flux associated with
an armature winding on the direct axis. However, the contribution of
the direct-axis current id to the air-gap induction can be considered
to be the result of the current id in a sinusoidal distributed
winding with its axis on the direct axis and with one and a half
times as many turnsas an armature winding (expression (1.2.8.) and
(1.2.9)). Therefore, the coefficient Lmd is nota normal coefficient
of self-induction. After introducing the direct-axis synchronous
inductance
(1.2.51)
(1.2.53)
30
Introducing the coefficient of self-induction Lffd and using the
inductance Lafd introduced before, this expression can be converted
into:
(1.2.54)
+"" +oo
1)Jmd(jd) _Lid(T)f(t-T)dT +_Lif(T)p(t-T)dT (1.2.55a)
+m +oo
Wf(jd) =_rid(T)h(t-T)dT +_Lif(T)k(t-T)dT (1.2.55b)
L
q
= L mq + L
acr (1.2.59)
L i + 1jJ (j ) (1.2.60)
q q mq q
31
The cause and the effect of the current density distribution j
q
can be considered to be the cause and the effect of a linear time-
invariant system: the current i q is the input and the flux W
mq (j q) is
the output quantity. With the system's pulse response n(t) the
following integral expression can be given:
+co
W (i ) = fi (T)n(t-t)dT
mq q -co q
(1.2.61)
(1.2.62)
(1.2.63)
32
1.3 Operational inductances
(1.3.3c)
(1.3.4)
33
When the excitation current is an ideal direct current:
if~If, equation (1.3.1a) can be written as:
where
L (0) = L (1.3.6b)
-q q
As early as 1929 Park made use of operators like ~(w), .!!q(w), and
~(w} [Par 29]. Some years later Waring and Crary used the term
"operational impedance" for ~ (w) and .!!q (w) [\var 32]. Concordia
preferred the term "operational inductance" because these operators
give arelation between current and flux [Con 51]. He, however,
continued using the term "operational impedance". As in [Sar 79] in
this dissertation the term "operational inductance" will be used.
34
Figure 1.4.1 The representation of the synchronous machine
with n damper circuits on the direct axis and
m damper circuits on the quadrature axis.
where
ind
35
The currents in these n damper circuits represent, in this case,
the current distribution jd introduced insection 1.2. The flux
~md(jd), which is linked with an armature winding on the direct axis
and corresponds to the current density distribution jd, and the
flux ~f(jd), which is linked with the excitation winding and also
corresponds to this current density distribution, can be expressed
as:
-ud
uf
R
a
Rf
id
if
l);d l ljiq
0
0 R11d ••• R1nd
d
ild +dt
- .,~1dJ +
0
dy
dt
(1.4.3a)
0 ind ljind 0
Rlnd • • .Rnnd J
where
lj!d Ld 1 1 L id
afd a1d and
3
~f tLafd 1 ffd 1 f1d
1
fnd if
3 (1.4.3b)
lj!1d 1 1 1 i1d
tLa1d f1d 11d 1nd
~nd l1
2 and
L L
fnd 1nd
(1.4.4a)
where
36
(1.4.4b)
i
m
-u R i wq lJ!d
q q
0 R i1q 1Ji1q 0
R11q 1mq d dy (1.4.6a)
+-
dt dt
0 R R i wm 0
1mq mm m
where
lj!q L L L i
q a1q amq q
l1 L L
w,q 2 a1q 11q 1mq i1q
. (1.4.6b)
$ l1
2 amq
L
1mq
L
mm
i
m
( 1.4. 7a)
where
(1.4.7b)
37
1.5 The per-unit system
u(in V)
u(in p.u.)
u (in v)
0
38
i
-ud -ud ~R id
u a 1/Jd 1/Jq
0
i
uf uf ~R if 1/!f 0
ufo f
d dy
+- +
i i dt dt
0 ~ ndoR 0
uld uldo 11d'''u 1do lnd ild ljlld
(1.5.1)
i i
~R ndoR
L
0
LunJ u d lnd'''u d nnd
n o n o
ind ljlnd 0
i i i i
1do ndo
ljld --2.1 ~ u
1
ald
1 id
u0 d u afd u and
0 0 0
3i i i i
~ ~ ~ ndo
ljlf 1 if
2ufo afd ufo ffd ufo fld ufo fnd
=w ( 1. 5 .2)
0
3i i i
~
1do1 ndo1
lj!ld 2uldo ald ld uldo 11d uldo 1nd ild
3i i i
1Pnd
0
- --L ~L ~
2undo and undo fnd undo lnd
i
-uq -u
q
4u a
i
q
1jJ
q 1)Jd
0
i i
0 ~R mqoR 0
ul q: 11q' .. u lmq ilq d 1P1q
ulqo 1qo +- (1.5.3)
dt
i i
0 u ~ ••• mqoR i 0
m u lmq u mmq mq
mqo mqo
39
i i i
mqo1
!jJq __!!.L
u0 q
~
u alq u 0 amq
i
q
0
3i i
ljJ1q ~
2u alq lq
... u
mqo
1
1mq ilq
1qo 1qo
"'W ( 1.5 .4)
0
3i i i
~ __!_g_oL mqoL i
lj!mq 2u amq u lmq umqo mmq mq
mqo mqo
i d1/!o
uo - __!!.R i -dt (1.5.5)
u a 0
0
w i
1j.i ~·1 ( 1 .5 .6)
0 "' u
0
o o
(1.5.7)
3 . . . . . . (
2uo 1 o=ufo 1 fo=u1do 1 1do= ..• =undo 1 ndo=u1qo 1 1qo"'···=umqo 1 mqo 1 •5 • 9 )
40
0 (1.5.10)
1 1 1 1
d afd a1d •• and
1 1 1 1
afd ffd d1d fnd
(1.5.11}
1 1 1 1
a1d f1d 11d 1nd
i 1/1 tiJ
q q d
• I
1
1q d o/1q 0 dy
+- (1.5.12}
dt dt
r i 0
mmG mq
1j; 1
q q
1/11q 1 1 1
a1q a1q 1mq (1.5.13)
1 i
1j;
mq amq 11 mq .. 1mmq mq
-r i ( 1. 5. 14)
a 0
(1.5.15)
The base value for the rotor quantities are chosen according to
the method preierred in [Har 70], In this metbod for each axis the·
contribution of each base current in its circuit to the main flux
is the same:
41
1mdio "" 1 afifo .. 1 a1di!do ""••• "' 1 andindo (1.5.16a)
Using these equations, the base value for the rotor currents can be
obtained. Subsequently, the rotor base voltages can be determined
by means of equation (1.5.9),
Finally, the base quantities are expressed by:
i
0
., 12IN u
o
= v'2UN
1 31
md . afd
=--u
ifo = Lafd l.o 2Lmd o
1 31 (1.5.17)
md akd
ikdo = io "'--u
2Lmd o
31 k
.. ~u
2L o
mq
i
r =~R
a u
0
a
2i L2 2i 1 2
r omd R omq R
jkl" 3u L .dL kd jkd rjkq = 3u L . L k jkq
o aJ a o aJq a q
wi wi wi
ld ==~L
u d
1 =~L 1 =~L
0
q uo q 0 u 0
0
2w i L2 d 2w i 12 d
lfkd= o o m L 1 = oom ~
3u0 LakdLafd fkd kJ'd 3uo La kd.LaJ'd J.d
wi 2w i 1 2
1 =~L o o mq
1 ·q"" 3 L
akq u
0
mq kJ u o a k qL aJq
. L .
l<Jq
( 1 .5. 18)
42
Using (1.5.18), (1.2.51) and (1.2.59), the fo11owing quantities
can be introduced:
1 1 ( 1.5. 19b)
mq akq
wi wi
1aa 1d - 1md = ~(L- L ) =~L (1.5.19c)
u d md u aa
0 0
wi w0 i 0
1
aa
1
q
- 1
m.q
= ~(L-
u q
L )
mq
{ 1.5. 19d)
0
u0
1 1 nd - 1md ( 1 • 6. 1a)
x
1 (1.6.tb)
11d- 1 ftd
1 ffd - 1f1d ( 1. 6. 1c)
1 tnd+V~dcr 1md+ 1x
rf 0 if md ~ (1.6.2)
43
By means of this voltage equation, the equivalent circuit shown
in figure 1.6.1 can be constructed. The inductance 1 in this
x
figure is often neglected, which is not always allowed [Can 68].
1 = 1 - 1 ( 1 .6.3)
1a 11q mq
the equations (1.5.12) and (1.5.13) are transformed into:
(1.6.4)
44
The derived equivalent circuit is given in figure 1.6.3.
(1.6.6)
-·o 'wt
u ûcos(wt-o) = Re{ûe J e 3 } Re{û ejwt} (1.7.1a)
a -a
2
Re{û
j(wt - 3TI)} (1.7.1b)
ub -ae
4
u Re{~e
j(wt 3TI)} (1.7.1c)
c
45
i ( 1. 7. 2a)
a
... j(wt
Re{ 1. e ( 1. 7. 2b)
-a
{
~ j(wt
i Re i e (1.7.2c)
c -a
Re
(1.7.4)
It can beseen from the equations (1.7.3) and (1.7.4) that the
current as well as the voltage space phasor rotate with the same
angular speed as the rotor does: w.
Writing the rotor position angle as:
y = Yo + wt (1.7.5)
46
j 01f-yo)
û e (1.7.6a)
~q -a
j 01f-Yo>
i e
~q ~
-a
(1. 7 .6b)
y ~2,
1f
Choosing
0 these expressions are transformed into a simple
form:
û ( 1. 7. 7a)
~q -a
~q (1.7.7b)
ud u do ûsin(-o) ( 1. 7 .Sa)
( 1. 7. 10a)
( 1. 7. 10b)
47
udo -r I
a dO
- wljlqO = -r a I dO - wl I
q qO
( 1. 7. 11 a)
(1.7.12)
~qO
As an example, in figure 1.7.2 a phasor diagrambasedon this
equation is given. This diagram refers to a synchronous generator
with an inductive load.
d lm
Re
q
(1.7.13)
48
these equations.
1md+ 1 + 1
x fda (1.8.1b)
rf
1md+ 1 + 1
x 1da ( 1 .8. 1c)
r11d
( 1md+ 1) 1fda
11da + (lmd+ 1x) + 1fda
( 1.8.1d)
r 11d
( 1 .8. 1e)
= 1 (1 + (1.8.1f)
~1d
( 1 .8. 1g)
( 1.8.1h)
49
Commonly (1.8.1a) is written in the following form:
(1+jWTd)(1+jWT~)ld~(W) + (j+jWT1d)lmd~
~(w) = (1.8.2)
T' + T"
d d
= T4+ '5 ( 1.8.3a)
(1 + jwTd)(1 + jwTd)
~(w) (1 + jwT' H1 + jun"
1
) d
( 1.8.5)
dO dO
50
and rf&Q in the equations (1.6.6) and (1.6.2), this inductance can
be expressed by:
1" (1.8.6)
d
I"d -
lim 1 ( ) (1.8. 7)
w->eo -=.cl w
(1.8.8)
S1
This inductance corresponds with the inductance seen at the port of
the net-workin figure 1.8.2, which differs from figure 1.8.1 in the
absence of the inductor 1 do•
1
52
equation (1.8.1b). The time constant T corresponds with the
1
time constant of the circuit shown in figure 1.8.3 in the
case this circuit is open (figure 1.8.3 is comparable with
figure 1.8.2 concerning the term "transient").
1
1 Direct-axis transient short-circuit time constant. Using
d
Td~1
(1.8.4):
4 and (1.8.1e), it can beseen that this time
constant corresponds to the net-work shown in figure 1.8.3
with a closed circuit.
TdO Direct-axis sub-transient open-circuit time constant. Using
the approximate value according to (1.8.4): T , a net-work to
3
determine this time constant can easily be found by means of
equation (1.8.1d). The time constant 1 corresponds with the
3
time constant of the circuit shown in figure 1.8.4 in the
case this circuit is open (figure 1.8.4 is camparabie with
figure 1.8.1 concerning the term "sub-transient").
53
After Fourier transformation of the equations (1.6.7) and (1.6.4),
the current i (w) can be eliminated from these equations:
1
-q
+ jWT"
1J; (w) = ...,----+-],.-.w-,~..f---1 i ( w) ( 1 .8. 11a)
--q qO q --q
where:
T"
qO = _1-( 1 + 11 qcr) (1.8.11b)
r11q mq
T"
q
= _1_(
r 1 lqcr +
1 1
mq ao )
1 + 1
(1.8.11c)
11 q mq ao
+ jw1""
1 (w) q 1 ( 1 .8. 12)
--q + jw1" q
qO
In the case of a direct current (w=O), the quadrature-axis
operationa1 inductance equa1s the quadrature-axis synchronous
inductance: 1 (0)=1 , as has a1ready been expressed by (1.3.6b).
--q q
If the current
.
i q is changing rapidly, the change of the flux
linked with the quadrature- axis damper circuit can be neglected.
Hence, in this case, the voltage drop over the resistance r q in
11
figure 1.6.2 and equation (1.6.4) can be neglected. Using the
equations (1.6.4) and (1.6.7) with r . =0, the quadrature-axis
1 .q
sub-transient inductance, which is defined by the quotient of the
rapid1y changing flux 1J; and current i , can be expressed by:
q q
1 1
1" 1 + mq 1qcr (1 8 13)
q acr 1 + 1 • •
mq 1qcr
54
llqa
lmq
55
1.9 The sub-transient behaviour of the synchronous machine
i
q IJIO+ inq ( 1. 9. 2b)
56
di
- (1 - l")I dy- r i - 1" d 1"'l .dy
- (1.9.6a)
ud q q qO dt a d d q q dt
di
uq { (ld- 1d)Id0 + : : 1afd} :~- r iq- 1"q ___g_
dt
+ 1"' dy
dl.d dt (1.9.6b)
-(1 -l")I dy
q q qO dt
iq
+
+
Uq
Figure 1.9.1 The direct-axis (a) and the quadrature axis (b)
equivalent circuits for the sub-transient
behaviour.
1" = 1"
d q
= 1" ( 1. 9. 7)
57
the armature phase voltages can be expressed in the following form
by using the voltage equations (1.9.6) and the Park transformation
(1.2.46):
di
u e"- r i - 1"~ ( 1. 9. 10a)
a a a a dt
di
~ ei;-raib- 1"2
dt (1.9.10b)
di
c-
u = e"- r i 1"--c (1.9.10c)
c c a dt
where e", eb", and e" form a symmetrical three-phase system of
a c
sinusoidal voltages according to:
e"
c
= e"cos(y-~'IT)
d 3
+ e"sin(y-:±n)
q 3
(1.9.11c)
where
e"
q w{ (ld- l")IdO+ ~: 1 afd} (1.9.12b)
58
2 EXPERTMENTAL DETERMINATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE QUANTITIES
2.1 Introduetion
59
armature winding is on the rotor) with the following rating plate
data:
manufacturer Siemens Schuckertwerke AG
apparent power 24 kVA
armature voltage 400 V
armature current 35 A
frequency 50 Hz
rotational frequency: 25 s-1
This machine has a cage damper winding· with solid cylindrical
conductors lying in semi-closed slots in the laminated stator
(inverted machine).
