MOMBASATECHNICALTRAI

NING
INSTI
TUTE

DEPARTMENTOFINFORMATI
ONAND
COMMUNICATI
ONTECHNOLOGY

COMPUTERMAI
TENANCEANDSUPPORT

P.
O.BOX81220,
TEL041-
2226458,
MOMBASA

1
TABLEOFCONTENTS
TABLEOFCONTENTS 2
COMPUTERMAI
TENANCE 4
DEFI
NITI
ONOFTERMS 4
ABRIEFCOMPUTERHISTORY 5
ADVANTAGESOFUSINGCOMPUTERS 8
CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFCOMPUTERS 9
ROLEOFICTINABUSINESSENVI
RONMENT 11
ROLEOFICTINTHESOCIETY 12
THEFUNCTIONALCOMPONENTSOFACOMPUTERSYSTEM 13
COMPUTERHARDWARE 15
HARDWARECATEGORI ES(FUNCTI
ONALPARTS) 16
1. I
NPUTDEVI CES 16
2. PROCESSINGDEVICES 25
3. OUTPUTDEVI CES 28
4.STORAGEDEVICESANDMEDI A 33
5.COMMUNICATIONDEVI CES 43
COMPUTERHARDWARESELECTI ONCRITERIA 44
COMPUTERSOFTWARE-I
NTRODUCTI
ON 46
SYSTEM SOFTWARE 46
APPLICATI
ONSOFTWARE 50
CHOOSINGAPPROPRI ATECOMPUTERSOFTWARE 52
WORDPROCESSI NG 68
SPREADSHEETS 76
 HOW WILLACHANGEINTHECOSTOFARAW MATERI TS?
ALAFFECTPROFI 77
 HOW CHANGESI
NI NGTOAFFECTREPAYMENTS?
NTERESTRATESAREGOI 77
TYPESOFERRORMESSAGESI NMSEXCEL2003 79
BASI
CCOMPUTERNETWORKI
NG 85
ADVANTAGESOFCOMPUTERNETWORKI
NG 85
TYPESOFNETWORKS 86
NETWORKCOMPONENTS 89
NETWORKTOPOLOGIES 96
I
NTERNETANDWORLDWI DEWEB 102
ELECTRONI
CMAIL(
E-MAIL) 109
DATAPROCESSI
NG 121
DATAPROCESSINGCYCLE 121
DATAPROCESSINGMODES 123
ELEMENTSOFDATAHIERARCHY 123
FI
LEORGANIZATIONANDACCESSMETHODS 124
DATASECURI
TY 126
THREATSANDHAZARDSTODATA 126
METHODSOFSECURINGDATA 126
HARDWARESAFETY 128
SOFTWARESAFETY 129
COMPUTERCRIMES 131
HEALTHANDSAFETYI
SSUESI
NACOMPUTER 142
ENVI
RONMENT(
ERGONOMI
CS) 142
EMERGI
NGTRENDSANDI
SSUESI
NICT 145
2
1.E-LEARNING 145
2.E-COMMERCE 145
3.DOMESTI CAPPLICATI
ONSOFI
CT 146
4. 
E-GOVERNMENT 147
5.E-HEALTH 147
6.E-EMPLOYMENT 147
7.E-ENVIRONMENT 147
8.E-AGRICULTURE 148
EMERGI NGISSUESINICT 148
9.TECHNOLOGYTRANSFER 148

3
I
NFORMATI
ONCOMMUNI
CATI
ONTECHNOLOGY
DEFI
NITI
ONOFTERMS

i
) Comput
er
Acomputeri
sanelect
roni
cdev i
cet
hataccept
sandprocessesdataintoinf
ormationandunder
t
hecont
rolofi
nst
ructi
onsstor
edini
tsownmemor yandoutputorstoretheresul
tsforf
utur
euse.

NB:Anelect
roni
cdevicei
sadevi
cethatdependsont
hepr
inci
plesofel
ect
roni
csandusest
he
manipul
ati
onofelect
ronf
lowf
orit
soperati
on.

i
i) Data
Dataareraw,
unprocessedandunorgani
zed(unst
ruct
ured)f
actsandf
igur
esthatar
e
rel
ati
vel
ymeaningl
esstotheuser.E.
g.numberofhoursworkedbyanemploy
ee.

i
ii
) Inf
ormation
Inf
ormati
oni sder
ivedfrom dat
a.Thi
sisdatathatisprocessed,organized/st
ruct
ured
andpresentedinagivencontextsoastomakei tuseful
.e.g.
,multipl
yi
ngt hehours
workedbythehourlyratetogeteachemployee’
sgr ossearni
ng.Infor
mat ionisan
i
mpor t
antcomponenti ndecisi
onmaking.

Forexamplefr
om astudentst
estscor
es,
thef
oll
owi
ngi
nfor
mat
ioncanbeder
ived:
a)Cl
ass'av
eragescore
b)Mostimprovedst
udent
c)Medi
anScoreetc.

USESOFI NFORMATI ON
(a)Deci
sion-
making
Whenmanager sarereadyt
omakechoi ces(deci
sions)theyneedgood,accurateandup-
to-
dateinf
ormati
on.I
ftheyactwi
thoutr
elevantinf
ormationitcoul
dleadtodisaster,
andfai
l
ure.
(b)Monit
ori
ngandcontrol
Busi
nesseswil
lcompareactual
per
for
manceagai
nsti
tspr
edi
cted(
budget
ed)per
for
mance.
Thentheywil
lactuponi
t.

i
v) I
nfor
mat
ionCommuni
cat
ionTechnol
ogy
/Technol
ogi
es(
ICT)

I
CTi sanumbr ell
ater
mt hatcov ersanysoft
wareorhar dwar eproductthatcanstor
e,
ret
ri
eve,manipul at
e,tr
ansmi torrecei
veinf
ormationelectr
onicallyi
nadi gi
tal
for
m.
Examplesincludepersonal comput er
s,di
git
alt
elevi
sion,emai l
,robots,
radi
o,cel
lul
ar
phonesandnet worki
nghardwar e.
Forourstudy,wear econcer nedwithcomputer(hardwareandsof t
ware)and
tel
ecommuni cationstechnology(data,i
mage,andv oi
cenet works).

v
) Informati
onSyst
em (IS)
AnI nfor
mati
onSystem (I
S)i
sacombinati
onofhar
dwar e,
soft
ware,per
sonnel
,dat
aand
procedurest
hati
nteractt
osuppor
tandimprov
eday-t
o-dayoperat
ionsi
nanorgani
zat
ion.

4
 Theseel
ementsofanI
nfor
mat
ionSy
stem ar
eal
soknownast
hecomponent
sofan
I
nformat
ionSy
stem.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofHi
ghQual
it
yDat
a

TheAudi
tCommi ssi
onhasi denti
fi
edsixkeycharacter
ist
icsofgoodqual
i
tydata.
a)Accuracy
Datashouldbesuffi
cientl
yaccurateforthei nt
endeduseandshoul dbecapturedonl
yonce,
alt
houghitmayhavemul ti
pleuses.Datashouldbecapturedatt
hepointofact
ivi
ty.

b)Validi
ty
Datashouldber ecordedandusedi ncompl i
ancewithrelev
antrequi
rements,incl
udi
ngthe
cor
rectappli
cati
onofanyr ulesordefini
ti
ons.Thiswil
lensureconsi
stencybetweenperi
ods
andwithsimi
larorgani
zat
ions,measur
ingwhatisint
endedtobemeasured.

c)Ti mel i
ness
Dat ashouldbecaptur
edasquicklyaspossibl
eaft
ert
heeventoract
ivi
tyandmustbeavai
l
able
fort heintendedusewi t
hinar easonableti
meperi
od.Datamustbeav ai
l
abl
equi
ckl
yand
frequentlyenoughto suppor
tinformationneedsandtoinfl
uenceserviceormanagement
decisions.

d)Relevance
Dat
acapt ur
edshoul
dber el
evantt
othepur posesf
orwhichi
tist
obeused.Thi
swi
l
lrequi
rea
per
iodi
creviewofr
equi
rementstoref
lectchangi
ngneeds.

e)Completeness
Dat
ar equi
rements should be cl
earl
y speci
fi
ed based on the i
nfor
mation needs oft
he
or
gani
zati
onanddatacol l
ect
ionprocessesmatchedt
ot heser
equir
ements.

f
) Uniqueness
I
nordertoaddval
uet
oanor
gani
zat
ion,
inf
ormat
ionmustbeuni
queanddi
sti
nct
ive.

ABRI
EFCOMPUTERHI
STORY

Theabacus,
whichemer
gedabout5,000year
sagoinAsiaMinorandi
ssti
ll
inusetoday,
maybeconsider
edthef
ir
stcomputer.Thi
sdevi
ceal
lowsuserstomakecomputat
ions

5
usi
ngasy
stem ofsl
i
dingbeadsar
rangedonar
ack;
itwassi
mpl
yacount
ingdev
ice.

TheAbacus

Ittooklongforthenextsigni
ficantadv ancei
ncomputingdevi
cestoemer ge.In1642,
BlaisePascal(1623-1662),t
he18- year-ol
dsonofaFrenchtaxcol
l
ect or
,inventedwhat
hecal l
edanumer icalwheelcalculatortohel
phisfat
herwithhi
sdutiesbutwhi chused
eightmov abl
edialstoaddsumsup.I twasnotunt
ilt
he1940sthattheelectronic
comput ersemerged.

Inthe1820s, Charl
esBabbagedesi gnedthe‘DifferenceEngi ne’,amachi newhichcould
perfor
m mat hematicalcalculati
ons.Asi x-
wheel edmodel wasi nit
iall
yconstruct
edand
demonst r
atedtoanumberofaudi ences.Healsowor kedonanot herinventi
on,themor e
complexAnal yti
calEngine,ar evoluti
onarydevicewhi chwasi ntendedtobeabl et o
perfor
m anyar i
thmet i
calcalculat
ionusi ngpunchedcar dsthatwoul ddeliverthe
i
nstructi
ons,aswel lasamemor yunittostorenumber sandmanyot herfundament al
component softoday '
scomput ers.LadyAdapr oducedpr ogramst obeusedbyt he
analyt
icalmachine.Sheiscl aimedt obepossi blythef i
rstprogrammer .

Fi
veGener
ati
onsofModernComputer
s
Moder
ncomputer
scanbecl
assi
fi
edi
ntofi
vegener
ati
ons.

Fi
rstgener
ati
on:1946-
1959.

Fir
stgener ati
onofcomput er
sst ar
tedwithusingv acuum tubesast hebasi c
component sformemor yandcircuit
ryforCPU( CentralProcessingUni t
).Theset ubes
l
ikeelectri
cbul bsproducedal otofheatandwer epronet ofrequentfusingoft he
i
nstall
ations,theref
ore,werev er
yexpensiveandcoul dbeaffordedonl ybyv er
yl arge
organi
zat i
ons.TheEl ectr
onicNumer icalI
ntegratorandComput er(
ENI AC)was
announcedi n1946.I tcostal
most$500, 000(appr oxi
mat el
y$6, 000,
000t oday).The
comput ercont ai
ned17,468v acuum tubesandconsumed150kW ofel ectri
cit
y .

Anot
herexampl
eofcomput
ersi
nthi
sgener
ati
onwast
heUNI
Ver
salAut
omat
icComput
erI
6
UNI
( VAC)whi
chused5200v
acuum t
ubesandwei
ghed13met
ri
ctons.I
tconsumed125
kW,
andcoul
dper
for
m about1,
905oper
ati
onspersecond.

Vacuum Tubes

Int his generation mainl

ybatch processing ofdata was done.Int hi
s generat
ion
Punchedcar ds,Papert ape,Magneti
ct apeInput&Out putdevicewereused.Iti
ssaid
thatthiscomput erwei
ghed30t ons,andhad18, 000vacuum tubeswhichwereusedfor
processing.Whent hi
scomput erwast ur
nedonf orthefir
stt i
melight
sdi mmedi n
sectionsofPhi ladel
phia.Computersofthisgenerat
ioncouldonlyper
form asingl
etask
atat ime,andt heyhadnooper ati
ngsy stem.

NB:
Bat
chpr
ocessi
ng-Execut
ingaser
iesofnon-
int
eract
ivej
obsal
latonet
ime.

Secondgener
ati
on:1959-
1965.
Comput
ersinthi
sgener
ati
onusingthetr
ansistorwer
echeaper ,consumedlesspower
,
morecompactinsize,morereli
ableandf astert
hant hefir
stgener at
ionmachi
nes
madeofv acuum t
ubes.Inthi
sgeneration,magneticcoreswer eusedaspr i
mary
memoryandmagneti
ctapeandmagneticdisksassecondaryst
or agedevi
ces.

ATr
ansi
stor

I
nthi
sgener
ati
onassembl
ylanguagesandhi
ghl
evelpr
ogr
ammi
ngl
anguagesl
i
ke
7
FORTRANandCOBOLwereused.Exampl
esofcomput
ersi
nthi
sgener
ati
oni
ncl
udeI
BM
300ser
iesandt
heATLAS.
NB:At r
ansist
orisasemi conduct ordeviceusedtoampl i
fyandswi tchel
ectroni
csignal
sand
el
ectri
calpower.
Thediff
erencebetweenat ransistorandavacuum t ubeisthatat r
ansist
orusesasandwi chof
si
li
coninsteadoftubef i
ll
edwithgast odot heswit
ching.Si
li
conf al
lsint
oaf amil
yofelementsthat
arenei
therconductornorinsulator;they’r
ecall
edsemiconductors.Thistypeofelementwil
lbe
ei
theraconductororani nsul
atordependi ngonsomecondi t
ion.Inthecaseoftransi
stor
s,an
el
ectri
calcurr
entwillcausethesi l
icont obeaconductor.
Thi
rdGener
ati
on:1965-
1971.
Thethir
dgener ati
onofcomput er
sismar kedbytheuseofIntegrat
edCir
cui
ts(I
C's)in
pl
aceoft r
ansistors.Asingl
eI.Chasmanyt r
ansi
stors,r
esi
stor
sandcapaci
tor
sal ong
wit
ht heassociatedcircui
tr
y.TheI.C wasinventedbyJackKi l
by.Thi
sdevel
opment
madecomput erssmal l
erinsi
ze,r
eli
abl
eandef fi
cient
.

I
nt hisgener
ati
onRemot eprocessing,Time-shar
ing,Real-
ti
me,Mult
i-
progr
amming
Operati
ngSyst
em wereused.Hi
ghl evell
anguage(FORTRAN- I
ITOI
V,COBOL,PASCAL
PL/1,BASI
C,ALGOL-
68etc.
)wereuseddur i
ngthisgenerat
ion

NB:
o Aresist
orisa passi
vetwo-
ter
minalel
ect
ri
calcomponentt
hati
mpl
ement
sel
ect
ri
cal
r
esi
stanceasaci
rcui
tel
ement
.

o A capaci
tor(ori
ginal
l
y known as a condenser
)is a passi
ve two-
ter
minalel
ect
ri
cal
componentusedtostoreener
gyel
ect
rostat
ical
lyi
nanel
ectri
cfi
eld.

Four
thGener
ati
on:1971-
1980.
The f ourth generation ofcomput ersi s marked byt he use ofVery Lar ge Scale
Integrated( VLSI)circuit
s.VLSIci r
cuit
shav i
ngabout5000t r
ansi
storsandot hercircui
t
element sand t heirassoci ated cir
cuit
son asi ngl
echi p madei tpossibl
et o hav e
mi cr
ocomput ers off ourth generat
ion.Four t
h Generati
on computers became mor e
power ful,compact ,reli
able,and af f
ordable.As a result
,itgaver i
se t o personal
comput er(PC)rev olut
ion.

I
nt hi
sgenerat
ionTi
meshari
ng,Realt
ime,
Networ
ks,Dist
ri
but
edOper
ati
ngSyst
em wer
e
used.AlltheHighlev
ellanguagesli
keC and C++,DBASE et
c.wereused i
nthi
s
generat
ion

Fi
ft
hGener
ati
on:1980-
todat
e.

I
nthefi
fthgenerati
on,t
heVLSItechnologybecameULSI(Ult
raLar
geScal
eIntegr
ati
on)
t
echnol
ogy,result
ing i
ntheproductionofmi cropr
ocessorchi
pshavi
ng tenmi l
l
ion

8
el
ect
roni
ccomponent
sormor
e.

Thi
sgener
ati
oni
sbasedonpar
all
elpr
ocessi
nghar
dwar
eandAI(
Art
if
ici
alI
ntel
li
gence)
sof
twar
e.

AIi
sanemergi
ngbr anchincomputerscience,whichi
nter
pret
smeansandmethodof
maki
ngcomput
erst hi
nklikehumanbeings.Al lt
heHigherlev
ell
anguagesl
i
keCand
C++,
Jav
a,.
Netetc.areusedinthi
sgenerati
on
THETRENDI
NTHECOMPUTER’
STECHNOLOGI
CALREVOLUTI
ON

 Cont
inual
decreasei
ncomputersize
 I
mprovedspeedandpowerofprocessi
ng
 Decr
easeincomputer
’spowerconsumpti
onandit
srelat
edf
aci
l
iti
escost
 Numberofcomponentsperci
rcui
t(I
C)great
lyi
ncr
eased.

ADVANTAGESOFUSI
NGCOMPUTERS

 Processing capabili
ty/Speed – Comput er
s hav e hi gherpr ocessing speeds t han other
meansofpr ocessi
ng, measur edasnumberofi nstructionsexecut edpersecond.
 Accuracy–Comput ersar enotpr onet oerrors.Sol ongast hepr ogramsar ecor r
ect,they
wil
lalway sgivecor rectout put.Acomput erisdesi gnedi nsuchawayt hatmanyoft he
i
naccuracies,whichcoul dar iseduet ot hemal f
unct ioni ngoft heequi pment,aredetect ed
andtheirconsequencesav oidedinaway ,whichi scompl etelytranspar entt
ot heuser.
 Consistency– Gi vent hesamedat aandt hesamei nst ructionscomput erswi l
lproduce
exactl
yt hesameanswerev erytimethatpar t
icularpr ocessi sr epeated.
 Reli
abil
ity–Comput ersystemsar ebuiltwithf aulttol er ancef eatures,meaningt hatfail
ure
ofoneoft hecomponent sdoesnotnecessar i
lyleadt of ailureoft hewhol esystem.
 Memor ycapabi l
it
y–Acomput erhastheabi l
itytost or eandaccessl ar
gev ol
umesofdat a.
 Comput ercanoper atei nr i
skyenv ir
onment se. g.v ol cani csi tes,lethalchemicalpl ants,
whereit’sri
skyforhumanst ooperate.
 Comput ershelptor educepaperwor ksignifi
cantly.
 Comput erscanwor kcontinuouslywithoutget t
ingbor edort i
red.
 Helpstocutonwagebi ll
sbyr educingmanpower .

DI
SADVANTAGESOFUSI NGCOMPUTERS
 Init
ialcostofi nstal
lati
oni shigh
 Canr esul ttoretr
enchmentofst aff
 Comput erizati
onprojectsar enotalwayscost -
ef fecti
ve
 Incaset hecomput ersbr eakdownormal function, i
tmightbeext r
emelydif
ficul
ttorev er
t
backtot heol dmanual system.Fort hi
sreason, standbypr oceduresarenecessary,
but
expensive.
 Cancompr omi sesecurit
yofdat astoredorbei ngt ransmitt
ed.
 Comput erizati
onleadst ocy ber-
cri
mee. g.pornogr aphyetc
 Theypr esentaheal thhazar dforexampleey est r
ain,tri
gger-
fi
ngersyndromeandaddi cti
on
 Duet ot her api
dchangei nthecomput ertechnol ogy ,
thecomput erandrel
atedfacil
i
ties

9
 canbecomeout
dat
edv
eryf
ast
,henceposi
ngar
iskofcapi
tal
lossandcostofupgr
adi
ng.

CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFCOMPUTERS
Comput
erscanbecl
assi
fi
edi
ndi
ff
erentway
sasshownbel
ow:

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionbysi
zeandcapabi
li
ty

a)Supercomputer s.Thelargestandmostpower ful

.Usedt opr ocesslargeamountsofdata
veryquickl
y.Theyuseext remelyfastpr
ocessorsthatarebui l
tforspeedandareusedfor
processor-
intensivecalculat
ionssuchasnuclearreact
ionsi mulat
ionsandglobalweat
her
patter
nmodel i
ng.Usefulformeteorol
ogi
calorastr
onomi calappli
cati
ons.Exampl
esincl
ude
CrayandFuj i
tsu.

b)Mai nframecomput er
s.Lar gecomput er
sint er
msofpr i
ce,powerand size.Requirea
carefullycontrol
l
edenv ironmentandspeci aliststafft
ooperateandusedf orcentral
ized
processi ngforlargecommer ci
alor gani
zat
ions.Theyar edesignedtoprovidemaxi mum
throughputf orasimultaneousvar i
etyofwor kloads.Theycanalsosuppor
tal ar
genumber
oft erminalsandhav el argeon-l
inesecondar yst or
agecapaci
ties.Manuf
acturer
sinclude
Int
er nati
onalBusinessMachi ne(
IBM) .

c)Mi
nicomput
ers.Thei
rsi
ze,speedandcapabi
l
iti
esl
i
esomewher
ebet
weenmai
nfr
amesand
microcomput er
s.Usedasdepar tmentalcomputer
sinl ar
georgani
zat
ionsorasthemai n
comput erinmedium-si
zedorgani
zati
ons.Manufactur
ersofmini
computersi
ncl
udeIBM and
Int
ernational
ComputerLimi
ted(ICL).

d)Mi
crocomput
ers.Thesear
etheper
sonal
comput
erscommonl
yusedf
orof
fi
ceandl
eisur
e
acti
vi
ti
esi.
e.theyaredesignedforani ndi
vidual.Examplesincl
udeHewl
ettPackar
d(HP)
,
CompaqandDel l.Theyincludedesktops,laptops,pal
mt opsandnot
ebooks.
Examplesofcomput er
sinthiscategoryinclude:

OTHERS
I
.LAPTOPS
 Areamongt hesmal l
estinmoder nwor ldandhav ever
ylarge-scal
ecircui
tintegrat
ion.
Theyhavel owmemor yandar eportable.
 Themai ndi f
ferencebetweent hemicrocomput erandthelaptopisthesize.Theyar e
port
able.
 Expandabili
tyandt henumberofdev i
cessuppor tedbythelaptopsarealsol i
mited
 Theyrunonbat ter
ypower ,butcanalsobepl uggedintoawal loutl
et.
 Theytypicall
yhav eabuilt
-i
nLCDdi splaythatfoldsdownt opr ot
ectthedisplaywhen
thecomput eriscarri
edaround.
 Theyalsof eatureabuil
t-
inkey boar
dandsomeki ndofbuil
t-i
npointi
ngdev ice(such
asatouchpad) .

I
I.PERSONALDI
GI STANT(
TALASSI PDA)
 I
tisahandheldmicr
ocomputerthatt
radesof
fpowerforsmall
sizeandgreat
er
port
abi
li
ty.
 Theyty
pical
lyuseatouch-
sensi
ti
veLCDscreenforbot
houtputandinput(
theuser

10
 drawscharactersandpressesi
consonthescr
eenwithastyl
us).
 PDAscommuni catewit
hdesktopcomputer
sandwitheachotherei
therbycabl
e
connecti
on,i
nfrared(I
R)beam,orradi
owaves.
 PDAsar enormallyusedtokeeptr
ackofappoi
ntmentcal
endars,
to-
dol i
sts,
addr
ess
books,andfortakingnotes.

I
II
. PALMTOPORHANDHELDPC
 I
tisav er
ysmal l
mi crocomput ert
hatalsosacr i
fi
cespowerforsmallsi
zeand
port
abil
it
y.Thesedev icest y
picall
ylookmor el
ikeatinyl
apt
opt hanaPDA,wit
hafli
p-
upscreenandsmal lkey board.
 TheymayuseWi ndowsCEorsi milaroperati
ngsystem f
orhandhelddevi
ces.
 SomePDAsandpal mt opscont ai
nwi r
elessnetworki
ngorcellphonedevi
cessot
hat
user
scanchecke- mai l orsurfthewebont hemov e.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionbywayofpr
ocessi
ngdat
a(Typeofdat
ahandl
ed)
Thi
sisbyhowt
hecomput
err
epr
esent
sandpr
ocessest
hedat
a.

a)Digi
talcomputer
s
Digi
talcomputer
spr ocessdatarepr
esent
edinbinaryformatusingthenumbers0and1.
Theyar eusedforbot hbusinessdataprocessi
ngandsci enti
fi
cpurposessincedi
git
al
comput at
ionr
esult
si ngreat
eraccuracythananalogcomput er
s.Theyalsocanperf
orm
complexcomputati
ons.Theyarethemostcommonl yusedty
peofcomput er
s.

b)Analogcomput ers
Thesear eusedf orscient
if
ic,engi neeri
ng,andprocess-controll
edpurposes.Out putsare
repr
esent ed inthef orm ofgr aphs.Anal oguecomput ers processdatar epresented by
physicalv ari
abl
esandout putphy sicalmagnit
udesinthef or m ofsmoot hgraphs.These
physicalchangesi ncludechangesi nelectr
onicvol
tages,pr essurechanges,temper at
ure
changeset c.Analogv al
ues,unlikedi gi
talval
ues,aret ypi
callymanyv al
uesi nar ange.
Exampl esofanaloguedev i
cesincludecarspeedomet erandt heslider
ule.

c)Hybri
dcomput ersar
ecomput er
st hathav
et hecombi
nedf eat
uresofdigi
talandanalog
computers;hy
bri
dcomputi
ngof f
ersbothspeedandpreci
sion.Theyoff
eranef f
ici
entand
economicalmethod ofwor
king outspecialpr
oblemsin sci
enceand var
iousar easof
engi
neeri
ng.

Consi derthedif
ferencebet weent wocommont ypesofli
ghtswitches: astandardlight
swi t
chandadi mmerswi tch.Thest andardli
ghtswitchhasonlytwov al
ues:onandof f.Asa
rule,atanyonet imet heswi tchwil
l beineit
heroneposi t
ionortheot her.Thisissimilarto
digitalel
ectri
calsignals,whichhav ediscret
ev al
ues( l
i
keonandof f).Bywayofcompar i
son,
thedi mmerswi tchstar t
satof f,butcanbechangedgr adual
lytostrongerandst r
onger
i
nt ensiti
es,uptothef ullonsetti
ng.Atanyonei nst
ant,adimmerswi tchcanhav easet ti
ng
almostany wher
ebet weenonandof f
.Thisissimil
artoananalogelect r
icalsignal
,whi ch
maybeonorof forsomewher einbet ween.

NB/Themainfeaturethatdi
sti
nguishesdigit
al f
rom anal
ogcomput
ersi
sthenat
ureofthe
si
gnal
s.Di
gital
signalshavetwodiscret
est ates,onoroff
.Anal
ogsi
gnal
sarecont
inuous.
Ananal
ogsignal’
svoltagemaybeconst antorv arywit
hti
me.

11
Classi
fi
cat
ionbypurpose
Thisisacl
assi
fi
cat
ionbytheuset
owhi
cht
hecomput
eri
sput
.

a)Specialpurpose/Dedicat
edcomputer
sareusedforacertai
nspecifi
cfunct
ione.
g.in
medicine,engineeri
ng,manuf
act
uri
ng.Embedded sy
stems are exampl
es ofspeci
al
purposecomput ers.

b)Gener
al-
pur
posecomput
erscanbeusedf
orawi
dev
ari
etyoft
askse.
g.account
ing,wor
d
pr
ocessi
ngetc.

ROLEOFI
CTI
NABUSI
NESSENVI
RONMENT

TheuseofICTandtechnol
ogyhasaf fect
edev eryaspectofbusi
ness,t
ransf
ormingnotonl
ythe
waythatbusi
nessi
sconductedbutalsocr eati
ngnew businesssect
orsandjobs.Exampl
esare
compani
esli
keGoogle,
Amazon,Safar
icom M- Pesaande-Bay.
Someexamplesoft
henatur
eofthischangei ncl
ude:

Marketi
ngandeCommer ce:Theuseofwebsi teshasal l
owedcompaniest odevel
opnew
andcheaperwaysofreachingnew market
s,offer
ingcustomerstheopport
unit
yofbuyi
ng
goodsandserv
iceswhenevertheywantandoft
enatr educedcost
,whi
lealsoenhanci
ngt
he
l
evelofcust
omerserv
ice.

Finance:Practi
cal
lyallcompaniesnow usesof twareprogrammese. g.Sage,QuickBooks
andExceltomanaget heiraccounts.Thishasallowedt hem tolookatf i
nanci
alinf
or mat
ion
whenr equi
red,monit
orandr espondt otheircustomerspurchasingpat ter
ns.Ther esul
tof
thishasbeenformanycompani esar educt
ionint hei
raccountancyfees.

Outofof fi
cewor king:Formanybusi nessestheneedf orstafftobeawayf rom t heoffi
ce
attendingmeet ingsort obebasedi nanot hergeographicallocat i
onhasgr ownal ongsi
de
empl oyeedemandsf ormoreflexiblewor ki
ngpatterns.Howev ereffectivecommuni cati
on
andabi li
tytoaccessi nfor
mati
onr emai nscri
ti
caltothepr oducti
v i
tyoft hesestaf fmember s.
Ther ef
orethrought heuseoftechnol ogymanycompani esnowusear angeoft echnologi
es
toenabl ethis.Thesei ncl
udemobi lephones,e-mail,broadband,lapt ops,etc,thusensur i
ng
thatcompani esar eabletobefl
exibleandadapt i
vedependi ngont heirbusinessneeds.

Net works:Virtual
l
yallbusinessesnowhav eorhaveaccesstoacomput er.Theexistenceof
twoormor ecomput er
si nanof fi
cealmostalway
sleadstot hecreationofanet work.The
mai nadv antageofdoingsoi sthatr
esourcescanbeshar ede.g.printers,inter
netaccess,
fi
les/inf
ormat i
oncanbemanagedandshar edamongstwor kstat
ionsandt hesecur i
tyof
i
nf ormati
oncanbebet termanagedt hr
oughanet work.I
ncreasi
ngly,net worksar enotjust
conf i
nedt otheof f
icebutar ebeingadoptedsothattheyall
owhome/ r
emot ewor ki
ngthat
suppor t
schangi ngbusinessneeds.

I
nvent
orymanagement
I
nvent
orymanagementsystemst rackthequant
it
yofeachit
em acompanymai nt
ains,
t
ri
ggeri
nganor derofaddi
tionalstockwhenthequant
it
iesf
allbel
ow apr
edet
ermined

12
 amount

CustomerRel
ati
onshipManagement
Cust
omerRelati
onshipManagementsystemsstor
eev
eryint
eracti
onacompanyhaswi t
ha
cust
omerforfut
urerefer
ence.Thecust
omerhasabet
ter
,mor efocusedexper
ienceandthe
companybenefi
tsf
rom improvedpr
oducti
vi
ty.

Pay
rol
lSyst
ems
Apayr
oll
syst
em i
susedt
omai
ntai
npayaccount
sofempl
oyees,
easi
l
yandqui
ckl
y.

HumanResourceManagement
HRI
Shelpinrecrui
tment,HumanResourcePlanni
ng,wageandsal
arypl
anni
ng,per
sonnel
r
ecor
dkeepi
ngandt rai
ninganddev
elopment
.

ROLEOFI
CTI
NTHESOCI
ETY
1.I
ndustr
yandcommer ce
Ithasmadetheindust
ryandcommer cemor eef
fi
cient
,pr
oducti
v eandrel
i
able
Leadingcompani
esusecomput ert
echnologyasacompetit
ivetooltodev
elopnewpr
oduct
s
andservi
ces
Theyareusedinmanufactur
ingtoschedul
eoperat
ionsandprocesscontr
ol

2.Heal
thcar e
Usedi nmedi calaut
omat i
onintheareasofaut
omat
icdi
agnosi
s,el
ect
ro-
car
diogr
am
screeningandmoni tori
ng
Storageofmedi calrecor
dsonpat i
ents
Usedi ninter
-countr
yaidedsurgeonoperat
ions

3.Gov er
nmentI nstit
utions
Usedheav i
lyingov ernmentmi nistr
iessuchasf inance, pl
anning&educat i
ontostorerecor
ds
andimpr ovewor kef fici
ency
4.Educationandr esear ch
Usedi neducationast raini
ngaid,andinresearchi nstit
uti
ons.Longdi st
ancelear
ning(e-
l
earning)hasr eplacedt heol di
nternati
onalcor
r espondencecour sesoffer
edbypostage.
Iti
susedi nav i
ationt ot rai
npil
otsusingfli
ghtsimul ators.
Engineersandar chi t
ect susecomput erstodesign, testandre-design.

