Solar thermal collectors and

systems

Gary Rosengarten
MIET 2406/2496
2018 s1
Week 2
 Topics
• Overview of solar collectors
• Market for solar water heaters
• Fundamental equations
• Cover materials and optics
• Collector efficiency

Further reading: Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes

Duffie and Beckman, 2006 or 2013

Solar Heating Worldwide Report 2016

 What is a solar collector?
• A device for capturing solar energy to
convert it to useful energy.
 Types of collectors
Absorber

Aperture

• Flat plate collector

– absorber area = aperture area
• Evacuated tube collector
– absorber area > aperture area but convective heat loss
restricted by a vacuum
• Concentrating collectors
– absorber area << aperture area
 Collector type Absorber Maximum Common
configuration operating application
temperature
°C
Unglazed plastic Flat plate 35 Swimming pool
absorber heating
Glazed metal absorber Flat plate 60 Water heating and
with black coating air heating
Glazed metal absorber Flat plate 90 water heating and
with selective surface air heating
Evacuated tube Flat plate or 180 Water heating,
Tubular low pressure steam
Non tracking Line Focus 250 Steam generation
concentrator
Tracking concentrator Line Focus 400 Electricity generation
(steam plant)

Tracking concentrator Point Focus 1000 Electricity generation

(steam plant)
Heliostats Central 1500 Electricity generation
receiver (steam plant)
If Ikea is doing it….
1. Unglazed (pool heating)

http://vimirosolar.com
 Unglazed
Panel Collectors Strip Collectors
• Wide collector with top and • Extruded strip with fluid
bottom header pipes passages moulded into strip.
integrally formed in plastic • Header pipes connected
(polypropylene, with plug in fittings
polyolephin, polyethylene • More flexible (curve around
etc) obstacles) being made from
ethylene, propylen-diene
rubbers and PVC.

Typical cross section

Panel width typically 1m
 2. Flat plate glazed
The principal features are:

• High transmission cover.

Hot fluid • Absorber plate coated with a high
out Header absorptance (solar) and low
emittance (infrared) layer.
• High conductivity absorber plate
Risers with fin and tube construction.
Cover • Heat removal fluid passageways in
good thermal contact with the
absorber plate.
Absorber • Weather proof casing with
insulation behind the absorber
plate plate.

Insulation

Fluid in
Absorber plate and fluid passageways
Absorber plate with
HEADER RISER pressed channels

Parallel riser tubes Bond between absorber

and riser

Inflated Cu tube

Copper Aluminium
 Serpentine or fractal absorber

Or look at work
from Fraunhofer

http://www.bionicol.eu/Infoblatt_doppelseitig_e_FracTherm_Mar_2007.pdf

Bonding or welding 2 pressed plates

 3. Evacuated tubes

Metal fin Dewar

Dewar with heat pipe
Direct connection into tank
Direct flow in dewar tubes

Pressurised
Evacuated Flow Through
Evacuated Flow Through
Evacuated Flat Plate

http://www.tvpsolar.com
Domestic hot water systems

Pumped with controller

Thermosiphon
Thermosyphon systems
 Other configurations
Closed loop pumped-
circulation solar water
heater with internal coil
heat exchanger
Closed loop pumped system with mantle
heat exchanger
Closed loop pumped
system with external
collector loop heat
exchanger and natural
circulation in the tank
loop.
Concentrating Systems

Increasing
spacing with
distance from
absorber to avoid
shading between
mirror rows
 Home made collectors

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C_yhi_fy-Q0

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtzRAjW6KO0
Market
 Renewables

http://www.iea-shc.org/data/sites/1/publications/Solar-Heat-Worldwide-2017.pdf
This report comprises solar thermal market data from 58 countries covering an estimated 95% of the worldwide market
Installed solar
thermal
capacity 2015

435 GWth
586 million m2
Installed Capacity 2015
District heating
Process Heat
Solar Penetration
Cost
 Sales of Solar Water Heaters,
Australia
600

1000's of m2 of solar water heater collectors

500

400

300

200

100

0
1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
Total water solar water heaters Australia

1000000
Cummulative Installations

800000

600000

400000

200000

0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Year
 Solar collector market viability
• Cost
– Collector and installation
• Efficiency
– Function of optical efficiency and
– Thermal efficiency which depends on
• Temperature and
• Design
 Understanding Efficiency
• Requires an understanding of some
fundamental principles of heat transfer and
optics.
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms

• Conduction
– Molecular diffusion

• Convection
– Bulk motion

http://www.physicstutorials.org/images/storie
s/heattransferconvection.png
• Radiation
– Electromagnetic energy
 Energy Balance
Closed systems Steady-Flow Systems
• Stationary closed • For system with one inlet and
system, no work: one exit:
=
m in m= m (kg/s)
=
Q mcv ∆T (J) out
• When kinetic and potential
energies are negligible, and
there is no work interaction
Q = m ∆h = mc
 p ∆T (J/s=W)
 Heat transfer: Conduction
Rate of heat conduction ∝
( Area )( Temperature difference )
Thickness

 T1 − T2 ∆T
Qcond = kA = − kA (W)
∆x ∆x
where the constant of proportionality k is the
thermal conductivity of the material.

In differential form
dT
Q cond = − kA (W)
dx
which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
 Thermal Conductivity
• The thermal conductivity of a material is a
measure of the ability of the material to conduct
heat.
• High value for thermal conductivity
good heat conductor
• Low value
poor heat conductor or insulator.
 Thermal Conductivities of Materials
Carbon nanotubes
• The thermal conductivities
of gases such as air vary by
a factor of 104 from those
of pure metals such as
copper.
• Pure crystals and metals
have the highest thermal
conductivities, and gases
and insulating materials the
lowest.
 Example: Conduction
The inner and outer surfaces of a 0.5-cm-thick 2-m x 2-m window glass in
winter are 15°C and 8°C, respectively. If the thermal conductivity of the
glass is 0.78 W/m · K, determine the amount of heat loss, in kJ, through the
glass over a period of 5 hours. What would your answer be if the glass were
1 cm thick?
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist since the surface
temperatures of the glass remain constant at the specified values. 2 Thermal
properties of the glass are constant.
Properties The thermal conductivity of the glass is given to be k = 0.78
W/m⋅°C.
Glass

15°C 8°C

0.5 cm
 Example: conduction (cont)

Analysis Under steady conditions, the rate of heat transfer through the glass
by conduction is
∆T (15 − 8)K
Q cond = kA = (0.78 W/m ⋅ K )(2 × 2 m 2 ) = 4368 W
L 0.005 m
Then the amount of heat transfer over a period of 5 h becomes
Q Q cond ∆=
= t (4.368 kJ/s)(5 × 3600 =
s) 78,620 kJ
If the thickness of the glass doubled to 1 cm, then the
amount of heat transfer will go down by half to
39,310 kJ.
 Heat Transfer: Convection
Convection = Conduction + Advection
(fluid motion)
• Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a
solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in
motion.
• Convection is commonly classified into two sub-
modes:
– Forced convection,
– Natural (or free) convection,
 Convection
• The rate of convection heat transfer is expressed by
Newton’s law of cooling as
Q conv hAs (Ts − T∞ )
= (W)
• h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in
W/m2°C.
• h depends on variables such as the
surface geometry, the nature of fluid
motion, the properties of the fluid,
and the bulk fluid velocity.
 Example
10°C
Air

60°C

Cold air at 10°C is blown over a 2-m x 4-m flat surface at

60°C. If the average convection heat transfer coefficient is
55 W/m2 · K determine the rate of heat transfer from the
air to the plate, in kW.

Under steady conditions, the rate of heat transfer by

convection is

Q conv = hAs ∆T = (55 W/m 2 ⋅ K )(2 × 4 m 2 )(60 − 10)K = 22,000 W

 Radiation - Emission
• The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at a
thermodynamic temperature Ts (in K or R) is given by the Stefan–
Boltzmann law as

Qemit ,max = σ AsTs (W)
4
(1-25)
σ =5.670X108 W/m2·K4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.
• The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a
blackbody.
• The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted
by a blackbody at the same temperature, and is expressed as
• Qemit = εσ AsTs 4
(W)
0 ≤ ε ≤1
ε is the emissivity of the surface.