The second one is a solid pole synchronous machine. To allow for the
machine to be loaded by a twelve-pulse rectifier, the three-phase
armature winding of the original machine has been changed. The new
winding consists of two separate three-phase windings displaced n/6
(electric) rad from each other. In this chapter only one three-phase
winding will be used. The rating plate data of this machine using one
three-phase winding are:
manufacturer Heemaf
apparent power 21.4 kVA
armature voltage 380 V
armature current 32.5 A
frequency 50 Hz
rotational frequency: 25 s-1
60
Figure 2.2.1 The test circuit.
Figure 2.2.2 The rotor in the direct axis (a} and in the
quadrature axis (b) position with respect to
the armature winding field axis.
61
following expressions can be given for those four angular positions:
-~13i
3
i
q
0 u ., l3ud (2.2.2a)
i ., ~l3i i 0 u - -l3ud (2.2.2b)
d 3 q
62
600
460
400
360
300
260
200
160
100
60
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 2.3.1 The no-load saturation characteristic of the
Siemens synchronous machine.
x,+: measured values
curveif •-0.111+7.21•10- 3 U +1.059•10- 11 U~+1.655•10- 21 u~
1 0 1
curvelfo•7.225•10- 3 U +8.5•10- 19 u~
2
1
curve\ =0.109+7.224•10- 3 U +1.324•10- 11 U~+1.582•10- 21 u~
3 0 1
values in figure 2.3.1 three approximative curves are given. For the
determination of the synchronous mutual inductance Lafd the second
curve in figure 2.3.1 is used. The substitution of
13
UL = 72 w 1 afd 1 fO (2.3.1)
in the expression for the linear part of this curve results in:
Lafd = 360 mH.
The mutual inductance Lafd of the Reemaf synchronous machine has
been determined in a similar way: Lafd = 345 mH.
The sustained three-phase short-circuit test is also conducted by
driving the machine as a generator at rated rotational frequency by a
prime-mover. In order to get a well-defined starting point for thé
test the magnetic circuit is temporarily saturated by means of a high
negative excitation current (with open armature circuit). During the
63
test the excitation current is increased in steps from zero to its
maximum value, while the excitation and the armature current are
measured simultaneously.
In figure 2.3.2 the resultant three-phase sustained short-circuit
characteristic is given for the Siemens synchronous machine. In
40
2·:
36 l
la
(A) 1. 5
1
30 .s
26
4 4.5 6
-
IfO (A)
5.5 6
64
rotor should be in the direct-axis position with respect to the
armature winding field axis (y=-rr/6); (2.2.2a) gives:
'1'0 2
(- 73) = Ld (-313 IQ) (2.3.3a)
65
used, the reading of the meter is hindered by the movement of the
pointer at the moment of switching on s 1 • The same problem arises
when the test is finished. Because s 1 is not an ideal switch, the
stationary value of the current i is nat exactly zero. This results in
a moving pointer of the flux meter at the end of the test. When an
oscilloscoop is used, the problem is how to determine the integral
with reasonable accuracy. Also the large time-constant of the circuit
shown in figure 2.3.3 (with s 1 closed) counts against this circuit.
Instead of eliminating the term Judt, Jones eliminated the term
Rfidt in equation (2.3.4b) [Jon 58; Jon 67]. He used the Wheatstone-
bridge circuit shown in figure 2.3.4. After the switch is put in
66
in position 1, the bridge doesnothave to be in balance when the
switch is in position 2.
Because of the slip rings in the armature circuit, neither of the
methods mentioned befere can be used to test inverted machines (like
the Siemens machine used here), unless the slip-ring brush centacts
are bridged over.
With modern digital wave-form analysers, as they are used nowadays,
the use. of equation (2.3.4b) as a whole is no problem. Such an
instrument is used here to determine the synchronous inductances Ld
and L • The test circuit used here is shown in figure 2.3.5. The
q
67
magnetic circuit corresponding to the winding is now in a state
corresponding with point B in figure 2.3.6: the starting point of the
test. The controllable resistor is adjusted so that the direct current
will have its desired value in the final steady state and the switch
is put in position 2. The test is started by triggering the thyristor.
During the test the winding current and voltage are recorded. In case
of an inverted machine two additional brushes should be used to
measure this voltage. When the current change is becoming too small
the test is stopped. Next, the integrals Judt and fidt over the test
period are numerically determined and the resistor R is determined on
the basis of the last measured values of the voltage and the current.
In this way the thermic influence on the resistance is practically
eliminated. The change of the flux can now be found by means of
equation (2.3.4b). Because the value of fudt is only a little higher
than the value of Rjidt a very accurate measuring instrument should be
used in order to keep the error in the flux change on an acceptable
value.
In figure 2.3.7 the results of the described test are given for the
1 '3
1.2
1. i
rdO
(Vs)
1 '3
1 ,z
l.J
ro
(V~)
,g ,g
.8 .a
.7 7
.6 .6
.s .s
,4 ,4
.3 .3
,z ,z
.l
0
0 20
a
40
-
IdO (A)
60
.l
0
0 20 40
b
60 80
-
IqO (A)
100
68
Siemens synchronous machine. Besides the measured values an
approximative curve is given in each figure. From the linear parts of
those curves the following values can he deduced:
34.4 mH and L
q
= 19.3 mH.
The synchronous inductances of the Reemaf synchronous machine can he
determined in a similar way: Ld = 20.8 mR and Lq = 13.5 mH.
The fact that the values of the direct-axis synchronous inductance
Ld found in the first part of this section differ from those found in
the second part can be due to the measuring error in the determination
of the change of flux in the second part: this error is relatively
high, because fudt and Rfidt in equation (2.3.4b) have the same order
of magnitude. That is why, in the circumstances, the values given in
the first part are preferred.
Ri - (2.4.1a)
ad
u i
=- R (2.4.1b)
q a q
Using the Fourier transformation, these equations change into:
u (w)
-q
- Ra-q
i (w) - jw•'•q(w)
:t:
(2.4.2b)
69
used when the excitation winding is supplied by an ideal voltage
source. This inductance will be determined using a short-circuited
excitation winding. so that (1.3.3a) changes into:
(2.4.3b)
For reasous of completeness the quadrature-axis flux equation
(1.3.3b) is also given here:
~
-q
(w) = -q
L (w)i (w)
-q
(2.4.3c)
Substitution of the equations (2.4.3) in {2.4.2) results in:
!:!d(w) + jwl:!do(w)}!d(w)
{R if 0 (2.4.4a)
a
!:!d(w) - {R + jw!;d(w)}!d(w) uf 0 (2.4.4b)
a
u (w) {R + jwL (w) }i (w) (2.4.4c)
-q a -q -q
For the determination of the direct-axis operational inductances.
the rotor is placed in the direct-axis position with respect to the
armature winding field axis. Using an open excitation circuit the
expressions (2.4.4a) and (2.2.2a) give an expression for the
determination of Ld (w):
- 0
u(w) 2
~ = {Ra+ jwbd (w)} 13 !(w) (2.4.5a)
0 3
The operational inductance l:!d(w) is determined using a short-circuited
excitation winding; the expressions (2.4.4b) and (2.2.2a) give:
1T
y = -- (2.4.5b)
6
Using the expressions (2.4.4c) and (2.2.2c). the quadrature-axis
operational inductance can be determined when the rotor is in the
quadra~ure-axis position with respect to the armature winding field
axis:
==- =
u(w)
3
v.:>
{R
a -q
2
+ jwL (w) }-13 i(w)
3 -
y = 1T-3 (2.4.5c)
70
circuit shown in figure 2.2.1 is supplied by a sinusoirlal voltage
souree the frequency as well as the amplitude of which are adjustable;
the applied voltage U, the current I and the active power P are
measured. The resistance R and the reaetanee X are determined by:
p
R =v (2.4.8a)
(2.4.8b)
2
I0
l(~) y y y
;:;{ ~
ld ;:;{ ;:;{
+ + +
'I'
+ + ~
~
~
<!> 0 <!>
x x
x x
x x +
+ +
0
+ + +
-
10
~ "'
(!) "'
(!) "'
(!) "'
(!) I (A)
-l 0 1
10 10 10
71
By means of figure 2.4.2 it can be made plausible that hysteresis is
an important factor in this phenomenon. As it can be seen in this
72
2
10
lphyst
(W) /
X I tA
(!)
1' 1=4A
l=2A /+
/"'
10
1
1'/
/
/ /<!>
/ (!)
<!>/
/ x
/
0 x/
10
/<!>
,fo
/
/
/
x f (Hz)
-1
10
10
3
10 •
Figure 2.4.3 The hysteresis loss corresponding with the
increase of the resistance in figure 2.4.1.
73
r(~)
(!)
(!) -wim{~do} !
.t. -wim{~d} (!)
+ -wim{L-q }
!
(!)
+
4>
(!)
(!) +
.t.
(!)
+
.t.
(!) +
(!) A
+
(!)
+ A
+
IÖI
ld uf
4>
~--L-~~~~~~--~~wu~~~~~~~~--~~~ww~S
10
3 4
10
-
f (Hz)
10
+
c:l-wim{!,:d }
0
.t. -wim{!:d} + ED
I
10 + -wim{L } +
-q ED
+
+ ti&
+
+ ti&
~
+ ~
(!)
+ ""
-I
10
ld 10
2
10
3 4
10
-
f (Hz)
6
10
Figure 2.4.5 The resistance corresponding with the imaginary
part of the operational inductances of the
Heemaf synchronous machine.
74
range, but increase rapidly in the higher frequency range. This rapid
increase is caused by the relatively strong skin effect of a solid
cylindrical conductor placed in a semi-closed slot [Swa 62]. Another
important difference between the two machines is the influence of the
excitation winding on the direct-axis resistance. As can be seen in
figure 2.4.5 the difference between an open and a short-circuited
excitation winding is very small in the high frequency range for the
Reemaf machine. On the other hand the influence of the excitation
winding for the Siemens machine is rather clear for the whole frequency
range measured.
In the figures 2.4.6 and 2.4.7 the real parts of the operational
inductances are given as functions of the frequency for, respectively,
the Siemens and the Reemaf synchronous machine. Because the real parts
depend on the current I, this current is used as a parameter in these
figures. This dependence, which is also caused by hysteresis, can be
explained with the help of figure 2.4.2: the quotient of the change of
flux and the corresponding current change gets a larger value when the
current change gets a larger value.
As can be seen in the figures 2.4.6 and 2.4.7, the real parts of the
quadrature-axis operational inductance of the Reemaf machine depends
much more on the frequency as well as on the current than the other
real parts of the operational inductances do. This phenomenon is
caused by the absence of a damper winding: the eddy currents in the
solid rotor steel have the damping action. In 2.4.7 can be seen
that the difference between Re{1d } and Re{1d} for the Reemaf machine
0
is negligible small in the whole frequency range measured. As can be
seen in figure 2.4.5 the difference between Im{1do} and Im{~d} for the
high frequence range is also very small. In other words, in the Reemaf
machine the effect of the excitation winding can be neglected in the
high frequency range.
75
4.5
5
lRe{!:do}
(mH) ~
x ~
'l'
4
~ x
ê
~
+
3.5 ~ ~
è ~ I
3 èiS
111
2.5 111
2
1 .s !::0 ·IA
(!)
6 l::0.2A
+ I:0.4A
X I:::!A
.5
0
Hf
~
+ !:4A
l::2A
lrf lef
~
10
-
f (Hz)
10
5
3.5
lRe{!;d}
~ i i
2.5
3 (mH) i •
• ~ 11
ê
2
l .s !::0 .tA
(!)
6 J:::0.2A
+ !:::0.4A
X !:::lA
.s ~ !:::2A
0
td
1' !:::4A
10
2
10
3 104
-
f (Hz)
10
5
4
lRe{L-q }
~
•• • • •
3.5
3
(mH)
i i
2.5 ê
2
l. 5 !:::0 ·lA
(!)
4 !::0.2A
+ l:::0.4A
X !=lA
.s ~ !:::2A
0
td
+ l:::4A
10
2
10
3
10
4
-
f (Hz)
10
s
Figure 2.4.6 The real parts of the operational inductances
of the Siemens synchronous machine.
76
3
te{~do}
2.5 (mH)
2
I
1. 5 (!)l=O. JA
"'l=0.2A
~ I ii
+ I=0.4A
X !=lA
a ili ~
~ l=2A •
.5
0 1
10
+ l=4A
10
2
10
3 4
10
-
f (Hz)
10
5
3
te{~d}
2.5 (mH)
2
l=O .JA i ~ I ii
(!)
1. 5
"'!:0.2A
+ !:0.4A
X !=lA
~ ili ~
~ l=2A
ê
-
.5
+ !:4A f (Hz)
0 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 JO 10
6.5
6
lRe{L-q }
(mH)
~
5.5
5 x
4.5 +
+ ~
4
"'
(!) x
3.5 +
~
+
3 x
"'
(!)
~
2.5
~ x $
2 ~ x
!:0 .JA ~ ~
(!)
~
~
1 .5
"' !:0 .2A
+ !:0.4A é
X !=lA è
-
.5 ~ l=2A
+ l=4A f (Hz)
0 2 3 4 5
Jd 10 10 10 . 10
Figure 2.4.7 The real parts of the operational inductances
of the Reemaf synchronous machine.
77
3 THE THREE-PHASE BRIDGE CONVERTOR
3.1 Introduetion
2
ûcos(wt - 31T) (3.1.1b)
~
ûcos(wt 4
u - -1T) (3.1.1c)
c 3
78
where w is a constant angular frequency and û is a constant amplitude.
The thyristors will be considered as ideal switches; resistances in
the circuit are neglected.
Each ~ (electric) rad a thyristor or sometimes, as will be shown
later on, a pair of thyristors is triggered; the sequential order of
triggering is: -T -T -T -T -T -T -. The convertor is controlled by
1 6 3 2 5 4
varying the delay angle a: the time in electrical angular measure by
which the triggering instant is delayed with respect to the starting
instant of the conduction of this thyristor in the case all thyristors
are continuously triggered and the direct current has a constant value.
Thanks to the symmetry of the circuit 3.1.1) and of the
currents and voltages in this circuit, the description of the
convertor can be restricted to an interval ~ rad of length. In this
chapter the interval between the angle corresponding to the triggering
instant of thyristor T and the angle corresponding to the triggering
1
instant of thyristor T will be used. When all thyristors were
6
continuously triggered, thyristor T would turn on at the instant at
1
which the voltage u reaches the same (positive) value as the voltage
a
u (i >0); this instant corresponds with the angle wt=-~ • Hence, the
c g 3
considered interval is given by:
1T
a - < wt < a. (3.1.2)
3
In section 3.2 attention will be paid to the circuit shown in
figure 3.1.1 with lc=O, whereas section 3.3 will contain some aspects
of the circuit shown in figure 3.1.1 with =~.
79
l3ûcos(wt + ~) (3.2.1)
T4
di
1~ (3.2.2)
gdt
The next part of this section deals with the case where the
thyristors are triggered by means of short pulses. The case where the
thyristors are triggered by means of long pulses (~n in length) will
be considered in the last part of this section. A three-phase diode
bridge rectifier corresponds to a convertor the thyristors of which
are triggered by means of long pulses with the delay angle a equal to
zero.