5.Communicati
onIndustry
Intel
ecommuni cati
onindust
ry,i
tisusedi
ncontr
olofexchangeswitch
Rail
waycorporati
onsrelyheavi
lyoncomputer
stoco-ordi
natethemov ementoft
hei
rwagons
andgoods
Airtr
aff
iccont
roller
suseitforair
spacesur
vei
ll
anceusi
ngr adarequi
pment

6.Pol
i
ceanddefense
Computersarecur
rent
lyusedinf
ight
ingcr
ime
Poli
cearecapabl
eofkeepingdat
abaseoffi
ngerpr
int
swhi
char
eaut
omat
ical
l
yanal
ysedby

13
 computers
Int
egr
ationofcomput
ert
echnol
ogyanddef
ensehaspr
oducedmoder
nmi
l
itar
y

7.Homeandleisure(entert
ainment)
Computercanbeusedf orhomeshopping
Ther
eareal soenter
t ai
nmentinf
ormati
onf ort
hosel ookingforl
eisur
easwellasahostof
games
Theyhaveal sobeenusedt ohel
phandicappede.g.instantspeecharet
urnedint
otextont
he
scr
eentohel pdeaf,whilet
extaret
urnedintosi
mul atedspeechf ort
hebli
nd.

8.Employment
Employmentinthecomputerindust
rywor
ldwi
dehasi ncreasedby20%duri
ng1980sto
hi
gherpercent
ages
I
nSouthEastAsi acount
ri
es,60%ofemploymentopportunit
iesar
etodayi
nthecomput
ing
i
ndustr
y.

Int
ernetaddi
ctiondisorder(I
AD)isnowmor ecommonlycal
ledpr obl
emati
cinternetuse(PIU)or
compulsiv
einternetuse(CIU).Ot
heroverl
appi
ngter
msincl
udei nter
netov
eruse,problemati
c
computeruseorpat hol
ogicalcomputeruse–andeveni
Disorder.Theset
ermsr efertoexcessi
ve

14
comput
eruset
hati
nter
fer
eswi
thdai
l
yli
fe.

I
nternetaddicti
onincludes:
a)Cy bersexualaddicti
on:compulsi
v euseofadul
twebsitesforcybersexandcy
berpor
n.
b)Cy ber-r
elati
onshipaddicti
on:Over-i
nvol
vementinonl
inerelat
ionships.
c)Netcompul sions:Obsessi
veonlinegambli
ng,shoppi
ngorday -
tr
ading.
d)Informat i
onov erl
oad:Compulsivewebsurfi
ngordatabasesear ches.
e)Comput
eraddi
cti
on:Obsessi
vecomput
ergamepl
ayi
ng.

THEFUNCTI
ONALCOMPONENTSOFACOMPUTERSYSTEM

Comput
erSy
stem

Sy
stem Uni
t

Ar
it
hmet
ic&Logi
c
Unit

Cont
rol
Uni
t

I
nput MainMemory 15 Out
put
Devi
ces (
Pri
maryst
orage) Dev
ices
G.

Thecomput erconsistoftwomaj orcomponent s

1.cent
ralprocessi
nguni t(
cpu)
2.memor y
3i
nput/output
 Cent r
alProcessingUni t(CPU)–Thi sisthepar
tofthecomput
erthatprocessesdat
a.The
CPUi smadeupoft hreemainfunct
ionalcomponent
s
1.Controlunit
2.Thear i
thmet i
candlogi
cunit.
3.mainmemor y
o Cont rolUni t– Cont rol
s executi
on ofprograms.The controluni tdoesnot
execut
epr
ogr
am i
nst
ruct
ions;
rat
her
,itdi
rect
sot
herpar
tsoft
hesy
stem t
o
doso.
o Ar it
hmet i
cLogicUni t(ALU)–Per f
ormsact ualprocessingofdat ausingpr ogr
am
inst
ructi
ons.
o Regi ster
s–Tempor aryandv eryfaststorageareasforinstr
ucti
onsanddat a
 Main Memor y – Temporar y storage to hold programs and dat a during executi
on/
pr
ocessing.
 Output
/outputdevi
ces–Di splaysinformationprocessedbyt hecomput ersyst
em.
 St
orage devices – Permanentst orage ofdat a and programs before and afteritis
pr
ocessedbyt hecomputersystem.
 Communi cati
ondevices–Enabl ecommuni cati
onwi t
hothercomput er
s.

16
COMPUTERHARDWARE
Hardwarer eferstot
hephysical
,tangibl
ecomputerequi
pmentanddev i
ces,whi
chprov
idesuppor
t
formajorfunctionssuchasinput,processi
ng(i
nter
nalst
or age,computat
ionandcont
rol
),out
put
,
secondar
yst orage(f
ordataandpr ograms),
andcommuni cati
on.

Basi
cComput
erPar
ts

Sy
stem U ni
t

Thesy stem unitisthecor eofacomput ersy st

em.Usuallyit
'sar
ect angularboxplacedonor
underneathy ourdesk.I nsi
dethisboxaremanyel ectr
oni
ccomponent sthatprocessdata.The
mostimpor tantoft hesecomponent sist hecentralpr
ocessi
ngunit( CPU),ormicroprocessor,
whichact sast he"brain"ofyourcomput er.Anothercomponenti
sr andom accessmemor y(RAM),
whicht empor ari
l
yst or
esi nf
ormationt
hatt heCPUuseswhi l
ethecomput erison.Theinformation
stor
edi nRAM i serasedwhent hecomput eri
sturnedoff
.

Almostev er
yotherpartofyourcomputerconnect st ot hesyst
em unitusi
ngcabl es.Thecables
plugi nt
ospecif
icports(openings),t
ypi
callyont hebackoft hesystem unit
.Hardwar ethati
snot
par tofthesyst
em unitissomet i
mescalledaper i
pher aldev
ice.Peri
pheraldevi
cescanbeext er
nal
suchasamouse, keyboard,pri
nter
,monitor,exter
nal Zipdri
veorscannerori nt
ernal,suchasaCD-
ROM dr ive,CD-
Rdr i
veorinternalmodem.I nt
er nalper
ipheraldevi
cesareoftenref er
redtoas
i
nt egratedperi
pheral
s.Ther earetwotypesaccor dingt oshape:toweranddeskt op.

Amot herboard(mai nboard,system board,pl

anarboar dorl
ogicboard)i
sthemai
nprintedcir
cuit
boardfoundi ncomput ersandot herexpandablesystems.I
tholdsmanyofthecr
ucial
electr
onic
component softhesy stem,suchast hecent r
alprocessi
ngunit(CPU)andmemory,
andpr ovi
des
connectorsforotherperipheral
s.

ThePowerSuppl
y

Powersuppli
es,
oft
enref
err
edtoas"swi
tchi
ngpowersuppl
i
es"
,useswi
tchert
echnologytoconv
ert
theACinputtol
owerDCvol
tages,
aformthati
susabl
ebythePer
sonal
computer.Thetypi
cal
17
v
olt
agessuppl
i
edar
e:

 3.
3volt
s
 5vol
ts
 12vol
ts

The3.
3-and5-v
oltsarety
pical
l
yusedbydigi
tal
cir
cui
ts,
whilethe12-
vol
tisusedt
orunmot
orsi
n
di
skdr
ivesandfans.Themainspeci
fi
cat
ionofapowersupplyisi
nwatt
s.

Uni
nter
rupt
ibl
ePowerSuppl
y

Anuni nterr
upt
iblepowersuppl y,
al sounint
err
upti
blepowersource,UPSorbattery
/fl
ywheel
backupi sanelectr
icalappar
atust hatprovi
desemergencypowert oaloadwhentheinputpower
source,typi
cal
lymai nspower,fai
ls.Thedev i
ceall
owsthecomput ertokeepr
unningforatl
easta
shorttimewhent hepr i
marypowersour ceislost
.Ital
soprovi
despr ot
ecti
onfr
om powersurges.A
UPScont ai
nsabatterythat"
kicksin"whent hedevi
cesensesalossofpowerf r
om thepri
mary
source.

HARDWARECATEGORI
ES(
Funct
ionalPar
ts)
Acomput ersyst
em i
sasetofintegr
ateddevi
cesthati
nput
,output
,process,andstoredataand
i
nformati
on.Computersyst
emsar ecurr
ent
lybui
ltar
oundatleastonedigit
alprocessi
ngdev i
ce.
Therearefivemainhardwarecomponentsinacomputersystem: I
nput,Processing,St
orage,
OutputandCommunicati
ondevi
ces.

1.I
NPUTDEVI
CES

Mostcomput er
scannotacceptdat
ainformscustomaryt
ohumancommuni cat
ionsuchasspeech
orhand-
writ
tendocuments.Iti
snecessar
y,ther
efor
e,t
opresentdat
atothecomputerinawayt hat
prov
ideseasyconver
sionint
oitsownelectr
onicpul
se-
basedforms.Thi
siscommonl yachi
evedby

18
t
ypi
ngdat
ausi
ngt
hekey
boar
dorusi
nganel
ect
roni
cmouseoranyot
heri
nputdev
ice.

a)THEKEYBOARD
Keyboard( simi l
artoat ypewrit
er)isthemai ni nputdeviceofacomput er(r
efertofigure2. 2).I
t
containsthreet ypesofkey s--al
phanumer ickey s,speci
alkeysandf uncti
onkey s.Alphanumer i
c
keysar eusedt otypeallal
phabets,number sandspeci alsymbolslike$,%,@,Aet c.Speci alkeys
suchas<Shi f
t >,<Ctr
l>,<Al
t>,<Home>,<Scr ollLock>etc.areusedf orspecialfuncti
ons.Funct ion
keyssuchas<Fl >,<F2>,<F3>et c.areusedt ogi vespecialcommandsdependi ngupont he
softwareusede. g.
F5r el
oadsapageofani nternetbrowser.Thefunctionofeachandev erykeycan
bewel lunder stoodonl yaft
erwor kingonaPC.Whenanykeyi spr essed,anelectr
oni csignalis
produced.Thissi gnalisdetect
edbyakey boardencodert hatsendsabi narycodecorrespondi ngto
thekeypr essedt otheCPU.Ther ear emanyt ypesofkey boardsbut101key skeyboardist hemost
popularone.

Howt
hekey
sar
eor
gani
zed

Thekey
sony
ourkey
boar
dcanbedi
vi
dedi
ntosev
eral
groupsbasedonf
unct
ion:

 Typing( alphanumeric)key s.Thesekey sincludethesamel ett

er,number ,punctuat
ion,and
symbol keysfoundonat r
adi t
ionaltypewr i
ter.
 Special( Contr
ol)key s.Thesekey sar eusedal oneori ncombi nati
onwi t
hot herkeyst o
perform certai
nactions.Themostf r
equent lyusedcont rolkeysareCTRL, ALT, theWindows
key , andESC.
 Functionkey s.Thef unct i
onkey sar eusedt oper form specifi
ctasks.Theyar elabel
ledasF1,
F2,F3, andsoon, upt oF12.Thef unctionali
tyoft hesekey sdif
fersfrom program to
program.
 CursorMov ement( Nav igation)keys.Thesekey sar eusedf ormov ingaroundi ndocument s
orWebPagesandedi ti
ngt ext.Theyi ncludethear rowkey s,HOME, END, PAGEUP, PAGE
DOWN, DELETE,andI NSERTandARROW KEYS.
 Numer ickey pad.Thenumer ickeypadi shandyf orenteri
ngnumber squickly.Thekeysar e

19
 gr
oupedt
oget
heri
nabl
ockl
i
keaconv
ent
ional
cal
cul
atororaddi
ngmachi
ne.

Keynames
A–Functionkeys
B–Alphanumer i
ckeys
C–Controlkeys
D–Nav i
gationkeys/
cur
sormov
ementkey
s
E–Numer ickeypad

Theabov
eil
lustr
ati
onshowshowt
hesekey
sar
ear
rangedonat
ypi
cal
key
boar
d.Yourkey
boar
d
l
ayoutmaydif
fer
.

Exer
cise: Wit
ht hehelpofyourtutor
,ident
if
yal
lthekey
sineachoft
hecat
egor
iesl
i
stedabov
e
andtheirgener
altasks.

b)THEMOUSE
Amousei sasmalldevi
ceusedtopointt
oandselecti
temsony ourcomputerscr
een.Al
though
micecomeinmanyshapes,thetypi
calmousedoeslookabitli
keanactualmouse.I
t'
ssmal l
,
obl
ong,andconnectedt
othesystem uni
tbyal
ongwi r
ethatresemblesatai
landtheconnector
whichcanei
therbePS/2orUSB.Somenewermi cearewir
eless.

Amouseusual l
yhast wobuttons: apri
mar ybutton( usual
lytheleftbutton)andasecondar ybutton.
Manymi ceal sohav eawheel betweenthet wobut tons,whichallowsy out oscroll
smoot hly
throughscr eensofi nformati
on.
Wheny oumov ethemousewi thyourhand, apointerony ourscreenmov esint hesamedi recti
on.
(Thepoi nter'
sappear ancemi ghtchangedependi ngonwher eit
'spositi
onedony ourscreen.)When
youwantt osel ectanitem,youpoi nttotheitem andt henclick(pressandr elease)theprimary
button.Poi nt
ingandcl icki
ngwi thyourmousei sthemai nwayt oi nt
eractwi thyourcomput er.
Ther ear esev eralt
ypesofmi ce: Mechanicalmouse,
opti
calmouse,
opti
cal-
mechani calmouseandl asermouse
MouseTy pes
i. Opt o-Mechani calType
Thistypeofmousecont ai
nsar oundball t
hatmakescont actwi thtwor ol
lers—onef ort
hex- axi
s

20
(t
hehorizontal)andonef orthey-axis(theverti
cal
).Mov ingthemousecausest hebal l
torol
l,and
becausethebal li
sincont actwi
tht hetwor oll
ers,
itcausest hem toturn.Theseroll
ersare
connectedtowheel swithsmal l
hol esinthem.Eachwheel r
otatesbetweent hearmsofaU- shaped
opti
calsensor.Theholesal lowalighttoshi nethr
ought hewheel ontot heopti
calsensorinfl
ashes
asthewheel turns.Bythespeedandpat t
ernsofthelightpulses,themousesensest hespeedand
di
recti
onitismov i
ngandsendsi tsi nt
erpretat
ionofthosemov ementst othecomput erandthe
mousecont rolsoftwar
e.

i
i. Opt i
calMouse
Anopt icalmouselooksthesameasanyot hercomputermouse,excepttherei
snomouse“ ball
.”
Instead,theopti
calmouseusesaspeci almousepadandabeam ofl aserl
ight
.Thebeam ofl
ight
shinesont othemousepadandr ef
lect
sbackt oasensorint
hemouse.Themousepadhassmal l
l
inescr ossingi
tthatcanref
lecttheli
ghti
ntothesensorindi
ff
erentway s.I
tisi
nthisf
ashi
ont hat
theopt i
calmousedet ect
sdirect
ionandspeedofmov ements.
.

Basi
cpar
ts

Amouset ypi
cal
lyhastwobut t
ons:apri
marybut
ton(usuall
ytheleftbutt
on)andasecondar
y
but
ton(usual
lyt
her i
ghtbutt
on).Thepri
marybut
tonistheoney ouwi l
lusemostoft
en.Mostmi
ce
al
soincl
udeascr ol
lwheelbetweenthebut
tonst
ohelpy ouscroll
throughdocumentsand
WebPagesmor eeasil
y.Onsomemi ce,t
hescrol
lwheelcanbepr essedtoactasathir
dbutt
on.

21
Adv
ancedmi
cemi
ghthav
eaddi
ti
onal
but
tonst
hatcanper
for
m ot
herf
unct
ions.

Hol
dingandmov
ingt
hemouse/
rul
esobser
vedwhenusi
ngamouse

Pl
acey
ourmousebesi
dey
ourkey
boar
donacl
ean,
smoot
hsur
face,
suchasamousepad.

Hol
dthemousegent
lywi
thy
ouri
ndexf
ingerr
est
ingont
hepr
imar
ybut
tonandy
out
humbr
est
ing
ont
hesi
de.

Tomov ethemouse, sl
idei
tsl
owl yi
nanydir
ect
ion.Don'tt
wisti
t—keepthefrontofthemouse
aimedawayfrom you.Asyoumov ethemouse,
apoi nt
er(seepi
ctur
e)ony ourscreenmov esi
nthe
samedir
ecti
on.Ifyourunoutofroom tomoveyourmouseony ourdeskormousepad, justpi
ckup
themouseandbr i
ngitbackcl
osertoyou.

Holdt hemouselightly
, keepi
ngy ourwr i
stst
raight.
Explanati
onoftermi nologiesassociatedwiththeuseofmouse
Pointing,
cli
cki
ng, anddr agging
Pointingt
oanitem ont hescr eenmeansmov ingy ourmousesothepoint
erappearstobetouching
theitem.Wheny oupoi nttosomet hing,asmall boxoft
enappear
sthatdescr
ibestheitem.For
exampl e,
wheny oupoi nttotheRecy cleBinont hedeskt
op,aboxappearswit
hthisinf
ormation:

22
"
Cont
ainst
hef
il
esandf
older
sthaty
ouhav
edel
eted.
"

Poi
nti
ngt
oanobj
ectof
tenr
eveal
sadescr
ipt
ivemessageabouti
t

Thepoi
ntercanchangedependingonwhatyou'r
epoi
nti
ngat
.Forexampl
e,whenyoupoi
ntt
oal
i
nk
i
nyourwebbr owser
,thepoi
nterchangesf
rom anar
row toahandwithapoi
nti
ngfi
nger .

Mostmouseact
ionscombi
nepoi
nti
ngwi
thpr
essi
ngoneoft
hemousebut
tons.

Ther
earefourbasi
cway
stousey
ourmousebut
tons:cl
icki
ng,
doubl
e-cl
icki
ng,
right
-cl
icki
ng,
and
dr
aggi
ng.

Cl
icki
ng(
singl
e-cl
icki
ng)

Toclickanit
em, poi
ntt
othei
tem ont
hescr
een,
andt
henpr
essandr
eleaset
hepr
imar
ybut
ton
(usuall
ythel
eftbutt
on)
.

Cl
ickingismostoft
enusedtosel
ect(
mar
k)ani
tem oropenamenu.Thi
sissomet
imescal
l
ed
si
ngle-cl
i
cki
ngorleft
-cl
i
cki
ng.

Doubl
e-cl
icki
ng

Todouble-cl
i
ckanit
em,pointt
ot hei
tem onthescreen,andt
hencli
cktwicequi
ckly
.Ifthetwo
cl
icksarespacedt
oofarapart
,theymightbeint
erpret
edastwoindi
vidualcl
i
cksratherthanasone
double-
cli
ck.

Doubl
e-cl
icki
ngi
smostoftenusedtoopenit
emsonyourdesktop.Forexampl
e,y
oucanst
arta
pr
ogram oropenaf
olderbydoubl
e-cl
i
ckingi
tsi
cononthedesktop.

Ri
ght
-cl
icki
ng

Tori
ght
-cl
i
ckanit
em,pointt
othei
tem ont
hescr
een,
andt
henpr
essandr
eleaset
hesecondar
y
but
ton(
usual
l
ytheri
ghtbutt
on)
.

Right
-cl
i
ckinganit
em usual
l
ydispl
aysali
stoft
hingsyoucandowit
hthei
tem.Forexampl
e,when
youri
ght-cl
ickt
heRecycl
eBinonyourdeskt
op,
Wi ndowsdi
spl
aysamenuall
owingyoutoopeni
t,

23
empt
yit
,del
etei
t,orseei
tspr
oper
ti
es.I
fyouar
eunsur
eofwhatt
odowi
thsomet
hing,
right
-cl
i
cki
t.

Ri
ght
-cl
i
cki
ngt
heRecy
cleBi
nopensamenuofr
elat
edcommands

Dr
aggi
ng

Youcanmov eit
emsar oundyourscr
eenbydraggi
ngthem.Todraganobj
ect,poi
nttot
heobject
onthescreen,pressandholdthepri
marybut
ton,mov
et heobj
ecttoanewlocati
on,
andthen
rel
easetheprimarybutton.

Draggi
ng(sometimescal
leddr
aggi
nganddroppi
ng)i
smostof
tenusedtomovef
il
esandf
older
s
t
oadi f
fer
entlocati
onandtomovewindowsandi
consar
oundonyourscr
een.

Usi
ngt
hescr
ollwheel

Ifyourmousehasascr
oll
wheel ,
youcanusei
ttoscrol
lthr
oughdocumentsandWebPages.To
scroll
down,r
ollt
hewheelbackward(
towar
dyou).Toscrol
lup,
rol
lthewheelf
orwar
d(awayfrom
you).

Themouseasani nputdevi
ce-everymov ementorcl
i
ckyoumakewiththemousesendsa
speci
fi
cinputsi
gnal
tothecomputer
.Thesecommandsall
owyout
oopenprogr
ams,
dragobj
ect
s,
andperf
orm manyotherf
unct
ionsonyourcomputer
.

c)TRACKBALLS
Atr
ackbal
li
sbasi
call
yanopt
o-mechani
cal
mouset ur
nedupsi
dedown.Insteadofmovi
ngthe
mouseonatabl
e,y
oumov et
hemouseball(or
,pr
operl
y,t
hetr
ackbal
l
),whichother
wiser
emains

24
st
ati
onar
y.

c)COMPUTERTERMI NAL.
At ermi
nali
saf or
m ofinputandoutputdevi
ce.Ater
minalcanbeconnect
edtoamainfr
ameor
otherty
peofcomput erscall
edahostcomput erorserver
.Therearefourt
ypesoftermi
nal
s
namelydumb,i
ntel
l
igent,
networkandInt
ernet
.

 DumbTer mi nal
- Usedt odisplay,send,andrecei
vetext
.
- I tcannotpr ocessdat aindependently.
E.g.at erminalusedbyanai r l
inereser
vationcl
erktoaccessamainf
ramecomput er
forfli
ghtinformat i
oni sanexampl eofadumbt erminal
 I
ntelli
gent/ SmartTer minal
- I ncl
udesapr ocessinguni t,memory ,andsecondarystor
age.I
thasaprocessor
anddoesIt
sownpr ocessi
ng.Itcanal
sosubmitjobst
obeprocessedbyaser
veror
mainf
rame,
buti
tcanstandaloneasanon-
connect
edmachi
ne
- I t uses communi cati
ons sof t
war e and a t elephone hookup or ot her
communi cati
onsl ink.
E.g.ami crocomput erconnect edt oal ar
gercomput erbyamodem ornet wor kli
nkis
anexampl eofani nt elli
gentt erminal.
 Networ kTer mi nal
- Al soknownasat hinclient ornetworkcomput er.
- I ti
sal owcostal ter nativetoani ntell
i
gentt er
mi nal .
- Mostnet wor kter mi nalsdonothav eaharddr ive.
- Thi stypeoft er mi nalr eli
esonahostcomput erorser verf orapplicati
onor
system sof twar e.
 Int
ernetTer mi nal
- I ti
sal soknownasawebt erminal.
- I tpr ovides access t ot he Inter
netand di splay s web pages on a st andard
televi
sionset .
- I ti
susedal mostexcl usivelyi
nt hehome.
 Point-of -
sale( POS)t er mi nal s(electroni
ccashr egi
st ers)usebot hkey boar
danddi r
ect
entry
.POSsof t
war erecor dseachsal ewheni thappens,sot hatinvent
oryrecordsar
eal waysup

25
 -
to-
dat
e.
 Keyboar
dEntrycanbeusedtoty
peininfor
mat i
on.
 Dir
ectEntr
ycanbeusedtoreadspeci
alcharact
ersonpr
icet
ags.

Poi
nt-
of-
sal
eter
minal
scanusewandr
eader
sorpl
atf
orm scanner
sasdi
rectent
rydev
ices.
 Wandr eadersorscanner
sref
lectl
ightonthecharact
ers.
 Refl
ecti
onischangedbyphotoelectr
iccel
lstomachine-r
eadabl
ecode.
 Encodedinformati
onontheproduct’
sbarcodee.g.pr
iceappearont
erminal
’
sdi
git
aldi
spl
ay.

Barcoder
eader
s

d)Di
rectdat
aent
rydev
ices
Di
rectentrycr eat esmachi ne-r
eadabl edat at hatcangodi rect l
yt ot heCPU.I tr educeshuman
er
rorthatmayoccurdur i
ngkey boardentry.Di rectentrydev i
cesi ncludepointing,scanni ng,v oice-
i
nputdev i
cesandgami ngdevices.
(i)Themouseasani nputdev i
ce-ev erymov ementorcl icky oumakewi t
ht hemousesendsa
specifici nputsi gnaltothecomput er.Thesecommandsal l
owy out oopenpr ograms,dr ag
objects, andper f or
m manyot herf
unct i
onsony ourcomput er.
(i)Pe
i ni nputdev icese.g.Lightpen, styluspenet c
Peni nputdev i
cesar eusedt oselectori nputitemsbyt ouchingt hescr eenwi ththepen.
Lightpensaccompl ishthisbyusingawhi tecellatthetipoft hepen.Whent hel i
ghtpeni s
placed agai nstt hemoni t
or,itclosesaphot oelectri
cci rcuit
.Thephot oelectri
cci rcuit
identi
fiest hespotf orenteri
ngormodi fy i
ngdat a.Itallowst heusert opoi ntt odisplay ed
objectsordr awont hescreeninasi mi larwayt oat ouchscr eenbutwi thgr eat erpositi
onal
accuracy .Engineer swhodesi gnmi cropr ocessorchi psorai r
planepar t
susel ightpens.
Ast yl
us( orst y
luspen)i sasmal lpen- shapedi nstrumentthati susedt oinputcommandst oa
comput erscr een, mobil
edev iceorgr aphi cstablet.Witht ouchscr eendev ices, auserpl aces
ast yl
usont hesur f
aceoft hescreent odr awormakesel ectionsbyt appingt hestyluson

26
 t
hescr
een

St
yluspen

(
ii
i) Touchsensi
ti
vescr
een
Touchsensi t
ivescr eens,ortouchscr eens,al
lowt heusert oexecut epr ogramsorselect
menui temsbyt ouchi ngapor ti
onofaspeci alscreen.Behindt hepl asticlay
eroft he
touchscr eenar ecr i
sscrossedinvisi
blebeamsofi nfrar
edl i
ght.Touchingt hescreenwith
af ingercanact iv
at eactionsorcommands.Touchscr eensareof tenusedi nATMs,
i
nf ormat i
oncent ers,rest
aurants,andconv eni
encest ores.Theyar epopul arl
yusedatgas
stationsf orcustomer stoselectthegr adeofgasorr equestar eceiptatt hepump( i
n
dev elopedcount ri
es),aswel lasi nfast-f
oodr estaurantst oall
ow clerkst oeasil
yenter
order s.

(
iv)Scanni
ngDev
ices
Scanni
ngdev i
ces,orscanner s,canbeusedt oinputi magesandchar acterdatadirectl
y
i
nto acomput er. Thescannerdi gi t
isest hedat ainto machi ne-r
eadabl eform.The
scanni
ngdev i
cesusedi ndirect -
entryincludet hef oll
owing:
 ImageScanner –conv ertsi
magesonapaget oelectronicsignals.
 FaxMachi ne–conv ert
sl i
ghtanddar kar easofani magei ntofor matthatcanbe
sentov ertelephonel ines.
 Bar-CodeReader s–phot oel ect
ricscannert hatreadsv erti
calstri
pedmar ksprinted
onitems.
 Char acterand Mar k Recogni tion Dev i
ces – scanni ng dev i
ces used t or ead
charactersandmar ksondocument s.
Therearet hr
eeki ndsofchar acterandmar krecognitiondevices:
 Magnet icInkChar acterRecogni tion( MI CR)
Magnet icinkchar acterrecogni t
ion,orMI CR,r eader
sar eusedt or eadthenumber s
pri
ntedatt hebot tom ofchecksi nspeci almagnet icink. Thesenumber sar ean
exampl eofdat athati sbothmachi ner eadableandhumanr eadable.Thet echnology
all
owsMI CRr eaderst oscanandr eadt hei nformati
ondi rectl
yintoadat a-
coll
ect i
on
device.TheuseofMI CRr eadersi ncreasest hespeedandaccur acyofpr ocessing

27
 checks.

 Opt i
cal-
Char acterRecogni ti
on( OCR)
Iti
stheelectronicconversionofscannedi magesofhandwr i
tten,t
ypewr i
ttenorpr i
ntedtextint
o
machine-
encodedt ext
.Itiswi delyusedasaf or
m ofdataentr
yf rom ori
ginalpaperdat asource
suchasdocument s,salesr eceipts,mail,
oranynumberofpr i
nt edrecords.Itisacommon
methodofdi git
izi
ngpr i
ntedt extssot hattheycanbeelectr
onicall
ysearched, stor
edmor e
compactly,
displayedon- l
ine,andusedi nmachineprocesses.

 Opt i
cal-MarkRecogni t
ion(OMR)
Thisi
sthepr ocessofcapt ur
inghuman- mar
keddataf
rom documentformssuchassurveysand
test
s.Opticalmar krecognit
ionreader
sareoft
enusedfortestscori
ngsincetheycanreadthe
l
ocationofmar ksonwhati ssometimescal
ledamar ksensedocument . Thisishow,for
i
nstance,standardi
zedtests,suchastheKCPE,SATorGMATar escored.

NB/Scannersaregener
all
yclassi
fiedint
otwo:f
lat
bedscanner
sandhandheldscanner
s.Flat
bed
scanner
sar enamedaftert
heflatbedofgl
assthatt
heit
em tobescannedwoul
dlieupon,t
hey
resembl
et hetophal
fofaphotocopier

(
v) Voi
ce–i
nputdev
ices
Voice-
InputDevicescanalsobeusedf ordir
ectinputi
ntoacomput er
.Speechrecognit
ioncan
beusedf ordatainputwhenitisnecessar
ytokeepy ourhandsf
ree.Forexample,adoctormay
usev oicerecognit
ionsoftwaretodictat
emedi calnoteswhil
eexami ningapat i
ent. Voice
recogni
t i
oncanalsobeusedf orsecuri
typurposestoall
owonlyauthori
zedpeopleint
ocertain
areasort ousecertai
ndevi
ces.

 Voi
ce-
inputdev
icesconver
tspeechintoadigit
alcode.
 Themostwidel
yusedv oi
ce-i
nputdevi
ceisthemi cr
ophone.
 Amicr
ophone,soundcard,andsoftwareform avoicer
ecogni
ti
onsy
stem.

(
vi) Gami
ngEqui
pment
Gamesplayershaveawiderangeofhar
d¬wareavai
l
abl
etothem t
ohel
pthem dr
ive,
fly
,scor
e,and
shootmorereal
ist
ical
l
ythanbyusingamouse.Themostcommonarej
oysti
cksbuttheycanalso

28
choosest
eer
ingwheel
s,gamepads,
andheadset
s.

Joy
sti
ck Gamepad

2.PROCESSI
NGDEVI
CES

FUNCTI
ONAL/
LOGI
CALPARTSOFADI
GITALCOMPUTER
Thesystem uni
thousesthepr
ocessingcomponent
softhecomputersystem.Allot
hercomputer
syst
em devi
cesarecall
edperi
pher
als,andar
econnect
eddir
ect
lyorindi
rectl
yint
othesyst
em uni
t.