• The radiation exchange between two media is given by


Qrad εσ As (Ts − Tsurr )
= 4 4 (1-28)
 Example
Tsurr

Qrad

Consider a person standing in a room maintained at 20°C at all times. The

inner surfaces of the walls, floors, and ceiling of the house are observed to be
at an average temperature of 12°C in winter and 23°C in summer. Determine
the rates of radiation heat transfer between this person and the surrounding
surfaces in both summer and winter if the exposed surface area, emissivity,
and the average outer surface temperature of the person are 1.6 m2, 0.95, and
32°C, respectively.
 Example

Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Heat transfer by convection is not

considered. 3 The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room.4 The
surrounding surfaces are at a uniform temperature.
Properties The emissivity of a person is given to be ε = 0.95
Analysis Noting that the person is completely enclosed by the surrounding surfaces, the net
rates of radiation heat transfer from the body to the surrounding walls, ceiling, and the floor
in both cases are:

(a) Summer: Tsurr = 23+273=296 K

Q rad εσ As (Ts4 − Tsurr

= 4
)
=(0.95)(5.67 × 10−8 W/m 2 .K 4 )(1.6 m 2 )[(32+273)4 − (296 K)4 ]K 4
=84.2 W
 Combined modes
• In most situations heat transfer involves a
combination of the three processes.
 Example: combined modes

Consider a person standing in a room at 23°C. Determine the

total rate of heat transfer from this person if the exposed
surface area and the skin temperature of the person are 1.7 m2
and 32°C, respectively, and the convection heat transfer Tsurr
coefficient is 5 W/m2 · K. Take the emissivity of the skin and 23°
C
the clothes to be 0.9, and assume the temperature of the inner
Qrad
surfaces of the room to be the same as the air temperature. 32°C
ε=0.9
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The Qconv
person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the
room. 3 The surrounding surfaces are at the same temperature
as the air in the room. 4 Heat conduction to the floor through
the feet is negligible. 5 The convection coefficient is constant
and uniform over the entire surface of the person.
Properties The emissivity of a person is given to be ε = 0.9.
 Example: combined modes (cont.)

Analysis The person is completely enclosed by the surrounding surfaces, and he

or she will lose heat to the surrounding air by convection, and to the surrounding
surfaces by radiation. The total rate of heat loss from the person is determined
from
Q rad = εσAs ( Ts4 − Tsurr
4
) = ( 0.90 )( 5.67 × 10−8 W/m 2 .K 4 )(1.7 m 2 )[(32+273) 4 − (23+273) 4 ]K 4
=84.8 W
Q conv = hAs ∆T = (5 W/m 2 ⋅ K)(1.7 m 2 )( 32 − 23)°C = 76.5 W
and
Q total = Q conv + Q rad = 84.8 + 76.5 = 161.3 W

Discussion Note that heat transfer from the person by

evaporation, which is of comparable magnitude, is not
considered in this problem.
 Heat transfer summary
Q = m ∆h = mc
 p ∆T
 dT
Qcond = −kA
dx

Q conv hAs (Ts − T∞ )

=

Q rad εσ As (Ts4 − Tsurr

= 4
)
Further reading:
Heat and Mass Transfer, Cengel
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Incropera and DeWitt
Assessing collector performance
• Efficiency
– Function of optical efficiency and
– Thermal efficiency which depends on
• Temperature and
• Design
 Collector efficiency
Useful heat output
𝑚𝑚=
̇ mass flow rate ( kg/s)
Qu mc p (Tout − Tin )
cp=specific heat of water (or heat transfer
fluid) (J/kg.K)

Useful heat out Qu

η = A= collector area (m2)
Energy in AG
G= normal irradiation (W/m2)
UL= overall heat loss coefficient (W/m2 .K)
From the collector side the η = thermal efficiency
useful heat out, Qu= η0= optical efficiency
(solar gain-heat loss)× area

Qu = ηoG − UL (T − Ta ) A
2
UL (T − Ta ) Or if non linear η = UL1(T − Ta ) UL 2 (T − Ta )
η
= ηo − ηo − −
G G G
 Typical collector efficiencies
Optical
1
Efficiency

0.8

Chromasun

0.6
Efficiency

Evacuated tube

0.4
Glazed
selective absorber

0.2 Glazed
Unglazed black absorber

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
(T - Ta)/G
Stagnation
temperature
 Collector testing
AS/NZ 2535. 1:2007

Pyranometer

Solar collector Heat

exchanger

Temperature
sensor

Refill
Mixing pump 200 L tank water

Heater

Flow Circulating
meter pump Drain
 Collector efficiency curves
Linear Fit
1.0

0.9
Absorber
Instantaneous Efficiency, η Aperature
0.8 Gross
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
(Tmean-Ta)/G
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 −𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎
Linear fit to data: 𝜂𝜂 = 𝜂𝜂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑈𝑈
𝐺𝐺
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎
Non−Linear fit to data: 𝜂𝜂 = 𝜂𝜂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑎𝑎2 𝐺𝐺( )2
𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺
 EVALUATION OF SOLAR COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY

MIET 2406 SUSTAINABLE THERMAL SYSTEMS

RMIT University
SCHOOL OF AEROSPACE, MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this project is to determine the efficiency of a flat plate solar collector and to compare its
performance with an evacuated tube collector. To predict how a solar collector will perform, or to
compare two collectors, data on the collector efficiency as a function of operating temperature and
ambient conditions is needed. This information can be obtained by theoretical analysis of the heat
absorption and losses from the collector components or by experiment. As the radiation heat transfer
properties of a solar collector are seldom known with any reliability, it is normally necessary to use
experimental methods to determine the performance.