80
(3.2.3)
g Wl
1
i (wt) "'--
g
J (uab -ub)d{wt)
'lT
(3.2.4)
a-3
At the end of the conduction interval (wt=a- j +i;) , the current i g
equals zero. So, it fellows from (3.2.4) that the integral of
uab-Ub over the conduction interval is zero. This is illustrated in
the figures 3.2.2.
u u
I I
I ~
-!!.1 ,o' n
I
31 I
I
I 1
I I
I
! '
a b
81
Substituting (3.2.1) into (3.2.4) gives an expression for the
current i :
g
ub 1T 13û {s1n
. ( wt+-
'IT) -s1n 1T)}
• ( a--
i (wt) = wl (a- -wt) + ---
g g 3 wl
g
6 6
'IT 1T
a - < wt < a - + ~ < a (3.2.5)
3 3
With the condition i (a-~+~)=0 an expression from which ~ as a
g 3
function of û, Ub and a can be determined, is found:
U~ = 213ûsin(~)cos(a-~+~) (3.2.6)
b 2 6 2
In figure 3.2.3 Ub related to ~l3û is given as a function of a with Ç
as a parameter according to (3.2.6) (dashed lines).
In steady-state intermittent-flow eperation only a part of each of
the dasbed curves in figure 3.2.3 is used. Besides the condition
1.3
1. 2 t ~/3û
ub
1•l 1T
l
.9
.s
•7
.(i
.<;
,4
.j
.2
·I
0
- •I
-.2
-.j
-.4
-.5
.(i
- .1
-.a
-.9
-1
1.l
82
O<t;<J, the condition uab>Ub according to (3.2.3) gives a limit to
the usable region in figure 3.2.3: the corresponding curve piece in
this figure, which equals a part of the curve for i;=O, is marked
with an a.
Another limiting condition is found in the case of inverter
operation: for steady-state eperation the current i has to be zero
g
before uab-Ub becomes positive. If this is not the case, the current
ig starts to increase again at the moment uab-Ub attains a positive
value. Hence, the condition uab (a-j +i;)<Ub has to be fulfilled.
Using (3.2.1) this condition may be expressed as:
a b
Figure 3.2.4 The delay angles acr (a) and a~r (b).
83
The delay angle a corresponding to the meeting point of the curve
pieces b and c is called a' • This angle is the upper bound of the
er
delay angle a for the steady-state intermittent-flow operatien with
the maximum conduction angle for intermittent flow (~~i). This is
illustrated in figure 3.2.4b.
As can be seen, the figures 3.2.4a and 3.2.4b are complementary.
It can be concluded from these figures that: a~r=n-acr'
Using (3.2.5), the average value of the current i for
g
intermittent-flow operation eau be expressed by:
I =lf i gd(wt)=-
gO rr
1T
rrwl
g
3
-{-/3û~sin(a-~)-!U
6 b
~ 2 +213ûsin(~)sin(a-:!+~)}
2 6 2
a3 (3.2.8)
Ç2~!i~~2~~-!12~_2!_!~~-~!!~S~-S~!!~~!
In the case of a steady-state operation with a continuous flow of
the direct current the condition i (a-~ ) .. i (a) has to be fulfilled.
g g 3
Hence,integrating (3.2.2) results in:
Ct
84
of steady-state operation with a continuous flow of the direct
current.
The curve piece corresponding to (3.2.11) in figure 3.2.3 consists
of three parts:
c a er <a<a'er
e a' <et<n
er
For the values of the delay angle corresponding with the curve
piece d, which equals a border of the intermittent-flow region, a
continuous transition between intermittent and continuous flow
operation is possible. Normally the curve pieces d and e are not
used: these operating points can only be reached by using unorthodox
procedures [Sch 80].
~~~~~--!!igs~!!~s-2x_~~~~~-~f_1~~s_E~!!~!
When applying a long trigger pulse - the pulse used here is jn rad·
in length - the number of operation modes is larger than in the case
of applying a short trigger pulse. Besides the continuous-flow and
the "normal" intermittent-flow eperation modes, also the operation
modes with refiring (the thyristors T and T are conducting twice
1 4
in the interval a-j<wt<a) and with delayed firing (the thyristors
T and T are not fired at the triggering instant wt=a-j, but at a
1 4
later instant) can occur.
85
inverter operation,mode" later on in this subsection). In figure
3.2.5a a borderline case is given. Using (3.2.1) the condition
uab(~)<Ub can be expressed as:
(3.2.12)
- wt
a b
(3.2.6), for the direct current i (3.2.5), for the average value of
g
this current I (3.2.8), and for the ~verage value of IgO on the
go
border c (3.2.9) are still operative.
86
!?~!~:t~~-!i!i!!.S
If the thyristors T and T are triggered at an instant at which
1 4
uab<Ub and Ig=O, they will notstart to conduct (at once). If the
voltage uab acquires a greater value than the voltage Ub during the
interval a.-i<wt<a, the thyristors T and T will turn on as yet.
1 4
The instant at which they turn on corresponds with an angle wt=Ç-J
(see figure 3.2.5b). Using (3.2.1), an expression for the
determination of ~ can be found:
l3ûcos(ç-2!_) = U (3.2.13)
6 b
1. 06
1 .os h
1.04
ub 1.03
1~13û
1. 3
1 .z 1. 02
1.1 h. 1.01
1 1
refiring~
.9 9
.a .98
•7 .97
.6 .96
.s .95
0 a 1T
.4 er 6
.3
.z
·l
a
0
a
-. l er
-.z
-.3
-.4
-.5
-.6
-. 7
-.8
-.9 efiring
-1
-1.1
87
So, the angle ç can be used to give a relation between Ub and û.
The operating region in which the phenomenon described here occurs,
will be called the delayed-firing region. In this region the
convertor functions like a convertor with a delay angle Ç.
In this region the thyristors T and T will only turn on if the
1 4
condition /3û>Ub is fulfilled. This leads to the border curve piece h
in figure 3.2.6.
An expression for the current i is found by using (3.2.13) and
g
(3.2.5) with a=Ç:
~~f!E!~g_!~-!~~-!~~!!!i~!-2~~!~!!2~-~2~~
The region of refiring in the rectifier operation mode in figure
3.2.6 can be reached by crossing the border g from the region with
delayed triggering. In the region described. bere, the current i g is
positive at the instant thyristor T is triggered (ig(a-i)=ig(a)>O).
1
As a result, thyristor T will turn on at this instant (thyristor T
1 4
was already conducting}. The characteristic feature of refiring is
that the thyristors quench before uab gets a larger value than Ub and
turn on again at the instant corresponding to uab(wt)=Ub (figure
3.2.7a). Hence, in the refiring eperation mode two conduction
88
intervals for the thyristors T and r can be distinguished in the
1 4
interval a-i<wt<~ (~ is the total conduction angle in this
interval):
'lT 2 (3.2.16a)
I ~-3 < Wt < ~-3'IT+Ç
-J.
I
I
a b
WJ,t
(u -u )d(wt)+i (~-~)· a--1T < wt < ~--2TI+Ç
i (wt)
g 1T ab b g 3 ' 3 3 (3.2.17)
a-3
Using the expression for uab (3.2.1), the boundary equation
i (a-~ )=i (a), the expression for i
g 3 g g
in the interval II (3.2.14) and
the relation between Ub' û, and Ç (3.2.13), the expression (3.2.17)
can be written as:
13û
i (wt) = --{cos a- sin(ç-~) +
g Wl 6
sin(wt+~) - (wt-Ç+~'lT)cos(ç-~)};
g
a-~< wt < ~-~'lT+Ç (3.2.18)
Using the condition that the current i is zero at the end of
g
89
interval I ((3,2.16a)), expression (3.2.18) can be used to find the
conduction angle i;,:
= ~
TITI
1~-~n+Ç i d(wt)
g
+ ~
1T
Ja.
'ITg
i (dwt)
a.-3 ç-3
313û {<t;,-'!!+t;-a.) cos a. +sin a. -sin(!;, +1:;)-i';,sin(t;-'!!) +( 1-~€;: 2 )cos(z:;-!!}
= 1TW1 3 6 6J
g
(3.2.20)
The value of i;, needed in this expression can be found by solving
(3.2.19).
The transition from the refiring rectifier operation mode to the
continuous-flow operation mode is found by substituting !';,=~ into
equation (3.2.19) and using (3.2.13), which results in:
Refiring may also occur in the inverter operation mode: the region
of refiring in the inverter operation mode in figure 3.2.6 can be
reached by crossing the border f from the "normal" intermittent-flow
region. In the region of figure 3.2.6 described here, thyristor T
1
turns on at the triggering instant (wt=a.-i) and the thyristors T1
and T quench before uab gets a larger value than Ub. At the instant
4
corresponding to uab=Ub(wt=t;-~), the thyristors turn on again
(figure 3.2.7b).
The two conduction intervals in the interval considered a.-'!!<wt<a
3
are:
90
TI
I a-- (3.2.22a)
3
TI
II ç-- < wt < a (3.2.22b)
3
As these intervals correspond with the intervals in the case of
refiring in the rectifier operatien mode (3.2.16), the expression for
i in interval I (3.2.18), the expression for i in the interval II
g g
(3.2.14), the expression for ~ (3.2.19) and the expression for IgO
(3.2.20) for refiring in the rectifier eperation mode can also be used
in the case of refiring in the inverter operatien mode.
The border to the continuous-flow operatien is given by the curve
piece e in figure 3.2.6. This curve piece is characterized by
equation (3.2.21).
The third border j in figure 3.2.6 corresponds to the condition that
the voltage uab should be lower than the voltage uac at the end of the
interval considered: u b(a)<u (a) (Ifu b(a)>u (a), the transfer of
a ac a ac
the direct current from the arm with thyristor T to the arm with
4
thyristor T does not succeed: conduction through). This condition
6
leads to a<TI (see 3.2.7b).
Continuous flow of the direct current
-------------------------------------
The continuous-flow eperation using long triggering pulses is the
same as the continuous-flow eperation using short triggering pulses;
the corresponding curve piece in figure 3.2.6 consists of the curve
pieces d, c and e (compare with figure 3.2.3). An important
difference with the use of short pulses is that the curve pieces d
and c can simply be used: a continuous transition between intermittent
and continuous flow operatien is possible for the whole range of
values of the delay angle a: O~a<TI.
91
As a result, the convertor works in a continuous-flow operation mode.
Further, the commutation inductances are not neglected: 1 >0, so that
c
the angle of overlap ~. which will be defined later on, has a
1f
positive value. This value is supposed to be smaller than 3 rad.
Resistances in the circuit are still neglected.
Just before the considered interval (3.1.2) (a-j<wt<a) the
thyristors T and T are conducting; at the beginning of this
4 5
interval (wt=a-~) thyristor T is triggered. This thyristor will turn
1
on and the current Ig starts to transfer from thyristor T to
5
thyristor T (the starting instant of commutation). During the
1
i + i
a c
(3. 3. 2a)
u - u (3.3.2b)
a c
di
u u-u.-1 _..! (3.3.2c)
g a o c dt
92
v'3û
--{cosa-
1f
(3.3.3a)
i = cos(wt+3)}
a 2wl
c
ib == -I (3.3.3b)
g
v'3û 'lT
i I - --{cos a- cos(wt+3)} (3.3.3c)
c g 2wl
c
u 3Aucos ( wt+3
'lf) (3.3.3d)
g 2
The commutation is finished when the current through thyristor
r 5 (ie) becomes zero. The time expressed in angular measure, elapsed
from the beginning of the commutation until the end of the
commutation is called the angle of overlap ~. In the considered
interval the commutation is finished at the instant corresponding to
wt=a-~+~. From the condition ic(a-~+~)=0 and (3.3.3c), it follows:
2wl I
cosa - cos(a+~) = 13 ~ g (3.3.4)
i -i I (3.3.5a)
a b g
i 0 (3.3.5b)
c
u
g ua- ub = l3ûcos(wt+~) (3.3.5c)
The transition point between the two parts can be found by using
(3.3.4).
The average value of the voltage u (see figure 3.1.1) can be found
g
by means of the expressions (3.3.3d), (3.3.5c), and (3.3.4):
a
U
gO
= f
~ u dwt = 1f~l3ûcosa
1fa-'!! g
- ~1 c I g
1f
(3.3.6)
3
93
An equivalent circuit of the convertor based on this expression is
shown in figure 3.3.2. The resistance in this figure is not a normal
i (wt)
a
f
n;1
{ancos(nwt) + b sin(nwt)}
n
(3.3.7a)
where Z'lT
a
n
= ! Ji a (wt)cos(nwt)dwt
1T
(3.3.7b)
0
21T
b
n
= .!'lTOJi a (wt)sin(nwt)dwt (3.3.7c)
~3 r {cosa+
8
a1 = 13û 13
Zwl --;r s~n
. (2· ll+l-f )
. ( ll ) s~n (; cos(a+l-f)}) (3.3.8a)
c
13 13
b - û n {v- sin(l-!)cos(2a+u)} (3.3.8b)
1 - 2wl
c
94
Using (3.3.7), the fundamental component of the phase current i can
a
also be expressed in the following form:
(3.3.9a)
a
-
wt
d
n
95
where
i = la 2 + b2 (3.3. 9b)
1 1 1 b
1 (3.3.9c)
a >0 : $ = arctan--
1 1 al
b1
a <o : $
1 1
= arctan-+ 11 (3.3.9d)
al
~$1-a
91T a=O
a=TI/9 l ·I l
W=21T/9
1T a=TI/3
6 a=41T/9
a=STI/9
1.09
a=21T/3
1 .oa
1T
i2 1.07
u=O
U=lT/18
1.06 u=231T/36
U=lT/6
t.os
0 1T
6
- ~
a=TI/3
1T
3
a b
96
as a function of U is given for some values of a (according to
(3.3.9c), (3.3.9d), (3.3.8), and (3.3.4)). As may beseen in this
figure, there exists nogeneral simple relationshipbetween $ -a and
1
].l, as is sametimes suggested in literature (for example [Ost 63;
- 13û
bn - 2wl ~sin(~1T) [~{sin (na+n].l)cos (a+u)-sin(na)cos (a)} +
c
cos(na)sin(a)-cos(na+n].l)sin(a+u) J; n=3,5, 7, ••• (3.3.11b)
In the figures 3.3.5 the results of these computations for the 5th,
7th, 11th, and 13th harmonie are given: in these figures the
amplitudes of the harmonie components related to the direct current as
a function of the direct current related to /3û/(2wl ) - the amplitude
c '
of the line-to-line short-circuit current - are given for some values
of the delay angle a. The curves are limited because the angle of
overlap U is limited to ~ in the model used here. As may be seen in
97
.24
.22
rs
I .
ga=8n/9
.24
.22 g:
.l. .z
-LB . 18
.1S . IS
-14 . 14
.i2 . 12
-1 . I
--;:;>
.os .os
.os .os
.04 .04 I
I
g
.oz
0
0 .2 4 6 8
""73"a
-
2Wlc
.02
.2 .4 .6 .s
*-
2WI"c
.i2
.11
gll g
. i2
.I) l~13
g
·I . I
.os .os
.os .os
.07 .07
.os .os
.os .os
.04 .04
.03 ~
k: .03
i!
.02 ;" -·~""':···
/ ~ .. , ~.... I .02 I
, .. ' ' g g
.01 \ \/
.... ,_,.,
' ,/
;
',, \. 73tf -01 7311
0
0 2 4
.......
.s .a -
2wl
c
0
0 .2 .4 .s .a
Figure 3.3.5 The relative amplitudes of the Sth, 7th,
11 th, and 13th harmonie component.
98
this figure, a small value of a in the rectifier operation mode or a
large value of a in the inverter operation mode has, in genera!, a
favourable influence on the harmonies in the phase currents (as it has
on the absorbed fundamental reactive power). Also an increase of the
relative direct current causes, in general, a decrease of the
relative harmonie amplitudes. Such an increase can be reached by
augmenring the commutation inductance 1 . This results in an increase
c
of the angle of overlap ~ and thus, an increase of the fundamental
reactive power absorbed by the convertor. In other words, in practical
cases, an optimum has to be found between the fundamental reactive
power absorbed by the convertor and the amplitudes of the harmonies in
the phase currents.