Comput
ersy
stem
Communicat
io
nDev
ices CPU

Sy
stem Uni
t
Cont
rol Ari
thmeti
c&
Uni
t LogicUni
t

I
nput Regi
ster
s(st
oragear
ea) Out
put
Devi
ce Dev
ice
s

Mai
nMemory
(
Pri
mar
y

Secondar
y
Stor
age

(
i)Inputdevices–Ent er
sprogram anddat aint
ocomput ersystem.
(
ii
)The CPU ( Centr
alProcessing Uni t
):The CPU ( CentralProcessi
ng Unit)cont r
olsand
executes the processi
ng ofi nstructions.The CPU pr oduces electr
onic pulses ata
predeter
mi nedandconstantrat
e.
(
ii
i)
Main Memor y – Temporary storage t o hol
d programs and dat a during executi
on/
processi
ng.Out putdevi
ces–Di splaysinformati
onprocessedbyt hecomput ersystem.
(
iv)
Storage dev i
ces – Permanentst orage ofdata and pr ogr
ams bef ore and afteritis

29
 pr
ocessedbythecomput
ersy
stem.
(
v)Communicat
iondevi
ces–Enablecommuni
cat
ionwi
thot
hercomput
ers.

(
i) Cent
ralPr
ocessi
ngUni
t(CPU)
Thisisthepar toft hecomput erthatpr ocessesdat a.Consistsoft hecont r
olunitandthe
ari
thmeticandl ogicuni tandthebuses.
 Cont rolUni t
o Cont rolsexecut ionofprogr ams.
oI tfetchesi nstructi
onsfrom memor y ,
interpretsandsendt hei nstr
ucti
onstoother
component s.Instr
ucti
onst ot heCPUar est or
edi nmemor y ,
andt heCPU
functionsbyf oll
owingacy cleoffetchingani nstructi
on,decodingitand
execut i
ngi t.Thisprocessi sknownast hef et
ch-decode-executecycle.
o Mai ntainsor derandcont rolsactiv
ityinCPU
o Di rectssequenceofoper ations
o Communi cateswi thI
nput -
Out putdevicesf ortransferofdata/resul
tsint
o/fr
om
storage
o Doesnotpr ocessorst oredat a.

 Arit
hmet i
cLogicUni t(ALU)–Per f
ormsactualprocessi
ngofdat ausingprogram
i
nstructionsi.
e.arithmeticandl ogi
caloperat
ions.Thearit
hmet i
c/logi
cunitcanperform
fourkindsofar i
thmet i
coper at
ions,ormathematicalcal
culat
ions:addit
ion,
subtracti
on,
multi
plicati
on,anddi visi
on.Asitsnamei mpli
es,thearit
hmetic/l
ogicunital
soper f
orms
l
ogical operat
ions.Al ogical
oper at
ioni
susuallyacompar i
son.Italsodoesbranching
onpr efi
xedcondi t
ions.

 Regi
ster
s:Tempor
arySt
orageAr
eas

Register
saretempor arystorageareasforinstructionsordatainsidet heCPU.Theyar e
notapar tofmemor y;rat
hert heyarespeci
al additionalstor
agelocationsthatoffert
he
advantageofspeed.Regi ster
swor kunderthedi rectionofthecontrol uni
ttoaccept,hol
d,
andt r
ansferi
nst
ructionsordat aandper f
orm ar it
hmet i
corlogicalcompar i
sonsathigh
speed.Thecontrolunitusesadat astorageregi sterthewayast oreownerusesacash
regi
ster-
asatempor ary,convenientpl
acetost or ewhati susedintransactions.
 

Comput
ersusual
l
yassi
gnspeci
alr
olest
ocer
tai
nregi
ster
s,i
ncl
udi
ngt
heser
egi
ster
s: 

o Anaccumul ator,whichcollectstheresul
tofcomput ations.
o Anaddr essr egist
er ,
whichkeepst rackofwher eagi v
eni nstructi
onorpieceof
dataisst oredi nmemor y.Thememor yaddressofani nst ructionisi
ncremented
withev eryfetch-executecy cl
esot hatnoinstructionisf etchedt wice.Each
storagel ocationinmemor yisidentif
iedbyanaddr ess,justaseachhouseona
streethasanaddr ess.
o Ast orager egister,whichtempor ari
lyhol
dsdat at akenf rom oraboutt obesentto
memor y.
o Agener al-
purpose  r
egist
er,whi chi
susedf orsev eralfunct ions
 CPUBuses:thesecomponent sar etheinformati
onhi ghwayf ort heCPU.Busesar e
30
 bundl
esofti
nywir
esthatcarr
ydatabet
weencomponents.Thet
hreemosti
mpor
tant
busesar
etheaddr
ess,thedata,
andthecont
rol
buses.

Anaddr essbusisacomputerbus(aser
iesofli
nesconnect i
ngtwoormor edevices)
thati
susedt ospeci
fyaphy
sicaladdr
ess.Whenapr ocessororDMA- enabl
eddev i
ce
needstor eadorwri
tet
oamemor yl
ocat
ion,
itspeci
fiesthatmemor ylocat
iononthe
addressbus( t
heval
uetobereadorwrit
teni
ssentont hedat abus)
.

Acont rolbusis( par

tof)acomput erbus,
usedbyCPUsf orcommuni cat
ingwithot
her
deviceswithinthecomput er.Whil
etheaddressbuscar
ri
est hei
nformati
ononwhi ch
devicetheCPUi scommuni cati
ngwithandthedatabuscarri
estheactualdatabei
ng
processed,thecont r
olbuscarri
escommandsf r
om t
heCPUandr et
urnsstatussi
gnal
s
fr
om t hedevices.

64-
bitAt
hlonMi
cropr
ocessorbyAMD

(i
i)Mai nMemor y
Pri
marystorage, al
socalledmai nmemor y ,al
thoughnotapar toftheCPU, i
sclosel
yrelat
edt othe
CPU.Mai nmemor yholdspor t
ionsoft heoper at
ingsy st
em, progr
am instr
ucti
onsanddat abefore
andafterexecutionbyt heCPU.Al li
nstructi
onsanddat apasst hroughmai nmemor ylocati
ons.
Memor yislocatedphysicall
ycloset otheCPUt oreduceaccesst ime,thati
s,theti
mei ttakesthe
CPUtor et
ri
ev edatafr
om memor y
.Al t
hought heov erall
trendhasbeeni ncr
easedmemor yaccess
ti
me,memor yhasnotadv ancedasqui cklyaspr ocessors.Memor yaccesstimeisoftenmeasur ed
i
nmi l
l
iseconds,oronet housandthsofasecond.

i
ii
)CPUCACHEMEMORY
ACPUcachei
saty
peofmemor
yusedbyt
hecent
ralpr
ocessi
nguni
tofacomput
ert
oreducet
he
31
averaget i
met oaccessmemor y.Thecacheisasmal l
er,
fastermemorywhichst or
escopi
esofthe
dataf r
om frequentlyusedmai nmemor yl
ocations.MostCPUshav eani nt
ernalcachememory(i
n-
buil
ti nthepr ocessor)whichisrefer
redtoasLev el1(L1)cache.Thiscanbesuppl ement
edby
externalcachememor yfi
ttedont hemotherboardandr ef
err oasLev
edt el
-2cachememor yor
secondar ycache.

NB/Somecomput erscomeequippedwithCOPROCESSORS.Acopr ocessorisaspecial

-pur
pose
pr
ocessi
ngunitt hatassist
stheCPUi nperfor
mingcer t
aintypesofoper ati
ons.Forexample,a
mathcoprocessorper f
ormsmat hemat
icalcomputati
ons,parti
cularl
yf l
oati
ng-
pointoperat
ions.
Mathcopr
ocessor sareal
socall
ednumericandfl
oat
ing-poi
ntcoprocessors.

Mostcomputerscomewithafloat
ing-poi
ntcoprocessorsbuilti
n.Not
e,howev er,
thatt
hepr
ogr
am
i
tsel
fmustbewr i
tt
entotakeadvantageofthecopr ocessor.I
fthepr
ogram containsno
copr
ocessori
nstr
ucti
ons,t
hecoprocessorwill
nev erbeut i
l
ized.

I
naddi
tiontomathcopr
ocessors,
ther
earealsographi
cscopr
ocessor
sformani
pul
ati
nggr
aphi
c
i
mages.Thesear
eoftencal
ledaccel
erat
orboards.

3.OUTPUTDEVI
CES

Result
sar etakenf rom mai nst orageandf edtoanoutputdev i
ce.Thismaybeapr int
er,i
nwhi
ch
casetheinformationi saut omat i
call
yconvertedtoapri
ntedform call
edhardcopyortoamonitor
screenforasoftcopyi nformat i
on.
Outputishuman- readabl ei nfor
mat i
on.Input(dat
a)isprocessedinsidethecomputer
’sCPUi
nto
meaningfuloutput( infor
mat i
on).Outputdevi
cest r
ansl
atethemachi ne-r
eadabl
einf
ormati
oni
nto
human-readableinfor mation.

a)PUNCHEDCARDS:Apunchedcar
disapi
eceofst
if
fpapert
hatcont
ainedei
thercommands
forcontr
oll
ingacomput erordat afordatapr ocessi
ngappl i
cations.Bot hcommandsanddat a
wererepresent edbyt hepresenceorabsenceofhol esinpr edefinedpositi
ons.Character
sare
codedontoan80- columncardi ncolumnsbycombi ni
ngpunchesi ndiff
erentl
ocat
ions;aspecial
cardreaderr eadsthecar dsandt ransl
atesthem intotransacti
onsf orthecomputer.Theseare
now usedonl yforolderapplicati
ons.Earl
ydi git
alcomput ersal sousedpunchedcar ds,oft
en
prepar
edusi ngkey punchmachi nes,astheprimarymedi um forinputofbot hcomputerprograms

32
anddat
a.

b)PRI
NTERS
–Out
putspr
int
outsonpaperof
tenr
efer
redt
oashar
d-copyout
put
.
Cat
egori
zedaccor
dingt
o:

(
I)Pr
int
ingCapaci
ty

- Char
act
erpr i
nter
s–Pr i
ntonecharact
eratat
ime.
- Li
nepri
nters–Pr i
ntoneli
neatatime.
- Pagepr
inters–Printawholepageatati
me.

(
ii
) ModeofPrint
ing
- ImpactPri
nter
s
- Non-I
mpactPrint
ers

I
mpactPr
int
ers

Impactpri
nterscreat
eani magebyusi ngsomemechani sm t
ophy si
call
ypressani nkedri
bbon
agai
nstthepage,causingthei
nktobedeposi t
edonthepageintheshapedesi red.Thesepri
nters
arety
pical
lyloud,
butremaininusetodaybecauseofthei
runi
queabili
tytofunctionwi t
hmult
ipart
for
ms.Mul ti
partf
ormsar esheetsofpaperwi t
hembeddedcarbonpapersot hatprinti
ngont he
topsheetprovi
desseveral
copiessi
multaneousl
ywhenthemulti
plepart
sarespl it
.

a) Dotmat
ri
xpr
int
ers

Dotmat ri
xprint
erswhichusesapr intheadthatr unsbackandf ort
h,ori
nanupanddownmot ion,
ont hepageandpr int
sbyimpact,st r
iki
ngani nk-soakedclothri
bbonagainstt
hepaper,muchl i
ke
thepr i
ntmechanism onat y
pewriter.Theprintheadt ypi
call
yhas9or24pi ns.Eachcharact
eris
madef r
om amat ri
xofdots.Theimagesar er elati
velyofpoorqualit
ysi
ncedot sarevi
sibleupon
closeinspect
ion.Theyar
einexpensivetobuycompar edtootherty
pesandhav eoneofthelowest
print
ingcostsperpage.Theyare,howev er
,noi syandl ow-endmodelsar
esl ow(speedvari
eswi t
h

33
pr
ice)
.

b) Dai
sy-
Wheel
Pri
nter

Thedaisywheeli
sadiskmadeofpl ast
icormet alonwhichcharactersst
andoutinreli
efal ongthe
outeredge.Topri
ntacharacter,theprinterrotat
esthediskuntilthedesi
redlett
erisf acingthe
paper.Thenahammerst rikest hedisk,f or
cingt hechar
act
ert ohi taninkribbon,leav i
ngan
i
mpr essi
onofthechar
act
eront hepaper .Youcanchanget hedaisywheeltopri
ntdiff
erentf ont
s.

Dai
sy-
wheel
pri
nter
scannotpr
intgr
aphi
cs,
andingeneral
theyarenoisyandsl
ow,pri
nti
ngfrom 10
t
oabout75char
acter
spersecond.Ast
hepri
ceoflaserandink-
jetpri
nter
shasdecl
ined,andthe

34
qual
i
tyofdot
-mat
ri
xpr
int
ershasi
mpr
oved,
dai
sy-
wheel
pri
nter
shav
ebecomeobsol
ete.

Adai
sywheel

Non-
ImpactPr
int
ers

Thi
sty
peofpr
int
ersdoesnotoper
atebyst
ri
ki
ngaheadagai
nstar
ibbon.

a)I
nkj
etpr
int
ers

Theseformimagesby“shoot
ing”ti
nydropl
etsofinkonpaper .Theyoff
errel
ativ
elygoodimage
quali
tywi
thsomanysmalldotsthatt
heyarenotnoti
ceabl
e,evenuponcloseinspect
ion.Theyar
e
rel
ati
vel
yquietcompar
edt odotmat r
ixandmostcanpr intcolourimages.Theyar ethemost
commonlyused.

b)Laserj
etpr
int
ers

Theyf ormimagesusi ngcopiertechnology.Whenadocumenti ssentt otheprinter,alaserbeam

"draws"t hedocumentonasel eni
um- coat
eddr um usingelectr
icalcharges.Af terthedr um is
charged,itisrol
l
edi ntoner,adrypowdert ypeofink.Thetoneradher estothechar gedi mageon
thedrum.Thet onerist r
ansfer
redontoapi eceofpaperandf usedt othepaperwi t
hheatand
pressure.Aftert
hedocumenti spri
nted,theelectr
icalchar
geisremov edfrom thedr um andt he
excesst oneriscoll
ected.Theseprint
ershav eexcell
entimagequal i
ty–somanysmal ldotsthat
theyarenotnot i
ceable,evenuponcloseinspecti
on.Theyarequieterthaninkjetprint
ers.

c)Ther
mal
Pri
nter
s

Ther malpri
nti
ngproducesapri
ntedimagebysel ecti
vel
yheati
ngcoatedther
mo-chromicpaper
(paperthati
scoatedwithachemicalt
hatchangescolorwhenexposedtoheat
),ort
hermalpaper
asi tiscommonlyknown,whenthepaperpassesov erthether
malpri
nthead.Thecoati
ngturns
blackintheareaswhereiti
sheated,pr
oducinganimage.Itisver
yquietandnotwidel
yusedby
35
homePCuser
s.Somev
eryexpensi
vecol
ourmodel
sar
eav
ail
abl
e.“
Ink”i
nthesecomput
ersi
swax
cray
ons.

C)PLOTTERS
Printer
smakei magesonel ineatat imeandmov efr
om toptobott
om duringtheprinti
ngprocess.
Plotters,ontheot herhand,
drawt heimageaswewoul d,withapen;oneshapeatat i
me.Plott
ers
aremostof tenusedwi thCADsof twaretoproducebluepri
ntsort
echnicaldi
agrams.Itwouldbe
quiteexpensi vetomakeapr i
nterthatcanpri
ntonpaperaswi deasthesedr awingsrequi
re.
Becauseapl otterusesapen( orseveralpensinaholder)onacablecarri
er,
itiseasy(and
rel
ativelyinexpensive)t
omakeav erywideplotter
.

Plott
ersaretypical
lyusedfordesi gnoutput.Theyarespeci
al-
purposeoutputdev i
cesusedto
producecharts,maps,architectur
aldrawingsandthr
ee-di
mensionalrepr
esentati
ons.Theycan
produce high-qual
i
ty multi
-colour documents or l
arge si
ze documents.Pl ott
ers pr
oduce
documentssuchasbl uepri
ntsorschemat i
cs.

I
nt hepast
,pl
otter
swereusedinappli
cat
ionssuchascomputer
-ai
deddesi
gn,t
hought
heyhav
e
general
l
ybeenrepl
acedwi
thwide-
for
matconventi
onal
pri
nter
s.

D)MONI
TORS/
VDU(
VisualDi
spl
ayUni
t)

Outputdeviceforsoft
-copyoutput(t
emporalscreendispl
ayofoutputwhichlastsasl
ongast he
monitor’
spoweri son).Theyarethemostfrequentl
yusedoutputdevices.Someareusedont he
desktop;ot
hersareportabl
e.Twoimport
antcharacter
isti
csoft
hemoni toraresi
zeandcl
ari
ty.

Amonit
ordi
splay
sinfor
mationi
nvisualfor
m, usi
ngtextandgraphi
cs.Theport
ionofthemonit
or
t
hatdi
spl
aystheinf
ormati
oniscal
l
edt hescreen.Li
keatelev
isi
onscreen,acomputerscr
eencan
36
showst
il
lormov
ingpi
ctur
es.

Themonit
orformsimagesfr
om t
inydot
s, cal
l
edpixel
s.Pi
xelsar
earr
angedinarect
angul
arfor
m.
Theshar
pnessofimage(scr
eenr
esolut
ion)dependsuponthenumberofpi
xel
s.Therear
eseveral
ty
pesofmonitor
s:
CRTMONI
TORS
Thecathoder
ayt ube(
CRT)technologyusesavacuum tubecontaini
ngoneormor eel
ectr
onguns
(asour
ceofelect
ronsorel
ectr
onemi tter
)andafl
uorescentscr
eenusedt ov i
ewimages.I
thasa
meanstoacceler
ateanddef
lecttheelect
ronbeam(s)ontothescreentocreatet
heimages.

LCDMONI
TORS

Shortf i
orlqui
dcrystaldi
splay,atypeofdispl
ayusedi ndigit
alwatchesandmanypor t
abl
e
comput er
s.LCDdisplaysut i
l
izetwosheetsofpolarizi
ngmat er
ial
wi t
hal i
quidcr
ystalsol
uti
on
betweenthem.Anel ectr
iccur r
entpassedthr
ought heliqui
dcausesthecr y
stal
stoalignsothat
l
ightcannotpassthrought hem.Eachcr y
stal
,ther
efore,isl
ikeashutter
,eit
heral
lowingli
ghtto
passthroughorblockingthelight
.

- Theresoluti
onofaCRTi sadjust
able,whil
ethatofanLCDi softenset
.
- TheCRTcandi splayanal mostunlimit
edno.ofcolours, butt
heLCDcandi spl
ayalimit
ed
no.ofcolours.
- LCD’sarebacklitbyaser iesofli
ghtbulbs.Notebooksuseonl y1li
ghtbul
binorderto
conservepower ,butdesktopLCD’ scanuseupt o4bul bs.
Thesebulbscanber eplacedbyt heuser.Theyalsohav eal i
fespan.Ther
efor
e,after
sometime,youwi llnot
icet hatt
hescreenstart
sbecomi ngdimmer .Taket
heLCDt othe
vendorforabulb.
Adv
ant
agesofLCDov
erCRT.
1.Thescr
eenofaLCDi smuchthinner&small
ert
hanofCRT.
LCDscreenscomei n14or15-i
nchsizes.A15”LCDhasa15”v
iewabl
escr
een;
asi
zet
hati
s
onl
ysli
ghtl
ysmallerthana17”CRT.
2.LCD’
shav enofl
i
cker .
Theyconsumel
owpowert
hant
heCRT.
Di
sadv
ant
agesofCRTmoni
tor
s/adv
ant
agesofLCDov
erCRT
1.Sharpness
CRTmoni tor
sproduceimageswithsofteredgest
hatar
enotassharpasanLCDati
tsnat
ive
resol
uti
on.Imper
fectfocusandcolorr
egistr
ati
onalsor
educeshar
pness.

2.I
nter
fer
encefrom magnet
icf
iel
ds
Theyar
eaffect
edbymagneticf
iel
dsfr
om ot
herequi
pmenti
ncl
udi
ngot
herCRTs.

3.Br
ight
ness
Rel
ati
vel
ybri
ghtbutnotasbr
ightasLCDs.Notsui
tabl
eforv
erybr
ight
lyl
i
tenv
ironment
s.

4.Scr
eenShape
SomeCRTshavear
ounded,
spher
ical
orcy
li
ndr
ical
shapescr
eenwhi
chdi
stor
tsi
mageswhen

37
v
iewedf
rom acut
eangl
es.
.NewerCRTsar
efl
at.

5.Emissions
CRTsgiveof fel
ect
ri
c, magneti
candelect
romagneti
cr adiat
ions.Thereisconsi
der
ablecontr
over
sy
astowhet heranyoftheseposeahealthhazard,
part
icularl
ymagnet i
cfiel
ds.Themost
author
it
ativesci
enti
fi
cst udi
esconcl
udethattheyar
enothar mfulbutsomepeopleremain
unconvi
nced.

6.Physi
cal
Theyarelar
ge,
heav
y,andbul
ky.

7.El
ectr
ici
tyConsumpti
on
Theyconsumealotofel
ect
ri
cit
yandpr
oduceal
otofheat
.

TFTMONI
TORS

Shor
tforthi
nfil
mt ransi
stor,atypeofLCDf l
at-
paneldi
splayscreen,
inwhi
cheachpixeli
s
cont
rol
ledbyfrom onetof ourtr
ansist
ors.TheTFTtechnologyprovi
dest
hebestresol
uti
onofal
l
thef
lat
-panelt
echniques,butiti
salsothemostexpensive.

LEDDI
SPLAY

AnLEDdi
spl
ayi
saf
latpanel
displ
ay,
whi
chusesl
i
ght
-emi
tt
ingdi
odesasav
ideodi
spl
ay.

PLASMADI
SPLAY

At ypeoff l
at-
paneldi
splaythatworksbysandwichinganeon/ xenongasmi xt
urebetweentwo
sealedglassplat
eswithparall
elel
ectr
odesdeposi
tedont heirsurfaces.Theplatesareseal
edso
thattheelectr
odesformr i
ghtangl
es,creat
ingpi
xel
s.Whenav olt
agepul sepassesbetweentwo
electr
odes,thegasbreaksdownandpr oducesweaklyionizedplasma,whi chemi t
sUVr adi
ati
on.
TheUVr adiati
onacti
vatescol
ourphosphorsandvi
sibl
elightisemi t
tedfrom eachpixel
.

F)VOI
CE-
OUTPUTDEVI
CES
Voice-out
putdevicesmakesoundst hatresemblehumanspeech.Voice-
outputdev i
cesusepr e-
recordedvocal
izedsoundstoproduceout put.Thecomputer“
speaks”synt
hesizedwor ds.Voi
ce
outputisnotasdiffi
cul
ttocr
eat
easv oiceinput.Mostwi
del
yusedv oi
ce-
outputdevicesarester
eo
speakersandheadphones.Devi
cesar econnectedtoasoundcardinthesystem unit
.Soundcard

38
i
susedt
ocapt
uresoundaswel
laspl
ayi
tback.

Exampl
esofv oiceoutputuses:
 Soft-
dri
nkmachi nes,thetel
ephone,andincars.
 Voiceoutputcanbeusedasat ool f
orlear
ning:canhel
pst udentsstudyaf
orei
gnl
anguage.
 Usedinsuper marketsatthecheckoutcountertoconfi
rm purchases.
 Mostpower fulcapabil
it
yistoassistthephysi
call
ychall
enged.

4.STORAGEDEVI
CESANDMEDI
A
Memoryr
efer
stothephy
sical
devi
cesusedtost
orepr
ograms(sequencesofi
nstr
uct
ions)ordat
a
onat
emporaryorper
manentbasi
sforusei
nacomputerorot
herdigi
talel
ect
roni
cdevi
ce.

Ty
pesofMemor
y
1)Pr
imar
yst
orage,al
soknownasmai
nst
orageormemor
y,i
sthemai
nwor
kingar
eai
nacomput
eri
n
whi
chdat
aisst
oredf
orqui
ckaccessbyt
hecomput
er'
spr
ocessor
.

2)Secondar
yst or
age,somet
imescal
l
edauxil
iaryst
orage,i
sal
ldat
ast
oragethatisnotcur
rent
lyina
computer
'spri
marystorageormemory.Thec omputerusual
l
yusesitsinput/
outputchannelsto
accesssecondar yst
orageandt r
ansf
erst
hedesi
reddat
ausingint
ermedi
ateareai
nprimary
storage.Secondar
ystoragedoesnotl
oset
hedat
awhenthedevi
ceispowereddown—i
tisnon-
volati
le.

DIFFERENCEBETWEENPRIMARYANDSECONDARYMEMORY
(a)Unli
kepr
imar
ymemory,
secondar
ymemor
yisnotdi
rect
lyaccessedt
hroughCPU.
(
b)Pr
imar
ymemor
yisv
olat
il
einnat
ure,
whi
l
esecondar
ymemor
yisnonv
olat
il
e.Thei
nfor
mat
ion
t
hati
sst
oredi
nthepr
imar
ymemor
ycannotber
etai
nedwhent
hepoweri
stur
nedof
f.
(
c)Thepr
imar
ymemor
yismuchf
ast
eri
nter
msofdat
aaccesst
imet
hant
hesecondar
ymemor
y.
(
d)I
nter
msofcost
,thepr
imar
ymemor
yismor
eexpensi
vet
hant
hesecondar
ymemor
ydev
ices.
(
e)Thepr
imar
ymemor
ycont
ainspr
ogr
am anddat
athati
scur
rent
lybei
ngusedbyt
heCPU
(
tempor
ary
)whi
l
esecondar
ymemor
yisusedf
orbul
kst
orageofdat
aper
manent
ly.
(
f)Pr
imar
ymemor
yismuchsmal
l
ert
hansecondar
ymemor
y.

1.PRI
MARYSTORAGE
a)RAM (
Random AccessMemor
y)/
RWM (
ReadWr
it
eMemor
y)–Al
sor
efer
redt
oasmai
n
memor yorpri
marystor
age.It
scontentscanber
eadandcanbechangedandist
hewor ki
ngarea
fortheuser.Iti
susedt ohol dport
ionsoftheoperat
ingsyst
em,progr
amsanddat adur
ing
processi
ng.RAM chi
psarevolat
il
e,t
hatis,t
heyl
osethei
rcont
entsi
fpowerisdi
srupt
ed.Typi
cal

39
si
zesofRAM i
ncl
ude32MB,64MB,
128MB,
256MB,
512MB,
1GB,
2GB,
4GB,
8GBet
c.
Ther
earesev
eral
typesofRAM:

 DRAM –Dy
nami
cRAM
WithDy nami
cRAM t
hememor
ymustbeconst
ant
lyr
efr
eshed(
reener
gized)ori
twi
l
llosei
ts
content
s.
 EDORAM –Ext
endedDat
aOutRandom AccessMemor
y
Unlikeconvent
ionalDRAM whi
chcanonlyaccessoneblockofdat aatati
me,EDORAM canst
art
fetchingt
henextblockofmemor yatt
hesamet i
methatitsendstheprev
iousbl
ockt
otheCPU.
 SRAM –St ati
cRAM
StaticRAM isfast
erandlessvol
ati
let
handynamicRAM, butitrequi
resmorepowerandi
smor e
expensive
SDRAM –SynchronousDRAM
Thi
sisat y
peofDRAM t hatcanr unatmuchhigherclockspeedsthanconv
ent
ionalmemor
y.SDRAM
act
ual
l
ysynchroni
zesitsel
fwiththeCPU'sbusandiscapableofrunni
ngat133MHzabouttwi
ceasfast
EDORAM.DDR( DoubleDataRate)
,DDR2andDDR3ar eexamplesofSDRAM.

b)CacheMemor
y-Cachememor
yishi
gh-
speedmemor
ythatapr
ocessorcanaccessmor
equi
ckl
y
thanRAM andmor eexpensivethanRAM.Fr equentlyusedinstructi
onsarestor
edincachesi
ncetheycan
beretr
iev
edmor equi ckly,
improvingtheov er
allperf
ormanceoft hecomputer
.MostCPUshaveani nt
ernal
cache memor y(in-buil
tint he processor)whi ch i
sr ef
err
ed t o asLevel1 (L1)cache.Thiscan be
suppl
ementedbyext er
nalcachememor yfi
ttedont hemot herboardandreferr
edtoasLev el
-2cache
memor yorsecondar ycache.

c)ROM (
ReadOnl
yMemor
y)–I
tscont
ent
scanonl
yber
eadandcannotbechanged.ROM chi
ps
arenon-v
olat
il
e,sot
hecontentsaren’
tlosti
fthepoweri
sdisr
upted.ROM pr
ovi
desper
manentstor
agef
or
unchangi
ngdata&instr
ucti
ons,suchasdat afrom t
hecomputermaker
.Iti
susedt
oholdi
nstr
ucti
onsf
or
star
ti
ngthecomputercal
ledthebootstrapprogram.
ROM chips,t
hecontents,orcombinat
ionofel
ect
ri
calcir
cuitstat
es,aresetbyt
hemanuf
act
urer
andcannotbechanged.Statesar
epermanentl
ymanufact
uredintothechi
p.

ProgrammableROM (PROM):Thisisat ypeofROM t hatcanbepr ogrammedusi ngspeci al

equipment
;itcanbewr
it
tent
o,butonl
yonce.Usedmost
lyi
nelect
roni
cdev
icessuchasal
arm sy
stems.
ErasablePr ogr
ammabl eROM ( EPROM) :AnEPROM i saROM t hatcanbeer asedand
reprogrammed.Al it
tl
eglasswi ndowisinst
all
edontopoft heROM package, t
hr oughwhichyou
canact uall
yseethechipthatholdsthememor y.Ul
travi
oletli
ghtofaspecif
icf requencycanbe
shinedt hr
oughthiswindowf oraspecif
iedperi
odoft i
me, whichwill
erasetheEPROM andal lowit
tober eprogrammedagai n.Thesechipsareusual
lyeasil
yidentif
iedbythei
rsmal l
,ci
rcul
ar

40
wi
ndows.Thewi
ndowsi
nEPROM chi
psar
euseddur
ingt
heer
asur
epr
ocess.

Electri
cal
lyErasabl
ePr ogrammableROM ( EEPROM) :Thenextl eveloferasabil
it
yistheEEPROM,
whi chcanbeer asedundersof t
warecontrol.Thisi
st hemostf l
exibl
ety peofROM,andi snow
commonl yusedf orholdi
ngBI OSprograms.Wheny ouhearr ef
erencetoa" fl
ashBIOS"ordoinga
BIOS upgradeby" f
lashing"
,thisreferstor epr
ogrammi ng theBI OS EEPROM wi th aspecial
softwareprogram.Thisisnotacont r
adict
ionofwhat" read-onl
y"real
lymeans, butt
her ewr
it
ingi
s
donemay beonceay earorso,compar edt
oreal r
ead-writ
ememor y(RAM)wher erewrit
ingi
sdone
oftenmanyt i
mespersecond.Fl ashmemor ywasder i
v edfrom EEPROM.

Iti
sv er
yinconveni
enttoremoveanICeveryt
imeitneedstohavethesoftwarei
tcontai
ns
upgraded.EEPROM chipscanbeerasedbysendi
ngaspecialsequenceofelect
ri
csignal
stot
he
chi
pwhi lei
tissti
ll
inthecir
cui
t.Thesesi
gnal
stheneraseal
lorpartofthechip.

NB/ Forthemostpart,PCstodayusememorychi
psarrangedonasmal lci
rcui
tboar
d.These
cir
cuitboardsarecal
ledSi
ngleInl
i
neMemor
yModules(SIMMs)orDualInl
ineMemoryModules
(DIMMs) ,dependi
ngonifther
earechi
psonon……esideoft heci
rcui
tboardoronbothsides,
respecti
vely
.

d)Non-
Vol
ati
leCMOS(
CMOSRAM)I
twast
radi
ti
onal
l
ycal
l
edCMOSRAM becausei
tuseda
small
,low-
powerCompl ement aryMetal-
Oxide-
Semiconduct
or(CMOS)bat t
erywhensystem power
i
soff.Thebat t
eryalsokeepst heReal-
TimeClock(RTC)going.TheCMOSRAM andt her eal
-t
ime
cl
ockhav ebeeni nt
egratedasapar toft heSout
hbridgechi
psetandi tmaynotbeast andal
one
chi
ponmoder nmot herboards.TheCMOSi susedt ostorebasicinfor
mationaboutt hePC’s
conf
igurat
ion:numberofhar ddr i
ves,how muchmemor yet c.Bootordersett
ings,dat eand
CMOSpasswor darealsost oredintheCMOSmemor y.

e)Non-
Vol
ati
leBI
OSMemor
y
Thisi
sablockofReadOnl
yMemory(ROM)whichissepar
atef
rom t
hemainsyst
em memoryused
forl
oadi
ngandrunni
ngsof
twar
e.TheRom cont
ainst
hePC’sBasi
cInput
/Out
putsyst
em (
BIOS)

TheBI
OSper
for
mst
hef
oll
owi
ngr
out
inesandf
unct
ions:

1.Whent hemachineispoweredon,i
tinspectsthecomput
ertodet
erminewhathar
dwareis
fi
ttedandthenconductssomesimplet askstoseeifev
ery
thi
ngisfunct
ioni
ngnormal
ly-
processknownasthePower-OnSel
fTest( POST).