DATA CORRELATION

The form of the collector efficiency characteristic can be determined by a simplified thermal analysis of
a constant temperature absorber. The useful energy output (Qu) from a solar collector is

=  p (To − Ti )
Qu mC
(1)

.
where m = mass flow rate of fluid through the collector
Cp = fluid specific heat
Ti , To = inlet and outlet temperature of fluid
also
Qu = Solar energy absorbed - heat loss
Qu = A G τα - QL
(2)

If the mean fluid temperature is used in the correlation then collector efficiency, η , is given by

  T −Ta  
=η τα − U L  
  G 
(3)

where =
T (To + Ti ) / 2
Detailed analysis shows that the temperature dependence of UL should also be determined, this results
( ∆T ) .
2
∆T
in a function of the form η =
a −b −c Note this is NOT a 2nd order polynomial as
G G
erroneously specified in Duffie and Beckman.
 Stagnation Temperature
The maximum (stagnation) temperature experienced by a
collector can be determined from the conditions for zero
efficiency (solar gain = heat loss). The value of ∆T/G
for efficiency =0 can be determined from the efficiency
test data or computed from the efficiency equation. The
stagnation temperature is given by

 ∆T 
=Tmax G   + Ta
 G η =0
Gηo
= + Ta
U
Extrapolation of Test Results to
∆Τ/Gstagnation
100

80
Instantaneous efficiency (%)

60

40

DT/Gstag =
20 0.095

0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10
2
(tm - ta)/G (m K/W)

 ∆T 
Tmax = G   + Ta = 1000*0.095 + 20 = 115°C
 G η =0
 Typical Stagnation Temperatures
G= 1200 W/m2 , Ta= 40°C

Collector ∆T/G Stagnation

for η = 0 temperature

Unglazed 0.03 70°C

Black flat plate 0.11 150°C

Selective flat plate 0.15 190°C

Evacuated tubular >0.28 300°C

 Evacuated Tube

S tag nation temperature

350 1200
Top
300 A vergage (C )
1000

250

Global Irradiation (W/m2)

800 Middle
Temperature (C)

200 A verage (C )
600
150
400 B ottom
100 A verage (C )

50 200
Irradiation
0 0 (w/m2)
0:00:00 4:48:00 9:36:00 14:24:00 19:12:00 0:00:00
T im e of the da y (hh:m m )
 Optical Efficiency (OE)
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎
𝜂𝜂 = 𝜂𝜂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑈𝑈
𝐺𝐺

• Depends on the cover and absorber for a flat

plate
• Design and selective surface for an
evacuated tube
• For concentrating collectors it also depends
on the concentrating optical set-up
 Collector efficiency
Incoming Cover reflection Heat loss
radiation G ρG UL (Tp –Ta)

Cover

τG Plate reflection
ρpτG

Absorber plate
Energy absorbed 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏|𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

𝑚𝑚̇
Tout
 p (Tout − Tin )
Tin
=Qu mc
= A τα eff G − UL (Tp − Ta )
 Collector Covers
Reflection of radiation

Reflection can be specular (ie mirror like) or diffuse (reflected

radiation uniform in all directions. Some reflections are a complicated
combination of both types of reflection.