99
4 SIMPLE MODELS OF THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE WITH CONVERTOR.
4.1 Introduetion
T T
i I (4.1.1)
g g
100
As can beseen in figure 4.1.1, the homapolar componentsof the
armature currents are zero: i =0. Hence, it follows from (1.2.35)
0
and (1.2.40) that the homopalar componentsof the armature voltages
are also zero: u =0.
0
~dq ~ ~ (4.2.1)
-dqO -mdqO
The voltage space phasor can be found by using r =0 dy =w and the
a ' dt
voltage equation (1.2.44) designated in the per-unit system:
u = u = -jw~ (4.2.2)
-dq -dqO -dqO
Like insection 1.7, the rotor position angle y is given by:
y = Wt + ~TI (4.2.3)
u {
a = Re ~dqOe
jwt} = Re {~ue -jó e jwt} ûcos(wt-ó) (4.2.4a)
2
~
ûcos(wt - o- -n)
3
(4.2.4b)
4-n)
u
c
ûcos(wt - o- 3
(4.2.4c)
101
where
û \gdqol (4.2.4d)
Ö -arg{gdqO} (4.2.4e)
The phase angle ö is the laad angle introduced insection 1.7. Using
(4.2.4d), (4.2.4e), and (4.2.2), the voltagespace phasor in the
rotor coordinate system may be expressed as:
u
-dq
= u-dqO = ûe -·o
J (4.2.5)
=0 (4.2.6)
may be used bere. However, instead of Wt, Wt-ö should be used. Just
as in chapter 3 the description can be. restricted to an interval i
rad of length: the voltage u , the electric power withdrawn from
g
the armature p, and the electromagnetic torque m are periodic with
TI
angular period 3· Here the interval
i
a
= -ib (4.2.8a)
i
c =0 (4.2.8b)
(4.2.9)
102
lm d
U
gO = Tf~l3ûcos a (4.2.12)
103
u
"
''
b ' n -
Colt
c
/ " n -wt
This results in the following equation for the direct current circuit
in figure 4. 1 . 1 :
ub + r g I g = ugO ~/3ûcos a
'TT
(4.2.13)
I (4.2.14)
-dqO
and the constant excitation current IfO (the average values of the
104
currents in the damper circuit are assumed to be zero). Hence, the
flux and voltage equations given in sectien 1.7 can be used here
(with ra=O); the flux space phasor ~dq is given by (1.2.43) and
(1.7.10):
The current space phasor !dqO according to (4.2.14) can also beseen
as the current space phasor corresponding to the fundamental
components of the armature phase currents (as ~=0, the phase angle ~
in sectien 1.7 equals the delay angle a). In figure 4.2.3 a phasor
diagram according to (4.2.2), (4.2.5), (4.2.14) and (4.2.15) is
given for o=0.4 and a=0.3 (compare with figure 1.7.2).
d tm
Re
q
105
2 3
ûcos o = wG:lafd - ld ~ rgsin(o+a)} (4 .2.16a)
(4. 2. 16c)
and 4.2.4c with rg=O, Ub=1, and If=1 as reference values. The
resistance r does not have to be a normal resistance. For example in
g
the case the voltage souree Ub consists of an inverter connected to
the utility grid, this resistance may represent the voltage drop
caused by the comrnutation in the inverter (see section 3.3: equation
(3.3.6) and figure 3.3.2). As can beseen in figure 4.2.4, a
property of the synchronóus machine with rectifier is that the direct
current is limited in the case of an increasing angular velocity.
This is an important difference between a direct-eurrent generator
and a synchronous machine with rectifier.
It follows from (4.2.16) that the direct current is also limited
for other values of the delay angle a:
(4.2.17)
106
is increasing (slowly) from zero, the direct current starts to flow at
the instant on which the direct voltage generated by the synchronous
machine with rectifier equals the voltage of the direct voltage souree
Ub. If the resistance rg is zero, the amplitude of the armature phase
voltage will be constant from now. Hence, the flux in the machine will
be inversely proportional to the angular velocity. Immediately after
the starting instant the load angle Q is relatively small, so that the
average effect of the current space phasor acts mainly in the
direction of the quadrature axis (figure 4.2.3, a=O). Hence, the total
flux in the machine is hardly affected by the armature currents. As a
result the direct current increases (immediately after the starting
instant even infinitely) rapidly in relation to the angular velocity
(steep part of the curves). When the currents become larger, the load
angle will increase and the increase of the direct current in relation
to the angular velocity will decrease. If the resistance r is not
g
zero, the starting slope is less steep because of the voltage drop
over this resistance.
To show the difference between a cylindrical rotor machine and a
salient pole machine with diode rectifier, in figure 4.2.5 the direct
current I is given as a function of the angular velocity related to
g
1/ld for lq/ld=l and for lq/ld=O.S (rg=O; Ub=1; ). The curve for
the salient pole machine is steeper in the range of medium values
of the direct current than the curve Qf the cylindrical rotor machine,
I
g
.a
.s
.4
-
·2
1/ld
0
0 .a .a
108
?ecause the quadrature-axis synchronous inductance, and hence the
quadrature-axis flux and the effect on the total flux, in the case of
the salient pole machine is smaller than in the case of the
cylindrical rotor machine for this direct current range.
(4.3.1a)
(4.3.1b)
(4.3.1c)
+ k~ 1 {i 6k-lcos((6k-1)wt-S 6 k-l)+
(4.3.2b)
109
(4.3.2c)
(4.3.3b)
i
0
=0 (4.3.3c)
1" .. 1"
d q
= 1" (4.3.4)
so that (1.9.10} can be used bere. With r =0, (1.9.10) changes into:
a
di
u e" - 1"~ (4.3.5a)
a a dt
di
= eub - 1"~ (4.3.5b)
~ dt
di
u = e"c - 1"~ (4.3.5c)
c dt
e"
b
= e"cos(wt-~n)
q 3
- e"sin(wt-~n)
d 3
(4.3.6b}
where
110
e"
e: = - arctan(e?.) (4.3.6e)
q
(4.3.7)
e" (4.3.9a)
d
uf
- w(ld - l")i sin(~ +e:)
e" = w-1
q rf afd 1 1 (4.3.9b)
e" e"
m = - _g_i d.
--1 (4.3.11)
w q w d
111
Figure 4.3.1 Schematic representation of the synchronous
machine model used in this section.
112
During the first part of this interval the commutation of the
direct current from the arm with thyristor T to the arm with
5
thyristor T is proceeding (~+a-~<wt<~+a+~-~). During the
1
commutation the armature phase currents are given by (3.3.3) (û->ê";
1 + 1"; wt-+wt-t:) :
c
(4 .3. 13a)
-I g (4.3.13b)
i (4. 3. 13c)
c
-u lT 2 2
id = ~{cos(oot-E+-)
wl 3 cos a} cos (wt-31T) - T3\;cos(wt) (4.3.14a)
ê"
cos a} sin(oot-~1T) - i:rigsin(wt)
ïf
i
q
= ---(cos(oot-E+-)
wl" 3 (4.3.14b)
ê"2 1T 2I e"
m=- 0021
u{cos(wt-E+3)- cosa} sin(wt-E:-~1T) + -k-sin(wt-E) (4.3.15)
I (4. 3. 16a)
g
(4.3.16b)
113
i "'-~I sin(wt-!!) (4.3.17b)
q v3 g 3
e"
-dq
= e"q + je''
d
(4.3.19)
are depicted in figure 4.3.3 for E:"'0.4, a=0.3 and ~-0.6. In the
TI
beginning of the interval (4.3.12) (wt,.E:+et-3), the end of the vector
corresponding to the curient space phasor is in point A. During the
commutation this end moves along the dasbed orbit; at the end of the
commutation (wt=E:+a+~-3> it reaches point B. In the next part of the
interval considered, it moves along the solid circular orbit in the
direction of A. This point is reached at the end of the interval
considered (wt=E+a). As seen from the rotor the situation is the
same as at the beginning of the interval considered: the current
space phasor !dq is periodic with angular period j.
d lm
Re
114
As an example in figure 4.3.4 the phase voltages e",
a
e:•,
o
and e",
c
the triggering pulses, the phase current i and the electromagnetic
a
torque m are given as functions of wt for 8=0.4 and a=0.3. The solid
curves correspond to ~=0.6, whereas the dashed curves correspond to
11=0 (1"=0). In figure 4.3.4a the interval considered hereis
indicated by means of a thick line piece.
The average value of u can be found by using (3.3.6) (1 +1";
g c
û+ê"):
~13ê"cos a- TI~1 11 1 g
TI
(4.3.20)
d
n -
wt
115
Using this expression, the following equation for the direct current
circuit in figure 4.3.2 can be given:
~l3ê"cos a. =
1T (~1" + rg) I g+ ub
(4.3.21)
(4.3.22a)
u
ê"cos E: = wr;lafd-w(ld-l")i 1sin(<J> 1+E:) (4.3.22c)
11 {sin(]l)sin(2a.+]l) } (4.3.22d)
<1>1 =Ï - arctan ]l-sin(J.!)cos(2a.+J.!)
3ê"
= 2nwl" vsin2].l + ].l2 - 2\.lsin(J,J)cos(2a.+]l) (4.3.22e)
116
.a
,.~~ToT•<ro-
•••••••'
.s
·1"=0.1
·······1"=0.2
1"=0.5
·2 -·-·-1"=1.5
0
0 .s .a
- w
117
5 COMPUTATION OF THE STEADY-STATE PERFORMANCE OF A SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINE WITH CONVERTOR BY MEANS OF OPERATIONAL INDUCTANCES
AND FOURIER ANALYSIS
5.1 Introduetion
118
+
Ua
+ la
+ jb
Uc
+ ie
119
The setting up of the (differential) equation for the phase current
i is simplified by splitting off a so-called external self-
a
inductance 1 from the self-inductances of the armature windings:
e
figure 5.1.2 changes into 5.1.3. The voltage sourees
e are given by the expressions:
c
di
e u + 1
a (5.1.1a)
a a e dt
dib
eb ~+ 1e (5 .1. 1b)
dt
di
u c (5. 1. 1c)
e + 1
c c e dt
Section 5.3 will give the salution of the equation for the phase
current ia in case the smoothing ceil in the direct current circuit
has an infinite value of self-inductance, while sectien 5.7 will give
the salution in case of a finite value. In section 5.4 the influence
of the choice of the value of the external self-inductance 1 will be
e
discussed. The preferabie choice will cause the voltages ea' eb and
to be nearly sinusoidal, so that the external self-inductance le is
comparable with the commutation inductance. The truncation error of
the Fourier series will be dealt with in section 5.5. Section 5.6
contains some remarks on the model of the synchronous machine as
described in section 4.3.
120
5.2 Some machine quantities as functions of the armature currents
i (n is an integer) (5.2.1a)
a
-1 f TI i a e -jnwt d(wt)
i-n = 1f_TI (5.2.1b)
The factor ! in (5. 2. 1a) (and the corresponding adaptation of (5. 2. 1b))
is introduced to obtain a simple expression for the current space
phasor id (expression (5.2.7)). Since is a real quantity, the
- q
following property follows from (5.2.1b):
i (5.2.2)
--n
As the armature phase currents produce a symmetrical three-phase
system, the armature phase currents ib and ie may be expressed as
(using (5.2.1a)):
jn(wt-~rr)
3
·b
1 ! i-ne
!n=-oo (5.2.3a)
jn(wt-~1f)
3
ic = ! !ie
n=-oo -n
(5.2.3b)
121
The current space phasor in the stator coordinate system can be
found by using (1.2.4):
i 'f' ! ej(6n+1)Wt
n=-oo -6n+1 (5.2.5)
The terms in the series represent current space phasors which rotate
with an angular velocity (6n+1)w; the terms with n~O represent current
space phasors which rotate in the positive direction, whereas the terms
with n<O represent current space phasors which rotate in the negative
direct ion.
Using
1T
y Wt + Ï (5.2.6)
and (1.2.7), the current space phasor in the rotor coordinate system
can be expressed as:
i (5.2. 7)
-dq
On behalf of the computation of the armature flux, the direct-axis
and the quadrature-axis components of this current space phasor are
given:
where
(5.2.8c)
i-q,6n (5.2.8d)
(5.2.9a)
122
source: if=If' in equation (5.2.9a) ld should be replaced by !do and
Uf/rf sould be replaced by If (see expression (1.3.5a). Because these
changes are not essential for the computations, only the case in which
the excitation winding is supplied by an ideal voltage souree will be
considered bere.
Using the Fourier transformation, (5.2.8), and (5.2.9), the flux
components
. Wd(t) and Wq (t) may be expressed as:
co -:- j6nwt uf
n~oo ld( 6nw)!d,6ne + 1afd rf (5.2.10a)
The following expression for the flux space phasor in the rotor
coordinate system can be found by using (1.2.43), (5.2.8c), (5.2.8d)
and (5.2. 10):
(5.2.12)
i ! {o
n-oo -6n+1
ej(6n+1)wt+ û*
-6n+1
e-j(6n+1)wt} (5. 2: 13a)
where
123
Q1 = ~Iafd [ra+ jw~{!q<o>+!d<o>H~ 1 - jw!{!q<o>-!d<o>}!t (5.2.13b)
e
a
I r {ê
n=-oo -6n+ 1
ej(6n+1)wt+
-6n+ 1
e-j(6n+1)Wt} ê* (5. 2. 14a)
where
(5.2.14b)
~1 ê - zs i - zd Î* (5.2.16a)
p -0-1 -0-1
~6n+1 - zs i
--n-6n+1 zd 1*
- --n--6n+1 (5.2.16b)
m (5.2.17a)
where
124
m = "1:
-6n k~ -q
(6kw>t{1 I
-q,6k-d, 6n- 6k -d
-1
(6kw>i i
-d, 6k-q, 6n- 6k}- ëpw i-q, 6n (5.2.17b)
The expression for the electric power withdrawn from the armature
(1.2.63) consistsof three terms. The second term corresponds to the
electromagnetic torque, whereas the third term represents the power
dissipated in the armature. The average value of the first term
corresponds, in this case, to the power dissipation in the rotor
caused by the armature-current harmonies. In the per-unit system this
term becomes (i =0):
0
(5.2.18)
P ~ 1 (12nw)Im{ld(6nw)}lid
r = n- -
2 f 1(12nw)Im{l-q (6nw)"~~i
- , 6n j +n=
12
'1-q, 6n 1
(5.2.19)
zs
-n
=0 n *0 (5.2.22)
Hence, in this case, the coefficients of the Fourier series for the
internal voltage e ((5.2.16)) become:
a
~~ êP - ~0I1 - zdoif (5 .2 .23a)
ê
-6n+1
= 0 n *0 (5.2.23b)
Using (5.2.8c), (5.2.8d), (5.2.20a), and (5.2.20c), (5.2.23a) can also
125
be written in the following form:
(5.2.24)
126
in sectien 4.3. The delay angle a resembles the delay angle used in
p
certain combinations of synchronous machines" with convertor in which
the thyristors are triggered by means of pulses from a shaft position
sensor.
