Low pass an High pass filters

INTRODUCTION

Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing

functions, specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the
signal, to enhance wanted ones, or both.
Electronic filters can be:

1.passive or active
2.analog or digital
3.high-pass, low-pass, band pass, band-reject (band reject; notch), or all-
pass.
4.discrete-time (sampled) or continuous-time
5.linear or non-linear
6.infinite impulse response (IIR type) or finite impulse response (FIR type)

The most common types of electronic filters are linear filters, regardless of other
aspects of their design. See the article on linear filters for details on their design
and analysis.

CLASSIFICATION BY TECHNOLOGY

Passive filters

Passive implementations of linear filters are based on combinations of resistors

(R), inductors (L) and capacitors (C). These types are collectively known as
passive filters, because they do not depend upon an external power supply and/or
they do not contain active components such as transistors.
Inductors block high-frequency signals and conduct low-frequency signals, while
capacitors do the reverse. A filter in which the signal passes through an inductor,
or in which a capacitor provides a path to ground, presents less attenuation to low-
frequency signals than high-frequency signals and is a low-pass filter. If the signal
passes through a capacitor, or has a path to ground through an inductor, then the
filter presents less attenuation to high-frequency signals than low-frequency
signals and is a high-pass filter. Resistors on their own have no frequency-
selective properties, but are added to inductors and capacitors to determine the
time-constants of the circuit, and therefore the frequencies to which it responds.
The inductors and capacitors are the reactive elements of the filter. The number of
elements determines the order of the filter. In this context, an LC tuned circuit
being used in a band-pass or band-stop filter is considered a single element even
though it consists of two components

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 Low pass an High pass filters

Active filters

• Active filters are implemented using a combination of passive and

active (amplifying) components, and require an outside power source.
Operational amplifiers are frequently used in active filter designs. These
can have high Q, and can achieve resonance without the use of inductors.
However, their upper frequency limit is limited by the bandwidth of the
amplifiers used.

Active filters are those which contain RC components along with active
devices such as BJT (bipolar
junction transistor), Op-Amp (operational amplifier).

In active filters, R and C components are used along with Op-Amp; this gives
advantage over passive filters as follows :-

1) Provides pass band gain.

2) Isolates load from frequency selecting network of R & C so that any
change in load does not have effect on filter characteristics.
3) Provide impedance matching to avoid loading effect.

Number of R and C components in the filter circuit decide the order of the filter,
i.e. if number of RC components in the circuit are 2,then it is called 2nd order
filter.
Gain decrease with a rate of 20dB, 40dB, 60dB per decade for a 1st 2nd 3rd order
low pass filters respectively, whereas it increases with a lope of 20dB,40dB,60dB
for 1st 2nd 3rd order high pass filter respectively.
As the order of filter goes on increasing, its frequency response reaches towards
ideal approach, thus we prefer high order filters, but also, the are difficult to
design in IC’s,thus we mostly prefer 2nd order filters.

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 Low pass an High pass filters

Filter Characteristics

If an ideal low-pass filter existed, it would completely eliminate signals above the
cutoff frequency, and perfectly pass signals below the cutoff frequency. In real
filters, various trade-offs are made to get optimum performance for a given
application.

Butterworth filters are termed maximally-flat-magnitude-response filters,

optimized for gain flatness in the pass-band. the attenuation is –3 dB at the cutoff
frequency. Above the cutoff frequency the attenuation is –20 dB/decade/order.
The transient response of a Butterworth filter to a pulse input shows moderate
overshoot and ringing.

Bessel filters are optimized for maximally-flat time delay (or constant-group
delay). This means that they have linear phase response and excellent transient
response to a pulse input. This comes at the expense of flatness in the pass-band
and rate of rolloff. The cutoff frequency is defined as the –3-dB point.

Chebyshev filters are designed to have ripple in the pass-band, but steeper rolloff
after the cutoff frequency. Cutoff frequency is defined as the frequency at which
the response falls below the ripple band. For a given filter order, a steeper cutoff
can be achieved by allowing more pass-band ripple. The transient response of a
Chebyshev filter to a pulse input shows more overshoot and ringing than a
Butterworth filter.