2.I
fanyoft
heper
ipher
alsar
epl
ug-
and-
playdev
ices,t
heBI
OSr
ecogni
zest
hem andassi
gns

41
 t
hem r
esour
ces.

3.Al
l
owst
hePC’
sset
-upconf
igur
ati
ont
obev
iewedandedi
ted.

I
fallthetestsarepassed,
theROM boot sthemachine.This,
itdoesbylooki
ngatthebootsector
ofeit
herahar ddiskoranyot herdr
ivetofindt
hebootl oaderprogr
am oftheoperati
ngsyst
em.
Wheni tdoesfindt
hefil
e,i
tloadsthefi
leint
oRAM, andthentheoperati
ngsystem t
akeschar
geof
thecomput er
.

1.SECONDARYSTORAGE
CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFSECONDARYSTORAGE

a)I
nter
nalSt
orageMedi
a
I
nternal
storageall
owst hedataandappli
cat
ionstobeloadedver
yr apidl
yintomemor y,r
eadyfor
use.Thedatacanbeaccessedmuchf ast
erthandatawhichisst
oredonanext er
nalstor
age
devi
ce.Thisisbecauseinter
nalst
oragedevi
cesareconnecteddi
rectlytothemot her
boardandit
s
databuswher easext
ernaldevi
cesareconnectedt
hroughahardwar eint
erfacesuchasUSB, whi
ch
meanstheyar econsi
derablysl
owertoaccess.
I
nter
nalstor
agealsomeansthati
fthecomputerismovedaround,i
twil
lst
il
lretai
nit
smost
f
requent
lyuseddata.Themai
ndisadvant
ageofinter
nalst
orageist
hatwhent hehar
ddi
skfai
l
s,al
l
t
hedataandappli
cationsmaybelost
.
Thiscanbeav oi
dedtosomeextentbyusi
ngmor ethanoneharddiskwit
hinthemachi
ne.Each
harddiskhasacopyofal lt
hedata,soi
fonefai
lstheothercancar
ryon.Thisiscal
l
edaRAIDarray
.
Analternativ
eistouseext
ernal
medi af
orbackup.Anexampl eofi
nter
nalstor
agemedi
aisan
i
nternal/f
ixedharddi
sk.

b)Ext
ernalSt
orageMedi
a
Thesemedi aarenor mal lyusedf ordataback-upsandarenotpermanent l
yf i
xedi
nsideacomput
er.
Tofulf
ill
thelar
gest or ager equi r
ement sofcomput er
s,magneticdiskssuchasdiskettesand
ext
ernalharddisks,opt icaldi skssuchasCDsandDVDsandf l
ashdr i
vesaregeneral
lyused.
Advantagesofext ernalst oragei ncl
ude:
 Dat acanbet r anspor tedeasilyfrom oneplacetoanother
-por t
abl
e.
 Itisusefultost oresof twareanddatat hati
snotneededf r
equently
.
 Ext er
nalstorageal soact sasdat aback-up.
 Ext er
nalstoragepr ovidesaddi t
ionalstor
ageotherthanavai
lablei
nt hecomputer.

Magnet
icSt
orageMedi
a
HowMagnet
icSt
orageWor
ks

•Amagneticdi
sk'
smedium cont ai
nsir
onoxidepart
icl
es,whichcanbepol
ari
zed—gi
venamagnet
ic
charge—i
noneoftwodirecti
ons.
•Eachpar
ti
cle'
sdi
rect
ionrepresentsa1(on)or0(off)
,repr
esenti
ngeachbi
tofdat
athatt
heCPU

42
canrecogni
ze.
•Adiskdri
veusesread/
wri
teheadscont
aini
ngel
ect
romagnet
stocr
eat
emagneti
cchargesonthe
medium.Anelectr
omagnetisatypeofmagneti
nwhicht
hemagnet
icf
iel
dispr
oducedbyelect
ri
c
cur
rent.

Thepr
imar
yty
pesofmagnet
icst
orageMedi
aar
e:
•
Diskett
es( fl
oppydisks)
•
Harddi sks
•
High-capacityf
loppydisks
•
Diskcar t
ri
dges
•
Magnet ictape

1.Di
sket
tes/
Floppydi
sks
•Di
sket
tedri
ves,alsoknownasf l
oppydiskdr
ives,r
eadandwri
tetodi
sket
tes(cal
l
edfl
oppydi
sks
orfl
oppi
es).
•Di
sket
tesareusedt otr
ansferf
il
esbetweencomput er
s,asameansf
ordist
ri
buti
ngsof
twar
e,and
asabackupmedi um.
•Di
sket
tescomei ntwosizes:5.
25-i
nchand3.5-i
nch.

2.Har
dDi
sks
•
Harddisksusemult
ipl
eplatt
ers,
stackedonaspi
ndl
e.Eachpl
att
erhastworead/
wri
teheads,
one
f
oreachside.
•
Harddisksusehi
gher-
quali
tymediaandafast
err
otat
ional
speedthandi
sket
tes.

43
•
Remov
abl
ehar
ddi
skscombi
nehi
ghcapaci
tywi
tht
heconv
eni
enceofdi
sket
tes.

2.Di
skcar
tri
dgesar
eli
kesmal
lremov
abl
ehar
ddi
sks,
andcanst
oreupt
o2GB.

44
 Di
skcar
tri
dge
3.Magnet
ict
apesof
ferv
erysl
owdataaccess,
butpr
ovi
del
argecapaci
ti
esandATl
owcost
.

Magnet
icTape

Di
skCapaci
ti
es
•Di
skett
esar eavailabl
eindiff
erentcapacit
ies,
butt
hemostcommonst
ore1.
44MB.High-
capaci
tyf l
oppydisksoffercapacit
iesupto250MB
•Harddisksstor
el argeamountsofdat a.NewPCsfeat
urehar
ddi
skswi
thcapaci
ti
esof10GB
andhigher.

Advant
agesofMagnet i
cDev ices
 Theyarev erycheapf orexampl efl
oppydi sks.
 Theyofferv eryfastdat aaccessspeeds, about1000kb/ s
 Datacanber eaddi r
ect lyfrom anypar toftheharddi sk
 Mostoft hedev i
cesst orev erylar
geamount sofdat ae. g.har
ddi sks.
Di
sadvant
agesofMagnet i
cDev i
ces
 Datacanbeal teredorer asedbymagnet i
cf i
elds,dustormechani cal
probl
ems
 Theygradual l
yl osetheirchar geov erti
meandt hereforelosedata
 Har ddi
sksev ent ual
l
yf ail whichstopst hecomput erfrom wor ki
ng
 Regularclashescandamaget hesurfaceoft hedisk,leadingtolossofdata.

b)Opt
icalSt
orageDev
ices
•Anopti
cal
diski
sahi
gh-
capaci
tyst
oragemedi
um.Anopt
ical
dri
veusesr
efl
ect
edl
i
ghtt
oread
data.
45
 •Tostoredata,thedisk'
smet alsurf
acei scoveredwi t
htinydent
s(pits)andfl
atspots(lands),
whichcausel i
ghttober ef
lecteddiff
erently
.
•Whenanopt icaldri
veshineslighti
ntoapi t,t
helightcannotberef
lectedback.Thisrepresents
abitvalueof0( off
).Alandreflect
slightbackt oi
tssource,repr
esentingabitval
ueof1( on)
.
Lasertechnologyisusedtor ecordandr eadinfor
mat i
onf r
om aCD’soraDVD’ ssur f
ace.

TypesofOpt
icalSt
orageDev
ices
1.CD-ROM
•
InPCs,t
hemostcommonl yusedopticalstoragetechnologyiscalledCompactDiskRead-
Only
Memory(CD-ROM) .CDsusemicroscopicindentat
ions(Pits)andflatsurf
aces(
Lands)tostore
i
nfor
mation.
•
AstandardCD-ROM diskcanstoreupto650–700MBofdat a,orabout70minutesofaudio.
•
Oncedataiswrit
tentoastandardCD-ROM di sk,t
hedat acannotbeal ter
edoroverwr
it
ten.

CD-R(CompactDi sk-Recordable)
ACD-Rdiski
sbl ankwheni tissuppl
ied.Theusercanwrit
edatat oi
tjustonce.Af
terdat
ahasbeen
wri
tt
entothediski tcannotbechanged.CD-Rsareoft
enusedf ormakingpermanentbackupsof
dat
aanddistr
ibuti
ngsof twarewhenonlyasmal lnumberofcopiesarerequi
red.

CD-
RW (CompactDisk-Rewri
teabl
e)
CD-
RW diskscanbereadf
rom andwri
tt
ent
omanyt
imes

CD-
ROM SpeedsandUses
•EarlyCD-ROM dr iv
eswer ecall
edsingl
espeed,andreaddataatarateof150KBps.(
Harddisks
transferdataatr at
esof5–15MBps) .
•CD- ROM driv
esnowcant ransferdat
aatspeedsofupt o7800KBps.Datatr
ansf
erspeedsare
gettingfaster
.
•CD- ROM istypical
lyusedtostoresoft
wareprograms.CDscanstoreaudi
oandv i
deodata,
aswell
ast extandpr ogram i
nstr
uctions.

2.DVD-
ROM
•Av ar
iat
ionofCD-ROM iscall
edDigi
tal
VideoDiskRead-
OnlyMemor y(DVD-ROM),
andisbei
ng
usedinpl aceofCD-ROM inmanynewerPCs.It
sspeedismuchf astert
hanCDandhasamuch
higherstoragecapaci
ty.Thi
sismadepossibl
ebythereduct
ionofthedist
ancebetweent
hepit
s.
46
•St
andar dDVDdi sksstor
agecapaci
tyi
s4.7GBofdat a—enoughtostoreanent
ir
emov i
e.Dual
-
l
ay erDVDdi skscanstoreupto17GB.
•Dual-
layerDVDdi skscanstor
esomuchdat abecausebothsidesofthedi
skareused,
alongwit
h
sophisti
cateddatacompr essi
ont
echnol
ogies.

DVD-RW
Thesedi
skscanber
eadf
rom andwr
it
tenont
omanyt
imes.

Di
ff
erencebet
weenDVDandCD

3.
Blu-
RayDi
sc
Blu-r
ayDi sc(BD)isadi git
al opt i
caldiscdat astor agef ormatdesignedtosuper sedetheDVD
format.Thepl asti
cdisci s120  mm i ndiamet erand1. 2 mm thick,
thesamesi zeasDVDsandCDs.
Conv enti
onal(pre-
BD-XL)Bl u-rayDi scscont ain25  GBperl ayer,wit
hduall
ay erdiscs(50GB)bei ng
theindustrystandardforf eat ure-l
engt hvideodi scs.Tr i
plelayerdi
scs(100GB)andquadr upl
e
l
ay er
s( 128GB)ar eav ailabl
ef orBD- XLre-wr i
terdr i
ves.ThenameBl u-
rayDiscr efer
stothebl ue
l
aserusedt oreadthedi sc,whi challowsi nformat i
ont obest oredatagreaterdensitythani s
possiblewiththelonger -wav elengthr edlaserusedf orDVDs.Themaj orapplicati
onofBl u-r
ay
Discsisasamedi um f orv i
deomat er i
alsuchasf eat urefi
lms.

TheBl u-r
aydiscovercomesDVD- r
eadingissuesbypl acingt hedataontopofa1. 1-mm-t
hick
polycarbonatelay
er.Havingthedataontoppr event
sbi r
efri
ngenceandt hereforeprev
ent
s
readabil
itypr
oblems.And, wit
htherecor
dingl ayersit
ti
ngcl osertotheobjectivelensoft
hereadi
ng
mechani sm,theproblem ofdi
scti
lti
sv i
rt
uallyeliminated.Becausethedatai sclosert
othesurf
ace,

47
ahar
dcoat
ingi
spl
acedont
heout
sideoft
hedi
sct
opr
otecti
tfr
om scr
atchesandf
inger
pri
nts.

Adv
ant
agesofUsi
ngOpt
icalDev
icesov
erMagnet
icDi
sks
I
nmagnet i
cdev i
ces,datacanbeal t
eredorer asedbymagnet icfi
elds,dustormechani cal
problemsunl ikei nopticaldeviceswher edatacannotbeaf f
ectedbydust ,magneticfi
eldsor
fi
nger pri
nts.
Magnet icdev i
cesgr aduallyloset heirchargeov erti
meandt herefor
el osedat awhereasdat a
writ
tenonopt icaldevicesi susual l
yper manent.
Harddi sks,whi charemagnet ic,eventuall
yf ai
lwhichstopst hecomput erf rom worki
ng.
Regularclashesofmagnet i
cdev icescandamaget hesurfaceoft hedi sk,leadingtolossof
data.
Opticaldisksar emor edur ableandl astal ongtime.Ther eisagr eaterdi stancebetweent he
medi aandt heRead/ Wr i
teelementi naCDascompar edt omagnet icst orageandt herefore
opti
cal devicescanbeusedr epeat edlywithoutwearordat adamage.
 Opticaldev i
cesar emor eportableint hattheyaresmal landlightweight .
 Theyar einexpensi vei.e.theyarecheapert omanuf acturethanmagnet i
cdev ices.

Fl
ash/
Elect
roni
cMemor
y
Fl
ashmemor yandpendri
vesar everycommont oday.Flashmemor yisal soknownasasoli
dst at
e
stor
agedev i
cebecausetherearenomov ingpar t
sandt hereforel
esssuscept ibl
etomechanical
damage.Theyar eal
sosmal li
nphy sicalsizeandlightinwei ghtt
hereforeportabl
e.Fl
ashmemor y
al
sotransfer
sdataatafasterratethanopt i
cal
andmagnet icmedia.Theyar eusefuli
ndevi
ces
wherefrequentupdat
ingofdataisr equired.Flashmemor yisusuall
yf oundindigi
tal
cameras,

48
di
git
alcamcor
der
sandmobi
l
ephones.

Exampl
esoff l
ashmemor yi
nclude:
 Memor ysticks/f
lashdisks
 Securedigit
al(SDCar ds)
 Multi
Medi acard(MMC)
 Smartcards

Ot
herBackupOpt
ions
 Zi
pdr
ive/di
sk–I
tisaspeci
aldiskettest
hathold100MB,
250MBor750MB
 Sy
Questdri
ve–Usesspeci
alcartr
idgesthathol
d200MB

Sy
Questdr
ive

 RAI D -RAID st ands forRedundantAr rayofI ndependentorI nexpensive Disks.RAI

D
technologyi sf aul
ttolerant;thati s,itall
ows dat ato be st
ored so t hatno data or
transacti
onsar elosti
nt heeventofdi skfai
l
ure.RAIDinvol
vesusingmul t
ipleharddisksi
na
specialcont r
oll
erunitandst oringdat aacrossal lthedisksinconj unctionwi t
hextra
reconstruct
ioninformationthatallowsdatatober ecover
edifaharddiskf ai
ls.

 Stor
ageAr eaNetwor k(SAN)– A st oragear
eanetworkconnect sser
versandstorage
devi
cesinanetworktost orel
argevolumesofdat
a.Datastoredinastor
ageareanetwork
canbequicklyretr
ievedandbackedup. Theuseofst oragear eanet
worksisl
ikel
yt o
i
ncreaseinthenearf ut
ure.Thestoragedevi
cesareaccessibletoserver
ssothatt he
devi
cesappearl
iketheyarelocal
lyat
tachedtot
heoperat
ingsystem.

 CloudStorage
Thisref
erstosav
ingdatatoanoff
-si
testoragesyst
em maint
ainedbyat hi
rdpar
tyi.
e.t
he
hosti
ng company.Peopl
e and or
ganizat
ions buyorlease stor
age capaci
tyfrom t
he

49
 pr
ovi
der
stost
oreuser
,or
gani
zat
ional
orappl
i
cat
iondat
a.

 Comput erOutputMicr ofi

lm/Microfi
che(COM)–Ami cr
ofi
l
mi saf i
lm onwhi chpri
nt ed
materi
alsarephotogr aphedatgr eat
lyreducedsi zeforeaseofst orage.Companiest hat
muststoresigni
fi
cantnumber sofpaperdocument soft
enusecomput eroutputmicr
ofilm.
Thesedev i
cestr
ansferdat adi
rectl
yfrom thecomput erontothemi crofi
lm,thuseli
minating
theint
er medi
atestep ofpr i
nti
ng thedocumenton paper . Newspaper sand journals
typi
cal
lyarchi
veoldi ssuesint hi
smanner ,al
thoughsomear enow usi ngopt i
calst
orage
devi
ces.Datawrit
tenonami crofi
l
mi sreadusingami cr
ofi
lmr eader.

St
orageCapaci
tyAbbr
evi
ati
ons
 KB-kil
obyte-1000( thousand)
 MB-megaby t
e-1,000,000( mill
i
on)
 GB-gigabyte-1,
000,000,000( bil
li
on)
 TB-teraby
te-1,000,000,000,000(tri
l
li
on)

Di
ff
erencebet
weenst
oragemedi
aandst
oragedev
ices
Ast oragemedi um (medi ai stheplur al
)isthephy si
calmat erialonwhi chitemsarekept .Astorage
dev i
ceisthecomput erhar dwar ethatrecordsandr etr
ievesi temst oandf rom astoragemedi um.
Storagedev i
cescanf uncti
onassour cesofinputandout put .Whenst or
agedev i
cest ransferi
tems
from astoragemedi um i ntomemor y–apr ocesscal l
edr eadi ng–t heyfuncti
onassour cesof
i
nput .Whenst oragedev icest r
ansf erit
emsf rom memor yt oast oragemedi um –apr ocesscal l
ed
wr i
ti
ng–t heyf uncti
onassour cesofout put.Sometimest hest or agemedi um isremov ablefr
om
thedev i
ce,e.
g.aCD- ROM canbet akenoutofaCDdr ive.
Ty pesofst or
agemedi aincludef l
oppy
disks,harddisks,compactdi scs,tape, PCCar ds,
mi cr
of i
l
m, andmi crofi
che.

5.COMMUNI
CATI
ONDEVI
CES

Acommuni cationdev iceisapi eceofequipmentorhar dwaredesi gnedt ohelpcomput ersor

el
ect
ronicdev icescommuni catewitheachot her.
 Net wor kI nt erface Car d/Contr
oll
er( NetworkI nt
erface Car d,Net wor k Adapt er ,LAN
adapt er,Et hernetcar d)
Incomput ernet working,aNI Cprov i
dest hehardwareinterfacebet weenacomput eranda
networ k.Net wor kcardsconv ertthebi narydatageneratedbyt hecomput erintoel ect
ri
cal
voltagesorot hersignalt ypesthenet wor kmedium usesandconv ert
sr eceivedsi gnal
st o
binarydat af orusebyt hecomput er.Ev eryNIChasauni queMedi aAccessCont rol(MAC)
addr essandbecauseanNI C'sMACaddr essispermanent ,
it'
sof tenreferr
edt oast he" r
eal,
"
orphy sical,addr essofacomput er.NI Csarebuiltintot hemot herboardofmostnew
comput ersi ntegrated intot he mot herboar
d chipsetori mpl ement ed viaal ow-cost

50
 dedi
cat
edEt
her
netchi
p.

 Modem
Modemsal l
owcomput er
s(digi
taldev
ices)tocommuni cat
ev i
athephonesy st
em (
based
onanalogtechnology)
.Ittur
nst hecomputersdigi
taldataint
oanalog,sendsitov
erthe
phoneli
ne,andt henanothermodem att heotherendoft heli
netur
nst heanal
ogsignal
backi
ntodigi
taldata.

 Faxmodem
Basicdigi
tal
/analogmodem enhancedwit
hfaxt
ransmissi
onhar
dwar
ethatenabl
esfaxing
ofinfor
mat i
onfrom comput
ertoanotherfax
/modem oraf ne(
axmachi NOTE:aseparate
scannermustbeconnectedt
othecomputerinor
dert
ousethefax/
modem totransf
er
exter
naldocument
s)Afaxmodem enabl
esacomput
ert
otr
ansmi
tandrecei
vedocuments
asf
axesonat
elephonel
i
ne.

COMPUTERHARDWARESELECTI
ONCRI
TERI
A

Thef
oll
owingfactorsar econsideredwhensel ectinghar dwareforuse:
i) Compat i
bil
ityandI ndustrySt andards:
 Isthehar dwar ecompat ibleandf uturisticinregardtoot herpi
ecesofhardwarei
nyour
t
echnologypl an;
 Aret her
ei ndustrystandar dsforsimi larhardwar ecomponent s;
 Istransferofoper ati
ngknowl edgef rom ot hertechnologiesappl
icabl
e?
i
i) EaseofOper ation:
 Canhar dwar ebei nstall
edandmai ntainedbyl ocalpersonnel;
 Areadul tandst udentuser sablet oaccess/ usehardwar ewithminimaladdi
ti
onal
t
echnologycompet encies;
 Canhar dwar ebeser viced, maintained, andupgr adedlocall
y?
i
i
i) Support:
 Istechnicalsuppor tprovidedbyv endoratmi nimalcostandav ail
ablei
nav ar
iet
yof

51
 medi ums;
 Ar epr i
ntedandel ectroni cmanual swr it
tenandunder standabl e;
 Doest hev endorhav east rongResear chandDev el opmentDepar t ment ;
 Doest hev endorhav east rongcommi tmentt ot heEducat ionalCommuni t
y?
i
v) Cost:initialandmai ntenance
 I sthecostcompet it
ivewi thint hemar ketpl acef orl ikespeci f
ications;
 Ar et her equi r
ed/request edcomponent si ncludedi nt hepur chasepr ice;
 Ar edet ailedandr enewal warrant iesav ai
labl e?
v
) Reput ati
onoft hemanuf act urer.
 Fi nanci al stabil
ity
 Recor dofkeepi ngpr omi ses
v
i) SpecificConsi derati
ons:
 I sther ecapabi li
tyforandeaseofusi ngmul timedi a;
 I stheequi pmentnet wor kabl e?
 Doest hehar dwar eincl udesoundut iliti
es, videoi nput /out put,etc;
 I sthebui ltinmemor ysuf fi
cientandexpandabl e;
 I sthehar ddr i
vest orageadequat eandexpandabl e;
 Ar ecomput ersandpr inter scompat ible;
 Ar et her eadequat eel ect ronicdev icesav ail
abl ef orbackupandst orageofdat a;
 Ar epr i
nter sadequat et ohandl ecur rentandf uturej obl oads;
 Ar emoni tor sandpr oject iondev icesadequat eforsmal landl argegr oups;
 Dopr esent at i
onsy stemshav equal i
tysoundi nandoutcapabi l
i
ties
v
ii
) Ordering/ Acqui sit
ionSuggest i
ons:
 Occasi onal l
ygr ouppur chases/ bundl esar eav ai
labl e;invest i
gatecur rentorpendingof f
ers
 Har dwar epackagesmaynotpr ov ideadequat ememor yf ornecessar ypr ogram functi
ons;
consi der ationshoul dbegi vent ot hesav ingsoft hepackagev s.thecostofaddi tional
memor yupgr ades.
 Consi der ationmustbegi v entowhet heral ineofequi pmenti sbei ngdi scontinued;what
i
mpl i
cat i
onsdoest hedi scont inuancehav eoni ssuessuchasmai ntenance.
 Rev i
ewt het ypeofwar rant ywhi chi spr ov i
dedont hehar dwar e.
 Mai ntaincopi esofal l war ranties.
 Whenpur chasingsof t
war e,itisr ecommendedt hatcompani esof fering30daypr evi
ewof
sof t
war ebeusedwhenev erpossi ble.

HOW TOAQCUI REI CTRESOURCES–PROCEDURE

1.Conductf easibil
it
ystudy :
Economi c,
Oper
ati
onal
,Techni
cal
etc.
2.Prepar ei
nvit
ationtot ender
3.Receiv er
esponsef rom suppl i
ers
4.Shor t
li
stbestsuppl i
ers
5.Callthem forintervi
ew
6.Selectoneandsi gnacont ract
7.Wai tfordel
ivery

52
COMPUTERSOFTWARE-I
NTRODUCTI
ON
Acomput ersof
tware/
program i
sasequenceofinst
ruct
ions(
machine-
readabl
e)
thatt
ell
thecomputerhardwarewhattodo.
Therearetwomajorcategori
esofsof
tware:
syst
em andappli
cat
ionsoftware.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
Systems sof t
ware consist
s ofpr ograms thatco-ordi
natethe act
ivi
ti
es of
hardwareandot herprograms.Sy st
em soft
war eisdesi
gnedforaspecif
icCPU
andhar dwareclass.Thecombi nat
ionofapar t
icul
arhardwareconf
igurat
ion
andoper ati
ngsy st
em iscalledacomput erplatf
orm.Theseprogr
amsmanage
the"behindthescenes"operati
onofthecomput er.

TYPESOFSYSTEM SOFTWARE
1.Operatingsy st
ems( OS)– Thi sisacollecti
onofsoftwaret hatmanages
comput erhardwareresourcesandpr ovi
descommonser vi
cesf orcomput
er
progr
ams.
Exampl esofoperati
ngsy stemsi ncl
ude:
 DOS–Di skoperatingsystem
 Wi ndows3. 1,95,98,NT, 2000,ME,XPLinux,
WindowsServer2003
 Uni x
 MACOSX
 Sy stem 7/MacOS7
 Sol ari
s

2.Uti
lit
y Pr ograms – Thi si s system sof twar e desi gned t o hel p anal yze,
confi
gur eandmai ntainacomput er.Ut i
li
typr ogramsof tencomei nstalledon
comput ersy stemsorpackagedwi thoper atingsy stems.Ut i
lit
iescanal sobe
purchasedi ndividually.Exampl esofut i
li
typr ogramsi nclude:
a.Languagepr ocessor s–Compi l
er sandi nterpreters.
b.Di skcl oning-Ref erst ot hepr ocessofcopy ing thecont entsofone
comput erhar ddiskt oanot herdi skort oan" image"f i
le.Unl ikest andar d
copyingf unct i
ons,di skcloningi nvolvescopy inghi ddenandi n-usef i
l
es,
andt huspr esent sspeci alchall
enges,ast hoset ypesoff il
esar ety picall
y
notav ail
ablef orcopy i
ng.Exampl esi ncludeDi skCopybyAppl eand
Driv
eCl onebyFar stoneTechnol ogy.
c.Di skCompr ession–At y
peofdat acompr essi ont hatwor ksbyst oring
compr essedv ersionsoff il
esont hehar ddi sk.Adi skcompr essionut i
lit
y
sit
sbet weent heoper ati
ngsy stem andt hedi skdr ive.Whenev ert he
operatingsy stem at tempt stosav eaf i
let odi sk,theut i
li
tyi ntercept si t
andcompr essesi t
.Likewi se,whent heoper atingsy stem at t
empt st o
openaf i
l
e, t
hedi skcompr essionut il
it
yi ntercept sthef il
e,decompr esses

53
 i
t,andt henpassesi ttotheoperat
ingsystem.
d.Ant i
v i
russof t
ware
e.Backupsof tware
f. Di
skchecker scanscanoper at
inghar ddr
ive.
g.DiskDef r
agment er
h.Diskpar t
it
ioningfordivi
dinganindivi
dual
dr i
veint
omult
ipl
elogi
cal
dri
ves
i
. DiskCl eaner
j
. Debugger s
k.Regi strycleanerscleanandopt imizetheWi ndowsr
egist
rybyremovi
ng
ol
dr egistr
ykey sthatarenolongerinuse.

Ty
pesofOper
ati
ngSy
stems

 Multi
-user:Al
lowstwoormor euserstorunprogr
amsatt hesamet i
me.
Someoper ati
ngsystemsper mi
thundredsoreventhousandsof
concurr
entusers. 
All 
mainf
rames and 
minicomput
ers aremul t
i-
user 
systems,butmost  
per
sonalcomputer
s andworkstations 
arenot
.

 Multiprocessing:Suppor t
sr unningapr ogram onmor ethanoneCPU.The
system hast woormor epr ocessinguni t
s(mul t
ipl
epr ocessors)each
sharingthe mainmemor y andper ipheral
s,inordertosi multaneously
processpr ograms.Thisi salsocal led 
paral
lelprocessingandi smade
possiblebymul tit
hreadingpr ogramssucht hatseveralthreadsoft he
samepr ogram runont hesameCPU.

 Multi
taski
ng/Mult
ipr
ogrammi ng(vs.Si
ngletaski
ng):Al
lowsmor ethan
oneprogram t
orunconcurrentl
yther
ebyensur i
ngthatsyst
em resources
areuti
li
zedeff
ecti
vel
y.Asingle-
taski
ngsystem hasonlyonerunning
progr
am.

 Mul t
it
hreading:Al
lowsdif
fer
entpar t
sofasi ngleprogram t
orun
concurrentl
y.Thetechnol
ogycanbeappl iedt oasingleprocesstoenabl
e
parall
elexecuti
ononamul ti
processorsystem.Thi smeanst hata
si
ngle process 
canhavemanydi ffer
ent"f
unct ions"
 execut
ing 
concurr
ent
ly,
al
lowingt heappli
cati
ontobetterusetheav ail
ablehardware(multi
ple
cores/processor
s).

 Realtime:Real t
imesy stemsar eusual l
ydedicated,embeddedsystems.
Theyty pi
cal
lyreadfrom andr eacttosensordat a.Thesystem must
guaranteeresponsetoev entswi thi
nfixedperiodsoftimetoensure
corr
ectper f
ormance.Real -
ti
mer esponsesareof tenunder
stoodtobei n
theorderofmi l
li
seconds, andsomet imesmi croseconds.Respondst o
i
nputinstantl
y.Thepr edictabil
ityofthesy st
em behav i
ouristhemost
i
mpor tantconcerninthesesy stems.Gener al
-purposeoperati
ngsystems,
suchasDOSandUNI X, arenotr eal-t
ime.

54
 Themai
nchar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hist
ypeofr
eal
timesy
stemsi
ncl
ude:
o Directconnecti
onbet
weeni
nput
/out
putdev
icesandt
hecent
ral
processor.
o Fairl
yfastresponset
ime

Typi
cal
exampl
esofreal-
ti
mesy
stemsi
ncl
udeAi
rTr
aff
icCont
rol
Syst
ems,
CommandContr
olSy
st ems.

 Distr
ibut
ed:Adi stri
butedoper at
ingsystem managesagroupof
i
ndependentcomput ersandmakest hem appeartobeasingl
ecomputer.
Thecomput er
sar egeographical
lydispersedbutli
nkedbycommunicat
ion
l
ines.Thi
sseaml essintegrat
ionofindivi
dualnodesint
oaglobal
system i
s
refer
redtoastranspar ency.

 Embedded:Embeddedoper
ati
ngsy
stemsar
edesi
gnedt
obeusedi
n
embeddedcomput ersystemsanddedi catedt ohandleapar ti
culartask.
Anembeddedsy stem isacomput ersy stem wi t
hadedi cat
edf uncti
on
wit
hinal argermechani calorelectri
cal system, oft
enwi threal-
time
comput i
ngconst r
aints.Theyar edesi gnedt ooper ateonsmal l machines
l
ikePDAswi thali
mi tednumberofr esources.Theyar ev er
ycompactand
extr
emel yeffi
ci
entbydesi gn.Exampl esi ncludeWi ndowsCEandMi nix3.
Embeddedsy st
emsr angef rom portabledev icessuchasdi gitalwatches
andMP3pl ayer
s,tol ar
gest ati
onar yinstall
ationsli
ket raffi
clights,f
actory
control
l
er sandlargecompl exsystemsl i
ke hy br
idvehicles,
 MRI ,
and avi
onics.

