Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Al-Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University

Faculty of Sciences – Department of Physics

CLASSICAL MECHANICS – PHYS.303 ‘G’

1 - COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND TRANSFORMATIONS

RESUME AND TUTORIALS

Prof. Dr. Ali S. Hennache/05/06/2014

COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND

TRANSFORMATIONS
The purpose of a coordinate system is to uniquely determine the position of an
object or data point in space. By ‘space’ we may literally mean in physical space, but
in general it simply refers to what we might call ‘variable-space’, where each
dimension corresponds to one variable.

Rectangular Coordinate System

The following is the rectangular coordinate system:

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It is made up of two number lines:

1. The horizontal number line is the x- axis.

2. The vertical number line is the y- axis.

The origin is where the two intersect. This is where both number lines are 0.

It is split into four quadrants which are marked on this graph with Roman
numerals.

Each point on the graph is associated with an ordered pair. When dealing
with an x, y graph, the x coordinate is always first and the y coordinate is
always second in the ordered pair (x, y). It is a solution to an equation in
two variables. Even though there are two values in the ordered pair, be
careful that it associates to ONLY ONE point on the graph, the point lines
up with both the x value of the ordered pair (x-axis) and the y value of the
ordered pair (y-axis).

Example 1: Plot the ordered pairs and name the quadrant or axis in
which the point lies. A(2, 3), B(-1, 2), C(-3, -4), D(2, 0), and E(0, 5).

A(2, 3) lies in quadrant I.

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 B(-1, 2) lies in quadrant II.

C(-3, -4) lies in quadrant III.

D(2, 0) lies on the x-axis.

E(0, 5) lies on the y-axis.

Example 2: Find the x- and y- coordinates of the following labeled

points

Since point A corresponds to 2 on the x-axis and -3 on the y-axis, then A’s
ordered pair is (2, -3).

Since point B corresponds to 3 on the x-axis and 2 on the y-axis, then B’s
ordered pair is (3, 2).

Since point C corresponds to -2 on the x-axis and 3 on the y-axis, then C’s
ordered pair is (-2, 3).

Since point D corresponds to -3 on the x-axis and - 4 on the y-axis, then D’s
ordered pair is (-3, - 4).

Since point E corresponds to -3 on the x-axis and 0 on the y-axis, then E’s
ordered pair is (-3, 0).

Since point F corresponds to 0 on the x-axis and 2 on the y-axis, then F’s
ordered pair is (0, 2).

The Cartesian Plane

The position of a point on a Cartesian plane is represented by referring to it in terms
of a horizontal line and a vertical line, which are called the x-axis and y-
axis respectively. The point of intersection of the x-axis and the y-axis is called

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the origin.

Often, we draw a set of axes on graph paper as shown below.

The position of any point on the Cartesian Plane is described by using two numbers,
(x, y), that are called coordinates. The first number, x, is the horizontal position of
the point from the origin. It is called the x-coordinate. The second number, y, is the
vertical position of the point from the origin. It is called the y-coordinate. Since a
specific order is used to represent the coordinates, they are called ordered pairs.

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For example, an ordered pair (4, 5) represents a point 4 units to the right of the origin
in the direction of the x-axis, and 5 units above the origin in the direction of the y-axis
as shown in the diagram below.

We say that: The x-coordinate of point P is 4; and the y-coordinate of point P is 5.

Or simply, we can say that: The coordinates of point P are (4, 5).

Example 3:

State the coordinates of each of the points shown on the Cartesian plane:

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Solution:

A is 1 unit to the right of and 2 units above the origin. So, point A is (1, 2).
B is 2 units to the right of and 3 units above the origin. So, point B is (2, 3).
C is 2 units to the right of and 4 units above the origin. So, point C is (2, 4).
D is 3 units to the right of and 4 units above the origin. So, point D is (3, 4).
E is 5 units to the right of and 2 units above the origin. So, point E is (5, 2).
F is 7 units to the right of and 3 units above the origin. So, point F is (7, 3).
G is 4 units to the right of and 5 units above the origin. So, point G is (4, 5).
H is 5 units to the right of and 6 units above the origin. So, point H is (5, 6).
I is 1 unit to the right of and 7 units above the origin. So, point I is (1, 7).
J is 7 units to the right of and 7 units above the origin. So, point J is (7, 7).