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 Low pass an High pass filters

Project: FILTERS

Project work: PCB designing of low and high pass 1st order Butterworth filters.

1) First order low pass Butterworth filter

What it is?-

A low-pass filter is a filter that passes low-frequency signals but attenuates

(reduces the amplitude of) signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff
frequency. The actual amount of attenuation for each frequency varies from filter
to filter. It is sometimes called a high-cut filter, or treble cut filter when used in
audio applications. A low-pass filter is the opposite of a high-pass filter, and a
band-pass filter is a combination of a low-pass and a high-pass.

The concept of a low-pass filter exists in many different forms, including

electronic circuits (like a hiss filter used in audio), digital algorithms for
smoothing sets of data, acoustic barriers, blurring of images, and so on. Low-pass
filters play the same role in signal processing that moving averages do in some
other fields, such as finance; both tools provide a smoother form of a signal which
removes the short-term oscillations, leaving only the long-term trend.

It contains only one RC component with Op-Amp hence it is called has first
order filter.
It attenuates frequency beyond higher cut off frequency (f h )
And only allows lower frequency signal
Advantage of Op-Amp-

i) Provides pass band gain.

ii Isolates load from frequency selecting network of R & C so that any change
in load
does not have effect on filter characteristics.
iii) Provide impedance matching to avoid loading effect.

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 Low pass an High pass filters

2) Circuit diagram:

Design :-
A) 1st order low pass Butterworth filter

Circuit description

• This 1st-Order low pass Butterworth type filter, consists simply of a

passive RC filter connected to the input of a non-inverting operational
amplifier. The frequency response of the circuit will be the same as that of
the passive RC filter, except that the amplitude of the output signal is
increased by the passband voltage gain of the amplifier and for a non-
inverting amplifier this given as: 1 + R2/R1.
• For a non-inverting amplifier circuit, the voltage gain of the filter is
generally expressed in Decibels and is a function of the feedback resistor
(R2) divided by its corresponding input resistor (R1) value and is given as:

• Where:
• AF = the Passband Gain of the filter, (1 + R2/R1)
• ƒ = the Frequency of the Input Signal in Hertz, (Hz)
• ƒc = the Cut-off Frequency in Hertz, (Hz)

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 Low pass an High pass filters

Frequency response for 1st order low pass Butterworth filter

From the frequemcy response it is clear that a low pass filter has maximum gain
for lower frequencies and minimum gain for higher frequency signals,
Thus we say tha a low pass filter circuit allow all frequencies below higher
cut off frequency and reject higher frequencies.The cut-off or corner
frequency (ƒc) is given as being 159Hz with an input impedance of 10kΩ.
This cut-off frequency can be found by using the formula:

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 Low pass an High pass filters

2) 1st order high pass Butterworth filter

What it is?

A high-pass filter is an LTI filter that passes high frequencies well but attenuates
(i.e., reduces the amplitude of) frequencies lower than the cutoff frequency. The
actual amount of attenuation for each frequency is a design parameter of the filter.
It is sometimes called a low-cut filter; the terms bass-cut filter or rumble filter are
also used in audio applications.

It is a filter circuit which provides maximum gain for high frequency and
minimum gain for low frequency.
It attenuates lower frequency signals and only allows higher frequency signals to
pass.
It consists of 1 RC component with an Op-Amp hence it is called as first order
high pass Butterworth filter.

A High Pass Filter or HPF, is the exact opposite to that of the previously seen
Low Pass filter circuit as now the output signal (Vout) is taken from across the
Resistor as shown below. The passive high pass filter circuit as its name implies,
attenuates or rejects all low frequency signals and passes only high frequency
signals above the selected cut-off point, ƒc.

Advantage of Op-Amp-

1) Provides pass band gain.

2) Isolates load from frequency selecting network of R & C so that any
Change in load does not have effect on filter characteristics.
3) Provides impedance matching to avoid loading effect.