 Batchoperat
ingsystem:theseexecuteaser iesofpr ograms( "
jobs")ona
computerwit
houthumani nteracti
on.Batchjobsar esetupsot heycanbe
runtocompleti
onwithouthumani nteracti
oni.e.programsanddat aare
coll
ect
edtogetheri
nabat chbef or
eprocessingst art
s.Thi si
sincont r
ast
to"onl
i
ne"orinter
act
ivesystemswhi chpr omptt heuserf orsuchinput.
Examplesofareaswherebat chprocessingisusedi nclude:
a.Producingbil
ls
b.payrol
l
c.stockcontrol
d.processingbankcheques
e.mar ki
ngmul t
ipl
echoiceexami
nat
ionpaper
s

Spool
ingbat
chsystemsusetheconceptofspool
i
ngwhi
chi
sanacr
ony
m
forSi
mult
aneousPeri
pher
alOper
ati
onsonline.
Spool i
ngrefer
st oputt
ingdatainabuffer,aspecial
areainmemor yoron
adi skwhereanout putdevi
cesuchasapr i
ntercanaccessthem whenit
i
sr eady.Spooli
ngisusefulbecausedev i
cesaccessdataatmuchsl ower
ratesthantheCPU.Thebuf f
erprov
idesawai ti
ngstati
onwher edatacan
restwhiletheslowerdevicecat
chesup.

Themostcommonspool
ingappl
icat
ioni
spri
ntspool
ing.I
nprintspool
i
ng,
document
sarel
oadedi
ntoabuff
erandthent
heprint
erpull
sthem offt
he
55
 buf
ferati
tsownr
ate.

 Int
eractive/
on- l
ine:Userisonl
inewit
hcomput ersystem andint
eracts
withitviaaninter f
aceandtheresul
tsofdat
apr ocessingareavai
lable
i
mmedi atel
y.Iti
st ypi
cal
lycomposedofmanyshor tt
ransacti
onswher e
theresultofthenextt r
ansacti
onmaybeunpr edict
able.Responsetime
needstobeshor tsi
ncetheusersubmit
sandwai tsfortheresul
t.

Funct
ions/
Feat
uresofanOper
ati
ngSy
stem

Themai nfeat
uresofanoper
ati
ngsystem canbet
houghtofasfuncti
onsofthe
operat
ingsyst
ems.Theyarethequal
i
tiest
hatanoper
ati
ngsystem shoul
dstr
ive
toachi
eve.

i
)Managi ngResour ces–Thesepr ogramscoor dinat
eal lt
hecomput er’s
resour cesi ncludi ngt hepr ocessor,keyboard, mouse, pri
nter,monitor,storage
dev icesandmemor y.
Anoper atingsy stem cr eatesaf il
est r
uctureont hecomput erharddr i
vewher e
userdat acanbest oredandr etr
ieved.Whenaf i
leissaved,theoper ati
ngsy st
em
sav esit,attachesanamet oit,
andr emember swher eitputthefil
ef orf ut
ureuse.
Thewayanoper atingsy stem organizesi nf
ormat ionintofi
lesiscalledaf ile
syst em.Mostoper ati
ngsy st
emsuseahi erarchicalf
ilesystem,whi chor ganizes
fi
lesi ntodi rectories( folders)underat reest r
ucture.Thebegi nni
ngoft he
directorysy stem i scal l
edt herootdirectorye.g.C:\.Thef i
gurebelowshowsa
screenshotoft reest ructurewhenusi ngWi ndowsExpl orer.

b.Providingauseri nterface–User sinteractwi t

happl icati
onpr ogramsand
comput erhardwar ethroughauseri nterface.Theuseri nter facecont r
ols
howy ouent erdat aori nstructi
onsandhowi nfor mationdi splay sont he
comput erscreen.
Almostal loper ati
ngsy stemst odayprov i
deawi ndows- li
keGr aphicalUser
Int
erface( GUI )inwhi chgr aphicobjectscalledi consar eusedt or epr
esent
commonl yusedf eatures.Someoper ati
ngsy stems, howev er,providea
command- l
ineuseri nterfacesuchasMS- DOS, CP/ M, Unix, andAppl eDOS.
System sof t
war eser vesast heinter
facebet weenauser ,theappl icati
on

56
 sof
twar
e,andt
hecomput
er’
shar
dwar
e.

Scr
eenshotofasampl
eMSDOSConsol
e

i
i
i) Runningappl i
cations–Thesepr ogramsl oadandrunappl i
cat
ionssuch
aswor dpr ocessor sandspreadsheets.Mostoperati
ngsy st
emssuppor t
mult
itasking, ort
heabi li
tytorunmor ethanoneapplicat
ionatat i
me.
Whenauserr equestsapr ogr
am, theoperati
ngsystem l
ocatesthe
appl
icationandl oadsi ti
ntotheprimarymemor yorRAM oft hecomputer.
Asmor epr ogramsar eloaded,theoperatingsyst
em mustal l
ocatethe
comput erresour ces.

i
v) Supportf
orbuil
t-i
nuti
li
typr
ograms–Theoper at i
ngsyst
em usesuti
li
ty
progr
amsf ormaint
enanceandrepai
rs.Ut
il
it
ypr ogramshelpi
denti
fy
probl
ems,locat
elostf
il
es,r
epai
rdamagedf i
les,andbackupdata.The
fi
gureher
eshowst heprogr
essoftheDiskDefragmenter,whi
chisfound

57
 i
nPr
ogr
ams>Accessor
ies>Sy
stem Tool
s.

v
) Cont r
oloft hecomput erhar dware–Theoper atingsystem sits
betweent heprogr amsandt heBasicI nputOut putSystem (
BI OS).The
BIOScont rolsthehar dwar e.Allprogramst hatneedhar dwar e
resourcesmustgot hrought heoper atingsystem.Theoper ating
system canei t
heraccesst hehardwar ethrought heBIOSort hrough
thedev i
cedr i
vers.
v
i) Secur i
ty-Acomput erbeingsecur edependsonanumberof
technologieswor kingpr operly.Amoder noperatingsystem provides
accesst oanumberofr esour ces,whichar eav ai
labl
etosof tware
runningont hesy stem, andt oexternal devi
cesl i
kenetworksv iathe
kernel.
Theoperati
ngsyst
em mustbecapabl
eofdist
ingui
shingbetween
request
swhichshoul
dbeall
owedtobeprocessed,andotherswhich
shouldnotbepr
ocessed.
v
ii
) Repor
ti
nger
ror
sdur
ingpr
ogr
am execut
ion

APPLI
CATI
ONSOFTWARE
Appl
icati
onssof
twar
ei ncl
udesprogramsdesi
gned to hel
p end user
ssol
ve
par
ti
cularpr
obl
emsusingthecomputerort
operf
orm specif
ict
asksbeyondt
he

58
oper
ati
onoft
hecomput
eri
tsel
f.

Sour
cesofappl
icat
ionsof
twar
e

Appl
icat
ion
Sof
tware

Pr
opr
iet
ary Of
f-
the-
shel
f

I
n-house Cont
ract Cust
omi zed St
andard
developed package Package

In–house Cont
ract
cust
omi
zed cust
omizat
ion

Adv
ant
agesofpr
opr
iet
arysof
twar
e
 Youcangetexact lywhaty ouneedi nt
ermsofr eports,f
eatur
eset c.
 Beinginvolvedi
ndev elopmentof f
ersafur
therleveli
ncontroloverresul
ts.
 Thereismor efl
exi
bili
tyinmaki ngmodifi
cati
onst hatmayber equir
edto
counteractanew i ni
tiat
ivebyacompet i
torort omeetnew suppl i
eror
customerr equi
rements.Amer gerwit
hanotherfirm oranacqui si
ti
onwill
al
sonecessi tat
esof t
war echangestomeetnewbusi nessneeds.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofpr
opr
iet
arysof
twar
e
 I
tcant akeal ongtimeandsi gni fi
cantresour
cest odev el
opr equi
red
features.
 I
n-housesy stem devel
opmentst affmaybecomehar d-pr
essedtopr ov
ide
the required levelofongoi ng suppor tand maintenance because of
pressuret ogetont oothernewpr ojects.
 Thesof t
war emakest hebusinessownert ooheavi
l
ydependentupont he

59
 devel
oper
.
 I
tisdif
fi
cul
ttoadaptt
hesof
twar
etochangesi
nthemar
ket
place.

Adv
ant
agesofof
f-t
he-
shel
fsof
twar
e
 Thei ni
ti
alcosti slowersi ncet hesoftwaref ir
mi sabletospreadthe
devel
opmentcost sov eral argenumberofcust omers.
 Thereislowerriskthatt hesof twarewi l
lfailtomeetthebasicbusi
ness
needs -y ou can anal y
ze exi sting f
eatures and perf
ormance ofthe
package
 Packageislikel
yt obeofhi ghqual i
tysincemanycust omerfir
mshav e
test
edthesof t
wareandhel pedi denti
fymanyofi tsbugs.
 Duet oitswidedi str
ibuti
ony oumaybeabl etogainhelpfr
om alarge
numberofuser sespeciallyonline.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofof
f-t
he-
shel
fsof
twar
e
 Anor gani
zati
onmayhav et opayf orfeaturesthatar
enotr equi
redand
neverused.
 The sof t
ware may lack i mport
ant features,thus requi
ri
ng fut
ure
modi f
icat
ionsorcustomisation.Thiscan bev er
yexpensivebecause
usersmustadoptfut
urereleasesofthesof t
ware.
 Softwaremaynotmatchcur rentworkprocessesanddatastandar
ds.

Applicationsoftwareisfurtherclassifi
edi nt
ogener al
-purposesof t
wareand
specialpur poseappli
cati
ons.Gener alpurposeapplicati
onsof twareisat y
peof
softwar ethatcanbeusedf oravarietyoftasks.I
tisnotl imi
tedt oonepar t
icul
ar
function.Forexampl eawor dprocessorcoul dbecl assedasgener alpurpose
softwar easi twoul
dallowausert owr i
teanov el,createar estaurantmenuor
evenmakeapost er
.
Specialpur poseappli
cati
onsof t
war e,ont heotherhand,i sat ypeofsof tware
createdt oexecuteonespecifict
ask.Forexampl eacamer aappl i
cati
onony our
phonewi ll
onlyal
lowyoutot akeandshar epictur
es.

Funct
ionsofv
ari
ousGener
al-
pur
posesof
twar
e
 Wor dpr ocessing–Cr eat e,edi tandpr i
nttextdocument s.E. g.MSWor d,
Wor dPer fect,OpenOf ficeWr i
ter.
 Spreadsheet s–Pr ov i
deawi der angeofi n-bui
ltfunct
ionsf orst atist
ical
,
l
ogical,f i
nanci al
,dat abase,gr aphics,dataand t i
mecal culat
ions.E. g.
Lotus1- 2-3,Excel, Quat troPr o.
 Databasemanagementsy stems( DBMS)–St ore,manipulateandr etr
ieve
data.E.g.Access, FoxPr o, dBase, Oracle,MySQLet c.
 OnlineInfor mat i
onSer v ices–Obt ainabr oadr angeofi nformationf rom
commer cialservices.E. g.Amer icaOnline,CompuSer ve
 Communi cat i
onsappl icat ions-MsOut lookforemai l
 Browser s e.g.I nt ernetExpl orer
,Mozi ll
a Firefox,Eudor a,Net scape’s
Nav i
gator, OperaBr owser ,Tor ch,Googlechrome.
 Graphics– Dev elopgr aphs,i l
l
ustrat
ionsanddr awings.E. g.Pai ntShop,

60
 FreeHand, Corel Dr awet c.
 ProjectManagement–Pl an,schedul e,al locateandcont rolpeopl eand
resour cesneeded t o completeapr ojectaccor di
ng. E. g.Pr oj
ectf or
Wi ndows, TimeLi ne.
 Financi alManagement– Pr ovide income and expense t r
acking and
reportingt omoni t orandpl anbudget s.E. g.Qui cken,Qui
ck-books, Sage
 Deskt oppubl i
shing-Usedt ocr eat
ehi gh- quali
typri
ntedout putincludi
ng
textandgr aphics;v ar
iousst yl
esofpagescanbel aidout ;artandt ext
from ot herprogr amscanal sobei nt egr atedi ntopubli
shedpages.E. g.
PageMaker ,Publisher .
 Present at i
on packages l i
ke MS Power Poi
nt ,Apple Key note,Cor el
Present at i
ons Lot us Fr eelance Gr aphi cs, OpenOf fi
ce, NeoOf fi
ce,
StarOf fi
ceI mpress

Note:Someappl i
cati
onsof t
warecomei nsuites.Asof twaresui
ter ef
erst
o
rel
atedbutindependentprogramsandpackagest hathaveacommonuser
i
nterfaceorshar
eddat afor
mat ,suchasMi cr
osof tOffi
ce.Theprogramsina
soft
war esui
tearedesignedtobeusedt ogether .I
nadditi
on,thecommands,
theiconsandproceduresarethesamef orall
pr ogramsinthesuite.

CHOOSI
NGAPPROPRI
ATECOMPUTERSOFTWARE
Therearesixkeysof
twareevaluat
ioncr
it
eri
athatshoul
dbeconsi
der
edi
nan
organi
zati
on'ssof
twaredeci
sion.

(i) Funct i
onality-Sof t
war eshoul dhav ether ightf unctional ityt of i
tyour
i
ndust ryspeci f
icrequi r
ement s.Justbecauset hesof twar ei swel l known,
doesnotmeant hev endorhast hespeci ficf unct i
onal i
tyy ouneedt orun
yourbusi ness.
(i
i) Technol ogy-Thesof twaremustbeamat chf ort hepl at form anddat abase
thaty ouar er unningandt heexper t
iseoft heI Tst af
ft haty ouhav ein-house.
(
ii
i) Sof twar eVendor-Thesof twarev endori sacr it
ical partoft hesof tware
select ionpr ocess.Youar enotj ustbuy i
ngast aticsof twar esol uti
on; youar e
actual lybuy ingar elationshipwi ththatsof twar ev endor .Youwi llbepay ing
annual maintenancesot hattheywi l
lcont inuet odev elop, enhance, and
i
mpr ov ethepr oduct .
(
iv) ValueAddedResel ler( VAR)–I fyouar eacqui ringsof twar ef rom aVAR, t
he
companyneedst ohav eexper i
encewi tht hesof twarepr oductt haty ouar e
i
mpl ement ingandt hei ndustr
yt haty ouar ei n.Youhav emany
VAR/ Implement ationPar t
neropt ionsav ailablet oy ou.Makesur ey ouget
onet hathasaf ocusi ny ourindust ry.
AVal ueAddedResel lerisacompanyt hataddsf eaturesorser vi
cest oan
existingpr oductandt henr esellsitusuallyt oend- users.Theaddedv al
ue
cancomei nf orm ofi ntegrati
ng, customi zing, consul ti
ng, trainingand
i
mpl ement at ion.
(v) Mai nt enance&Suppor t-Youcanexpectt opaybet ween18- 25%oft he
l
icensecostf ormai ntenance.Thi sentit
lesy out oupgr adesandsomel evel
ofsuppor t.Youshoul dmakesur ethatthi sinv est menty ouwi llbemaki ng
onanannual basiswi llbeappr opr i
ate.
(
vi) Tot alCostofOwner ship-Youneedt oconsi dert het otal costofowner ship
61
 ofthesoftwaresol uti
onandnotj ustthebigdiscountt
hatthevendormay
beofferi
ngf ortheup- f
rontl
icensecost.Therear e3maincomponentsof
out-
of-pocketcostt hatshouldbeconsidered.Thesecomponentsincl
ude
thesoftwarelicense,softwaremaintenance,andi mpl
ementat
ionservi
ces.
Youshoul dlookatt hecostforthenext5-7y earsinor
dert
ogetagoodi dea
ofthelongterm costt oyourorganizati
on.

OPERATI
NGSYSTEM ENVI
RONMENT

Usi
nganoper
ati
ngsy
stem

St
artBut
ton

Asi nglecli
ckofleft
-handmousebut tonont heSt artbuttonwil
linvoket heSt art
menu.TheSt artbut
tonal l
owsausert oaccesshi s/ herworkorapplicati
onwi t
h
thel eastamountoff ussi nawayt hatis“ discov erabl
e”tothef ir
sttimeuser .
Actionssuchasdoubl eclicki
ngarenotdiscov erable.
Asi nglecli
ckoft heright-
handmousebut t
onwi llinvokeasmal l,power f
uland
objectcontrolmenucont aini
ngt
heoptionsOpen, Expl or
e,Sear
chandpr opert
ies.

Thei
rfunct
ionsar edescri
bedasfol
l
ows:
I
tem Functi
on
Open Here,thecontentsoftheStar
tmenucanbev i
ewed.Fol
dersand
i
conscan
bedeleted,
copiedandmovedusingdr
aganddr
optechni
ques.

Expl
ore I
twi llinvoke t
he powerfulWindows XP Explorer
.The Expl
orer
di
splays
ahierar
chical
represent
ati
onoftheent
ir
esy st
em andper
mit
sf ur
ther
manipulat
ionandconf i
gur
ati
onofDesktop.

Sear
ch I
twil
li
nvokeWindowsXPfi
l
esear
chi
ngut
il
it
y.Ithel
psi
nsear
chi
nga
f
il
eeit
herbyi
tsnameorbyit
sact
ual
cont
ent.

Pr
oper
ti
e Openst
hetaskbarand st
artmenu pr
oper
ti
es.Itisimpor
tantin
s cust
omi
zi
ngthestar
tmenuandset
ti
ngtheappear
anceoft
askbar
.

TheSt
artMenu

TheStartmenucont ainsthev ari

ouscat egori
eswherev ar
iousapplicat
ionsand
workarestored.Youcanmov efurtherintovari
oussub-
categoriesbypositi
oni
ng
mouseov erthecategoryy
ouar ei
nt erest
edin.Itwi
l
lautomaticall
yopent henext
sub-
category
.Youdonotev enhav et ocli
ckthemouse.

Ti
p:Ifyoudr
aganobjectei
therf
rom Desktoporf
rom WindowsExpl
oreranddrop
i
t
di
rectl
yontotheSt
artbutt
on,al i
nktot hatobj
ectwil
lautomati
cal
lyappearin

62
St
artmenu.

Todispl
ayStartmenuusi
ngamouse,cl
i
ckont
heSt
artbut
tonl
ocat
edatt
he
bot
tom l
eftofascr
een.

Windowscompati
blekeyboardshavetwoextrakeys.Todispl
ayt
heStartmenu
usi
ngthi
skeyboar
d,pressthewindowslogokey.I
twil
lopentheSt
artmenu.

ToclosetheStar
tmenuusingamouse,pointt
hemouseatt
heDeskt
op(
notat
thestar
tmenu)andcl
ickt
helef
tmousebutton.
ToclosetheSt
artmenuusi
ngakey,
presstheEsckey
.

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethesub-
menusoft
heSt
artmenu:

1.Al
lPr
ogr
ams

TheAl
lProgr
amsal
lowsonetoaccessallsub-
groupsthatonehascreat
ed,
orwhi
chmaybecr
eatedaut
omat
ical
lybyappli
cat
ioninst
all
ati
onr
outi
nes.

Not
e

Sub-categori
escaneasil
ybeaddedt otheProgr
amscat egor
ybyi ni
ti
all
y
cli
ckingtheSt ar
tbutt
onwiththeright-
handmousebut tonandselecti
ng
theOpencommand.Thev i
ewwillnowexpandt odispl
aythecontentsof
each category as a wi
ndow.The cr eati
on ofaddit
ionalfol
ders and
program iconscanbeper
formedeasilywhil
sti
nthi
sv i
ew.

Fi
nall
y,whencomplet
e,cl
osethewindowsandclickontheStartbut
ton
wit
hthelef
thandmousebutt
on.Yournewl
ycreat
edf ol
der
sandiconswil
l
nowappearwit
hint
heStar
tmenuitsel
f.

2.Cont
rolPanel

Bysel ectingCont rolPanelf rom theStartmenu,onecandi rect

lyaccesst he
ControlPaneland Pr i
ntersfol
ders.Being ablet o access t
he cor
e system
confi
gur ationutil
iti
esi nt hi
swayi sparticular
lyusefulwhenanappl i
cati
oni s
alr
eadyi nt hefor
egr oundandy ouwantt omakeaqui ckchange.Inthi
scase,
simplypr ess“ Ctr
l+Esc”ort hewindowsl ogokeyt oinvoketheStartmenuov er
thetopofy ourapplicati
onandcl i
ckon“Set t
ings.
”

3.Sear
ch

TheSear
chuti
l
itypermitssear
chi
ngofal
lsyst
em r
esources.Wit
hint
hiscategor
y,
youcanper
form searchesfordi
sti
nctt
ypesofsearchwhi charedescr
ibedas
fol
l
ows:

i
) Fi
lesorFol
der
s

Here,youmayperf
orm ahighl
ypowerf
ulfi
lenameandact
ualfi
l
e
contentsear
ch.Byusi
ng thesearchprogr
am,iti
spossibl
eto
63
 specifyat extst r
ingthatwilloccurwithi
naf i
leevenifthef i
l
eisa
binaryfi
le.Thi skindofsear chhasalwaysbeenusef ulf
oruser sof
theUNI Xoper atingsy st
em andi smorecommonl yrefer
redt oasa
GREPsear ch.Youmayal sosear chf
orapar ticul
arty
peoff il
e,such
assear chingf oral lwavesoundf i
l
es( endingi nanext ensi
onof
.
WAV) .
Tofi
ndthelocati
onofaf il
e,followthefol
lowingprocedure:
•Cl
ickont heStartbut t
on
•Clickont heSearchcommand
Fr
om thesub-menudi splayed,selectForFil
esorFolders(refertof
igur
e5. 1)

Makesur
ethatt
heNameandLocat
iont
abi
ssel
ect
ed.Fol
l
owt
hef
oll
owi
ng
pr
ocedur
e:

•I nt
heNamedsect ion,entert
henameoft hefil
ey ouwishtolocate.I
nthi
s
example,wehav eentered“wordpad.exe”
•Ensur ethatthecorrectdri
ve t obesearchedisselect
ed,i
nt hi
scaseiti
s
Driv
eC
•Tosear chthewhol edisk,
makesur e“I
ncludesubfol
ders”boxisti
cked
•Tost artt
hesear ch,cl
i
ckont he“Sear
ch”button.I
nthiscase,ther
esul
ts
wil
lbedisplayed

Toopent
hef
il
ethathasbeenf
ound,
doubl
ecl
i
ckoni
t.

i
i) Ont
heI
nter
net

Thiscommandwil
lst
artI
nter
netExpl
orerandwi
l
ldi
spl
ayapageenabl
i
ngy
out
o
searcht
heI
nter
net
.

i
ii
) Peopl
e

Thiscommandwi l
ldi
splaythe“Fi
ndPeopl e”dial
ogbox( r
efert
ofi
gur
e5. 4)
.You
canusethiscommandt osearchy ourper
sonaladdressbookoryoucansearch
forsomeoneonInt
ernetbyselect
ingoneoft hedir
ector
yservi
cesf
rom t
he“Look

64
i
n”dr
opdownl
i
st.
Fi
gur
e5.
3–Sear
chont
hei
nter
net

4.Run

Fi
gur
e5.
5Rundi
alogbox

TheRunoptionprovi
desat extentr
yboxf oryoutotypethenameandlocationof
thefil
eyouwishtorun.Clicki
ngonBr owsewi l
lall
owy outosearchal
llocaland
networkdr
ivesforfi
les.Thisispart
icul
arl
yusefulifyouareunsureoftheexact
fi
lenameorpath.Youcanal sorunexecut
ablefi
les.

Runni
ngdocumentfi
leswillruntheassociat
edpr ogr
am andthendi
spl
aythe
documentwit
hint
hecor r
ectprogram.Insomecases,y oumaytryr
unni
nga
documentf
il
eandseethefoll
owingmessage.(Ref
ertofigur
e5.
6)

Fi
gur
e5.
6—

Thisindi
catest
hatWindowsXPdoesnotunder
standt
hef i
l
eextensi
onandno
associat
ionhasbeensetupbetweenafil
enameext ensi
onandapar t
icul
ar
progr
am.

Touset
hekey
boar
dtoopent
heRundi
alogbox,
fol
l
owt
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ocedur
e:

•Pressthe“Ctr
l+Esc”keys
•Releasethekeysandt henpr
essR

Toopenfol
dersusi
ngtheRuncommand, fol
l
owthef ol
lowi
ngprocedure:
a. TheRuncommandi snormall
yusedt orunprograms,ortoopen
document
swithi
npr ogr
ams.However,youcanalsousei tt
oopen
fol
der
s.Fori
nstance,toopenthe“\
WI NDOWS”f olderanddispl
ay

65
 i
tscontent
s,youwoul
denter“C:
\WI
NDOWS”i
ntheRundi
alogbox
andthencl
icktheOKbut
ton.

5.Turnof f
TheTur noffopti
onallowsausertocloset
heWi ndowsXPoper
ati
ngsy
stem.I
t
al
so
ensur
est hatallr
unningprocessescanhal
tcleanlyandar
egiv
enachanceto
fl
ushany
datathatmaybei ncachememor youtt
othedi
sk.

Sever
alopti
ons are av ai
labl
e when shutt
ing the sy
stem down.These are
summari
zedas
fol
l
ows:
Itpl
acesy ourcomput eri
npowersav i
ngstandbymode.Tore-awaken
yourcomput er,simplypressakeyormov ethemouse.Itshoul
dbe
notedthatallPCssupportthi
sfeat
ure.

a)Tur
nof
f

I
tfl
ushesal
lunwr
it
tendat
atodi
skandcl
oseasy
stem.

b)Rest
art

I
tfl
ushesal
ldat
afr
om memor
yandt
otal
l
yrest
art
sasy
stem.

Cr
eat
ingaNewFi
leDi
rect
lyFr
om t
heDeskt
op

Tocr
eat
eanewdocumenti
conony
ourDeskt
op,
fol
l
owt
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ocedur
e:

• Ri ght -
cli
ckonanempt ypar toftheDeskt opt odisplayt heDesktop
popupmenu
• Sel ectt heNewcommand
• Fr om t hesub- menudi splayed,sel
ectt hetypeofnewf il
eyouwi sh
to
Creat e.
• Thel istwill
v arydependingonwhati sinstal
ledony ourPC
• I nt hecasei l
lust
rated,cl
ickingon“ NewMi crosoftDocument ”wil
l
create
theabov eiconony ourDesktop.
Doubl ecl i
ckingont hi
siconwi llei
therswitcht oMi crosoftWor d(i
f
i
ti sal r
eadyr unni
ng)orst artMi crosoftWor d orcr eateanew
document
wi thinthepr ogram.

Fol
derCr
eat
ion

Tocr
eat
eanew f
olderwi
thi
ntheWi
ndowsXPExpl
orer
,fol
l
ow t
hef
oll
owi
ng

66
pr
ocedur
e:

•OpentheExplorerbyr
ightcl
i
ckingonmycomput
eri
con.
•Cli
ckonExplorer
• Cl
i
ckonthepor ti
onofthedir
ector
ytr
eewher
eyouwouldl
i
ket
ocr
eat
e
a
Subor
dinat
efol
der(
ref
ert
ofi
gur
e5.
8).

•Cli
ckont heFi
ledropdownmenuandmov et
hemousepoint
ertoNew
•I
nt hesub-menudisplay
ed,cl
i
ckonFol
der
•Thef ol
derswi
llappear,
bei
nggiv
enanamedetermi
nedbyWindowsXP
•Infigur
e5.9,t
hef ol
dernamesareNewFol
der,NewFol
der(
2)andNew
Fol
der
(
3)
-NewFol
der1
-NewFol
der2
-NewFol
der3
-
-
-
-NewFol
dern

Fi
gur
e5.
9--Namesoff
older
s

Tocreat
eafol
derdir
ect
lyf
rom t
heDeskt
opwi
tht
hehel
pofpop-
upmenu,
fol
l
ow
the
fol
lowi
ngpr
ocedur
e:

• Cli
ckt heri
ght
-handmousebuttonany whereonanemptypartofthe
deskt
op
sur
face
•TheDesktoppop-upmenuwil
lbedispl
ayed
•Movet hemousepointert
oNew andf rom thesub-
menu,sel
ectFol
der

67
 (
refert
o
Fi
gure5.
10)

Fi
gur
e5.
10-
-Cr
eat
ingaf
olderf
orm deskt
op

Thisf oldercannowbeusedtohelporganizeyourDeskt
opandkeepi
tfreefr
om
cl
ut t
er .
Therei snol i
mitt
othenumberoff ol
dersy oucreat
eoneit
hertheDesktopor
withinaf il
e
system.Ev er
yfol
dermaycont
ainaddit
ionalf
older
s.

Renami
ngFi
lesorFol
der
s

Torenamef ilesorfolder
susingtheExpl orer
,foll
ow
thef
oll
owingpr ocedur
e:
•Sel ectthefi
leorfol
dertober enamed
• Fr om t heFil
edropdownmenu,sel ectt he
Renamecommand, orcl
i
ckonceusi ngtheright
-hand mouse but t
on to display the pop-up
menuandcl i
ckontheRenamecommand,
• Ent erthenew nameandpr essEnterkeyt o

68
conf
ir
mthechange

Fi
gur
e5.
11-
-Renamingf
il
es
orfol
ders

Anot
herwayt
orenamef
il
esorf
older
sisasf
oll
ows:

• WithintheExplorer
,cli
ckonceonthefil
eorfol
dert
osel
ecti
t
• Wai taf ew moment sandt hensingl
eclickonthefi
l
eorf ol
der
(usingtheleft
-handmousebut t
on)
• Aboxwi llappeararoundt
hef i
leorfol
derall
owi
ngyoutodi
rect
ly
editthename.

I
tshoul
dbenotedthatt
her
eisnoneedtomakethesecondcli
ckt
oosoonaft
er
t
hefi
rstcl
i
ckasWindowsXPmayint
erpr
ett
hisasa“r
unt hi
sfi
l
ecommand.”

Del
eti
ngFi
lesorFol
der
s

Fil
esorf
older
scaneasil
ybedelet
edfrom t
heWindowsExplorer
.Manyfil
est
hat
youcanseeusingt
heExplor
erar
evit
altot
hecor
rectfunct
ioni
ngofWindowsXP.

I
tshould ber emembered t
hattheExplor
erprogr
am incommonwi thmany
WindowsXP
pr
ogramshasan“ UndoDelete”commandlocat
edunderthe“Edi
t”dr
opdown
menu.Unl
ike
WordforWindows,however
,thisi
sli
mit
edtoonelev
elofundo,
not100l
evel
s.

Todel
eteaf
il
eorf
older
,fol
l
owt
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ocedur
e:

•Cli
ckont heStartbuttonandmov ethemousepointertoPrograms
•From thesub-
menudi splayed,cl
ickon“Wi
ndowsExpl orer
”
•Selectthef
il
eorf olderthaty ouwisht
odelet
e
•Cli
ckont heri
ght-handmousebut t
ontodi
spl
aythepop- upmenu
• From thepop-upmenu,cl ickonDeletewhichdispl
ayst hedial
ogbox

69
 (
referto
Figur
e5.
12)

Fi
gur
e5.
12-
-Conf
ir
mfi
l
edel
etedi
alogbox

•Conf
ir
myourdel
eti
on

I
tshouldbenotedt
hatal
lfi
lesdel
etedvi
atheWindowsExplorermovet
othe
Recy
cleBinbef
orebei
ngfi
nall
ypurgedandsor
emai nsal
vageablef
orqui
tea
l
ongtime.

Tophy si
cal
lydel
eteafil
ewit
houtf
irstbei
ngsenttotheRecycl
eBi n,f
oll
ow the
foll
owingpr
ocedur
e:
• Selectthefi
leyouwisht ocomplet
elydeletefr
om yourcomput er
system
• Pr
essShift
+Delwhi
chwil
ldispl
ayawarningdial
ogbox(refertofi
gure
5.13)

Fi
gure5.13--Confi
rmfil
edeletedialogbox
 Cli
ckonthe“Yes”buttonandthefil
ewi l
lbephy si
cal
l
yremovedfr
om
your har
ddiskItshouldbenotedthatthi
sdi alogboxdoesnotsendt
he
fi
let
othe RecycleBin.I
tdel
etesthefil
efrom di sk.