In case of an open armature circuit the voltages e , eb' and e
a c
according to (5.1.1) correspond with the voltages e", eb", and e" in
a c
sectien 4.3 if ê"=ê (compare (5.2.14) and (5.2.13b) with (4.3.6a);
p
i =ib=i =0 and s=O). Like in sectien 4.3 the reference angle for
a c
a (a =a+s) is: wt=-! • So, thyristor T is triggered at the instant
P P 3 n 1
corresponding to wt=ap-3' The total set of triggering pulses is
depicted in figure 5.3.1a. The delay angle a is supposed to be chosen
P n
in such a way that thyristor T actually starts conducting at wt=ap-3'
1
.the
Dur1ng .1nterval ap-3<wt<ap-3+U
n n (u '1s t h e angle of overlap ) the
current i =I transfers from the arm with thyristor T to the arm with
g g .5 u
thyristor T • The angle of overlap is supposed to besmaller than 3•
1
In the system considered here the quantities w, ê , a and Ub are
p p
normally known. The quantities I and U should be computed. However,
g
this would lead to a non-linear set of equations. To evade this,
the quantities w, êp, ap and U are considered to be the known
a Ts 11
I ~ I
ia•
lg
b 7C
-3
127
quantities and the quantities Ig and Ub are computed. The desired
value of Ub can be reached after an iteration process.
For the computations intbis section the representative interval
ap-~<wt<ap-~+2~, one period, is considered. Table 5.3.1 can be
composed for this interval. As an example, the armature phase current
di
a
Interval Thyristors conducting i 2le
a
a. -'!!<wt<a -'!!+u
p 3 p 3
T5 and Tl and T4 ... e -e
a c
a -'!!+u<wt<a +!! T1 and (T4 or T6) I 0
p 3 p 3 g
~
a + <wt<a +IJ+-
p 3 p 3
1f
Tl and T3 and.T6 ... e -e
a b
1T 2
a +Jl+-<wt<o. +3n T3 and T6 0 0
p 3 p
p 3
2
p
2
a +-TI<wt<a +u+-TI
3
T6 and T2 and T3 ... e -e
a c
2 4
ap+J1+ 3n<wt<ap+37f T2 and (T3 or T5) -I g 0
4
p 3 p
4
a +-TI<wt<o. +JJ+-TI
3
T2 and T4 and T5 ... e -e
a b
Ct. +Jl+~TI<wt<o. +~n T4 and T5 0 0
p 3 p 3
di
Table 5.3.1 Thyristors conducting and dta in the
interval Ct. -'!!<wt<a -'!!+2n.
p 3 p 3
p = p* (5.3.2c)
--n -n
128
Using table 5.3.1 and the pulse function according to (5.3.1), the
following equation can be deduced:
di 2 5
21 d a= (e -e ){p(wt)+p(wt-'11)} + (e -eb){p(wt--n)+p(wt--n)} (5.3.3)
e t a c a 3 3
A differential equation with the armature phase current i as unknown
a
quantity can be set up by means of (5.3.3) and the expressions for the
internal armature phase voltages as given in sectien 5.2. The pulse
function p(wt) in this differential equation contains the delay angle
a and the angle of overlap ~.
p
After substituting
. 2
e (wt--n) (5.3.4a)
a 3
4
e (wt--7f) (5.3.4b).
a 3
into equation (5.3.3), substituting (5.2.14a) and (5.3.2a) into the
new equation results in:
• { f p ejnwt(1+ e -jn1T)} +
n=-«>-n
! {~* -j(6n+1)wt( j~1T) _ j(6n+1)wt( -j~1T\}l
+i [ n=-o::> ~6n+1e 1-e +~6n+1e \ 1-e J J•
• . 2 . 5
. J'tn=-co-n
r ~p e JUWt ( e -Jnj'ff+e -Jn-'IT)}
3 (5.3.5)
di jmwtr {( j~'IT)f
3 -j(m+6n+1)1T)
21 e dta = ! e
!m~ l n=-=-
f ê 6*n+.11?-m+6n+1 1-e \1+e . +
_ {( -j~'IT)f -j(m-6n-1)1T)
+nL6n+l~-6n-1 1-e \ l+e +
+( 1-e
.2 .( 6 )2
-Jj'IT)( -J m- n-1 31r -J m-6n-1 3
e +e
.( )5
n)}lJ (5.3.6)
129
If m is an integer multiple of 2 or 3, the corresponding
coefficients in the series are zero. For that reason the series is
divided into two series: one series with m=6k-1 and one with m=6k+1.
Besides, the derivative with respect to time of expression (5.2.4a) is
substituted into (5.3.6)
jwl r
e n=-oo
(6n-1)i
-6n-1
ej( 6n-l)wt + jwl
e n=-eo
r
(6n+1)i
-6n+ 1
ej( 6n+1)wt
.4 .2
211 I j(6k-1)wtoo rA A J31f J31f
!k,?:·cx{ e n.?a{ ~gn+1~6(k+n) { (1-e )2+(1-e )2}+
.4 .2 .4 .4
-J-1f -J-1f J-1f J-1f }]]
+~6n+1Ê6(k-n)-2 { (1-e 3 )2+(1-e 3 )(e 3+e 3 ) +
(5. 3. 7)
r
jwl e (6m-ni- 6m- 1=3n=-oo- fï 6. <m+n >+ê- 6n.+ 1i-> 6 <m-n ) - 2 <!-H/3)}
{ê *6n.+ 1·- (5.3.8a)
r i { zs fi +zd* s
n=-oo-6n+1 --n-6(m-n) ---nL6(m-n)+2
O+H/3)} +
ri* {zs*p
n=-=-6n+1 --n-6(m+n)+2
(!+j/3)+zd p
---n-6(m+n)
} (5.3.9)
130
windings. In section 5.5 more attention will be paid to the choice of
N. The values of n and m in (5.3.9) are limited according to: -N~n~N
c ê p {p6 (5 .3 .10d)
-m - m+p6
- m+ 2(!+j!/3)}
this set of equations can be expressed as:
N
c
-m
= n=-N i 1
r (a-mn-6n+ + b i*
-mn-6n+ 1
) -N~n~N (5 .3. 11)
This set of complex equations can easily be solved when the equations
are divided into their real and imaginary parts. Using
i-6n+1 (5.3.12)
To solve this set of 4N+2 real equations (-N~~N) with 4N+2 real
unknowns (x and y with -N~n~N) by means of a computer, it is
n n
expressed as:
Re Sm Re ~m-N + Re 2m-N ••
Re SN Re ~N-N + Re !:!N-N ••
Im Sm Im ~m-N + Im 2m-N ••
(5.3.14)
131
period ~· the computation of this voltage can be restricted to an
interval ~ rad of length. Here, the interval
(5.3.15)
The value of ! 1 can be found by solving this equation for m=O (the
pulse function is known). Using this value, equation (5.3.20) can be
solved for other values of m. In this way, in the case considered bere,
the coefficients of the Fourier series of the armature phase current
1; 6n+l are found immediately (without solving a set of equations tike
(5.3.14)).
132
5.4 On the choice of the value of the external self-inductance
ê {p +p (!+j!/3)}=-1jwl (6m+1)! +
P -6m -6m+2 3 e - 6m+ 1
! i {zs zs p +zd* p
n=-<»-6n+1 -6n+1-n.-6(m-n) --n-6(m-n)+2
(i+j/3)} +
!
n~-6n+1
i* { zs*p
--n-6(m+n)+2
U+ j!/3) +zd S
--nL6(m+n)
}
((5.3.9))
(5.4.1}
In general,
6
j!
n+ll wi11 decrease when lnl increases. So, the term
with lni=N+1 is mostly the term with the largest contribution to the
truncation error. To minimize this contribution, the external se1f-
inductance 1 is chosen according to (n=N+1):
e
1 = iRe[1d{6(N+1)w} + 1 {6(N+1)w}] (5.4.2)
e - -q
Since 1d(w) and 1 (w) be1ong to rea1 pulse responses (section 1.2 and
- -q
1.3), n=-(N+l) would resu1t in the same expression (!d(-w)=!~(w);
1 (-w)=1*(w).
-q -q
To obtain an impression of the errors caused by different choices
of le, a simple computing example wi11 be given. In this example the
synchronous machine is supposed to meet the requirements of the simple
model as described in section 4.3. The following parameters are used
in the example: r =0; ld(O)=ld=1.5; 1 (0)=1 =1; ld(6nw)=1 (6nw)=l"=0.15
a - -q q - . -q
with n+O; N=10; w=1; ê =1; a =0.5; ~~0.5. In table 5.4.1 the Fourier
p p
series coefficients I are given for 1 =0.05, 1 =0.1, and 1e=0.15.
- 6n+ 1 e e
133
As has been mentioned in the last part of the preceding section, using
1 =1"=0.15 results in the right values. In genera!, if a larger value
e
of Nis used, the errors in the case of 1 =0.05 and 1 =0.1 will be
e e
smaller.
n i
-6n+1
-10
-9
-0.00002-j0.00051
0.00004-j0.00066
-0.00023-j0.00049
-0.00013-j0.00063
-0.00035-j0.00043
-0.00022-j0.00059
I
-8 0.00019-j0.00082 0.00001-j0.00086 -0.00010-j0.00087
I
-7 0.00052-j0.00094 0. 00035-j 0. 00100 0.00025-j0.00102
-6 0.00097-j0.00121 0.00080-j0.00135 0.00069-j0.00143
-5 0.00180-j0.00112 0.00165-j0.00130 0.00156-j0.00139
-4 0.00336-j0.00149 0.00325-j0.00178 0.00317-j0.00195
-3 0.00608+j0.00015 0.00605-j0.00020 0.00602-j0.00040
-2 0.01691+j0.00129 0.01704+j0.00063 0.01710+j0.00025
-1 0.04068+j0.06942 0.04162+j0.06880 0.04216+j0.06842
0 0.32509-j0.35693 0.32512-j0.35506 0.32514-j0.35396
1 0.04400+j0.01817 0.04367+j0.01910 0.04347+j0.01964
2 o.00495+j0.00901 I 0.00450+j0.00928 o~oo423+j0.00943
134
5.5 The influence of the truncation of the armature-current
Fourier series on the computing results
i
a
r 1-6m+ 1ej(6m+1)wt1.f
Re{m=-oo (5.5.1)
(5.5.2)
"f' - 3
!.6m+1- jw(6m+1)1
r {A* A
n-= ~6n+1f6(m+n)+2
(1+'1/3)+-
2
J
A
~6n+1E6(m-n)
} (5 5 3)
• •
e
As bas been shown in the last part of section 5.2, using the model
of the synchronous machine as described in section 4.3 and choosing
1 ;1" results in: ê ~o for n*O ((5.2.23b)), Although in practice
e ~6n+1
~ n+l
6 for n*O does not equal zero, a favourable choice of 1e will
6 0
result in: 1~ n+lln*0<<1! 1. In the following estimation of the error
!Ai
a
I the supposition
ê
-6n+1
11: 0 n *0 (5.5.4)
will be used. Because of this neglect, the expression for the maximum
error which has to be found might result in too small an error. It
should be borne in mind that this expression will give a maximum value
of the error. Since the real error will be smaller, it seems to be
reasonable to assume that this expression will give a fair impression
of the truncation error.
Using (5.5.3) and (5.5.4), the modulus of the coefficients of the
armature-current Fourier series can be expressed as:
(5.5.5)
135
lt follows from this expression that the moduli of the coefficients
of the Fourier series of the pulse function lP-n I affect the moduli of
the armature-current Fourier series strongly. Expressions for the
moduli lP-n I can be found by using (5.3.2b):
.
10-2
.. .
. . ... . .. ...............
.... .........~
.. -_ ..... _
• . ..
A
•• ..
··......
A A --....... __
.. ..
·~
--1""'z-
.. ..
.
..
.
..
.
•e.
•
11
'"•
.. "
.·
11
~ "' • •
..
..
... .. .
.
10
-s . 11
..!!....
0 tO 20 30 40 60 60 70 80 90 100
l2nl with ~=0.5 is larger than l2nl with ~=0.1 for low values of
n (O~n~10): the influence of the lower harmonies in the case of a
relatively small pulse (small value of ~: "rapid conunutation") is
smaller than in the case of a relatively wide pulse (large value of
~: "slow conunutation"; see figure 5.3.1).
Using (5.5.5) and (5.5.6), (5.5.2) becomes:
136
(5.5.7)
3~~~~ A
+ - - - I:
nwl m•N+1 2 1sin (<-6m+2)~)1 + 6~~sin (6m~) I}+
e
(5.5.9)
137
1
1Ö
tÖ
4
uf uf -N
138
]1=0. 1 ]1=0.5
N
ugo I
g
IMa Imax i
ugo
I
I
g lt.i
'
1
a max
139
.76
0
-.76
-1·5
N=l
ia \
.76
~
0 0
0 7f I
-.1 -.76
I
-.2 -1.5
N=5
la
0
0
'
7f
-
wt
-.1
-.2 -1·6
N=l5
ia I
·1
(~
0 '
0 n
-1·5
N=lOO
ia
.t .76
C-'4.
0 0
0 7l
-.1 -.75
-.2 -1.6
N= -
Figure 5.5.3 The functions i (wt) and u (wt) for N=1, N=5,
a ac
N=15, and N=100, and for N=- (which refers to the
simple model as described in section 4.3) for the
examples described in this section with ~=0.1.
140
.6
ha
·26 .6
0 0
-.26 -.5
-.5 -1
N=l
.6
ha
·26 .5
0 0
-.25 -.6
-.5 -1
N=5
.6
ha
·26
L \ ~
.5
\ 7
0 0
0
-·26 -.6
-.5 -1
N=l5
.6
Iia
.25
L \ .6
~
0 0
0
'
-.26 -.5
-.5 -1
N=IOO
.5
li8
·26
0 L \ .6
0
0
\
'
-.25 -.6
-.5 -1
N= -
Figure 5.5.4 The functions i (wt) and u (wt) for N=1, N=5,
a ac
N=15, and N=100, and for N=- (which refers to the
simple model as described in section 4.3) for the
examples described in this section with v=0.5.
141
5.6 Some remarks on the use of the simple model as
described in sectien 4.3
5.6.1 Introduetion
142
with the behaviour of the "real" machine. Making use of this
presupposition, the choice has been reduced to the choice of the value
of the commutation inductances 1 , which corresponds with the value of
c
the sub-transient inductance 1" in section 4.3.
As has been mentioned insection 5.3,in this chapter the delay angle
a is used instead of the delay angle a in chapter 4. When the model
p
as described in section 4.3 can be used, the difference between those
angles is the load angle of the internal "ideal" machine:
a
p
=a + s (5. 6. 1)
{êp-jw(lq -lc)IqO+W(ld-lc)Ido} ~+
. -j2a -j2)1
{ êp +jw(lq -lc)Iq 0 +W(l[lc)IdO } ~e P(e -1) = 5wlc ( j \ -IdO)
0
(5.6.3)
In the equation with the direct current I (3.3.4) and the
g
expression for the average value of the direct voltage UgO (4.3.20)
the amplitude of the internal phase voltage and the delay angle a are
~ n+l=O
used. Using (5.2.14a) with 6 for n*O, the internal phase voltage
ea may be expressed as:
e
a
= Re{ê-1 ejwt} (5.6.4)
1~ 1.