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 Low pass an High pass filters

Circuit diagram:

Design : 1st order high pass Butterworth filter

Circuit description

• The basic first-order high-pass filters use the same components as the low-
pass filters we just studied. However, their positions are swapped. Thus,
the RC high-pass filter has the capacitor in series with the signal and the
resistor across the output, as shown in the first diagram to the right. At
high frequencies, C has very low impedance, and the signal passes through
unhindered. As the frequency decreases, however, XC becomes significant,
until at the cutoff frequency, XC = R, just as with the low-pass filter. At
still lower frequencies, XC increases, and less of the signal reaches the
output.
• One useful feature of the RC high-pass filter is that the capacitor serves to
block direct current between vIN and vOUT. Thus, two circuits that operate
at different DC voltages can be connected by this type of high-pass filter
without encountering any problems with dc component bias voltages as a
consequence.
• This 1st-Order high pass Butterworth type filter consists simply of a
passive filter followed by a non-inverting amplifier. The frequency
response of the circuit is the same as that of the passive filter, except that
the amplitude of the signal is increased by the gain of the amplifier.For a
non-inverting amplifier circuit, the voltage gain of the filter is generally

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 Low pass an High pass filters

expressed in Decibels and is a function of the feedback resistor divided by

its corresponding input resistor (R1) value and is given as:

• This 1st-Order high pass Butterworth type filter consists simply of a

passive filter followed by a non-inverting amplifier. The frequency
response of the circuit is the same as that of the passive filter, except that
the amplitude of the signal is increased by the gain of the amplifier.For a
non-inverting amplifier circuit, the voltage gain of the filter is generally
expressed in Decibels and is a function of the feedback resistor divided by
its corresponding input resistor (R1) value and is given as:

• Where:
• AF = the Passband Gain of the filter, (1 + R2/R1)
• ƒ = the Frequency of the Input Signal in Hertz, (Hz)
• ƒc = the Cut-off Frequency in Hertz, (Hz)

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 Low pass an High pass filters

Frequency response of 1st order high pass Butterworth filter

From the frequency response, it is clear that, gain is minimum for lower
frequencies and maximum for higher frequencies.

1. High Pass Filter circuit allows all frequencies greater than that of
lower cut off frequencies.
2. For a 1st-Order filter the frequency response curve of the filter
increases by 20dB/Decade or 6dB/Octave up to the determined

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 Low pass an High pass filters

cut-off frequency point which is always at -3dB below the

maximum gain value.
3. As with the previous filter circuits, the cut-off or corner frequency
(ƒc) can be found by using the same formula:

• The corresponding phase angle or phase shift of the output signal is the
same as that given for the passive RC filter and leads that of the input
signal. It is equal to +45o at the cut-off frequency ƒc value and is given as:

• A simple 1st-Order high pass filter can also be made using an inverting
operational amplifier configuration as well, and an example of this circuit
design is given along with its corresponding frequency response curve. A
gain of 40dB has been assumed for the circuit.

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 Low pass an High pass filters

P.C.B. MAKING

 P.C.B. is printed circuit board which is of insulating base with layer of

thin copper-foil.

 The circuit diagram is then drawn on the P. C. B. with permanent marker

and then it is dipped in the solution of ferric chloride so that unwanted
copper is removed from the P.C.B., thus leaving components
interconnection on the board.

 The specification of the base material is not important to know in most of

the application, but it is important to know something about copper foil
which is drawn through a thin slip.

 The resistance of copper foil will have an affect on the circuit operation.

 Base material is made of lamination layer of suitable insulating material

such as treated paper, fabric; or glass fibers and binding them with resin.

 Most commonly used base materials are formed paper bonded with epoxy
resin. It is possible to obtain a range of thickness between 0.5 mm to 3
mm.

 Thickness is the important factor in determining mechanical strength

particularly when the commonly used base material is “Formea” from
paper assembly.

 Physical properties should be self supporting these are surface

resistivity, heat dissipation, dielectric, constant, dielectric strength.

 Another important factor is the ability to withstand high temperature.

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 Low pass an High pass filters

DESIGNING THE LAYOUT :

 While designing a layout, it must be noted that size of the board should be
as small as possible. Before starting, all components should be placed
properly so that an accurate measurement of space can be made.

 The component should not be mounted very close to each other or far
away from one another and neither one should ignore the fact that some
component need ventilation, which considers the dimension of the relay
and transformer in view of arrangement, the bolting arrangement, is also
considered.