Reflection of beam radiation

Reflection of beam radiation from cover is approximately specular unless

the upper surface of the cover has a special “non-reflecting coating”.
 Reflection at a Single Interface
If radiation passes from medium 1 with refractive index n1 to
medium 2 with refractive index n2 the ratio of the reflected,
GR, to incident, Go, intensity for non-polarised radiation is:-
The = and⊥refer to parallel and perpendicular components of
incoming light
GR  sin 2 (θ 2 − θ1 )   tan 2 (θ 2 − θ1 )  
=ρ =1 ( ρ ⊥ + ρ =
) =1  2 +  Eq OE1
Go 2 2  sin (θ 2 + θ1 )   tan 2 (θ 2 + θ1 )  
 ⊥ =
θ1

n1 refractive index
n2
θ2
 Snell’s Law

The incident and refraction angles are related by Snell’s law

sinθ2 = n1 Eq OE2
sinθ1 n2
θ1

n1 refractive index
n2
θ2
 Normal Incidence Reflection
n1 − n2 
2

After a some algebra equation OE1 gives ρ = 
+ 
 1 2
n n
Glass n =1.5 to 1.54 (about 1.526 for solar wavelengths),
Tedlar n = 1.45;
Polycarbonate n = 1.6;
(1.526 + 1)
−
2
Air n =1.0. ρ= 1.526 1

For normal incidence reflection at first interface = 0.0434

If incidence angle to normal = 45°

Using Snell’s law θ 2 =27.6° ρ= 1  0.089 + 0.098 = 0.0539

2  0.91 10.18 
 REFLECTION FROM A SLAB OF
MATERIAL (like collector covers)
ρ (1−ρ)2ρ (1−ρ)2ρ3 (1−ρ)2ρ5
1

1−ρ
ρ(1−ρ)

(1−ρ)2 (1−ρ)2ρ2 (1−ρ)2ρ4

Ray path through an isolated slab of non-absorbing material

 TOTAL RADIATION REFLECTED
ρ + (1 − 2 ρ ) ρ
ρ + (1 − ρ ) ρ + (1 − ρ ) ρ + ... =
2 2 3

1− ρ2
For two polarisation components

 ρ + (1 − 2 ρ ) ρ   ρ + (1 − 2 ρ ) ρ  
ρ eff = 1
( ρ⊥ + ρ )=
=
1
  +    Eq OE3
2 2
 1 − ρ 2
⊥  1 − ρ 2
=

Hence for normal incidence on a slab of glass (ignoring absorption)

ρ eff = 0.083

at 45° ρ eff = 0.102

 Absorption and transmission of
radiation in partially transparent media
Ray path through a slab of partially absorbing material
ρ (1−ρ)2(1−αc)2ρ (1−ρ)2(1−αc)4ρ3 (1−ρ)2(1−αc)6ρ5
1

Radiation
absorbed
αC(1−ρ)
and
αC(1−ρ)(1−αC)ρ converted
to heat

(1−ρ)2(1−αC) (1−ρ)2(1−αC)3ρ2 (1−ρ)2(1−αC)5ρ4

αC= absorptance of cover material per pass

Re-emittance is at different wavelength so can be considered separate
 TOTAL RADIATION REFLECTED

 ρ + (1 − 2 ρ ) ρ (1 − α ) 2   ρ + (1 − 2 ρ ) ρ (1 − α ) 2
 
ρ eff 1 c
 + 
c
 
2  1 − ρ (1 − α c )
2 2
1 − ρ (1 − α c )
2 2
 ⊥  =
Eq OE4
If αC= 0.05 (window glass) then for normal incidence

ρeff (with αC) = 0.080

ρeff (without αC) = 0.083

The effective reflectance is reduced due to less radiation reaching the

back face
 TOTAL ENERGY ABSORBED

α eff 1  (1 − ρ )α c   (1 − ρ )α c  
+ 
  
2  1 − (1 − α c ) ρ  ⊥ − − α ρ  
  1 (1 c ) =
Eq OE5

If αC = 0.05 then
ρeff = 0.0539 and
αeff = 0.052 for a 45o incident angle
 TOTAL TRANSMITTED ENERGY

  (1 − ρ ) 2
(1 − α )   (1 − ρ ) 2
(1 − α c )  
τ 1
 
c
2 2 
+  2 2  
eff 2  1 − (1 − α c ) ρ   1 − (1 − α c ) ρ  =
 ⊥ 

Eq OE6

For normal incidence on glass (soda iron)

τeff = 0.85 for window glass

τeff = 0.92 for low iron solar-glass

 EVALUATION OF ABSORPTION
As radiation passes through an absorbing material the intensity
decreases as a function of distance traversed through the layer and
the fractional reduction of intensity is a function of the material
properties and the distance traversed.

diλ = K λ iλ dS
S = distance, i = intensity

Kλ is the extinction coefficient, units of m-1 and is a function of

incident radiation wavelength, source temperature and material
composition.
 ABSORPTANCE PER PASS
The previous equation can be integrated to give