POLAR COORDINATES
Cartesian coordinates are very versatile, but for some applications including many
curves, rotations, and complex numbers, it is simpler to use a coordinate system
based on the circle. These are polar coordinates, and our two parameters are r, the
radial distance between the point and the origin, and θ, the angle between the point
and the positive x-axis. The simplest, most fundamental plots for a Cartesian
coordinate system are vertical lines — lines of equal x — and horizontal lines —
lines of equal y. For the polar system, the fundamental plots are circles — lines of
equal r — and straight lines through the origin — lines of equal θ.

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 The polar coordinate system.

We can use geometry to relate Cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates, just as

we can relate different Cartesian coordinate systems. You’ve seen this with complex
numbers, but it naturally also relates the real Cartesian plane to real polar
coordinates and can be used to transform equations in one system to the other.

The relationship between polar and Cartesian coordinates

Note that you must pay attention to which quadrant a point is in when converting
from x and y to θ

— this is precisely what you are doing when you add ±π when figuring the argument
for a complex number with a negative real part (make sure you see why this is true).
In many applications, r is always greater than or equal to zero, but if r is negative,
instead of going outwards along the correct line of θ you go ‘backwards’ through the
origin and out in the opposite direction (along the line θ±π). For example, r = −2, θ =
π/2 is the same point as r = 2, θ = −π/2.

CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES

Cylindrical coordinates combine the polar coordinates in the xy-plane

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with the usual z-axis.

Relations between Cartesian, Cylindrical,

and Spherical Coordinates

Consider a cartesian, a cylindrical, and a spherical coordinate system, related as

shown below

The cartesian coordinates (x,y,z), the cylindrical coordinates (r, ,z), and the
spherical coordinates ( , , ) of a point are related as follows:

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Exercise1: Convert (1, 3, 4) in rectangular coordinates to cylindrical
coordinates.
Solution: First of all, let us determine r.

Now to find q .

z stays the same.

Exercise2: Convert (0, 0, 1) in rectangular coordinates to cylindrical

coordinates.
Solution: First determine r.

Now to determine q .

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 Therefore, q = p /2.

The z value stays the same, so the point is (0, p /2,1).

Exercise3: Convert in cylindrical coordinates to rectangular

coordinates.
z stays the same, so I need to find the values for x and y.
To do this, I will use r and q .
Solution:

Exercise4: Convert (2, p /6, 6) in cylindrical coordinates to rectangular

coordinates.
Solution:
z = 6, so all I need to find is the values for x and y.

2 2
Exercise5: Convert x + y = 5 into cylindrical coordinates.
Solution: Remember that r 2 = x 2 + y 2, so r 2 = 5 or

Exercise6:
Convert into cylindrical coordinates.
Solution:

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 2 2 2
Exercise7: Convert x + y + z = 9 into cylindrical coordinates.
Solution: x2+y2+z2=9 r2+z2=9

Exercise8: Convert r = -3sec Ѳ to rectangular coordinates.

Solution:

Exercise9 Convert to rectangular coordinates.

Solution:

SPHERICAL COORDINATES

One thing that you

should keep in mind
when working with
spherical coordinates is
that  is never
negative,  is the angle
that OP makes with the
positive z-axis, therefore
its range is [0,  ],
and q is measured as in
cylindrical coordinates.
(See figure on the
right)
FACT: Spherical coordinates represent a point P in space by
the ordered triple ( ,  , ) in which
1. r is the distance from P to the origin.

2.  is the angle OP makes with the positive z-axis.

(0    )
3.  is the angle from cylindrical coordinates.

SPECIAL EQUATIONS

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=a This equation describes a sphere of radius a centered
at the origin.
 =  0 This equation describes a single cone whose vertex
lies at the origin and whose axis lies along the z-axis.

If  = p /2, then we have the xy-plane.

If  > p /2, then the cone  =  0 opens downward.

Exercise10:
Convert (1, 3, 4) in rectangular coordinates to
spherical coordinates.
Solution:
First, find .

Now find  .

Now determine . To do this, we will use

z=  cos  and solve for .

Exercise11: Convert (0, 0, 1) in rectangular coordinates to

spherical coordinates.
Solution:

Therefore,  =  /2.

1 = cos    = 0.

So the point is (1, 0,  /2) .

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Exercise12: Convert in cylindrical coordinates to
spherical coordinates.
Solution:

 stays the same, so we need to find  .