Hence, the amplitude of the internal phase voltage equals
1 The
delay angle a can be found by using (5.6.1). The value of the load
angle s in this equation can be found by camparing (5.6.4) with the
expression for e" insection 4.3 (4.3.6a):
a
s = -arg{~,} (5.6.5)
(5.6.6)
143
Using (4.3.20), (5.6.1), and (5.6.5) results in (ê"... l~
1 1):
UgO = 1T~13iê- 1 icos(a p+argê- 1)- 1T~wl c I g
(5.6. 7)
The value of lc can, for example be chosen with the help of the
computation methad as described in section 5.3. In this (rather
roundabout) way the values of IdO and IqO are computed by means of the
methad as described insection 5.3 (a and ~are known quantities).
p
After substituting these values into (5.6.3) a value of 1 can be
c
obtained from this equation. This complex va1ue wi11 be indicated by
the symbol lc'· The real part of 1 1 may be used as the value of the
-c
commutation inductance in the simple model as described in section 4.3
(1 corresponds with 1"):
{.} tê
c . -j2a. -j2]J
-jw1 I 0 +w1did0)~1T +(ê +jw1 I O+W1dido)i?re P(e -1)}
Re 1 1 =Re P q q P q q . .
-c { . -J20. -J2~ }
jw (I +ji )(1-~)+(I -ji )~ Pee -1)
qO dO 3 21T qO dO 41T
(5.6.8)
144
d
- ·1
- ·1
-.3
a b
axis components: M l\i +jllid where lli =!Md lcos\3and b.id=laid lsinf3
-dq= q q - q - q
(the angle Bis specified in figure 5.6.1b). llence, the rapidly
changing part of the flux space phasor might be expressed as:
ló~dql = Y(l"cos
q
B ) 2 + (l"sin
d B PI Ai-dq I
cos B sin 13
v'12 +12
dO qO
. I (l"I )2 +(l"I )2
1 = ~ d qO q dO (5.6.9)
h Iào + r~o
In literature, for example [Bue 77], [Mau 75], and [Ste 78], the
commutation inductance
1
c
= Hl"d + 1")
q
(5.6.10)
is frequently advised.
In order to evaluate these various choices of the commutation
inductances, table 5.6.1 has been composed. In the first pair of
colums the values of, respectively, a p and Jl are given. In the s.econd
145
pair of columns the values of respectively, 1' (expression (5.6.8))
-c
and lh (expression (5.6.9)) can he found. The values needed in the
expressions(5.6.8) and (5.6.9) have been computed by means of the
method as described in section 5.3 with N=50. Subsequently for each of
the quantitiés UgO' 1 , IqO' and IdO four values have been given. The
8
first value of each quantity has been found by means of the methad as
described insection 5.3 (N=50). The remaining three values have been
computed by means of equation (5.6.3) and the expressions (5.6.2),
(5.6.6), and (5.6.7). In case of the first value of those remaining
values the commutation inductance Re{l'} according to the table has
-c
been used in these formulae. The second one has been computed by using
the commutation inductance lh according to the table, whereas the last
one has been computed by using the commutation inductance according to
expression (5.6.10) (1 =0.15).
c
It can beseen in table 5.6.1 that the computation results in the
case of using the expressions for the commutation inductance (5.6.8)
and (5.6.9) are rather good. In genera!, expression (5.6.8) leads to
better results than expression (5.6.9) does. However, distinct
differences in the values of UgO may be found when the angle of
overlap ~ is larger than 0.5 rad. Besides, it appears from this table
that the choice of the commutation inductance is not very critical.
Hence, the choice of lc according to (5.6.9) with a rough estimate of
the angle Sin figure 5.6.1b (or of IdO and IqO) might be very useful.
This choice, the physical background of which is rather clear, is
particularly valuable in the case of relatively small values of the
angle of overlap ~. Even the choice 1 =Hl"+l") appears to be rather
c d q
good in many situations. If, however, the current space phasor !dqO'
which corresponds to the fundamental components of the armature phase
currents, is close to either the direct axis or the quadrature axis,
the errors may be rather large in the case of relatively small values
of the angle of overlap ~.
146
ugo lg I go 1do
a j1 1' lh
p -c (1) (2) (3) (4) (1) (2) ( 3) (4) (1) (2) (3) (4) (1) (2) (3) (4)
0.05 0.05 0.1010-jO.OOOO 0.1009 1.647 1.647 1.647 1.64 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.017 0.025 0.025 0.025 0.019 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.001
0.1 0.1 0.1020-j0.0001 0.1037 1.622 1.622 1.623 1.62 0.069 0.069 o.o68 0.055 0.075 0.075 0.074 0.061 -0.012 -0.012 -0.012 -0.012
0.5 0.1 0.1272- j0.0002 0.1350 1.325 1.325 1.328 1.33 0.202 0.202 0.196 0.185 0.190 0.190 0.184 0.174 -0.117 -0.117 -0.113 -0.107
0.5 0.3 0.1368-j0.0016 0.1468 1.133 1.126 1.130 1.13 1 0.360 0.359 0.353 0.352 0.310 0.308 0.303 0.302 -0.245 -0.247 -0.243 -0.242
1 0.1 0.1750-j0.0001 0.1805 0.720 0.720 0.721 0.71 1 0.259 0.259 0.255 0.281 0.142 0.142 0.140 0.154 -0.248 -0.248 -0.244 -0.269
1 0.3 0.1836- jO.OO 12 0.1872 0.519 0.515 0.515 0.50 6 0.442 0.442 0.440 0.463 0.197 0.195 0.194 0.204 -0.444 -0.445 -0.442 -0.466
1 0.5 0.1888-j0.0030 0.1929 0.362 0.353 0.354 0. 0.522 0.521 0.520 0.535 0.173 0.168 0.168 0.171 -0.542 -0.543 -0.542 -0.559
1 0.7 0.1877-j0.0051 0.1971 0.222 0.213 0.214 o. 0.571 0.570 0.568 0.577 0:121 0.116 0.116 0.114 -0.604 -û.605 -0.603 -0.614
1 I 0.1386-j0.0131 0.1998 0.055 0.047 0.053 0.( 0.622 0.621 0.617 0.6ZO 0.034 0.029 0.032 0.030 -0.657 -0.657 -0.653 -0.656
1.5 0.1 0.1994-jO.OOOO 0.2000 0.030 0.029 0.029 0.028 0.268 0.268 0.2&7 0.310 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.007 -0.295 -0.295 -0.294 -0.342
1.5 0.3 0.1997+j0.0003 0.1995 -0.097 -0.096 -0.096 -0.094 0.454 0.454 0.454 0.484 -0.039 -0.039 -0.039 -0.041 -0.497 -0.497 -0.497 -0.530
1,5 0.5 0.1951 +jO.OO 18 0,1978 -0.201 -0.197 -0.197 -0.19 1 0.528 0.528 0.527 0.544 -0.099 -0.097 -0.097 -0.098 -0.568 -0.568 -0.567 -0.586
1.5 0.7 0.1862+j0.0062 0.1954 -0.281 -0.269 -0.271 ·0 0.567 0.566 0.564 0.573 -0.151 -0.145 -0.145 -0.142 -0.594 -0.595 -0.593 -0.604
1.5 0.9 0.1813+j0.0161 0.1937 -0.323 -0.308 -0.313 -0 0.585 0.583 0.582 0.585 -0.180 -0.171 -0.174 -0.163 -0.600 -0.601 -0.599 -0.607
2 0.1 0.1784+j0.0001 0.1834 -0.663 -0.664 -0.666 -0 0.261 0.261 0.257 0.286 -0.133 -0.132 -0.131 -0.145 -0.255 -0.255 -0.251 -0.280
2 0.3 0.1703+j0.0015 0.1765 -0.716 -0.710 -0.712 -0.704 0.428 0.428 0.424 0.440 -0.255 -0.253 -0.251 -0.260 -0.395 -0.396 -0.393 -D.408
2 0.5 0.1620+j0.0047 0.1713 -0.771 -0.756 -0.760 -0.750 10-476 0.475 0.472 0.479 -0.310 -0.303 -0.302 -0.305 -0.418 -0.421 -0.418 -0.426
2.5 0.1 0.1312+j0.000 1 0.1391 -1.280 -1.281 -1.284 -1.288 0.211 0.211 0.204 0.196 -0.193 -0.193 -0.187 -0.179 -0.130 -0.130 -0.126 -0.121
2.5 0.3 0.1226+j0.0014 0.1325 -1.306 -1.301 -1.305 -1.311 0.301 0.301 0.296 0.287 -0.286: -0.285 -0.280 -0.273 -0.166 -0.168 -0.165 -0.159
i
'----·
d d d
q
-.2 .2 -.2 ·2
-.2 -.2
-.4 -.4
!dqO and the orbit of the end of the current space phasor idq is
depicted in figure 5.6.2 for some values of the angle of overlap ].l.
The delay angle a has been chosen in such a way that the space phasor
p
!dqO lies on the (negative) direct axis (The diagrams have been
computed by means of the metbod as described in section 5.3 with N=50).
As can be seen in these figures, the change of -id q is approximately
parallel to the quadrature axis in the case of relatively small values
of 1J and approximately parallel to the direct axis for values of ].l
near to 1T
3 rad. Th~s
•
ph enomenon may also be found ~n
. the values of
148
Ct ~ 1'
p I ' -c
1.52 0. 1 0.1994-jO.OOOO
1.47 0.2 0.2003-jO.OOOO
1.37 0.4 0.1996-jO.OOOO
1.27 0.6 0.1952-jO.OOOO
1 • 17 0.8 0.1825-jO.OOOO
1.07 1 0.1356-j0.0002
1.05 1.04 0.1085-j0.0003
Ct \.1 1'
p -c
149
d d d
!I q
-.2 -.2 .2 -.2
-.2
-.4 -. -.4
d d d
q q q
-.2 -.2 -.2
-.2 -.2 -.2
150
5,6,3 The frequency dependency of the "commutation inductance"
~(w) 12
1(W} = I<w) = r, + _ __;;.;_w.....l-2 (5.6.12)
+ j--
re
In figure 5.6.5 Re{l(w)} and Im{l(w}} according tot (5.6.12} are
1 =0.1~
depicted for the rather realistic parameters:
2 1 1 =0.05, and
r =0.5 (These parameters have been chosen in such a way that l(6nw}
e -
151
with n*O is in the region of the operational inductances of the two
synchronous machines as mentioned in chapter 2). In practice the value
of may be quite different. When figure 5.6.5 is compared with the
Re 1
.16 tIm ;b
·12
.t
.os
.os
.04
.02
-.04
Figure 5.6.5 The operational inductance corresponding
to figure 5.6.4.
figures 2.4.4, 2.4.5, 2.4.6, and 2.4.7 attention should be paid to the
facts that in this chapter the (angular) frequency is expressed in
per-unit values, whereas it is expressed in Hz in chapter 2 (in Europe
usually: 50 Hz corresponds with 1 p.u.) and that in this chapter
Im{l(w)} is depicted, whereas -wim{l(w)} is depicted in chapter 2.
In order to obtain an impression of the influence of the frequency
dependency of the operational inductance on the commutation, the
circuit shown in figure 5.6.6 is considered. At the instant t=O
the switch S is closed, so that the circuit with the direct voltage
152
souree U and the coil (the combination of the elements 1 , 1 , and re)
1 2
is closed. This action may be compared with a commutation, in which
two phase terminals are temporarilyshort-circuited. However, in case
of a commutation the voltage souree is an alternating voltage source,
so that the phenomena described bere may only be compared with a
commutation which is so fast that the alternating voltage souree may
be seen as a direct voltage source. The current i in the network as
shown in figure 5.6.6 may be expressed as:
(5.6.13)
(5.6.14)
This inductance has been chosen in such a way that if the direct
voltage souree U is loaded by a coil (without resistance) with
coefficient of self-induction 1 at the instant t=O, the current in
a
this circuit equals the current i in the circuit shown in figure 5.6.6
at the instant t=lJ, In other words, the apparent self-inductance la
may be considered as a commutation inductance. The inductance 1 as a
a
function of the angle \.1 is depicted in figure 5.6.7b for: 1 =0.1;
1
12=0.05; re=0.5.
Besides the choice of the commutation inductance as described in
subsection 5.6.1 (according to (5.6.8)), another possible choice will
be given bere with the help of the figures 5.6.5 and 5.6.7b. It can be
seen in figure 5.6.7b that the apparent commutation inductance 1
a
increases when \.1 increases. This increase of 1 corresponds to an
a
increase of Re{!} and toa decrease of w (see figure 5.6.5). Hence, a
relatively rapid commutation (relatively small value of \.!) corresponds
to an operational inductance for a relatively high value of the
angular frequency w, whereas a relatively slow commutation (relatively
high value of \.!) corresponds to an operational inductance for a
153
5 .ts
ti I tla
4.5
4
I ·14
.t2
3.6 I
3 ·1
2.6
I .oa
2 I .os
1.6
.Q4
.02
J!:....
0
.s 0 .1 ·2 .3 .4 .6
a b
Figure 5.6.7 The current i as a function of time (a) and the
apparent se1f-inductance 1 (b) as a function of
a
~ for the circuit shown in figure 5.6.6 with
1 =0.1, 1 =0.05, and re=O.S.
1 2
1 Re{!(12w)} (5.6.15)
c
is a fairly good choice.
In the numerical "experiments" a .synchronous machine with the
following (rather realistic) machine parameters will be used (with
1 =0.1, 1 =0.05 and re=0.5):
1 2
154
r = 0
a
1.5
1 (0) 1
-q q 1
2 0.05
!d(6nw) = !q(6nw) = !(6nw) = 1
1 + 6nwl = 0 • 1 + -:-1-+J-i-:.0~.:.;6:....nw-
2
n *0
1+j-r--
e
Further choices of values are: ê =1 and w=1.
p
In order to obtain a better impression of the influence of the
frequency dependency of the "commutation inductance" on the computing
results, table 5.6.4 has been composed. In the first three columns the
values of, respectively, a , ~. and 1' according to (5.6.8) can be
P -c
found. The values needed in expression (5.6.8) have been computed by
means of the metbod as described in section 5.3 with N=50. Subsequently
for each of the values UgO' Ig' IqO' and IdO three values have been
given. The first value of each quantity bas been found by means of the
metbod as described insection 5.3 (N=50). The remaining two values
have been computed by means of equation (5.6.3) and the expressions
(5.6.2), (5.6.6), and (5.6.7). In case of the first value of those
two remaining values the commutation inductance Re{l'} according to
-c
the table bas been used in these formulae, whereas the second (last)
one has been computed by using 1 =Re{ld(12w)} according to (5.6.15).
c -
It can be seen in table 5.6.4 that the choice of the commutation
inductance according to (5.6.8) (Re{l'}) as well as according to
-c
(5.6.15) (Re{!(12w)}) lead to rather good computing results. In case
of relatively small values of the angle of overlap (~<0.2), the choice
according to (5.6.8) results in a smaller error than the choice
according to (5.6.15). However, since the absolute error is fairly
small, (5.6.15) is often allowed to be used despite the rather large
relative error. If, nevertheless, this error is too large, the
apparent self-inductance la as described in this subsectien might be
used as commutation inductance.