TheWindowsXPAccessor
ies
TheAccessor
iesar
eacoll
ecti
onofusef
ulut
il
it
iesandappl
i
cat
ionsi
ncl
udedi
n

70
WindowsXP.
Fol
lowi
ngaresomeoft
heaccessor
ies:

1.Wor
dPad

TheWor dPadaccessoryi stheWi ndowsXP equiv

alenttotheWr i
tepr
ogram
foundi nWi ndows3.x.Thisnew accessoryoff
erssomenew f eaturesf
ortext
mani pul
ati
onandf or
mat t
ingwhichar enotf
oundintheolderpr
ogram asshown
i
nFi gure5.14inthef
oll
owi ngpage.

Fi
gur
e5.
14—Wor
dPad

TheFol
l
owi
ngar
esomeoft
het
extmani
pul
ati
onf
eat
ures:

• Theabili
tyt ochanget hecolorofagiv
enfontaswellast
heusualf
ont
at
tr
ibut
es
•Fullparagraphmani pulat
ionandindent
ati
oncont
rol
•Theabi l
itytodefinetabs
•An“ i
nserttoday ’
sdate”feature
•Fullpri
ntpr evi
ew
•Acase- sensiti
ve“fi
nd”

Tost
artWor
dPad,
fol
l
owt
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ocedur
e:

•Cli
ckontheSt
artbut
ton
• Movet
hemousepointert
oPr
ogr
amsandsel
ectAccessor
iesf
rom t
he
sub-
menu;
•Cli
ckonWordPad

2.Pai
nt

Pai
ntistheWindowsXPv ersi
onofthePaint
brushpr
ogr
am f
oundinWindows3.x.
ThePaintprogram off
ersanabi l
i
tytogenerateandmani
pulat
egraphicsand
pi
ctur
esandst orethem i
na“ .BMP”for
mat( ref
ert
ofi
gur
e5.15).Theprogr
am

71
off
ersarichtoolsel
ect
ionandal
lst
andar
dgr
aphi
calf
unct
ions,
suchasai r
brush,
fr
eehandl i
nedraw,shapesandtheabil
i
tyt
ozoom.Paintnol ongersupport
s
“.
PCX”fi
les.

ThePai ntappl
i
cat
ionnot
abl
ydi
ff
ersf
rom t
heol
derv
ersi
oni
nit
sfol
l
owi
ng
feat
ures:

•Fourdi
ff
erentl
evel
sofzoomi ng
•Suppor
tfor24bit(
truecol
or)encodedfil
es
•Apalet
tecapabl
eofaccessinga24-bitcol
orspect
rum

Fi
gur
e5.
15—Pai
nt

Itshoul
dbenotedt
hatify
ouusea24-bi
tcol
orf
ormatt
ost
orey
ourpi
ctur
es,
you
canendupwithver
ylar
gefil
esony
ourdi
sk.

Tost
artt
hePai
ntpr
ogr
am,
fol
l
owt
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ocedur
e:

•Cl i
ckont heStar
tbut
ton
• Mov ethemousepoi nt
ert
oPr
ogr
amsandt
henf
rom t
hesub-
menu
sel
ect
Accessor
ies
•Cl i
ckonPai nt

3.Cal
cul
ator

TheCalcul
atorpr
ogr
am isver
yusef
ulforaddingy ourexpenses,orot
hervit
al
act
ivi
ti
es.I
thasaScient
if
icmodewhich,i
nteral
ia,all
owsy outoconvertf
rom

72
Deci
mal
toHexadeci
mal
andBi
nar
y.(
Ref
ert
ofi
gur
e5.
16)

Ther
ewasaf
amouser
rori
ntheMi
crosof
tWi
ndows3.
1Cal
cul
ator
.2.
11-2.
1=0.

Tost
artt
heCal
cul
ator
,fol
l
owt
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ocedur
e:

•Cl
ickontheStar
tbutton
•Movethemousepoi ntert
oPr
ogr
am andt
henf
rom t
hesub-
menusel
ect
Accessor
ies
•Cl
ickonCalcul
ator

Toseewhatakeydoesi
ntheCal
cul
ator
,fol
l
owt
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ocedur
e:

• Ri
ght
-cl
i
ckonabut
tonwi
thi
ntheCal
cul
atoranda“
What
’sThi
s?”but
ton
i
s
di
spl
ayed
•Cl
i
ckonthisbut
tonandt
hef
unct
ionoft
hebut
toni
sexpl
ained

Toswi
tcht
oSci
ent
if
icmode,
fol
l
owt
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ocedur
e:

•Cl
i
ckont
heVi
ewdr
opdownmenuandcl
i
ckont
heSci
ent
if
iccommand

Fi
gur
e5.
16—Cal
cul
ator

4.TheCl
ock

TheCl
ockpr
ogr
am i
snotl
ocat
edi
ntheSt
artmenu.

Tov i
ew theCl
ock,si
mpl
ylookatt
her
ight
-handbot
tom oft
heWi
ndowsXP
Taskbar
.

Tov
iew t
heDat
e,mov
ethemousepoi
ntert
otheCl
ock,asdi
spl
ayedi
nthe

73
t
askbar
.Af
ter
afewmoments,
thedat
ewoul
dbedi
spl
ayed.

To changethedat eortime,doubl
ecli
ckon theCl
ockwhi
ch di
spl
ayst
he
Date/Ti
me
Propert
iesdi
alogboxandmodi
fythet
imeordat
e.

Obj
ectLi
nki
ngandEmbeddi
ng(
OLE)

ObjectLi
nki
ngandEmbedding(OLE)i
st hemechani
sm wherebyanappl
i
cat
ion
canholdali
nkt
oapieceofdataorobj
ectwit
hinanot
herappl
i
cati
on.

Asanexampl
eofOLE,aspreadsheetmayholdagraphcont
aini
ngweekl
ysal
es
fi
gur
es,
eachweeknewf
igur
esar einputandt
hegr
aphchanges.

Wi t
ht hehelpofOLE,itispossibletoplacealinktothegraphf r
om awor d
processing
applicat
ionwhi
chcontainsaweekl ystat
usreport
.Asthefigur
eschanges,the
l
inkedgr aph aut
omatical
lyupdatesit
sel
fwiththenew val
ues.(Ref
ert
of i
gure
5.17)

Fi
gur
e5.
17-
-OLEl
i
nk

Li
nki
ngv
s.Embeddi
ng

ToLi
nkDat
a

Tocr
eateanOLEl i
nk,select“
Past
eSpecial
”fr
om theEditdropdownmenu.
Fr
om t
hedial
ogbox,choosewhichdat
aty
pey ouwanttousefortheobj
ecty
ou
ar
epast
ing.

Whenadat ait
em isl
inkedi
ntoanappl
icat
ion,t
her
eisonl
yonet
ruecopyofthat
pieceofdat
a,eachti
mei ti
supdat
ed.Theinfor
mati
oncanbedi
scov
eredvi
at he
l
ink.

OLEl i
nkscanbehi ghl
y“processorint
ensive”asthelinkconstantl
yneedsto
checkf orupdates.Itisrecommended t hatfastmachi neswith a power
ful
processorbeusedi fmanyOLEl inksarepresent
.Alt
ernativ
ely
,theli
nkmaybe
maintained,so t
hatupdatescan bemade on manuali nstr
ucti
on only
.The
mechani sm t
odot hismaydi f
ferfrom oneappli
cati
ont oanotherbutisoft
en

74
cont
ainedundert
heEdi
tdr
opdownmenui
nacommandcal
l
edLi
nks.

ToEmbedDat
a

Toembedanobj ect
,simplyselectPastefrom theEdi tdropdownmenu.I fan
i
tem isembedded,i ti smerelycopiedandt henpast edini t
sent i
retyint
ot he
tar
getapplicati
on (such asa gr aphicbei
ng past ed int
o a wor d pr
ocessing
document).Ift
heor i
ginaldat
aitem isupdat
ed,theupdat eisnotrepl
icatedtothe
embeddeddat aitem.Embeddi ngdoesnothav et hehighperformanceov erhead
associ
atedwi t
hli
nking.

Benef
it
sofUsi
ngOLE

ByusingOLE,y oustar
ttomoveawayf r
om appli
cat
ion-
basedcomputi
ngand
mor etowarddata(
ordocument
)-
basedcomputi
ng.Mostoft hePCusershave
aninteresti
ndatanotinthei
ndi
vi
dualappl
i
cati
onsusedt ocreat
edatainthe
fi
rstpl
ace.

Byusi ngOLE,y oucancombi nethebestel ementsfrom eachappl icati

onto
produceadesiredeffect.Fori
nst
ance,youmaywantt oproducear eportinWord
forWi ndowsandi ncorporategr
aphspr oducedinExcel.(Excelhasf arbett
er
graphhandli
ngf aci
l
iti
est hanWord)IfanExcelgraphisembedded,i tcaneasi
ly
bemani pul
atedandedi t
edi nWor
d.

Youcansavediskspacebylinki
ngobject
s.I
tshouldbenotedthatonecanuse
anobj
ecti
nadocumentwhi leiti
sstoredi
nanotherdocument.Thi
ssavesone’
s
ti
meindupl
icat
ingt
hestoragespaceforanobj
ect.

ByusingOLE,y oucanpri
ntortr
ansmi
tdatawithouthavi
nganappli
cat
ionthat
ori
ginal
l
ycreat
edt hedat
ainst
all
edonyourpar
ti
cularPC.Youcanupdat
elinked
obj
ectsdynamical
ly.

NewFeat
uresofOLE

1.I
n-pl
aceAct
ivat
ion

Thisal
lowsdir
ectact
ivat
ionofembeddedobj ectswi
thi
nanappli
cati
on
wit
houtaneedt oswit
cht oadiffer
entappli
cat
ionwi
ndow f
orfaci
li
ti
es
suchasedi
ti
ng,di
spl
ayi
ng, r
ecor
ding,orpl
ayi
ng.

2.Adapt
abl
eLi
nks

Thi
senabl
est
hemai
ntenanceofl
i
nksbet
weenobj
ect
sdur
ingcer
tai
n

75
 t
ypesofmov
eorcopyoper
ati
ons.

3.Dr
agandDr
op

Obj
ect
smaybedr
aggedf
rom oneappl
i
cat
ionwi
ndowanddr
opt
oanot
her
.

4.I
mpr
ovedDi
skandMemor
yUsage

Obj
ectsmaybestor
edondiskandonl
yloadedi
ntomemor
ywhenact
ual
l
y
r
equi
redandnotsi
mplywhentheobj
ecti
sopened.

5.Logi
calPagi
nat
ionofObj
ect
s

Unl
ike OLE,i
fan embedded obj ect(such as an Excelspreadsheet
embeddedinWord)i
sl ar
gerthanapage,theembeddedobj ectwil
lbreak
att
heendofthepagejustasnormaldat
awould.

6.Nest
edObj
ectSuppor
t

Thi
sall
owsdir
ectmanipul
ati
onofnest
edobj
ect
s.Al
so,l
i
nksmaybe
est
abl
i
shedtonest
edobj
ect
s.

7.Obj
ectConv
ersi
on

Thi
sal
l
owsanobj
ectt
obeconv
ert
edf
rom oneobj
ectt
ypet
oanot
her
.

8.St
orageI
ndependentLi
nks

Thi
sisafeat
uret
hatallowsal
i
nkamongembeddedobj
ect
sthatar
enot
st
oredasf
il
esondisk.

9.Ver
sionManagement

Embeddedobj
ectscontai
ninf
ormat
ionaboutanappl
i
cat
iont
hati
sused
tocr
eatei
tandi
tsversi
on.

Addi
ngNewHar
dwar
eDev
ices

Toi
nst
all
anewhar
dwar
e,f
oll
owt
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ocedur
e:

• GotoControlPanel
• Cl
ickontheAddNewHar dwareicon
• AddNewHar dwareWizar
dwill
bel aunched
• TheWizardcanautomati
cal
lydetectnewhardwar
eory
oumay

76
 ent
erthe
newdevi
cef
rom ahar
dwar
esel
ect
ionl
i
st

Not
e

Whenanew dev i
ceisinstal
l
ed,WindowsXPwi l
ldecidehow sett
ings,suchas
IRQ
(i
nter
rupts),Memoryregi
onsandDMA( Di
rectMemor yAccess)etc.
,shouldbe
confi
gured.
Alt
hought heval
uesthatWindowsXPchoosesmaybedi ffer
entfr
om thecurrent
confi
gurati
onyetyoushoul
dusethesesett
ingsastheywil
lbetheoptimum ones.

I
nst
all
ingNewAppl
icat
ionPr
ogr
ams

Toaddorr
emov
epr
ogr
ams,
fol
l
owt
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ocedur
e:

• GotoCont
rol
Panel
• Cl
ickont
heAdd/Remov
ePr
ogr
ams

Install
inganappl i
cationt hi
swayhasanaddedbenef i
ttoi nst
allanapplicat
ion
directl
yf rom af loppydi sket
teorCD- ROM.TheInstal
lerappli
cationtr
ackst he
ent i
rei nstall
ati
onpr ocessandpl acesthenewlyinstal
l
edappl icat
ionintoan
i
nst all
edpr ogram li
st.(Refertofi
gur e5.
18)
.Fr
om thisli
st,appli
cati
onscanbe
remov edaseasi l
yast heywer eadded.

Fi
gur
e5.
18-
-Add/
Remov
ePr
ogr
amsPr
oper
ti
esdi
alogbox

Atpresent,
manyset-
upandi nstal
lat
ionprogr
amscanbetrackedvi
aaninst
all
er.
Aft
erinstal
li
nganappli
cati
on,itispossibl
ethatt
heprogr
am maynotappearin
l
ist
.Asmor eset
-upandinst
allati
onprogramsarewr
it
tenwithWindowsXP,the

77
si
tuat
ionwi
l
lchange.

Not
es

1. Fol
l
owingarethesub-
menusoft
heSt
artmenu:
•Programs
•Document s
•Sett
ings
•Search
•HelpandSupport
•Run
•Turnoff

1.ObjectLinki
ng and Embeddi
ng (
OLE)isthe mechanism wher
ebyan
appli
cat
ioncanholdal inktoapieceofdat
aorobj ectwit
hinanot
her
appli
cat
ion.

MANAGI
NGDI
SKS
1.Di
skFor
mat
ti
ng
Thisistheprocessofpr epar
ingadatastor
agemedi
um suchasahar
ddiskdri
ve
forini
ti
aluseorst orageoffi
l
es.Formatt
ingcr
eat
esafi
l
esy st
em ont
hediskand
alsomakesitv i
sibletotheoperat
ingsy
stem.
St
eps
1.Connectori nser tthest or agemedi atot hecomput erifi
tisext ernal
2.Got omycomput erbycl i
ckingoni tont hest artmenuoront hedeskt op
3.Rightclickont hedr i
vet haty ouwantt of ormate. g.Remov abl eDiskE
4.Ont hemenu, cli
ckon“ For mat ”ont hepop- upmenu
5.Ont hefor matwi ndow, l
eav et hecapaci t
yasi ti
s
6.Chooset hefil
esy stem thaty ouwantt hedr i
v etobef ormattede. g.FAT,
FAT32orNFTS( NFTSi saf astsy stem whi l
eFAT32maxi mi zest hedisk
spacewi t
hiny ourdr ive.FATi st hemostbasi cforst or
ingfil
esandmost
compat iblebuti sslow. )
7.Ticktheboxnextt ot heQui ckf ormatify ouwantaf astformatt hatdoes
notcheckf orbadsect ors.Af ul
l f
ormatwi lltaketimebutcheckf orbad
sectorsapar tfrom r emov ingf il
esont hedi sk
8.Clickstartbuttonatt hebot tom
9.Conf i
rmy ouractionbypr essingt heokbut toni nthewar ningmessagebox.

78
WORDPROCESSI
NG
Speci
fi
cobjecti
ves
Bytheendofthi
stopi
c,t
hetr
aineeshoul
dbeablet
o:
a)descr
ibehowtoopenawor dpr
ocessor

b)expl
ainhowt
ocr
eat
eadocument

c)di
scusshowt
oedi
tadocument

d)descr
ibehowt
ofor
matadocument

e)descr
ibehowt
ocr
eat
ecol
umns/
rows

f
) descr
ibehowt
ocr
eat
etabl
es

g)descr
ibehowt
ousegr
aphi
cs

h)expl
ainhowt
ousemai
lmer
ge

i
) expl
ainhowt
opr
intadocument

Howt oopenawor dpr ocessor

Defini
ti
onofWor dpr ocessing
Wor dprocessingist hecreation,input
,edit
ingandformatti
ngofdocument
sand
othertextusi
ngsomeappl icationsoftware(Wordprocessor
)onacomputer
system.Exampl esofWor dpr ocessorsi
nt hemarketincl
udeWordperf
ect
,
OpenOf fi
ce.
orgWr i
terandMi crosoftWord.MicrosoftWordist
hemostpopul
arl
y
usedandt hereforewi ll
beadopt edinthi
smanual .YoucanuseaWor d
processortotypel etter
s,repor t
s,andotherdocument s.

OpeningaWor dprocessor
OpenMi cr
osoftWord2007bycl
i
cki
ngont
hesect
ionsl
abel
ed1t
o4f
oundon
yourcomputerdeskt
op.

Fi
veway
sofSt
art
ingMs-
Wor
dPr
ogr
am
St
ep1
Cl
i
ckt
heStar
tbutt
on.Type"wor
d"wit
houtquotat
ionmar
ksi
ntot
hesear
chbox
.
Cl
i
ck"
Micr
osoftWord2003"i
nthel
istt
hatappears.

St
ep2
Cli
cktheStar
tbutt
on.Hoverthemousepoi
nterov
er"All
Progr
ams."Scr
oll
down
totheMicr
osoftOff
icef
olderandcl
i
ckit
.Sel
ect"Micr
osoftWord2003.
"

St
ep3
PresstheWi ndowskeyand"R"onthekeyboardatthesameti
metobri
ngupt
he
Rundialogue.Type"
WinWord.exe"wi
thoutquotat
ionmarksi
ntot
heboxandt
hen

79
cl
i
ckOKorpr
essEnt
erKey
.

St
ep4
Ri
ght-
cli
ckonanempt yareaofthedeskt
op.Hoverthemousepoi
nterover"New"
i
nthemenut hatappears.Ont hesub-
Menuthatappear
scl
ickonMicrosoftWord
Documenttolaunchthepr ogr
am.

St
ep5
OpenanMSWor dfi
leonyourcomputerbydoubl
e-cl
i
ckingit.I
fyouareaskedto
chooseanappl i
cat
iontoopenthefi
lewit
h,sel
ect"
Mi cr
osoftWord."Youmay
cl
oset hefi
leyouhaveopenedifyoudonotwanttousei tnowandopenanot her
oneinstead.

PARTSOFWORDWI NDOW
Pl
easeseet
hepi
ctur
ebel
owf
orav
isual
imageofpar
tsofanact
ivewi
ndowhas:

Menubar
Thi
sist
hetradi
ti
onalwi
ndowsstyl
edrop-
downmenu.Wheny oupointtoany
menuti
tl
eandcli
ckoncewit
ht hemouse,t
hemenuwil
lopendispl
ayingall
the
commandsavai
labl
eundert
hismenu.Cli
cki
ngont
hedesiredcommandwoul d
80
tell
Wor dt
oexecutethatcommand.Somecommandshav eelli
pses( …)infr
ont
ofthem.
Thesecommandshav efurthersubcommands.Commandsappear ingindim
modecannotbeexecut edunl esstheprerequi
sit
efuncti
onsrequi r
edbyt hat
commandhav ebeenperformed, e.
g.youcannotuset heCopyorCutcommand
from t
heEditmenuunlessy ouhav eselectedapieceoftextfi
rst.Many
commandsal sohavekey boardshortcutsspeci
fiedagai
nsttheirnames.

Standar dtool
bar
Toolbarscontainbutt
ons, dr
op-downmenusandot hercontr
olsthathelpyout o
quickl
yal t
ertheappearanceandar rangementofdocumentsbyexecut i
nga
vari
etyofwor dcommands.Tool barsarever
yhelpfulandconvenienti
nquickly
executingcommandswi thouthavingtogothroughmenus.Thest andardtoolbar
containsiconsforbasi
cf uncti
onsl i
keopeni
ngf i
l
es,savi
ngfil
es,print
ingfi
les,
cut,copy ,
pasteetc.

For
mattingtoolbar
Thi
scontainsiconsforchangingthel
ookofyourtext(cal
led“f
ormatt
ing”in
computerj
argon);f
orexampl e,t
herear
eiconsforchangingfont
s,st
yles,f
ont
si
zes,
textali
gnmentet c.

Ruler
TheRulerl
etsy
oumakechangestomar gi
nsandi
ndent
s,andhel
psy
oucr
eat
e
documentasperdi
mensi
onsrequi
red.

I
fyourr
uleri
snotv
isi
ble,
fol
l
owt
hest
epsl
i
stedher
e:

1.Cli
cktheVi
ewmenut ochoosei
t.
2.Sel
ecttheRul
erbycl
i
ckingonit
.

Scrollt
ools
Thesehel py outr
avelwithi
nyourdocument
.Youcangoanywher
e,upanddown,
ri
ghtandl eftinyourdocumentmainlybyt
woway s:
Usingt
hehor
izont
aland
vert
icalscrollbar
swiththehelpofthe
mouse; Orusi ngthekeyboardt
opressPgUp,PgDn,Home,
Endandarrowkeys.

St
atusbar
Alsocal
ledt
heSt
atusAr
ea,
thi
sist
henor
mal
l
ythel
astl
i
neony
ourscr
een.Thi
s

81
giv
est hefollowi ngi
nformationaboutyourwork—
·CurrentPage
·SectionNumber
·Current/
Tot alpagesi nthedocument
·CurrentCur sorPosition(wherethecursori
spresent
lyl
ocat
ed)
·CurrentLineNumber
·CurrentCol umnNumber
·Recor dMacr o-whethermacr orecor
dingisOnornot
·TrackRev ision-whetherrev
isi
onshav ebeenmadeornot
·ExtendSel ection

Cursor
Alsocall
edtheInser
ti
onPointer
,thi
sdenotestheplacewher
etext
,graphicsor
anyotherit
em wouldbeplacedwhenyouty pe,ov
erwri
teori
nser
tthem.This
l
ooksl i
keatal
l,ski
nnytoot
hpickandkeepsblinki
ngsothaty
oucanl ocat
eit
easil
y.

Mousepoi nt
er
Wheny ourmousepoi nt
erlooksl ikeanI-beam youshoul dbeabletomoveit
fr
eelyonthescreen.Thisisusedf orei
therplaci
ngt hecursoratt
hedesi
red
pl
ace( t
akethemousepoi nt erthereandclick)orchoosinganycommandei t
her
fr
om themenuorf rom toolbars.Themousepoi nterchangesshapewheninthe
processofdoingcert
aintasksandt hecursordisappears.

Edi
ti
ngWor
ddocument
Wheny ouenteryourt
ext,youareli
kelytomaket ypographicalmi st
akes.
Typographi
calerr
orsi
ncludeerrorofomi ssi
on,addi
tionandt ransposi
ti
on.The
corr
ectionofthesemist
akesi scall
ededi t
ing.Edit
inginvolvescutti
ng,copying,
pasti
ng,useofAutoText
, useofspellcheckinganduseofFi ndingandRepl acing.

Cutt
ingandPast
ing
Theseopti
onswi
llall
owy out
oCutorCopyapi
eceoft
extf
rom onel
ocat
ionand
topast
eatanewl ocat
ion.

Uset
heCl
ipboar
d

Asy oucutorcopy ,Wor dcanstoretheinfor

mat iony ouhav ecutorcopi edonthe
Clipboardi nahierarchy.Theneacht i
mey oucutorcopy ,thedatay oujustcutor
copiedmov estothetopoft heCli
pboardhierarchyandt hedat apreviousl
yatthe
topmov esdownonel evel
.Wheny ouchoosePast e,thei
tem atthet opofthe
hierarchyist heit
em Wor dpastesintoyourdocument .TheClipboardcanst ore
upt o24i tems.Youcanpast eanyitem ontheCl ipboardintoyourdocumentby
placingy ourcursoratt hei
nsert
ionpoint,
displayingtheCl i
pboardpane, andthen

82
cl
i
cki
ngt
hei
tem.

TheCli
pboar
dpaneincl
udesanOpti
onsbut
ton.Youcancl
ickt
heOpt
ionsbut
ton
tosett
heCli
pboar
dopti
onsdescr
ibedi
nthefol
lowi
ngtabl
e.

Opt
ion Descr
ipt
ion

ShowOffi
ceCli
pboar
d ShowstheCl
ipboar
daut
omat
ical
l
y
Automat
ical
l
y whenyoucopyit
ems.

ShowOffi
ceCli
pboar
dWhen ShowstheCli
pboar
dwheny
oupr
ess
Ctr
l+cPr
essedTwice Ctr
l+ct
wice.

Coll
ectWit
houtShowi
ngOf
fi
ce Copi
estot
heCli
pboar
dwithout
Cl
ipboar
d di
spl
ayi
ngtheCl
i
pboardpane.

ShowOfficeCl
i
pboar
dIconon Di
splay
st heCli
pboar
diconony
our
Taskbar sy
stem taskbar
.

ShowSt
atusNearTaskbar Di
splay
st henumberofit
emscopi
ed
WhenCopyi
ng onthetaskbarwhencopyi
ng.

Pl
acet
hecur
soratt
hepoi
ntatwhi
chy
ouwantt
oinser
tyourt
ext
.

Chooset
heHomet
ab.

Cl
i
ckt
heCl
i
pboar
ddi
alogboxl
aunchert
oopent
heCl
i
pboar
d.

1.
Cli
ckt
hei
tem ont
hecl
i
pboar
dyouwantt
oinser
tint
oyourdocument
.Wor
d

83
 past
est
heCl
i
pboar
dit
em i
ntoy
ourdocumentatt
hei
nser
ti
onpoi
nt.

Cr
eat
eAut
oText

CutandCopybothstoreinf
ormati
onont heCli
pboard.Inf
ormati
onyoustor
eon
theCli
pboar
diseventual
lyl
ost.I
fyouwantt ost
oreinformat
ionper
manentl
yfor
reuse,
useAutoText
.AutoTextpermanentl
ystor
esinformati
onforf
utur
euse.

Ty
pesomet
exte.
g.

84
Aut
oTexti
nfor
mat
ioni
sst
oredper
manent
ly

Sel
ectt
het
extt
yped

Ont
heAut
oTextt
ool
bar
,cl
i
ckon“
New….
”

Cr
eat
eAut
oTextdi
alogboxappear
s

Gi
vey
oursel
ect
ionaname

Cl
i
ckOK.Thedi
alogboxcl
oses.

Cl
i
ckany
wher
eint
het
extar
eat
oremov
ethehi
ghl
i
ght
ing.

Ty
pet
henamey
ougav
ethesav
edAut
oTextany
wher
e.

Pr
essF3.andy
ourt
extshoul
dappear

UseSpel
lCheck

Wordchecksyourspel
li
ngandgrammarasy outy
pe.Spell
inger
rorsdi
splaywi
th
aredwavyli
neundertheword.Grammarer
rorsdi
splaywithagreenwavyli
ne
undert
heerror
.InWord2007,youcanuset
heRev i
ewt ab'
sSpel
ling&Grammar
butt
ontoini
ti
ateaspell
andgrammarcheckofyourdocument.

Typethefol
lowi
ng:
Monicaisfr
om East
on.Shel
i
vesont
heeastsi
deoft
own.Herdaught
erat
tends
East
ernHighSchool
.

Sel
ect
:"Moni
cai
sfr
om East
on.Shel
i
vesont
heeastsi
deoft
own.Herdaught
er

85
at
tendsEast
ernHi
ghSchool
."

Chooset
heHomet
ab.

Cl
i
ckFi
ndi
ntheEdi
ti
nggr
oup.Amenuappear
s.

Cl
i
ckt
heFi
ndopt
ionont
hemenu.TheFi
ndandRepl
acedi
alogboxappear
s.

I
nser
tandOv
ert
ype

Whi l
ecreat
ingyourdocument,youmayf i
ndyouneedt oinser
ttext—placenew
textbet
weenexisti
ngtexts.Suppose,
youtypethesentence,"
Zurielboughta
car."
 Af
tertypi
ngit,
youdecidey ouwanttochangethesentenceto" Zur
iel
boughtabluecar."

Alt
ernatively
,youmaywantt oov ertypetext—r
epl aceol dtextwit
hnewt ext.For
exampl e,supposey outypethesent ence,"Zur
ielboughtabl uecar."Aftertyping
i
t,youdeci dey ouwantt ochanget hesentencet o "Zuriel
boughtabl ackcar .
"
WithMi crosoftWor d,
ov er
typingt hewor dbluewi tht hewordshiningi salsoeasy .
Youcant henuset heinserttoswi tchbetweenI nser tandOv er
typemode.When
youarei nInsertmode, youcani nser tt
ext.Wheny ouar einOv er
typemode, you
canov ert
y petext.Bydefault
,Mi crosoftWor disint heInsertmode.

DocumentVi
ews

Documentvi
ewsarefoundontheri
ghtsi
deoft
hestat
usbar
.InWord2007, y
ou
candi
splayy
ourdocumentinoneoffi
vevi
ews:
Draf
t,WebLayout
,Pr
intLay
out,
Ful
lScr
eenReadi
ng,orOnli
neLayout
.

Dr
aftVi
ew

Draftv
iewist
hemostf
requent
lyusedv
iew.YouuseDr
aftv
iewt
oqui
ckl
yedi
t
yourdocument
.

WebLayout

WebLayoutvi
ewenabl
esyoutoseey
ourdocumentasi
twoul
dappeari
na
br
owsersuchasI
nter
netExpl
orer
.

Pr
intLayout

ThePr
intLay
outv
iewshowst
hedocumentasi
twi
l
llookwheni
tispr
int
ed.

Readi
ngLayout

Readi
ngLay
outv
iewf
ormat
syourscr
eent
omaker
eadi
ngy
ourdocumentmor
e

86
comf
ort
abl
e.

Out
li
neVi
ew

Outl
inev
iewdispl
aysthedocumenti
noutl
inef
orm.Youcandispl
ayheadi
ngs
wit
houtthet
ext.I
fyoumov eaheadi
ng,
theaccompany
ingtextmoveswit
hit
.

Nonpr
int
ingChar
act
ers

Nonprinti
ngcharact
ersdonotpri
ntandwill
notappeari
nyourpri
nteddocument
butdoaf f
ectyourdocumentl
ayout.Youcandeci
detoseethesecharacter
son
thescreenasyout y
peoryoucandecidetohavethem r
emaininv
isi
ble.Thetabl
e
descri
besmostoft hem:

Char
act
er Denot
es

At
ab 

 
  
. Aspace

 
  
¶ Theendofapar
agr
aph

Hi
ddent
ext

Task2:Cr
eat
ingadocument

Howt
oCr
eat
eSampl
eDat
a

I
fyout
ype=r
and(
)iny
ourWor
ddocumentandt
henpr
essEnt
er,
Wor
dcr
eat
es

87
t
hreepar
agr
aphs.

Ty
pe=r
and(
).

Pr
essEnt
er.Thr
eepar
agr
aphsappeari
nyourdocument
.

Whati
sawor
dpar
agr
aph?

Cont
inuousty
pingoft
extbefor
epressi
ngtheent
erkeyi
sref
err
edaswor
d
par
agraph.Theendofaparagraphi
sindi
cat
edbythe sy mbol

Ty
ping,
Backspace,
andDel
eteoper
ati
ons

InMicr
osoftWor d, youcreatedocument sbyt ypi
ngthem.Forexampl e,i
fy ou
wanttocreat
ear epor t
,youopenMi cr osoftWor dandthenbegint yping.Youdo
nothavetodoany thingwheny ourtextr eachestheendofal ineandy ouwantt o
mov et
oanewl i
ne—Mi crosoftWordaut omatical
lymov esyourtextt oanewl i
ne.
 