Exercise13: Convert (2,  /6, 6) in cylindrical coordinates to

spherical coordinates.
Solution:

 =  /6 = 30 o

Exercise14:
Convert to rectangular coordinates, then
cylindrical coordinates.
Solution: Rectangular coordinates

Cylindrical coordinates

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Exercise15: Convert to rectangular coordinates, then
cylindrical coordinates.
Solution: Rectangular coordinates

Cylindrical coordinates

2 2
Exercise16: Convert x + y = 5 into spherical coordinates.
Solution:

2 2 2
Exercise17: Convert x + y + z = 9 into spherical coordinates.
Solution:

Exercise18: Convert r = -3sec  into spherical coordinates.

Solution: r = -3sec    sin  = -3sec    = -3csc  sec 

Exercise19: Convert into spherical

coordinates.

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Solution:

 = 135 o

Here are the spherical equations.

=2

135 o    180o
Exercise20: Convert into cylindrical and rectangular
coordinates.
Solution:

The above equation is both the cylindrical form of the

given equation and the rectangular form of the given
equation.

Exercise21:
Convert into cylindrical and
rectangular coordinates.
Solution: Let us convert to rectangular coordinates first.

x2+y2-z2=0

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 The rectangular equations are the following.

Now the cylindrical equations.

x 2 + y 2 - z 2 = 0  r 2 - z 2 = 0  r = -z or r = z, but
r  0 and z  0 r = -z

How to Plot Cylindrical Coordinates

Cylindrical coordinates are simply polar coordinates with the addition of a vertical z-
axis extending from the origin. While a polar coordinate pair is of the form with
cylindrical coordinates, every point in space is assigned a set of coordinates of the
form
The variable z measures the distance from that point to the xy-plane.
When plotting cylindrical coordinates, plot the first coordinates just as you
would for polar coordinates. Then plot the z-coordinate.

This figure below shows you how to plot the point in cylindrical
coordinates:

Changing Coordinate Systems: Rectangular and Spherical

Rectangular Coordinates
Spherical Coordinates
(Cartesian Coordinates)

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Consider the following triangles:

Rectangular Coordinates
Spherical Coordinates
(Cartesian Coordinates)

Comparing these we see that

 ρ = sqrt(x2 + y2 + z2)
 φ = cos-1(z/sqrt(x2 + y2+z2))
 z = ρ cos φ

Exercise22: Perform each of the following conversions.

a) Convert the point from cylindrical to spherical coordinates.

b) Convert the point from Cartesian to spherical coordinates.

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Solution:

a) We’ll start by acknowledging that is the same in both coordinate

systems and so we don’t need to do anything with that.

Next, let’s find .

Finally, let’s get . To do this we can use either the conversion for r or z.
We’ll use the conversion for z.

Notice that there are many possible values of that will give ,
however, we have restricted to the range and so this is the only
possible value in that range.

So, the spherical coordinates of this point are .

b) The first thing that we’ll do here is find .

Now we’ll need to find . We can do this using the conversion for z.

As with the last parts this will be the only possible in the range allowed.

Finally, let’s find . To do this we can use the conversion for x or y. We will
use the conversion for y in this case.

Now, we actually have more possible choices for but all of them will
reduce down to one of the two angles above since they will just be one of
these two angles with one or more complete rotations around the unit circle
added on.

We will however, need to decide which one is the correct angle since only
one will be. To do this let’s notice that, in two dimensions, the point with

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coordinates and lies in the second quadrant. This means that
must be angle that will put the point into the second quadrant. Therefore,
the second angle, , must be the correct one.

The spherical coordinates of this point are then .

Exercise23: Find :(a) Cartesian Coordinates. of P whose Polar

Coordinates is ; and (b) Polar Coordinates of Q whose Cartesian
Coordinates is

Solution:

a)

b)

Exercise24: a) Plot the point with cylindrical coordinates ; and find its
rectangular coordinates. (b) Find cylindrical coordinates of the point with rectangular
coordinates (3,-3,-7).

Solution:

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Exercise25: a)Plot the point with spherical coordinates and find its
rectangular coordinates. b) Find the spherical coordinates for the point with
rectangular coordinates

Solution:

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Spherical coordinates =

PROF.ASH/AIMISIU/CS/DP/RUH/KSA/05/06/2014/01.09

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