IL − KL
= e= transmission
Io
also
(1 − αC ) = =e IL
Io
− KL

Hence

αC = 1 − e − KL

Values of extinction coefficient range between 4 m-1 for "water

white" glass to 15 to 18 m-1for window glass.
 ABSORPTION OF INCIDENT
RADIATION

Aborption

− Kt /cos θ 2
αC
L
= 1 − e θ2
t

Transmission

− Kt /cos θ 2
τ =e Eq OE7
TYPICAL TRANSMISSION
1

0.8

0.6
Transmission

0.4

Single glass cover

Double glass cover
0.2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Angle of incidence (deg)
Transmittance - Absorptance Product
Incident radiation
(τα ) eff

Cover
τ
(1−α)τ (1−α)τρd

τ (1−α)τρd
(1−α)τ
Absorber
plate

τα τα(1−α)ρd τα(1−α)2ρd2

Diffuse reflector
ρd is the diffuse reflectance of the glass
∞ n

τα eff= τ eff α ∑ [(1 − α ) ρ d ]= τα

n =1
1 − (1 − α ) ρ d
 REFLECTION OF DIFFUSE
RADIATION

For isotropic distribution of diffuse radiation the hemispherical

reflectance is almost the same as the spectral reflectance at an angle of
60°.

For a single interface ρ60 = 0.093

for a slab of material ρeff.60 = 0.17

TRANSMITTANCE ABSORPTANCE
PRODUCT
SINGLE COVER

From ray tracing

τ eff α
τα eff =
1 − (1 − α ) ρ d
Eq OE8

α = absorber plate short wave absorptance

τα eff typically 0.7 to 0.75 for window glass and

0.8 to 0.9 for low iron glass
 MEASUREMENT OF INCIDENCE
ANGLE MODIFIER Κτα
Take measurements with different incident angles

 T − Ta 
Efficiency τα normal
= Kτα − U L  
 G 
The form of Κτα for flat plate collectors is
usually approximated by

Kτα = 
1− b  1 
− 1
 cos θ 

For a collector with a flat glass cover b ≅ 0.1

Typical incidence angle response for a
single glazed flat plate collector

1.1

1.0
Incidence angle modifier

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Incidence angle (degrees)
 And what about the heat loss

Fluid out
Header

Risers
Cover

Absorber
plate
Insulation

Fluid in
 For example:
Absorber plate configuration

Absorber plate with

pressed channels

Parallel riser tubes Bond between absorber

and riser
Temperature distribution across a
collector absorber plate
y Absorber
plate
x

Riser tube Tube to plate

heat transfer bond
Temperature

X
 Fluid and absorber plate temperature
increase along the plate
y Absorber
plate
x
Temperature

Riser tube Tube to plate

heat transfer bond
y

Solar water heaters should be designed to have a low flow rate

through the collector.
A temperature rise along the collector of 20K to 30K under clear sky
conditions is optimum (depends on the quality of the collector)
 TYPICAL HEAT TRANSFER
COEFFICIENTS
For plate temperatures less than 100°C typical heat transfer coefficients
are

h1 = 3 to 5 W/m2K Internal convection coefficient

h2 = 6 to 8 for εp = 1.0 Plate to cover radiation coefficient,
black absorber

h2 = 0.6 to 0.8 for εp = 0.1 Plate to cover radiation coefficient,

selective absorber

h3 = 5.8 V= 1 m/s External convection coefficient

= 8.8 V = 2 m/s

h4 = 5 to 6 W/m2K External radiation coefficient for clear sky

conditions
 Typical Overall Heat Loss
Coefficients
Black surface

top back Edges

UL = 5 + 0.5 + 0.39
= 5.89 W/m2 K (up to 7.0)

Selective surface

UL = 3 + 0.5 + 0.39

= 3.89 W/m2 K (up to 4.5)

 Heat loss from evacuated tubes
1
0.9
Heat loss coefficient Ut (W/m K)
2

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
tube no.1 tube no.2 tube no.3 tube no.3/2 tube no.5
0.1 tube no.2/2 tube no.6 tube no.7 tube no.8

0
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
(T m-T a )av, K
 Optical efficiency vs heat loss
Roof integrated
swimming pool collector
1.0
Optical Efficiency, ηo

Swimming pool
collector

Flat plate
black surface
0.75 Flat plate
selective
Evacuated
tubes

0.5
1 5 10

Collector heat loss coefficient, Ul

 Next week
• Please come on time as we are going to visit
the solar lab on the roof of building 57.