In order to obtain an impression of the value of this choice, the
values of Re{l'} according to table 5.6.4 have been depicted in figure
-c
5.6.7b (cross-marks). As can beseen in this figure, the approximàtion
of Re{l'}
-c by the apparent self-inductance is rather .,POOd for
relatively small values of the angle of overlap v. The rather bad
approximation for relatively large values of the angle of overlap ~
155
ugo 1
u
lg 'qo do
"p
(2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) ! (1) (2) (3)
I
1.647 1,647 0.022 0.022 0.020 0.024 0.024 0.022 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002
0.1 1,636 1,637 0,036 0.036 0.033 0.039 0.039 0.036 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005
0.1 0.1 1.623 1.623 0,065 0.065 0.063 0.071 0.071 0.069 -0.011 -0.011 -0.011
0.5 1.376 1,380 0.138 0.138 0.129 0.132 0.132 0.123 -0.076 -0,076 -0.071
0.5 0.1 1.321 1.323 0.213 0.213 0.208 0.200 0.200 0.196 -0.123 -0.123 -0.121
0.5 0.2 1.222 1.221 0.306 0.306 0.307 0.276 0.275 0.276 -0.192 -0.193 -0.194
0.5 0.3 1.120 1,118 0,368 0.367 0.369 0.316 0.314 0.315 -0.252 -0.253 -0.255
0.5 0.5 0.1211- j0.0034 0.905 0.894 0.893 0.450 0.448 0.449 0.333' 0.327 0.327 -0.363 -0.367 -0.367
0.05 0.1089-j0.0001 0.765 0.770 0.775 0.219 0.219 0.206 0.126 0.125 0.118 -0.206 -0.207 -0.194
0.1 0.1156-j0.0003 0.692 0.696 0.698 0.318 0.318 0.313 0.175 0.174 0.171 -0.304 -0.304 -0.299
0.2 0.1235-jO.OOOB 0.589 0.589 0.588 0.421 0.421 0.424 0.211 0.209 0.210 -0.413 -0.414 -0.417
0.3 0.1271-j0.0014 0,503 0.500 0.4";2 0.478 0.478 0.483 0.214 0.210 0.212 -0,480 -0.481 -0.486
0.5 0.1287-j0.0026 0.347 0.339 0.336 0.544 0.543 0.546 0.177' 0.172 U.172 -0.566 -0.568 -0.571
0.7 0.1269-j0.0050 0.210 0.198 0.196 0.583 0.582 0.583 0.119 0.112 0.111 -0.619 -0.620 -0.621
0.9 0.1237-j0.0095 0.098 0.087 0.086 0.611 0.610 0.610 0.059 0.052 0.052 -0.649 -0.649 -0.650
0.1245-j0.0114 0.052 0.045 0,044 0.622 0.622 0.622 0.033 0.028 0.027 -0.658 -0.658 -0.658
1.5 0.05 0.1090-j0.0001 0.060 0.065 0.012 0.012 -0.272 -0.272 -0.256
1.5 0.1 0.1159-j0,0003 0.023 0.028 0.008 0.008 -0.385 -0.385 -0.379
1.5 0.2 0.1247-j0.0009 -0.036 -0,036 -0.036 0.447 0.447 0.452 -0.014 -0.014 -0.492 -0.492 -0.497
1.5 0.3 0.1294- j0.0016 -0.088 -0.093 -0.092 0.498 0.498 0.504 -0.042 -0.546 -0.545 -0.552
1,5 0.5 0.1340-j0.0031 -0.179 -0.189 -0.187 0.550 0.550 0.556 -0.593 -0.593 -0.599
1.5 0.7 0.1362-j0.0057 -0.243 -0.255 -0.249 0.576 0.576 0. -0.141 -0.608 -0.607 -0.611
1.5 0.9 0.1354-j0.0102 -0.272 -0.283 -0.271 0.586 0.586 o. -0.159 -0.153 -0,610 -0.610 -0.613
2.5 0.05 0.1092-j0.0001 -1.285 -1.281 -1.286 0.157 0.157 0.147 -0.141 -0.141 -0.132 -0.100 -0.100 -0.094
2.5 0.1 0.1167- j0.0004 -1.278 -1.276 -1.277 0.224 0.224 0.221 ·0.204 -0.204 -0.202 -0.138 -0.138 -0.136
2.5 0.2 0.1282-j0.0013 -1.288 -1.291 -1.288 0.278 0.279 0.284 -0.259 -0.261 -0.266 -0.163 -0.161. -0.165
2.5 0.3 0.1373-j0.0029 -1.297 -1.307 -1.299 0.293 0.293 0.302 -0.275: -0.286 -0.167 -0.163 -0.169
156
may be caused by the fact that the commutating voltage in the first
part of this subsectien is supposed to be a direct voltage instead of
an alternating voltage.
5.6.4 Conclusions
157
modes are also possible. Sirree the thyristors have been supposed to be
2
triggered by means of long pulses <3~ rad of length}, like in sub-
sectien 3.2.3 the following operatien modes can occur:
- "normal" intermittent flow (this is also possible when short pulses
are used),
- delayed
refiring in the rectifier operatien mode,
refiring in the inverter operatien mode,
- continuous flow of the direct current.
Like in subsectien 3.2.3, these eperation modes will be considered for
the interval in which thyristor T as well as thyristor T is
1 4
triggered (see 5.3.1):
~
etp - wt < ap (5.7.1)
3<
In contrast with the treatise in subsectien 3.2.3 the angle of
overlap ~ will not be neglected bere. The various operatien modes will
be considered with the help of figure 5.7.1. The figures 5.7.1a, 5.7.1b;
5.7.1c, and 5.7.1d correspond to respectively, the figures 3.2.2a,
3.2.5b, 3.2.7a and 3.2.7b. However, in the (detailed) versions of
figure 5.7.1 the commutation has been taken into account. It should be
noted that figure 5.7.1 has been stylized (the internal voltages do
nothave to vary sinusoidally). In this figure the conduction of the
thyristors during the interval considered ((5.7.1)) are indicated by
means of a thick line piece and the angles S1, S2 , s3 , and S4 are
introduced on behalf of the computations in this section.
As can beseen in figure 5.7.1, the following situations may be
distinguished in the interval considered (in this sectien the current
space phasor i will be used as the unknown quantity instead of the
armature phase current i which is used in sectien 5.3.):
a
- the thyristors T , T , and are conducting; using figure 5.1.3
1 4
and the expression for the current space phasor! (1.2.4), the
following expression may be deduced:
di
dt= (5.7.2a)
158
di
(5.7.2b)
h(wt)
00
l: fi ejnwt (5.7.4a)
n=-oo-n
where
5
a
ap +31T
. 1 ·2 - •nwt 1 J4 - . nwt
f3
~
h =-
-n 21T
1
I
a --
1T
P ~
- nwt
h(wt)e J d(wt)=- Je J d(wt)+-
2n
131
e J d(wt)
2n
B3
(5.7.4b)
fi--n h*
-n
(5.7.4c)
The value of U needed in the expressions (5.3.1) and (5.3.2) and the
values of 8 , 8 , 8 , and 8 needed in the expressions (5.7.3) and
1 2 3 4
(5.7.4) have been summarized for the operation modes considered here
in table 5.7.1.
159
eab eac
·f
---:::::tlllllllllll fDTrrrn,..... _....-::::::=---
1
I~
~
________________________.,________ I
T1
T4---------------------------------
Ts
'B I '(3
4 wt
ap --3
1T
a _:!!+E; ap
p 3
~~~"'""''''-
··f I
!
~ I ,
T1----~--------------------_. _______
T4---------------------------------
Ts-----------------------------------
wt
a -1I
p 3
~-----------------------------------
Ts--~-------------------------------
160
.r
81
2 wt
wt
1T
o.P--3
161
operatien mode )l s, 13 2 ; (33 134 I
I I
Using figure 5.7.1, table 5.7.1, and the expressions (5.7.2) and
(5.7.3), the following expression may be deduced:
+ :;-:b2~ub(1-jl3)}p(wt) +
e g
a -!!<wt<a (5.7.5)
p 3 p
di
Using (1 .2.7) and y=wt+!TI ((5.2.6)), dt may be expressedas a
function of the current space phasor in the rotor coordinate system
i :
-dq d'
di f !:dq . . } jwt (5. 7 .6)
dt = 1~ + JW:!:dq e
Since the internal armature phase voltages are known as functions of
the armature phase currents, the substitution of expression (5.7.6)
into equation (5.7.5) results in a differentLal equation with id as
- q
the unknown quantity. Using the initial condition that the armature
phase current ia is zero at the instant of triggering thyristor T :
1
i (a _;;) = 0 (5. 7. 7)
a p 3
this differential equation may be solved (the pulse functions p(wt)
and h(wt) are supposed to be known).
Since the current space phasor id is periodic with angular period
- q
~· the function f(t):
162
. . did
f(t) "' d ~ -]Wt = ~ + J'Wi (5 7 8)
- ~ dt -dq ..
is also periodic with angular period ~· Hence, the function f(t) may
be expressed as a Fourier series:
f(t) "'
-
f ej6mwt
. m=-w-m
r (5. 7. 9a)
~ = 1T
3~~ f(t)e- j6mWt d(wt) __ ~~Cfp~-j(6n+1)wtd(wt)
'IT'!Teil::~ (5.7.9b)
a·-~ a--
P 3 . p 3
•
S ~nee an express~on
• d~ ~s
f or dt • k nown f or t h e ~nterva
• 1 ap-3<wt<ap
'IT
((5.7.5)), this interval has been used for the integrals in (5.7.9b).
Using (5.3.4) and (5.2.14a), the substitution of (5.7.5) into
(5.7.9b) results in:
f
-m =
3 r
n=-co~-6n+1
A
t 61 +21
e g .l.
a.
l (31 +21 ) 2'1f 'Jf
JP
p(wt)e-jG(m-n)wtd(wt) +
e e g aP--3
a
+ -- 2-
21 +1
e g
.l.
2'1f
/P
a. _lt
h(wt)e-j 6(m-n)wtd(wt)} t
p 3
1 (l+j/3) 1 Ja.p
l:
QC)
A* T
+ 3n=-w ~6n+1 131 +21 ) 2'1f
{
( )
'lfp wt e
(6(m+n)+2)wtd(wt) +
e e g ap --3
a
+ ;;j:t 2~ J:h(wt)e-j(6(m+n)+2)wtd(wt)} +
e g a--
p 3
_ 6U { 1-j/3
b 31 +21
J_f_a (
2'1f
t) -j(6m+1)wtd( t)
'lfp w e w +
e g p-3
(5.7.10)
Si nee
13 .
a. +~'Jf
Z'1IT
p
p(wt)e-Jnw t d(wt) =0 (5.7.11a)
163
'1T
smaller than 3 rad), and
5
a +-'lT
1/·P h(wt)e-JnWtd(wt)
Zu 3 · =0 (5.7.11b)
Ct
p
according to (5.7.3f), expression (5.7.10) is transformed into the
following expression by using the expression p (5.3.2b) and the
-n
expression for h-n (5.7.4b):
61 +21
f•3'fê
-m t
n=-co-6n+1 1 (31 +21 )-6(m-n)
e
e
e
gp~
g
+ 2 h
21 +1 -6(m-n)
e g
} +
+ 3 'f.
ê*
t 1 ( 1+ j 13)
~ + 1-j/311
}
+
n~-6n+1 131 +21 )E6(m+n)+2
A
21 +1 -6(m+n)+2
e e g e g
2.
2 -~
2-j2/3A + 13 }
- 3Ub { 31 +21 ~6m+1
(5.7.12)
21 +1 fi6m+1
e g e g
Using the expression for id (5.2.7) and equating the expressions for
- q
f(t) (5.7.8) and (5.7.9a), the fol1owing expression for f may be
- -m
found:
f
-m
• j ( 6m+ 1)w!- 6m+ 1 (5.7.13)
(1-j/3)zs*~
-n-6(m+n)+2 +2zd h
--n-6(m+n) l
+ 21 +1
e g
I +
164
(5.7.14)
(5. 7 .15b)
( 1 -j/J):!~fi6(m+n)+2+ 2 zd~nli6(m+n)
+ --------~~2~1~+~1~--~~~~~ (5. 7 .15c)
e g
-
(61 +21 >i> +1 (1+jiJ>ï>
e g-mg6 6 2
-m+ 6
-m
zn
+<1-jl3>n6 2}
-m+
c ep{ 1 (31 +21 ) + 21 +1 (5.7 .15d)
-m e e g e g
2.
2-j2/3 p 2 -~
d 31 +21 6m+l + 21 +1 E6m+1 (5. 7 .15e)
-m
e g e g
this set of equations may be expressed as:
(5.7.16)
After dividing these equations into their real and imaginary parts and
using t =x +jy according to (5.3.12), thesetof equations
- 6n+ 1 n n
(5.7.16) may be written as:
165
~N{<rma-mn+IMb-mn )xn +(Rea-mn-Reb-mn )yn
Imc-m = n=- + Imd_mub} (5.7.17b)
with -N~m~N.
(5.7.18)
166
di
u = 1 ~+u (5. 7. 21)
g g dt b
Using (5.7.19), the expression for the current ib (5.2.4b), and
~
i =i
A* ((5.2.2)), this expressionchanges into:
--n -n
~
j ((6n+1)wt-~7T)}]
u
g
" U + wl Im
b g
f (6n+1)!- 6n+ 1e
n=-co{
(5. 7 .22)
167
Figure 5.8.2 The base circuit as shown in figure 5.1.1 with
the thyristor model according to figure 5.8.1.
168
6 THE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR WITH DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
6.1 Introduetion
+
D
I
Ug
D D
I
Figure 6.1.1 The base circuit for the description of the
synchronous generator with diode bridge rectifier.
169
6.2 Computation of the steady-state performance by means of
operational inductances and Fourier analysis
When tbe diode bridge rectifier works in tbe mode of continuous flow
of tbe direct current, just befare tbe beginning of tbe considered
interval tbe diodes D and D are conducting. At the beginning of tbe
5 4
interval tbe voltage u ac becomes positive, diode D starts to conduct
1
and the current ig begins to transfer from tbe arm witb diode D to
5
tbe arm witb diode D • After the commutation being finisbed, the
1
diodes D1 and D are tbe only conducting diodes during tbe remaining
4
part of tbe interval considered bere.
When applying the computation metbod described in cbapter 5, tbe
angle of overlap ~ and tbe delay angle a should be known. However,
p
normally the rotational frequency w, the amplitude of the open-circuit
armature phase voltage êp and the voltage Ub are given and the
currents and the angle of overlap ~ should be computed. In the metbod
170
proposed bere, the quantities u, w, and ê
p
are considered to be the
known quantities in tbe first instance. Subsequently, the computation
metbod is used iteratively with different values of a in order to
p
find the value of a (witha chosenaccuracy) wbich corresponds with
p
the commutation starting at the beginning of the considered interval
(u becomes positive). When the value of Ub whicb corresponds to the
ac .
resulting value of a does not equal the desired value, tbe value of u
p
is adjusted and the process is repeated. After finisbing tbe wbole
computation process, the direct current i has to be examined in order
g
to find out whetber the direct current is continuously flowing or not.
In tbis process the voltage uac is used as a reference voltage for
tbe beginning of tbe interval considered. However, this voltage is .
d~a
zero during tbe wbole commutation. In practice the criterion that (ft;
is zero at tbe beginning of the commutation turns out to be better.
Since ia:Re{~} (according to (1.2.32a) with i =0) and the diodes D ,
0 1
n4 ,and o
5
are conducting during tbe commutation considered here, the
real part of expression (5.7.2a) may be used for this criterion.
171
the whole computation process (the desired value of Ub has been
reached), the value of the voltage ubc at the end of the subject
conduction interval should be examinetl; this value should be negative.
If,however, this value is zero or positive, the commutation of the
direct current from the arm with diode D to the arm with diode o
4 6
began before the end of this conduction interval. In other words, the
convertor works in the refiring operation mode, which was not
considered here.