 The layout is first drawn on paper then traced on copper plate which is
finalized with the pen or permanent marker which is efficient and clean
with etching.

 The resistivity also depends on the purity of copper, which is highest for
low purity of copper. The high resistance path are always undesired for
soldered connections.

 The most difficult part of making an original printed circuit is the

conversion from, theoretical circuit diagram into wiring layout. Without
introducing cross over and undesirable effect. Although it is difficult
operation, it provides greatens amount of satisfaction because it is carried
out with more care and skill.

 The board used for project has copper foil thickness in the range of 25, 40,
75 microns. The soldering quality requires 99.99% efficiency.

 It is necessary to design copper path extra large. There are two main
reasons for this, The copper may be required to carry an extra large overall
current.It acts like a kind of screen or ground plane to minimize the effect
of interaction. The first function is to connect the components together in
their right sequence with minimum need for interlinking.

 It must be noted, that when layout is done, on the next day it should be
dipped in the solution and board is move continuously right and left after
etching perfectly the board is cleaned with water and is drilled. After that

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 Low pass an High pass filters

holes are drilled with 1 mm or 0.8 mm drill. Now the marker on the P. C.
B. is removed.

 The Printed Circuit Board is now ready for mounting the components on
it.

SOLDERING:

 For soldering of any joints first the terminal to be soldered are cleaned to
remove oxide film or dirt on it. If required flux is applied on the points to
be soldered.

 Now the joint to be soldered is heated with the help of soldering iron. Heat
applied should be such that when solder wire is touched to joint, it must
melt quickly.

 The joint and the soldering iron is held such that molten solder should
flow smoothly over the joint

 When joint is completely covered with molten solder, the soldering iron is
removed

 The joint is allowed to cool, without any movement.

 The bright shining solder indicates good soldering.

 In case of dry solder joint, a air gap remains in between the solder material
and the joint. It means that soldering is improper. This is removed and
again soldering is done.

 Thus is this way all the components are soldered on P. C. B.

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 Low pass an High pass filters

Advantages of using active filters:-

i.e. Op-Amp with R and C components

1. It provides impedance matching to avoid loading effect.

2. It also isolates frequency determining network from the load thus

variation in load will not have any effect on characteristics of filter.

3. It also provides pass band gain

Disadvantages of passive filter :-

1. Since passive filter works properly only of high frequency signal but
creates problem for low frequency signals.

2. Also, it provides very low input impedance which loads the source
an varies with frequency variation.

3. Output impedance of passive filter is relatively high which limits the

load impedance.

To avoid problem of passive filters, we use active filers, with Op-

Amp and R and C components as we have done in our project,
which gives advantages as stated above.

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 Low pass an High pass filters

RESULT and CONCLUSION

1) 1ST ORDER LOW PASS BUTTERWORTH FILTER

1. A low-pass filter allows for easy passage of low-frequency signals from

source to load, and difficult passage of high-frequency signals.

2. Inductive low-pass filters insert an inductor in series with the load;

capacitive low-pass filters 3. insert a resistor in series and a capacitor in
parallel with the load. The former filter design tries to “block” the
unwanted frequency signal while the latter tries to short it out.

3. The cutoff frequency for a low-pass filter is that frequency at which the
output (load) voltage equals 70.7% of the input (source) voltage. Above
the cutoff frequency, the output voltage is lower than 70.7% of the input,
and vice versa.

2 ) 1ST ORDER HIGH PASS BUTTERWORTH FILTER

1. A high-pass filter allows for easy passage of high-frequency signals from

source to load, and difficult passage of low-frequency signals.

2. Capacitive high-pass filters insert a capacitor in series with the load;

inductive high-pass filters insert a resistor in series and an inductor in parallel
with the load. The former filter design tries to “block” the unwanted frequency
signal while the latter tries to short it out.

3. The cutoff frequency for a high-pass filter is that frequency at which the
output (load) voltage equals 70.7% of the input (source) voltage. Above the cutoff
frequency, the output voltage is greater than 70.7% of the input, and vice versa.

REFERENCES:-

1. Ramakant Gaikwad
2. Roy Chaudhary

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