Ify
ouwantt ostar tanewpar agraph, pressEnt er
.Microsoftwordcr eatesabl ank
l
inetoindi
catethest ar
tofanewpar agr aph.Tocapital
ize,
holddownt heShift
keywhilet
ypingthel etteryouwantt ocapi tal
ize.
 Ify
oumakeami stake, youcan
del
etewhatyout y pedandt hentypey ourcor rect
ion.

Youcanuset heBackspacekeyt odelete.Eachti

mey oupresst heBackspace
key,MicrosoftWor ddel
etesthecharacterthatprecedestheinserti
onpoint.
The i
nserti
onpoi ntist
hepointatwhichy ourmousepoi nterislocated.Youcan
alsodeletetextbyusingtheDelet
ekey .Fir
st,youselectt
het extyouwantt o
delet
e;theny oupresstheDeletekey.

For
mat
ingadocument

Format
ti
ngischangi
ngthephy
sicalappearanceofthedocument.Youcan
for
matadocumentinvari
ousl
evels;char
acter,
word,par
agraphanddocument
for
matt
ing.

Pr
int
ingaDocument

Pr
evi
ewi
ngandPr
int
ingDocument
s

I
nWor d,Youcanprev
iewyourdocumentbeforeyoupri
nt.I
nthePrev
iewmode,
youcanrevi
eweachpage,viewmulti
plepagesatthesametime,
zoom inona
page,andaccesst
heSize,
Or i
ent
ati
on,andMarginopti
ons.

I
fyoupresstheZoom butt
onwhileyouareinPreviewmode,t
heZoom dial
og
boxappear
s.IntheZoom di
alogboxyoucansett hesi
zesofthepagest
hat
di
spl
ayaswel lasthenumberofpagesthatdi
splay.

Wheny
ouar
ereadyt
opr
int
,youuset
hePr
intdi
alogbox.I
nthePr
intRangear
ea,

88
chooseAl
l t
opri
nteverypageofyourdocument ,
chooseCurrentPaget oprint
thepageyouarecurr
entl
yon,orchoosePagest oentert
hespecificpagesy ou
wanttopri
nt.Ty
pethepagesy ouwanttoprinti
nthePagesf i
eld.Separat
e
i
ndivi
dual
pageswi t
hcommas( 1,
3,13)
;specif
yar angebyusingadash( 4-9).

Got
othef
il
emenu.

Cl
i
ckPri
ntPr
evi
ew.ThePr
evi
ewwi
ndowappear
s,wi
thy
ourdocumenti
nthe
wi
ndow.

Cl
i
ckOnePaget
ovi
ewonepageatat
ime.Cl
i
ckTwoPagest
ovi
ewt
wopagesat
at
ime.

Tov
iewy
ourdocumenti
nnor
mal
size,
cli
ck100%.

Cl
i
ckt
heZoom But
ton.TheZoom di
alogboxappear
s.

Selectanopti
onandt
hencl
i
ckOK.Per
for
mthi
staskf
oreachopt
ionandnot
e
theresul
ts.

Pr
int

Cl
i
ckt
hePr
intbut
ton.ThePr
intdi
alogboxappear
s.

Cl
i
ckt
hedownar
rownextt
otheNamef
iel
dandsel
ectt
hepr
int
ert
owhi
chy
ou

89
wantt
opr
int
.

Chooseal
last
hepager
ange.

Cl
i
ckOK.Wor
dpr
int
syourdocument
.

SPREADSHEETS

Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,t
het
rai
neeshoul
dbeabl
eto:

(
a)def i
nespr eadsheet
(
b)discussar easwher espreadsheet
sar
eused
(
c)demonst ratewor ksheetlay
out
(
d)openaspr eadsheetpackage
(
e)createawor ksheet
(
f)editawor ksheet
(
g)formatawor ksheet
(
h)per f
orm calculat
ions
(
i)createchar t
s
(
j)printworksheet s

Uni
ttasks

Task1:def
ini
ngspr
eadsheet

Aspr eadsheetisadocumentt hatstoresdat ainagridofhorizontalrowsand

verticalcolumns.Rowsar ety pi
callylabeledusingnumbers( 1,2,3,etc.
),while
columnsar elabeledwit
hletters(A, B,C,etc).I
ndivi
dualr
ow/ columnl ocati
ons,
suchasC3orB12, ar
ereferredtoascel l
s.Eachcellcaneachst oreauni que
i
nst anceofdat a.Byenteri
ngdat ai ntoaspr eadsheet,
inf
ormat i
oncanbest ored
i
namor est r
ucturedwaythanusi ngpl aintext.Therow/columnst r
ucturealso
all
owst hedatat obeanalyzedusi ngf or
mul asandcalcul
ati
ons.

Typi
calspreadsheetpackagesinthemar keti
ncl
udeLot
us123,OpenOffi
ce,
Micr
osoftExcel(MSExcel)andsev eral
packagesnotmenti
onedher
e.The
appl
icat
ionpackageusedi ntheinstr
ucti
onisMSExcel2007.

Advant
agesofEl
ect
roni
cSpr
eadsheet
sov
erManual
Spr
eadsheet
s
1.Aut
omat
icr
ecal
cul
ati
onoff
ormul
aewhendat
aischanged.
I
fthecont
entsofacellchange,
andt
hatcel
li
susedi
naf
ormul
a,t
her
esul
tin
t
hedependantcel
lchanges
2.Easeofdat
ashar
ing:
Anot
herbenef
iti
sthedat
acaneasi
l
ybeshar
edwi
th
ot
her
s.

90
3.Easeofdat
amanagementandanal
ysi
s:
Userscanmani pulat
et hedatast
oredinspr
eadsheets,usi
ngdozensof
functi
onsav ai
lableatonecl i
ckofthemouse:basicmathematicalpr
ocesses,
sorti
ng,creati
ngt abl
esandchar t
s,pri
nti
ngrepor
ts,andevenreviewi
ngand
compar i
ngsev eralspreadsheet
satonce.
4.Pr
esent
ati
oncapabi
l
iti
es
Spreadsheetsall
owuserstoeasil
ycreatecompel l
ingpresentat
ions,complet
e
wit
hf ull
-col
ourgraphsandchart
s.Theirt
argetaudiencecanqui ckl
ygraspthe
i
mpor tantthemesoftheirr
epor
tsimplybyreviewingtherelevantdataonthe
chart
s, notwadi
ngt hr
oughpagesofnumber sandt ext.Vari
oustypesof
chart
scanbecr eat
ed.Furt
her
mor e,
columnwi dthcanbeadj ustedtosuit
data.
5."
What
-I
f"Anal
ysi
s
Perfor
m“ what-i
f”analy
sesbychangi
ngindependentval
uesinthe
spreadsheettohelpindeci
sionmaki
ngandplanning.Theusercancombine
fi
guresindiff
erentwaysandi mmedi
atel
yseetheresult
sonbusiness.
E.g.
 Howwi
l
lachangei
nthecostofar
awmat
eri
alaf
fectpr
ofi
ts?
 Howchangesi
nint
erestr
atesar
egoi
ngt
oaf
fectr
epay
ment
s?
6.Suppor
tgooddesi
gnandaccur
ater
esul
ts
7.Pr
ogr
am canqui
ckl
yedi
tandf
ormatdat
aandper
for
m cal
cul
ati
ons
8.For
mul
aebasedoncel
lref
erences,
soeasyt
oupdat
eresul
ts
9.Easyt
ost
ore,
ret
ri
eveandpr
intr
esul
ts
10.
Vir
tual
l
yunl
i
mit
edsi
ze
11.
Abi
l
ityt
orepl
i
cat
efor
mul
ae
12.
Easeofcor
rect
ionofer
ror
s

St
andar
dFeat
uresofSpr
eadsheet
s
Col
umnsandRows

Aspreadsheetisagri
dconsisti
ngofcol umnsandr ows.Rowsarelabeledwi
th
numbers,andcolumnsarelabel
edwi thlet
ter
s,gi
vingeachcell
auni queaddr
ess
consi
sti
ngofanumberandal etter
.Ifyouarefamil
iarwit
htheoldgame
"Bat
tl
eship"
,you'l
lbequi
tecomf ort
ablewithcel
laddressi
ng.

 Acel
lmaycontai
nlabel
sorvalues.Al
abeli
satextentr
y,suchasTOTAL,
t
hatcannotbemanipul
atedbythespr
eadsheet
.Avaluecanbeanumber,

91
 adate,
aformula,
ortheanswerofaformul
a.
 Asingl
e"gr
id"
,orpage,i
susual
lyref
err
edtoasawor
ksheet
.

For
mul
as:Af
ormul
aisanent
ryper
for
mingacal
cul
ati
on

 Formulasar eusedtoexpr essmat hemat i

calrelati
onshi psbet weencells.
Forexampl e,C1=A1+B1woul dcal cul
ateanddi splayt hesum ofcel lsA1
andB1i ntocellC1.I
tcoul dalsobeasi mpl emat hemat i
calformula,such
as(100*3)/40.For mulasar enotdisplayedonspr eadsheet s.Whaty ou
seeinthecel li
stheresultoftheformula.
 Don'tf
orgetaboutor derofoperations;anythinginsidepar enthesis
happensf i
rst,f
oll
owedbymul ti
pli
cationanddi visi
on, foll
owedbyaddi ti
on
andsubt r
action.Whenindoubt ,usepar enthesi
st osayexact lywhatyou
mean.

Functions-Functionsareusedasshor tcutswhenper f
ormingmathemat i
cal
cal
culat i
ons.Theyar epre-
progr
ammedf ormulaethatgiv
epowerandf l
exibil
i
tyto
spreadsheetcalculati
ons.Theypreventtheuserfrom havi
ngtoconti
nuallyenter
l
ongandcumber someexpr essi
ons.Someexampl esareSUM, AVERAGE, MAX,
andMI N.RangesAr angeisablockofcel l
s.Formulascanactonsinglecell
sor
bedi r
ect edtoactonar angeofcell
s.Forexampl e,t
herangeA1:D1includesthe
cel
l A1, B1,C1andD1.Anycal culat
ionperfor
medi nA1wi ll
alsobeperformedi n
B1,C1andD1.Gr aphsandcharts

 Datainspr eadsheetscanbedi splay

edi nagraphicform.Spreadsheets
al
lowt heÊnumer i
cal datainthecell
st obedisplayedasagr aphorchart.
Thesegr aphics,whichi l
l
ustratethemeaningoft henumber si nt
he
spreadsheetindifferentway s,canbeusedt ost i
mulatei
nterestandhelp
makeapoi nt.
 Therearesev eraldif
ferenttypesofgr aphst
hatcanbemade.Ar eagraphs,
barandcol umngr aphs, li
negr aphs,
piechart
s, scatt
erpl
otdi agr
amsand
3-Dgraphsar esomeexampl es.

Rel
ati
ve,Absol
uteANDMi
xedCel
lRef
erencesi
n
Spr
eadsheets
I
nworkingwit
hspreadsheets,y
ouneedtoknowaboutr
elat
ivevs.absolut
ecell
r
efer
ences.Herei
stheissue:whenyouCOPYAFORMULAt hatcontai
nscell
r
efer
ences,whathappenstothecel
lref
erences?
RELATI
VECELLREFERENCE
Usual
lytheCELLREFERENCESwi llCHANGE!I fyoucopyformul a2rowst othe
ri
ght,
thenthecell
ref
erencesint
hef or
mulawi ll
shift2cel
lstot her
ight.I
fyou
copyformula3rowsdownand1r owleft
,thenthecellr
eferencesintheformula
wil
lshif
t3rowsdownand1r owleft
.Thesearecal l
ed"rel
ative"cel
lref
erences,
si
ncetheychangerel
ati
vetowher eyoucopyt heformula.
ABSOLUTECELLREFERENCE
I
fyoudonotwantcel
lref
erencest
ochangewheny
oucopyaf
ormul
a,t
henmake
92
thosecel lref
erencesabsol utecellref
erences.Placea"$"befor ethecolumn
l
etteri fy
ouwantt hattoalway sstaythesame.Pl acea"$"befor ear ownumberif
youwantt hattoalway sstaythesame.Forexampl e,"
$C$3"ref erstocellC3,and
"$C$3"wi llworkexact l
ythesameas" C3",expectwheny oucopyt heformula.
Not e:whenent eri
ngf ormulasy oucanuset heF4keyr i
ghtafterent eri
ngacell
referencetot oggl
eamongt hediff
erentrel
ati
ve/absol
uteversionsoft hatcell
addr ess.
Mi
xedr
efer
ences
Ami xedrefer
encehasei theranabsol utecolumnandr elati
ver ow,orabsolute
rowandr el
ati
vecolumn.Anabsol utecolumnr efer
encet akest heform $A1,$B1,
andsoon.Anabsol uterowr eferencetakesthef orm A$1,B$1, andsoon.I fthe
posit
ionofthecellthatcontainst heformulachanges, t
her elativ
ereferenceis
changed,andtheabsol utereferencedoesnotchange.I fyoucopyt heformula
acrossrowsordowncol umns, t
her el
ati
vereferenceaut omat i
call
yadjusts,and
theabsolut
ereferencedoesnotadj ust.Forexampl e,i
fy oucopyami xed
ref
erencefrom cell
A2t oB3, itadjustsfrom =A$1t o=B$1.
TYPESOFERRORMESSAGESI NMSEXCEL2003
1.#####-Somet
imesr
efer
redtoas“
Rai
l
roadt
racks”
,thi
ser
rorcanbe
causedbysever
alcondit
ions:
a)Anumberi na cel
l 
istoowidefort
hecelltodi
splayi
t.
 
b)The for
mula i
nthecellpr
oducesaresultt
hatist
oowi deforthecell
. 
c)Thereisanegativenumberinthecel
lthathasbeenformattedfordates
ort
imes.Datesandt i
mesinExcelmustbeposit
ivevalues.
Sol
uti
on:

a)Wident hecolumn cont
aini
ngtheprobl
em cell
.
b)Changet heformatoftheprobl
em cell
tosomet hi
ngotherthana
date/ti
mef or
mat.
c)Correctthenegati
venumberinadat e/
timeformattedcel
l.

2.#REF!-I nv al
idCel l ReferenceEr r
or s
I
nval
i
d cell r
eference err
orsoccurwhenaspr eadsheet 
formulacontai
ns
i
ncor
rectcel lr
eferences.Thishappensmostof tenwhen:
a)Columns  or 
rows containing 
dat
a usedinthef or
mulaareaccidental
ly
deleted.
b)Af ormul ahasbeenmov edorcopiedtoanother 
cell
 
andt hecell
referencesar eincorrect.
c)Dat ausedi naformul ahasbeenmov ed,l
eavingthefuncti
onorf or
mula
withi ncorrectcellr
eferences
Solut
ions:
a)Uset heundofeatur
etorecoverl
ostdata
b)I ft
hedatacannotberecover
ed,r
e-ent
erthedat
aandadj
ustt
hecel
l

93
 ref
erencesi
fneeded
c)Correctt
hecel
lref
erencesf
orf
ormul
ast
hathavebeencopiedormoved
) Correctt
hecel
lref
erencesf
orf
ormul
aswhenthedatahasbeenmoved

3.#NULL!-Nul
lEr
ror

#NULL!er r
orsoccurwhent hetwoormor e cell
refer
ences ar
esepar
ated
i
ncor
r ectl
yina formul
a.Suchas:
a)Ifmul ti
plecellr
efer
encesinaf or
mulaar eseparatedbyaspaceinst
ead
ofa mat hemati
caloperat
or 
suchasapl ussign(  
+ )
.
b)ift hestartandendpointsofcell
 
ranges arenotseparat
edbyacolon( 
:
 )
Solut
ion: 
a)Separ atemulti
plecel lr
eferencescorrectl
y.
b)Useacommai scor r
ectl
yusedt oseparatecell
sinafuncti
on 
e.g.
 =
SUM( D1,D2,D3, D4)
c)Thest ar
tandendpoi nt
sofar angeinaf unct
ionarecorr
ectl
yseparat
ed
byacol on( 
:
 )e.g. =SUM( D1:D4). 
d)Amat hematicaloperator,suchasapl usormi nussignisusedto
separatecel
lreferencesinaf ormulae.g. =D1+D2+D3+D4.

4.#DI
V/O!-Di
vi
debyZer
oEr
ror
Di
vi
deby0errorsoccurwhen:
a)A f
ormula att
emptstodi
vi
debyzero.
b)Whiledi
viding,af
ormul
aref
erencesa 
cel
l
 thati
sbl
ank.

Sol
uti
on:
a)Checkthaty
ouhavethecorrectdatai
nthecellsr
eferencedi
nthe
for
mula.
b)Checkthaty
ourdatai
sinthecor r
ectcel
ls.
c)Checkthatt
hecorr
ect 
cel
lrefer
ences wereusedi
nt heformul
a.

5.#NAME?For
mul
aEr
ror
 
Themostcommonr easonwhyy ouseet hi
serrorisbecausey oumi sspel
leda
for
mulaornamedr ange.Forexampleifyouwr i
te=summa( a1:a10)i nacel l
,i
t
wouldret
urn#NAME?er ror.Ther
earefewot herreasonswhyt hiscanhappen.I f
youfor
gettocloseatextindoublequotesoromi ttherangeoper ator:.Al
lthese
examplesshouldr
eturn#NAME?er ror
.=sum (range1,UNDEFI ED_ RANGE_ NAME),
=sum (
a1a10) 

Sol
uti
on:
 
Makesur eyouhavement i
onedthe corr
ectfor
mul a 
name.Inearl
ierversi
onsof
excel
,i
fy ouusecorr
ectformulas,theywil
lbeautomatical
lycapi
tal
ized.For
example,ify
outype=sum (1,
2,3)inacellandpressenter,i
twil
lbechangedt o
=SUM(1,2,3)
.Youcanuset hi
sfeedbackt ocor
rectformulas.
 
Makesur eyouhavedefi
nedall t
henamedr angesy ouareusingintheformul
a. 

6. #NULL!For
mul
aEr
ror
 
Thi
sisr
areer
ror
.Wheny
ouusei
ncor
rectr
angeoper
ator
sof
teny
ougett
his
94
 er
ror.Forexamplethefor
mula=SUM (D30:
D32C31:C33)r
etur
nsa#NULL!
er
rorbecausethereisnosepar
atorbet
weenrange1andrange2.
 

Sol
uti
on 
Makesur
eyouhav
ement
ionedt
her
angespr
oper
ly.
7.#VALUE!For
mul
aEr
ror
 
Val
ueerr
orisshownwheny
ouuset
extparameterstoafunct
iont
hataccept
s
number
s.Foreg.t
hefor
mul
a=SUM(
“ab”,
”cd”
)returns#VALUE!er
ror
. 

Solut
ion 
Makesur eyourf
ormulapar
ameter
shavecor
rectdat
atypes.I
fyouareusing
funct
ionsthatworkonnumber
s(li
kesum,pr
oductet
c.)t
hentheparameters
shoul
dbenumber s.

Task2:di scussingareaswher espreadsheetsar eused

Spreadsheet sar ecommonl yusedt oaut omatefinancialst
atements,
busi nessforecasts,t
ransacti
onr egi
sters,i
nventorycontrol,
and
prepar ati
onofaccount s.Thepackagepr ovi
desst ati
sti
cal,
analyt
icaland
scient i
fi
cfunctions.I
nengineeringenv i
ronments, iti
susedt oanalyze
numer i
caldataandpr esentfi
ndings.

UsingCommonFunct i
ons.
TheAVERAGEFunct ion.
Returnstheav er
age(ari
thmeti
cmean)oftheargumentspr ovi
ded.The
argument smustbenumber sornames,arr
ays,orref
erencesthatcont
ain
number s.
Forinstance,
y oumaywantt ocal
cul
atetheaveragemarksf orst
udent
sforal
l
thesubjectstheyhav
edone.

1.Posit
ionyourcel
lpointerwher
etheaveragei
stobeinsert
ed.
2.Cli
ckthePasteFunctionbutt
on.
3.I
nt heFuncti
oncategorysel
ectStat
ist
ical
andthenchooseAVERAGEunder
Functi
onname.

4. Sel
ectt
herangeoffigurestobeaver
agedbycl
icki
ngon t
otempor
ari
l
y
hi
dethedial
ogbox,selectther
angeandthencl
i
ckon
Togetbacktothedi
alogbox.
5.Cli
ckOK.

Notes
1.Usi
ngtheAVERAGEf uncti
on,youcanfi
ndtheaver
ageforupt
o30numer
ic
ar
guments.
2.Whenaveragi
ngcel
l
s, keepinmindthedi
ff
erencebet
weenemptycel
l
sand

95
 thosecont
aini
ngtheval
uezero.
Emptycell
sarenotcount
ed,butzer
oval
uesar
e.
TheMI
NFunct
ion.

Thisfunct ionf i
ndsthesmal l
estnumberi nasel ectedr ange.
Selectthecel lwherey ouwantt oent erthef unct i
on.
Cli
ckt hePast eFunctionbut ton.
SelecttheSt ati
sti
calcat egoryandt henselectMI Nf unction.
TheMI Nf unct i
onrequi r
est haty ouspeci f
yt hear gument sthatar enumber s,
empt ycel l
s, l
ogicalvalues, ort extthatcanbet ranslatedintonumber s.
Argument st hatareerrorv aluesort extthatcannotbet r
anslatedintonumber s
causeer r
or s.
Selectther angeoffigur estor epresentthear gumentbycl ickingon t o
tempor aril
yhi dethedi alogbox, sel
ectther angeandt hencl i
ckon agai n.
Ifanar gumenti sanar rayorr eference,onlynumber sint hatar r
ayorr eference
areused.Empt ycell
s, l
ogical values,ortexti nthear rayorr eferencear eignored.
Ifthear gument scontainnonumber s,MI Nr eturns0.
Cli
ckonOKi nthenextscr een.
Youcanuset heMI Nfunct ionf orupto30number s.
TheMAXFunct i
on.

Thi
sfunct
ionf
indst
hemaxi
mum v
aluei
nasel
ect
edr
ange.I
tissi
mil
art
oMI
N.

1.Selectthecell wher eyouwantt oent erthef uncti

on.
2.Cli
ckt hePast eFunct ionbut ton.
3.SelecttheStat i
sticalcat egoryandt hensel ectMAXf uncti
on.
TheMAXf unct ionr equirest haty ouspeci fytheargument sthatarenumber s,
empt ycell
s,logical values, ort extthatcanbet r
anslatedintonumber s.
Argument sthatar eerrorv aluesort extt hatcannotbet ranslat
edintonumber s
causeer r
ors.
4.Sel ectther angeoff i
gur est orepresentt heargumentbycl i
ckingon t o
temporarilyhidet hedi alogbox, sel ecttherangeandt hencli
ckon agai n.
Ifanargumenti sanar rayorr eference, onlynumber sinthatar r
ayor
refer
encear eused.Empt ycel ls,logicalvalues,ortextinthearrayorreference
areignored.I fthear gument scont ainnonumber s,MAXr et
urns0( zer
o).
5.Cl i
ckonOKi nt henextscr een.
6.Youcanuset heMAXf unct ionforupt o30number s.

TheI
FFunct
ion.

I
Fev al
uatesacondi ti
onandr et
urnsoneoft wov alues, dependingont heresultof
theev al
uation.Ifthecondi ti
oni st
rue,I
Freturnsonev alue,iftheconditi
onis
false,i
treturnst heotherv al
ue.TheIFfunctionhast hef oll
owingformat :
=IF(Conditi
on, Action-
to-be-t
aken-when-condit
ion-i
s-true, Acti
on-t
o-be-
taken- when
-conditi
on-is-
false).
Thecondi tionisusual l
yal ogicalf
ormula.Howev er,y oucanuseanyf or mula,
number ,oraddr essofacel lasaconditi
on.Excel evaluat esanyconditionthat
doesnotequal zeroastrueandanycondi t
ionthati sequal t
ozeroasf alse.
Thear gument scanbev alues, t
extencl
osedi nquot ationmar ks,ortheaddr esses
96
ornamesofcel
l
sthatcont
ainv
aluesorl
abel
s.
Exampl
e:
Supposetheformula=IF(Balance>=0,
Balance,
"Over
drawn"
)isent
eredi
ncellB5.
ThenB5wi l
lcontai
nthev alueinthecell
namedBal ancewhentheval
uein
Bal
anceis0orposi t
ive;Otherwise,i
twil
lcontai
nthetext“
Overdr
awn”(whenthe
val
ueinBalanceisnegative).

ThePMTFunct
ion.

PMTcal cul
atesthepaymentonal oan(pri
ncipal)atagiveni nt
erestrat
efora
speci f
iednumberofpay mentper i
ods( t
erm).Princi
palandt erm areval
ues.
Interestisadeci
mal orpercentagevaluegreaterthan
-1.ThePMTf uncti
onhast hefoll
owingf or
mat :=PMT(Principal
-Amount ,I
nter
est
-
Rat e,Term)Exampl
. e:
Youar econsi
deri
ngtakingoutaKShs.800, 000l oanfor4y earsatanannual
InterestRateof26%,compoundedmont hl
y.Pay mentsaredueont helastdayof
eachmont handy ouwouldliketodeterminey ourmonthlypay ment .

PMT(
800000,
0.26/
12,
48)=26973.
85i
sthemont
hlyi
nst
all
ment
.

Note:TheInt
erestisdivi
dedby12i
nordertogett
hemonthl
yrat
e,andt
ermi
n
yearsi
salsomul t
ipl
iedby12toconver
titi
ntomonths.
TheLOWER, UPPER, PROPERFunct i
ons
Convert
st exttolower,UPPERandTi tl
eCaser espect
ivel
y.
Example:
=LOWER( A1:A23)convertsthecontentsoftherangeA1t oA23tolowercase
=UPPER(A1: A23)convertsthecont
entsoft herangeA1toA23t ouppercase
=PROPER( A1:A23)Capitali
zesthef
irstlet
teri
neachwor doftextv
alueinthe
rangeA1t oA23

Task10:pr
int
ingwor
ksheet
s

Thesimplestwayt oprintistocli
cktheOffi
cebutton,hi
ghl
ightPr
intonthe
menut hatappears,andt hencli
ckQuickPri
ntinthePrevi
ewandPr i
ntthe
Documentpane.Dot t
edl i
nesappearonyourscreen,andyourdocument
pri
nts.Thedottedli
nesi ndicat
etheri
ght,l
eft
,top,andbott
om edgesof
yourpri
ntedpages.

YoucanalsousethePrintPr
evi
ewopti
ontoprint
.Whenusi
ngPrint
Prev
iew,y
oucanseeonscr eenhowyourpr
int
eddocumentwil
ll
ookwhen
youpri
nti
t.I
fyoucli
ckthePageSetupbutt
onwhilei
nPri
ntPrev
iewmode,
youcansetpagesett
ingssuchascent
eri
ngyourdat
aonthepage.

I
fy ourdocumentisseveralpageslong, youcanusetheNextPageand
Prev i
ousPagebutt
onst omov eforwar dandbackwar dthr
oughyour
document .I
fyouchecktheShowMar ginscheckbox,youwil
lseemar gi
n
l
inesony ourdocument.Youcancl ickanddr agthemar gi
nmarkersto
i
ncr easeordecr
easethesizeofy ourmar gins.Toret
urntoExcel
,cli
ckthe

97
Cl
osePr
intPr
evi
ewbut
ton.

Youcli
ckt hePri
ntbuttonwhenyouar ereadyt
opr i
nt.ThePrintdi
alogbox
appears.Youcanchooset opri
nttheentir
eworksheetorspecifi
cpages.I
f
youwantt opri
ntspecifi
cpages,ent
erthepagenumber sintheFrom and
Tofiel
ds.Youcanent erthenumberofcopiesyouwantt opri
ntinthe
NumberofCopi esfi
eld.

1.Cli
cktheOff
icebutton.Amenuappears.
2.Highl
i
ghtPri
nt.ThePr ev
iewandPr
intTheDocumentpaneappear
s.
3.Cli
ckPri
ntPrevi
ew.ThePr i
ntPr
evi
ewwi ndowappear
s,wi
thyour
documenti
nt hecenter.

Cent
erYourDocument

1.Cli
ckthePageSetupbuttoninthePri
ntgroup.ThePageSetup
di
alogboxappears.
2.ChoosetheMarginstab.
3.Cli
cktheHori
zontal
lycheckbox.Excelcenter
syourdat
a
hori
zont
all
y.
4.Cli
ckthever
ti
call
ycheckbox.Excelcentersyourdat
avert
ical
l
y.
5.Cli
ckOK.ThePageSet updial
ogboxcloses.

Pr
int

1.Cl
ickthePri
ntbutton.ThePri
ntdialogboxappear s.
2.Cl
ickthedownarrownextt othenamef ieldandselectt
hepr
int
ert
o
whichyouwanttopr i
nt.
3.Cl
ickOK.Excelsendsy ourworksheett
ot hepri
nter.

98
BASI
CCOMPUTERNETWORKI
NG
Def
ini
ti
onofaComput
erNet
wor
k
Acomput
ernet
wor
kref
erst
oagr
oupoft
woormor
ecomput
ersorot
herhar
dwar
edev
ices
connect
ed/
li
nkedt
oget
herforpur
posesofshar
ingresources,suchasfi
les,pr
ograms,pri
nter
setc.
Thecomput
ersonanet
workmaybelinkedt
hroughcables,radi
owav es,
satell
i
tes,ori
nfr
aredli
ght
beams.
Comput
ersonanet
wor
kusepr
otocol
swhi
chdef
ineacommonsetofr
ulesandsi
gnal
sto
communi
cate.
NB/Comput
erst
hatar
enotconnect
edt
ooneanot
herar
eknownasst
and-
alonecomput
ers.

ADVANTAGESOFCOMPUTERNETWORKI
NG
) Fac
i i
li
tat
ingcommuni
cat
ions.Usi
nganet
wor
k,peopl
ecancommuni
cat
eef
fi
cient
lyandeasi
l
y
v
iae-
mai
l
,chatr
ooms,
tel
ephony
,vi
deot
elephonecal
l
s,andv
ideoconf
erenci
ng.
) Shar
i
i ingr
esour
cesandr
educi
ngcost
s.I
nanet
wor
kedenv
ironment
,eachcomput
erona
networ kcanaccessandusehar
dwareandsoftwareonthenetwork.I
fseveralcomputer
sanda
print
erar econnect
edtoanet
work,
eachusercanaccesstheprint
eronthenet work,
asthey
needi tinst
eadofbuyi
ngasmanyprint
ers.Ot
herresour
cesincl
udefil
es,appli
cati
onsanddi
sk
storage.
Net
wor
kresour
cesi
ncl
ude:
 Pri
ntersandotherperipher
als
 Fi
les,dat
aandi nformati
on
 Appli
cati
ons/programs
 Di
skSt orage

i
i
i)I
tenabl
esdi
str
ibut
edpr
ocessi
ngwhi
chal
l
owsauseratonecomput
ert
ouseapr
ogr
am on
anot
hercomput erasa“backend”topr
ocessandst
oret
hei
nfor
mat
ion.Theuser
’scomput
eri
s
the“
frontend,
”perfor
mingthedataent
ry.
i
v)Cent
ral
izeddat
aadmi
nist
rat
ionandsuppor
t.Dat
afr
om al
ltheusersy
stemscanbest
oredon
onemachi
newher
eitcanbemanagedi
naneasyandmor
esecur
eway
.
) Us
v er
scanst
oremor
einf
ormat
ion,
becauset
heycannowst
oredat
aonot
hercomput
ersont
he
net
wor
k.
v
i)Theyal
l
owuser
stousepr
ogr
amst
hatwoul
dot
her
wisebet
ool
argef
ort
hei
rcomput
ert
orun
byi
tsel
f.
DI
SADVANTAGES
i
. Thecostofhar
dware,
sof
twar
eandcabl
ingmightbequit
ehigh
i
i
. Complexi
tyofmanyLANsmeanst
hati
tisof
tennecessaryt
oempl
oysomeonet
olookaf
ter

99
 thenetworkandsolvepr
oblemsrel
ati
ngtothesyst
em.
i
i
i. Securi
tyofdatamaybeapr obl
em i
fadequatepr
ocedur
esarenotadopted.
i
v. Anyfail
ureinthesy
stem of
tenmeansthati
tbecomesimpossi
bleforuserst
owor
k.