172
third and fourth experiment, the coefficient of self-induction of the
smooting coil was 2.05 p.u. (43 mH).
During the experiments the voltage u and the current i have been
ac a
recorded by means of a digital waveform analyzer. This analyzer was
triggered by means of a shaft position sensor in such a way that the
recording started at the instant corresponding with wtaO. Each of the
recordings contained 512 samples and the sample period was 39 ~s.
The results of these recordings are shown in the figures 6.3.1-4.
Besides the average values of the direct voltage (UgO) and the direct
current (IgO) have been measured (tables 6.3.1-4).
The augles Ç and ~ (experiment 1) or the angles a. and ~
p p
(experiments 2, 3,and 4) have been determined from these recordings
(tables 6.3.1-4). The values of ! n+l and û 1 (=UqO+jUdO) have been
6
deduced from these recordings by means of the Fast Fourier Transfarm
algorithm. The main error in these values is caused by the recording
length (512•39 ~s=19.968 ms) not being equal to the period (20 ms).
This error is in the neighbourhood of one per cent of the amplitude of
the fundamental component.
In order to be able to leave saturation effects out of account, the
voltage Ub has been chosen in such a way that the flux level in the
machine is rather low. It is, however, not possible to eliminate the
hysteresis effect. This effect is especially important in the case of
rather low values of the flux level (see figure 2.3.1). For that
reasou the synchronous inductances ld and lq needed in the computations
were determined from the (measured) fundamental components of the
armature phase current and voltage. The determination of the
operational inductances ld(6nw) and 1 (6nw) with n*O has been
- -q
described insection 2.4 (see figure 2.4.4 and 2.4.6). The following
approximations were used in the computations:
} 3750 ( 0.045 )
Re{!/6nw)} Re{!d<- 6nw) = 1160+55.4TnW+nw\1+1ii.W-0.0377 n>O
Im{l (6nw)}
-q
-Im{l-q (-6nw)} = - 0 •nw
097
-0.165 (nw) 0 •
28
. n>O
The model as described in section 5.8 bas been applied to the diodes.
The electrical behaviour of the slip rings of the (inverted)
173
measured calculated
quantity
value value
I gO 0.008 0.009
-:-
.!:-29 -0.0001-jO.OOOO -0.0001+j0.0002
... -0.0003+j0.0001 -0-0003+j0.0002
.!:-23
.
.!:-17 -0.0007+j0.0003 -0.0008+j0.0004
... -0.0015+j0.0004 -0 .oo 18+j0. 0010
L11
Ls -0.0037-j0.0062 -0.0040-j0.0066
.,.
.!:1 0.0101-j0.0017 0.0099-j0.0020
... -0.0007+j0.0053 -0.0005+j0.0057
.!:7
~ 0.75 0.75
p 0.0000078
r
p 0.0000067
r, 1
p 0.0000007
r,2
174
measured curve
calculated curve
measured curve
calculated curve
Figure 6.3.1 The current ia and the voltage uac with experiment
(intermittent flow of the direct current)
175
measured calculated
quantity
value value I
ugo I 1.076 1. 071
I gO 0.025 0.027
u do -0.021 -0.021
Ls -0.0041-j0.0150 -0.0043-j0.0162
~
!, 0.0306-j0.0070 0.0296-j0.0070
i7 0.0042+j0.0078 0.0047+j0.0086
(l 0.05 0.05
p
ll 0.05 0.06
p 0.0000291
r
p 0.0000264
r. 1
p 0.0000014
r,2
176
-().05
measured curve
calculated curve
measured curve
calculated curve
Figure 6.3.2 The current i and the voltage u with experiment 2
a ac
(a relatively small direct current flowing continuously)
177
I measured calculated
quantity
value value
I gO 0.509 0.509
L5 0.092+j0.003 0.094+j0.005
!, 0.449-j0.324 0.451-j0.327
i7 -0.018+j0.048 -0.017+j0.050
A
in -0.008-j0.007 -0.009-j0.007
-
!19 -0.002"-j0.006 0.002-j0.006
(l 0.28 0.29
p
1J 0.52 0.51
p 0.000747
r
0.000660
•1
p 0.000053
r,2
l
178
measured curve
la
o.s&..------
-Q.5
calculated curve
measured curve
calculated curve
Figure 6.3.3 The current i and the voltage u with experiment 3
a ac
(the armature current is about half its rated value)
179
measured calculated
quantity
value value
I gO 1.002 1.002
I
--29
-0 .003+j0.003 -0.003+j0.002
I
--23 -0.005-j0.001 -0.005-j0.003
.,.,
.!-17 -0.005-j0.01 t -0.003-jO.Ott
i 0.156+j0.046 0.153+j0.051
--5
it 0.849-j0.676 0.850-j0.685
~
a 0.25 0.25
p
l1 0.64 0.65
p 0.00209
r
p 0.00191
r, 1
p 0.00009
r,2
180
la
1~----------,
measured curve
calculated curve
measured curve
calculated curve
Figure 6.3.4 The current ia and the voltage uac with experiment 4
(the armature current is about its rated value)
181
synchronous machine were represented in the computations by constant
voltage drops. These voltage drops were added to the voltage drops of
the corresponding diodes (in the computations the voltage U(TO) was
2.5 V). The computing results arealso shown in the tables 6.3.1-4
and figures 6.3.1-4. In order to simplify the camparing of the
computing and the experimental results in these figures, the current
and voltage seales belonging to the eomputing results have been
adjusted in such a way that they are equal to the scales belonging to
the eorresponding experimental results.
As can beseen in the tables 6.3.1-4 and the figures 6.3.1-4, the
agreement between the experimental and the calculated results is
rather good for the experiments 3 and 4, whereas it.is less good for the
experiments 1 and 2. The following explanation may be given for this
phenomenon. Because the synchronous machine is not exactlysymmetrical,
the voltage over the smoothing eoil lg (figure 6.1.1) is also not
exactly periodic with angular period ~ • Hence, the direct eurrent
(with its ripple) is not exactly periodic with period ~· Since the
ripple on the direct current is relatively large in the experiments
and 2, these experiments are affeeted rather strongly by this
disturbance. The reason why the ripple on the direct current is
relatively large with the experiments 1 and 2 originates from the
relatively low average value of the direct current on the one hand and
the relatively small coeffieient of self-induetion on the other hand.
As eomputing examples, the power dissipstion in the rotor eaused by
the armature-eurrent harmonies P according to (5.2.19) is also given
r
in the tables 6.3.1-4. In order to show the contribution of the lower
harmonies to this dissipstion the termsof (5.2.19) with n=l (5th and
7th harmonies in the armature phase current; P ) and n=2 (11th and
r, 1
13th harmonies in the armature phase eurrent; P
r, 2 ) are shown
separately. As may be seen in these ta~les, the contribution of the
5th and the 7th harmonie isby far the largest.
182
6.4 Some practical remarks on the computation of
the steady-state performance
2~~~1--Q~_!h~-~~~E~!!!!~~-~l-~~!~~-~É-~E~!!!i~~!!_i~~~~!!g~~!
!g2_~~~!i~!_!g!lï!!!_ig_!h~-~!!~-!h~-!~!i!!!g~~-!g
!h~-~!!~~!:s~!!~g!_~irs~!!_i!_~~!-~~!~
~~~~~--~~~~-!~!!g!~!g!!-~f_th~!!~E!!_~~!!_!!_~!!S!i~~~
!~_!!S!i~g-~~~
When the simple model as described in section 4.3 is used and the
convertor is a diode bridge, the set of equations (4.3.22) witb a=O
may be used for the computation of the steady-state performance. This
set of equations may be simplified by using the approximation for the
phase difference between tbe fundamental component of an armature
phase current and the corresponding internal phase voltage ~l
183
The model of the diodes, which have been considered as ideal
switches, may be extended by a constant voltage drop U(TO) (see
section 5.8). In the computation of tbe steady-state performance,
twice this voltage drop should be added to the direct voltage Ub.
~~!~~--~-~~~~E1~_!ll~~!E~!!~S}È~-~!!!~E~2~~-2~!~~~2-~-!i2i!~!l_!~~-!~
!g!!~!!~!X_l!!S~-~~!!:!g~~~!~2~~iE_!h~-~!!~~!:~~E!~g!_~!!~~!!
184
·25
.2
.15
·1
.os
rigO
0
.a .39 .4 .41 .42 .43 .44 .45
.s
.4
.2
0
0
Figure 6.4.1
.2 .4 .s .a 1 .2
-
w
185
.os tia .os tla
.o2S ·02S
0
-.02S
I I
0 7l
-wt
0
-.02S
-
wt
-.os -.os
l g=oo•• IgO=O.OIS 1 =0.2; IgO=O.OI8
g
.t fia .t
.os
-.os
0 I
0
J
1 7l
I
J
-wt
.os
0 -
wt
-·1
" 1 =co· Ig 0=0.055
-.os
-.1
1 ..0.2; Igo=O.OSS
g ' g
.a .a
·4 ·4
0 0
-.4 -.4
-.a -.a
=co'" rg 0=0.72 1 =0.2; rg =0.72
' g 0
186
quadrature-axis flux is relatively small in the neighbourhood of this
starting-point, the direct-axis saturation characteristic may be used
for the computation of the starting-point. For that purpose, an
approximation of the no-load saturation characteristic (such as curve
2 in figure 2.3.1) might be used.
Because of the hysteresis effect, the flux level in the machine
depends on its history. This dependenee is relatively strong in the
case of a low flux level in the machine (see figure 2.3.1). This
phenomenon may cause considerable differences between the computed and
the measured performance for relatively high angular veloeities (low
flux level), because the flux in the machine does not only"depend on
the currents, but also on its history.
187
SUMMARY
188
The combination of a synchronous machine with convertor is
described, in the first instance, by means of a very simple model of
the machine. Subsequently, a less simple, yet practical model of
this combination is given, In this model, which is used frequently,
the sub-transient behaviour of the synchronous machine is used,
However, this model is unusable when, for example, the losses
because of harmonies in the armature currents are essential, or when
the operatien of the combination.with a low angular velocity is
considered. For these computations, a metbod has been developed which
uses operational inductances and Fourier analysis. After being
described for a constant current in the direct current-circuit, this
metbod is used to test the simple and practical model mentioned
before, and to show how to determine the parameters needed in this
model, It fellows from these considerations that the results
obtained by means of this simple model are often rather good,
although the conditions for this model are (sometimes even
manifestly) unfulfilled. Subsequently, the computation metbod with
operational inductances and Fourier analysis is extended to the case
where the current in the direct-eurrent circuit is not constant,
In the last part of this dissertation, the special case of a
synchronous generator with diode bridge rectifier is described. The
results obtained by means of the computation metbod with operational
inductances and Fourier analysis are compared with experimental
results for this case, It fellows from these comparisons that the
results obtained by means of this computation metbod are good, It is
furthermore noted that the extra losses, which are sometimes
dreaded, are relatively low. Finally, some practical remarks
concernins saturation and hysteresis phenomena in the machine are
given.
189
SAMENVATTING
190
De combinatie van een· synchrone machine met een mutator wordt in
eerste instantie beschreven voor een zeer eenvoudig model van de
synchrone machine. Vervolgens wordt een vaker gebruikt, eenvoudig en
praktisch model van de synchrone machine met mutator beschreven.
Hierbij wordt gebruik gemaakt van het subtransiënte gedrag van de
synchrone machine.
Dit model kan men echter niet gebruiken om bijvoorbeeld de verliezen
in de machine ten gevolge van de hogere harmonischen in de
statorstromen te berekenen of om het gedrag van de machine met
mutator bij zeer lage toerentallen te berekenen. Voor deze
berekeningen is een methode ontwikkeld, die gebruik maakt van
operationele inductanties en Fourier-reeksen. Na een beschrijving van
deze methode voor het geval dat de gelijkstroom ideaal is, wordt de
methode gebruikt om het eerder genoemde eenvoudige, praktische model
te toetsen en aan te geven hoe men de voor dit model benodigde
parameters kan bepalen. Hieruit blijkt dat, ondanks het feitdat (soms
duidelijk) niet aan de veronderstellingen van dit model wordt voldaan,
dit eenvoudige model toch vaak goede resultaten oplevert. Verv~lgens
191
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Quant i ties
192
Labocr: leakage mutual inductance (section 1.2)
Ia0 (w): direct-axis operational inductance withopen excitation
circuit
external self-inductance (chapters 5 and 6)
lh possib1e choice of the commutation inductance (section 5.6)
1 auxi1iary inductance (section 1.6)
x
1 self-inductance in the circuits in the figures 5.6.4 and 5.6.6
1
1 se1f-inductance in the circuits in the figures 5.6.4 and 5.6.6
2
m torque
m integer (sections 5.3 and 5.7)
n integer
n pu1se response (sections 1.2 and 1.3)
n rotational frequency (introduction)
N positive integer expressing the truncation index of the
armature-phase-current Fourier series (chapter 5)
p instantaneous value of power
p pulse response (sections 1.2 and 1.3)
p pulse function (chapter 5)
active power
kinetic power (introduction)
shaft power of a wind turbine (introduction)
radius (chapter 1)
r resistance designated in per-unit values
R resistance designated in Q
resistance in the circuits in the'figures 5.6.4 and 5.6.6
forward slope resistance of a thyristor or a diode
time
u voltage
constant (direct) voltage
Une voltage
threshold voltage of a thyristor or a diode
wind velocity (introduction)
x
n
real part of !6n+ 1 (sections 5.3 and 5.7)
Yn imaginary part of I 6n+l (sections 5.3 and 5.7)
z winding distribution (chapter 1)
z (complex) impedance
193
zd
-n
quantity containing the machine impedances (chapte.r 5)
!!n quantity containing the machine impedances (chapter 5)
a coordinate angle (chapter 1)
a delay angle
a critica! delay angle (section 3.2)
er
a'er critical delay angle (section 3.2)
a0 coordinate angle for the axis of an arbitrary armature
winding (section 1.2)
13 angle in section 5.6
13 1-4 auxiliary angles for the computations in section 5.7
y angle measured in the direction of rotation from phase a
to the direct axis
o load angle
E load angle of the "internal machine"
ç angle indicating the instant at which the line voltage
equals the direct voltage
U overlap angle or commutation angle
~ conduction angle
p air density (introduction)
T time constant
$ phase difference
$ power factor angle
$ angle between the fundamental component of a phase current
1
and the corresponding phase voltage
~ flux linkage
w angular frequency
w angular velocity
194
Representation of complex quantities
Time-dependent quantities
Periadie quantities
x periadie quantity
X root-rnean-square value
xn amplitude of the n-th harmonie
Bn phase angle corresponding to the n-th harmonie
gn complex amplitude of the n-th harmonie
a amplitude
! complex amplitude !•aej~
195
Subscripts
a armature winding
a armature phase a
b armature phase b
c armature phase c
c commutation
d direct axis
f excitation (field) winding
g direct-eurrent circuit
j integer indicating a damper circuit (section 1.5)
k integer indicating a damper circuit (section 1.5)
m main field
m number of quadrature-axis damper circuits (sections 1.4
and 1.5)
n number of direct-axis damper ciruits (sections 1.4 and 1.5)
N rated
o base quantity for per-unit values
p pole wheel
q quadrature axis
r rotor
s stator
cr leakage circuit
0 homopalar component
Superscripts
transient
indicates that this symbol is used in another way (sections
5.2 and 5.6)
11
sub-transient
T transpose
196
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204
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