TYPESOFNETWORKS
Cat
egor
izat
ioncanbebasedont
hef
oll
owi
ngcr
it
eri
a:
•Basedontransmissionmedi a:Wi red( Guidedmedia)andWi r
eless(Ungui
dedmedium)
Forgui
dedmedi a,thereisaphy sical pathsuchasacablef orsignal
propagat
ion,
whil
ein
ungui
dedmedi a;theelectr
omagnet icwav eistr
ansmitt
edt hr
oughair.
•Basedonnetwor ksize:LANandWAN( andMAN)
•Basedonmanagementmet hod: Peer -t
o-peerandCli
ent/Serv
er
•Basedontopology( l
ayout):Bus,St ar,Ri
ng…

Net
wor
ksbasedSi
ze
i
) LocalAr
eaNet
wor
ks(
LANs)
Thesmal l
estandsi mplestnetworksarecall
edlocalar
eanetworks(LANs) ,whi
chextend
overonlyasmal l
ar ea,
typi
call
ywi t
hinasingl
eoffi
ce,bui
ldi
ngorapar tthereof
.Inaddit
iont
o
operat
inginalimitedspace,LANsar ealsoty
pical
lyowned,cont
roll
ed,andmanagedbya
si
nglepersonoror ganizat
ion.Theyalsotendtousecertai
nconnecti
v i
tytechnol
ogies,
pri
maril
yEthernetandTokenRi ng.
Ahomenet
wor
kisat
ypeofLANt
hati
scont
ainedwi
thi
nauser
'sr
esi
dence.
i
i) Wi
deAr
eaNet
wor
ks(
WANs)
Wi
dear
eanet
wor
ks(
WANs)canext
endov
eral
argegeogr
aphi
car
eae.
g.acr
oss
metropol
it
an,
regi
onal,
nati
onalorconti
nent
alboundar
iesandareconnectedvi
athe
t
elephonenet
workorradi
owav es.AWANi sageographi
call
y-
dispersedcol
l
ecti
onofLANs.
Anetworkdevi
cecal
ledarouterconnect
sLANst oaWAN.I nIPnetworki
ng,t
herout
er
maintai
nsbot
haLANaddr essandaWANaddr ess.
AWANdi f
fer
sfrom aLANinsever
al i
mpor t
antways.MostWANs( li
ketheI
nter
net
)arenot
ownedbyanyoneorgani
zat
ionbutratherexi
stundercol
lect
iveordi
str
ibut
edownershi
p
andmanagement.
i
ii
) Met
ropol
it
anAr
eaNet
wor
k(MAN)/CampusAr
eaNet
wor
k(CAN)
Ametr
opol
it
anareanet
work(
MAN)isdesignedtoserv
eatownorci t
y,andacampusar
ea
net
wor
kisdesi
gnedtoser
veauni
ver
sit
y,mili
tar
ybaseoraneducat
ionali
nst
it
uti
on.
Ametr
opoli
tanar
easpansaphysi
calar
ealargert
hanaLANbutsmallert
hanaWAN,such
asaci
ty.AMANistypi
cal
lyownedandoperatedbyasi
ngl
eenti
tysuchasagover
nment

100
 bodyorl
argecor
por
ati
on.
i
v) I
ntr
anet
Anintranetisapr i
vatenetwor kwit
hinanorganizati
onthatusest hesamecommuni cat
ions
protocolsastheI nt
ernet(int
ernetprot
ocol).I
tissometimescont rastedtoextr
anets.An
I
ntranetisusedst ri
ctl
ywi t
hintheconfi
nesofacompany ,university,ororgani
zati
onandi s
basedont hei
nternetstandards(HTML, HTTP&TCP/ I
Ppr otocols).Ani ntr
anet
'sWebsites
l
ookandact sjustli
keanyot herWebsites,butthe 
fi
rewall
 surroundi nganintr
anetfendsoff
unauthorizedaccess.
v
) Ext
ranet
Thisisacomput ernet wor kthatall
owscont rol
ledaccessf rom theoutsi
de,forspeci
fi
c
businessoreducat i
onal purposes.ItusesInter
nett echnologyandt hepubli
c
tel
ecommuni cationsy stem tosecur el
ysharepar tofabusi ness'
sinformati
onoroperations
withsuppli
ers,vendor s,part
ners,customers,orot herbusinesses.Anextranetrequi
res
securit
yandpr ivacy.Thesecani ncludefir
ewall servermanagement ,t
heissuanceanduse
ofdigit
alcer
tifi
catesorsi milarmeansofuseraut henticati
on,encrypti
onofmessages, and
theuseofv i
rtualpri
v atenetworks( VPNs)thattunnel throughthepublicnetwork.
Vi
rt
ual
Pri
vat
eNet
wor
k(VPN)
?
Av i
rtualpr
ivat
enet work(VPN)i sanet wor kthatusesapublictel
ecommuni cati
on
i
nfrastruct
ure,suchast heInter
net,topr ovi
der emoteoffi
cesorindi
v i
dualuser swithsecur
e
accesst othei
rorganizati
on'snetwork.Av i
rt
ual pr
ivat
enetworkcanbecont rastedwithan
expensivesystem ofownedorl easedl inesthatcanonl ybeusedbyoneor ganizati
on.The
goalofaVPNi stoprov i
detheor ganizationwiththesamecapabi l
it
ies,butatamuchl ower
cost
v
i)i
nter
net
/int
ernet
wor
k
Anint
ernet(spel
twit owercasei
hal )isanet
wor
kthati
scomposedofanumberofsmal
l
er
computernetworks.
v
ii
) TheI
nter
net
TheInternet(spel
ledwi t
hanuppercaseI )istheworld-
widenetworkofi nterconnected
i
nternetsthatoperatesusingast andardi
zedsetofcommuni cat
ionspr otocolscall
edTCP/IP
(t
ransmissioncont r
ol pr
otocol/
Inter
netprotocol)
,ortheInt
ernetprotocolsuite.This
ul
timateinterneti
sv astl
ylargerthananyot heri
nter
netandconnect sthousandsofnet wor
ks
andhundr edsofmi l
lionsofcomput ersthroughoutt
hewor l
d.TheI nter
neti s,t
herefore,
an
i
nternet.

TCP/ I
Ppr ovi
desend- t
o-endconnect ivi
tyspecif y
inghowdat ashouldbeformatt
ed,
addressed, t
ransmi t
ted, r
out edandr eceivedatt hedestinati
on.From l
owesttohighest,the
l
ayersar etheli
nkl ayer,containi
ngcommuni cati
ont echnologi
esforasingl
enetwor k
segment( li
nk),theinternetlayer,connecti
nghost sacrossindependentnet
works,thus
establ
ishinginternetworking,thetransportlayerhandl i
nghost-t
o-hostcommunication,and
theapplicati
onl ayer,whichpr ovi
despr ocess-to-pr
ocessappl i
cati
ondataexchangee. g.

101
 HTTP,
SMTP,
FTP.

Ty
pesofNet
wor
ksbasedonmanagementmet
hod:
PEER-
TO-
PEERNETWORKS
Peer-t
o-peernet
worksareal
socall
edwor kgr
oupsandt hereexi
stsnohier
archyamongcomput er
s;
al
lcomput ersar
eequal.Noadmini
str
atorisusual
lyresponsi
blefort
henetwork.Peer
-t
o-peer
networksareappropr
iat
eforsmall
,si
mple,andinexpensiv
enetworks.Thi
stypeofnetworkis
appropri
atewhere:
• 10orl essuser
s

• Nospecial
izedser
vicesr
equi
red
• Secur
it
yisnotanissue
• Onlyl
i
mi t
edgr owt
hinthefor
eseeabl
efut
ure

Adv
ant
agesofpeer
-t
o-peernet
wor
ks/
wor
kgr
oups

• Lowcostofi
mplementat
ion
• Simpl
etoconfi
gur
e
• Userhasf
ull
accesst
ocomputerr
esour
ces

Di
sadv
ant
agesofpeer
-t
o-peernet
wor
ks

• Mayhavedupli
cat
ioni
nresources
• Di
ff
icul
ttouphol
dsecuri
typoli
cy
• Di
ff
icul
ttohandl
eunevenloadi
ng–unequal
dist
ri
but
ionoft
asksamongt
hewor
kst
ati
ons

SERVER-
BASEDNETWORKS(
CLI
ENT/
SERVERMODEL)
Acomput ernetworkinwhichonecent r
ali
zed,powerf
ul computer(cal
ledthe 
server)i
sahubt o
whichmanyl esspowerful
per sonalcomputer
sorwor kstati
ons(call
ed cl
ient
s)areconnected.The
cli
entsrunpr ogramsandaccessdat at
hatarestor
edont heser
ver. 
NetworkClients(
Workstati
ons)
comput er
sr equestnetwor
kr esourcesorserv
iceswhilethenetworkSer v
ersprovidenet
work
resourcesandser vi
cestocli
ent s.
Aserverusual
lyhasmoreprocessi
ngpower,memor
yandharddiskspacethanclient
sandrun
NetworkOperati
ngSystem t
hatcanmanagenotonl
ydata,butal
sousers,groups,secur
it
y,and
appl
icati
onsonthenetwork.Serv
ersof
tenhaveamorest
ri
ngentrequi
rementoni tsper
for
mance

102
andr
eli
abi
l
ity
.
Server
-basednetworksuseadedicated,cent
rali
zedser
ver.Alladmini
strat
ivef
uncti
onsand
resour
cesharingareperf
ormedfr
om t hi
spoint.Thi
smakesi teasi
ertoshar er
esources,perf
orm
backups,andsupportanalmostunlimit
ednumberofuser s.Ital
sooffersbett
ersecuri
ty.However
,
i
tdoesneedmor ehardwaret
hant hatusedbythetypi
calworkstat
ion/serv
ercomputerinapeer-t
o
-
peerresourcemodel .
Agoodexampl eofaser verbasednet workisadomainwhichref
erst
oagr oup
of
 computers 
and dev i
ces ona networ k t
hatareadmi
nist
eredasaunitwit
hcommonr ul
esand
pr
ocedures.Domai n-basednet wor ksarecomposedofanynumberofcomput ersandatleastone
DomainCont r
oll
er( DC).Thewor kstati
onscouldbeusedbyemployeesandusersinthe
or
ganizat
ion,whi
let heDomai nCont roll
er,
knownasaSer v
er,i
scapableofmanagingtheuser
workst
ati
onsinmanydi fferentrespects.

Peer
-t
o-PeerNet
wor
ksv
sCl
ient
/Ser
verNet
wor
ks
Peer
-t
o-PeerNet
wor
ks Cl
ient
/Ser
verNet
wor
ks
1.Easyt
osetup Mor
edi
ff
icul
ttosetup
2.Lessexpensi
vet
oinst
all Mor
eexpensi
vet
oinst
all
3.Canbei
mpl
ement
edonawi
de Avari
etyofOSscanbesuppor tedonthecli
ent
r
angeofoper
ati
ngsy
stems machi
nes,buttheserverneedstor
unan
Oper
ati
ngSy st
em thatsupport
snetworki
ngi.
e
NOS.
4.Moreti
meconsumingtomai
ntai
n Lessti
meconsumi ngtomai nt
ainthesoftwar
e
thesof
twarebei
ngused(
as beingused(asmo stofthemaintenanceis
computer
smustbemanaged managedf r
om theserver
)
i
ndi
vi
dual
l
y)
5.Ver
ylowl
evel
sofsecur
it
y Highlev
elsofsecurit
yaresupported,
all
of
suppor
tedornoneatal
l
. whicharecontr
olledfr
om theserveri
ncl
uding
accesstoindi
vidualworkst
ati
ons.Such
measurespreventthedelet
ionofessent
ial

103
 sy
stem f
il
esorchangi
ngofset
ti
ngs.
6.I
deal
fornet
wor
kswi
thl
esst
han Noli
mittothenumberofcomput
erst
hatcan
10comput
ers besuppor
tedbythenet
work

7.Doesnotr
equi
reaser
ver Requir
esaser
verr
unni
nganet
wor
koper
ati
ng
syst
em
8.Demandsamoderat
elevel
ofski
l
l Demandsthatthenetworkadmini
str
atorhasa
toadmi
nist
ert
henetwor
k highl
evelofI
Ts ki
l
ls wi
thag oodwor
king
knowl
edgeofaser veroper
ati
ngsyst
em

NETWORKCOMPONENTS
(a)
Net
wor
kingCabl
es
Thet womostpopul arty
pesofnet workcabli
ngarethe10BaseT( al
soknownast wist
edpai
r
orCat 5)
,10Base5(alsoknownasThi cknet)andthi
ncoax( alsoknownas10Base2or
Thinnet)
.The“ 10”i
n10Base5st andsforthe10Mbpst r
ansmi ssi
onr at
eswhi l
ethe“5”
standsforthemaximum distanceof500met er
stocarrytransmissions.Thepairsare
twist
edt oget
herforthepurposesofcancelli
ngoutelectr
omagnet icint
erfer
ence (
EMI)fr
om
externalsour
ces
10BaseTcabl inglooksl i
keordinarytel
ephonewi r
e,exceptt hatithas8wi resinsideinstead
of4,transmitsat10Mbps, withamaxi mum di stanceof100met ersandphy sicalstar
topologywi t
hal ogi
cal bustopology.Therear ebasicall
yt wot y
pesoft wi
sted-paircabl
ing:
unshieldedtwisted-pair(UTP)andshi eldedtwisted-pair(STP).UTPi ssi
mpl ytwisted-
pair
cabli
ngt hatisunshielded.InSTPcabl es,eachoft hepai rorcoll
ectionofpairofwi resthat
aretwistedtogetherar ecoatedwithani nsulati
ngcoat i
ngt hatfunctionsasagr oundforthe
wireswhi chprotect
st hetransmissionlinefrom electr
omagnet i
cinterfer
ence leaki
ngintoor
outoft hecable.

Thincoaxlooksl
ikethecoppercoaxi
alcabl
ingthat
'sof
tenusedtoconnectanaerial
antennatoaTVset . 
The10baseT/Cat5cableshav
econnectorsthatresembl
eaphonecord
connector
,onlyl
arger
. Thesear
ecall
edRJ-45connectors.Coaxi
alcablesar
econnected

104
 usi
ngBNCconnect
ors.

10Base5Cabl
eandBNCConnect
or

10BaseTcabl
e,RJ45Connect
orsandt
hei
rpor
ts

Fi
berOpt
icCabl
es–si
gnal
sar
econv
ert
edt
oli
ghtf
orm andf
ir
edbyl
aserorLEDsi
nbur
sts
thr
oughi
nsulat
ed,thi
nglassorplast
icf
iber.Li
ghtbouncesbackandfor
thal
ongthecore.The
pul
sesofl
ightrepr
esentthe‘
on’stat
einelect
roni
cdatarepr
esent
ati
on.Anopti
calf
iberconsi
stsof

105
acor
e(densermat
eri
al)andacl
addi
ng(
lessdensemat
eri
al)
.

I
tprovi
dest
ransmissionspeedsfr
om 100Mbpsupto1Gbpsandamaximum dist
anceofsever
al
mil
es.Asmallf
iber-
opti
ccablecansuppor
tlar
geamountsofvoi
ceconv
ersat
ionatthesameti
me.

Fi
berOpt
iccabl
e
Adv
ant
agesofFi
ber
 Noiseresist
ance―ext er
nall
ightisblockedbyout erj
acket.
 Lesssignalatt
enuati
on―asi gnalcanr unf ormil
eswithoutr
egener
ati
on(cur
rent
ly,
the
l
owestmeasur edlossisabout4%or0. 16dBperkm) .
 Higherbandwidth―cur r
ent
ly,l
imitsondat aratescomef r
om thesi
gnal
generati
on/r
ecepti
ontechnol
ogy ,
nott hefiberi
tsel
f.
 Compl et
elyimmunef r
om wir
etapping.

Di
sadv
ant
ages
 Cost-Opticalfi
bersareexpensi
ve.
 I
nstal
lat
ion/maintenance-anycracki
nthecor
ewi
l
ldegr
adet
hesi
gnal
,andal
lconnect
ions
mustbeper fect
lyali
gned.

Wi
rel
essTechnol
ogy
i
. Mi
crowav
eCommuni
cat
ions
I
nformat i
onisconver
tedtoami cr
owav esi
gnal,
sentthr
ought heairt
oar eceiver
,and
r
ecov er
ed.Theyuseline-
of-
sightdev i
ceswhichmustbepl acedinrel
ati
velyhighlocati
ons.
Microwavesareelect
romagnet i
cwav eswhichare"small
"compar edtowav esusedi n
t
ypicalradiobr
oadcasti
ng,i
nt hattheyhaveshort
erwavelengths.

i
i
. Sat
ell
it
eTr
ansmi
ssi
on
Communi
cat
ionssat
ell
i
tesar
erel
ayst
ati
onst
hatr
ecei
vesi
gnal
sfr
om oneear
thst
ati
onand

106
 rebr
oadcastthem t
oanother
Theyusemi crowav
esignal
s

i
i
i. I
nfr
aredt
ransmi
ssi
on
I
nvolvessendi
ngsignal
sthroughtheairvi
alightwavesandrequir
esline-of
-si
ghtandshor t
di
stances(afewhundredyards).I
tisusedtoconnectvar
iouscomput ingdevices.I
nfrar
ed
wavesareelect
romagneti
cradiati
on wi
thlonger 
wavel
engths 
thanthoseof  
vi
siblel
ight.
i
v. Bl
uet
oot
h
Bluet
oot
hisaspeci
fi
cati
on(I
EEE802.15.
1)fort
heuseoflow-powerradiocommunicat
ions
toli
nkphones,
computer
sandothernet
workdevi
cesovershortdi
stanceswit
houtwir
es.

Bluetoot
htechnologywasdesi gnedpri
maril
ytosupportsi
mplewi rel
essnetworkingof
personalconsumerdev i
cesandper i
pheral
s,i
ncludi
ngcell
phones, PDAs,andwireless
headsets.Wirel
esssignal
stransmitt
edwi t
hBluetoot
hcovershortdist
ances,t
ypicallyupt
o
30f eet(
10met ers)
.Bluet
oothdev i
cesgeneral
lycommunicat
eatl essthan1Mbps.

(
b)Hub
Thecent ralconnect
ingdev i
ceiscal l
edahub.Ahubi saboxthatisusedt ogathergr
oupsof
PCst ogetheratacent r
allocati
onusi ngcables.Ahubsimplypassesalltheinfor
mati
onit
recei
vessot hatal
lthedev i
cesconnect edtoitspor
tsrecei
vetheinfor
mat i
on.Hubsare
most l
yusedi nasmallnetwork( usuall
ylessthan30hosts)
.HubsconnectLANsofsi mil
ar
technologyort oext
endt hedistanceofoneLAN.Theycanbecal ledrepeatersorampli
fi
ers.
Adv
ant
agesofusi
ngHubs
i
. Theyar
einexpensi
ve
i
i
. Easyt
oinst
all
i
i
i. Canconnectdi
ff
erentmedi
a
i
v. Ver
yli
tt
ledel
ay
Di
sadv
ant
ages
i
. Li
mit
eddi
stancebet
weendev
ices
i
i
. Nopr
otocol
orr
ateconv
ersi
on
i
i
i. Noer
rordet
ect
ion
i
v. Doesnotf
il
terpacket
s

(
c)SWI
TCH
TheSwit
chisamor eadvancedunitoverthebasi
chub.Unlikeahub,aswitchwill
for
ward
i
nfor
mation/
packet
stotheappropriat
emachi neorportaccordi
ngtotheaddress
i
nfor
mationonaparti
cul
arpacket.Switchesareusedonlargenetworksinordert
ocut
downtheamountofunnecessar
yt raf
fi
cbeinggenerat
ed.Theycanuset hesameor

107
 di
ff
erentt
ypesofcabl
e.
Adv
ant
ages
i
. Canconv
ertpr
otocol
s
i
i
. Theyenhancenet
wor
kper
for
mance
i
i
i. Canbeconf
igur
ed
i
v. Enhancessecur
it
y-onl
ydest
ineddev
icer
ecei
vest
hepacket
.
Di
sadv
ant
ages
i
. Mor
eexpensi
vet
hanhubs
i
i
. Hi
ghermai
ntenancedemands
i
i
i. I
tdoesf
il
terpacket
s
i
v. Doeser
rordet
ect
ion

(
d)Rout
er

Router
sar ehighl
yintel
l
igentdevi
cesthatconnectmultiplenetworktypesanddeter
minet
he
bestpathforsendingdata.Theycanroutepacketsacrossmul ti
plenetworksanduse
rout
ingtablestostor
enet workaddr
essestodeterminet hebestdesti
nati
on.

Theycansegmentl argenetworksandcanf i
lt
eroutnoise.However,
theyareabi
tsl
ow
becausetheyareintel
li
gentdev
ices;assuch,theyanal
yzeeverypacket,
causi
ngpacket
-
for
wardingdelays.Becauseofthi
sintel
l
igence,theyar
ealsomoreexpensive.

Router
sarenor
mall
yusedt
oconnectoneLANt
oanot
her
.Ty
pical
l
y,whenaWANi
ssetup,
ther
ewill
beatl
eastt
worout
ersused.

Routi
ngmov esdat aonahop- by-
hopbasi s,whatisof t
encalled'hotpot
ato'rout
ing.
 Ifaset
ofrout
ersendsuppassi ngthedat
aar oundinaci rcle,
withoutreachi
ngthedestinati
on,i
t'
s
cal
leda‘r
out i
ngloop'.
 Packetsgettossedar oundt heloopunti
l t
heydieofoldage: thei
r
'
TimeToLi ve'counterintheIPdat
agram isdecr ement edasitpassesthrougheachr out
er
andeventuall
yitreacheszeroandisdiscarded. 

(
e)Net
wor
kAdapt
erCar
d
Acomput
eri
sconnect
edt
othenet
wor
kthr
oughanet
wor
kint
erf
acecar
d,(
alsocal
l
eda

108
 "NI
C","
nick",
ornetworkadapter).Networkcardsconv
ertt
hebinarydatagener
atedbyt
he
computerint
oelectr
ical
volt
agesoropt icalsi
gnal
sinthecaseoffiberopt
icNI
Csand
conver
tsreceiv
edsignal
stobi narydataforusebythecomputer
.

(
f)Ser
ver
s
Asev erisacomput ersyst
em thatpr
ovidesessent
ial
servicesacrossanetwork,t
opr i
vat
e
usersinsidealargeorgani
zati
onortopublicuser
sintheinternet
.Theyt
ypical
lyare
confi
guredwi thaddit
ional
processi
ng,memor yandstor
agecapaci t
ytohandletheloadof
serv
icingclient
s.
Serversoff ernetwor kst hecapabi l
it
yofcent rali
zingthecont rolofr esourcesandcant hus
reduceadmi nistrati
vedi fficul
ties.Serv ersperform sev eraltasks.Forexampl e,ser
versthat
providefil
est otheuser sont henet wor karecalledf i
l
eser ver
s.Li kewi se,serverst
hathost
pri
ntingser vicesf oruser sar ecalledpr intservers.
Serverscanbemul ti
-purposeorsi ngle- pur
pose.I ftheyar emul t
i-
pur pose, t
heycanbe, for
exampl e,bot haf il
eser verandapr i
ntser v
eratt hesamet ime.Ift heser v
erisasi ngl
e-
purposeser ver,
itisaf i
leser veronlyorpr i
ntser veronly .
Anotherdi sti
nctionweusei ncat egorizingincat egorizingserv ersi swhet hertheyare
dedicatedornon- dedi cated.Dedi catedSer versar eassi gnedt opr ovidespeci fi
cappl
icati
ons
orser v
icesf orthenet wor k,andnot hingel se.Non- dedicat edSer ver sareassi gnedto
provideoneormor enet wor kser vi
cesandl ocalaccess.

(
g)Networ kOper at
ingSystems( NOSs)
PCsuseadi skoperati
ngsy st
em thatcontrol
sthef
il
esyst em andhowt heappli
cat
ions
communi catewi tht
hehar ddi
sk.Networ ksuseanet
workoper ati
ngsyst
em (NOS)tocontrol
thecommuni cati
onwithresourcesandt hefl
owofdataacr ossthenetwork.TheNOSr uns
ont heserv
er .Someoft hemor epopularnetwor
koperat
ingsy stemsatthi
st i
meinclude
Unix,Novel
l’
sNet War
e,andMi crosof
t’
sWi ndowsNTServ er(orWi ndows2000).

(
h)Gateway s:Agat ewayisadev i
ceusedt oconnectnetwor ksusi
ngdiff
erentprotocol
s.
Broadly
,agat ewayi sanyconnectionpointornodeonanet wor
kthatprovi
desaccesst oa
l
argeroneandt herefor
ear out
erisagat eway.Theytr
ansl at
eonenetworkpr ot
ocol anddat
a
formatstoanot her.Theycantranslat
efrom network-
to-networ
k,sy
stem-to-net
wor kand
system-t
o- sy
stem.Anot herexampl eofgatewayisabridge.
(
i)Workst at
ionsorCl i
entComput er s
Wor kstati
onsar ethecomput ersthattheusersonanet workdot heirworkon, per
for
ming
acti
v i
tiessuchaswor dprocessing,databasedesign,gr
aphicdesi gn,e-mai
l,andotheroff
ice
orper sonaltasks.Wor kst
ati
onsar ebasicall
ynothingmor ethananev er
ydaycomput er
,
exceptf orthefactthattheyareconnect edtoanet workthatoffersadditi
onalresour
ces.

109
 Workst
ati
onscanrangefr
om adi
skl
esscomputersy
stem t
oadeskt
opsy
stem.I
nnet
wor
k
t
erms,workst
ati
onsareal
soknownascl
ientcomputer
s.

(
j)
Ter
minal
Thi
sisthehardwar
e,usual
lymadeupofamoni
tor
,key
board,mouse,et
c,usedt
o
ent
er,
retr
iev
eanddisplayel
ect
roni
cdat
afr
om acomputer
/ser
verthr
oughanetwor
k.

(
k)Repeat ers
Thesear e net
wor k devi
cesusedt oregenerateorr epli
cat easignaldist
or t
edby
transmi ssionloss.Theyal l
owacabl ingsystem toext endbey ondi t
smaxi mum al l
owed
lengt hbyampl i
fyi
ngt henetworkvoltagessot heyt r
avel far
ther.Repeatersareampl i
fier
s
and, assuch, ar ei
nexpensive.Repeaterscanonl ybeusedt or egenerat
esi gnalsbet
ween
simi l
arnet worksegment s.
(
l)Bridges
A br i
dge isahar dwar edevi
ceforli
nkingtwonet workst hatwor kwiththesamepr ot
ocol .
Unl i
kea  r
epeat er,
whi chworksatthe physi
cal l
ev el,
abr idgewor ksatbot hthephysicaland
the logi
cal lev
els (
onl ayer2intheOSImodel )
,whi chmeanst hatitcanf i
lt
erframessot hat
itonlyletspastdat awhosedest i
nati
onaddr esscor respondst oamachi nelocatedont he
othersi deoft hebridge.

Howt
oconf
igur
eacomput
ert
owor
kinanet
wor
k.
1.Fi
rstat
tacht
heRJ-
45connect
ort
otheEt
her
netnet
wor
kpor
tony
ourPC.
2.Got
oSt
artBut
ton,
Cont
rol
Panel
,Net
wor
kandI
nter
netandt
henNet
wor
kandShar
ingCent
er.
3.Cli
ckonChangeAdapterSett
ingsonthelef
tpanel
whi chwi
l
ldi
spl
aysever
alnet
wor
k
connect
ioni
conse.
g.LocalAreaConnect
ionorWir
elessNet
workConnect
ion
4.Ri
ghtcl
i
ckont
heappr
opr
iat
eadapt
er,
choosePr
oper
ti
est
odi
spl
ayConnect
ionPr
oper
ti
es
wi
ndow.
5.FormostLANs,
sel
ectt
heI
nter
netPr
otocol
4(TCP/
IPv
4).Hi
ghl
i
ghtt
hepr
otocol
andchoose
Proper
ti
es.
6.Sel
ectObtainIPaddr
essandObt ainDNSServerAddressbot
hAutomati
cal
lyorent
erthe
set
ti
ngsmanual l
ybycli
cki
ngtheradiobut
tonforUsetheFoll
owingI
PAddressandentert
heIP
Address,
SubnetMask,andDefaultGat
ewaysetti
ngs.Youwil
lal
soneedtoent
erinyourDNS
ser
veraddressesaswell
.
7.Cl
i
ckonOkbut
tont
oappl
ytheset
ti
ngs.
NOTE:I
nter
netpr
otocol6(
TCP/
IPv6)i
sal
soavai
l
abl
einWi
ndowsVi
sta/
7.

I
nter
netPr
otocol
addr
ess(
IPAddr
esses)
AnInt
ernetProtocoladdress(I
Paddr ess)i
sanumericall
abel
assi
gnedtoeachdevice(
e.g.
,
computer
,pri
nter,r
outer)par
ti
cipat
inginacomputernetworkt
hatusest
heInter
netProt
ocolfor
110
communicat
ion.I
Paddressesar
ebinar
ynumbers,
butt
heyareusual
lyst
oredint
extf
il
esand
di
spl
ayedinhuman-r
eadabledot
teddeci
malnot
ati
ons,
suchas172.16.
254.1
AnIPaddresshastwocomponent s,t
henetworkaddressandthehostaddress.Forexample,
consi
dert
heIPaddress150.215.017.
009.Assumingthi
sispar
tofaCl assBnetwork,thef
irstt
wo
numbers(
150.215)repr
esenttheClassBnetworkaddress,
andthesecondtwonumber s(
017.009)
i
denti
fyaparti
cul
arhost/
deviceonthisnet
work.
Subnet t
ing
Organizati
onshavemulti
plenetworkswhi
chareindependentl
ymanagedandeachisall
ocat
ea
separatenetwor
kaddress.Theref
ore,t
hehostnumberpor t
ionofanIPaddressi
sspl
i
tintoa
subnetnumberanda( smaller
)hostnumber.Thi
sresulti
sa3- l
ayerhi
erar
chy

net
wor
kpr
efi
x hostnumber

net
wor
kpr
efi
x subnetnumber hostnumber

BASI
CNETWORKCOMMANDS
1.Pi
ng:
PingsendsanECHO_REQUESTpackettothespeci
fi
edhost.I
fthehostresponds,yougetan
I
CMPpacketbackwhi chmeanst
hemachi neisupandconnectedtothenetwork.Youcan
“ping”anIPaddr
esst
oseeifamachineisal
iv
e.Ift
herei
snor esponse,y
ouknowsomet hi
ngis
wrong.E.g.
C:
\>pi
ngxxx.
xxx.
xxx.
xxxe.
g.pi
ng192.
168.
1.10
Al
lowsy outopi
nganothercomputer(
thex'
srepresenttheIPaddressofthecomputeryouar
e
at
temptingtopi
ng)
.Ifthi
sisnotablet
ocompl et
e,thisshouldrel
aybackanunsuccessf
ulmessage,
whichcouldbeani
ndicati
onofcablei
ssues,
networ kcardissues,
hubissue,
etc
C:
\>pi
ngl
ocal
host
Pingsthel
ocalhost
,thi
swil
lall
owyoutoseeift
hecomputerisabl
etosendinf
ormati
onoutand
recei
vetheinf
ormati
onback.Notet
hatthi
sdoesnotsendi
nformat
ionoveranetwor
kbutmay
all
owy outoseeift
hecardi
sbeingseen.
2.I
PCONFI
G
Ipconfi
gdi spl
aysthenet
workset
tingscurr
entl
yassi
gnedandgivenbyanetworksuchasI
P
address,subnetmaskanddefaul
tgatewayforeachadapt
erboundtoTCP/I
P.Thiscommandcan
beut i
l
izedtoveri
fyanetwor
kconnectionaswellast
ov er
if
yyournet
worksett
ings.
Togetal
ll
ocal
net
wor
kinf
ormat
ionf
ory
ourcomput
eruset
he/
all
swi
tchasshownbel
ow,

111
f
oll
owedbyt
her
esul
tst
hatwoul
dbeseenwhenusi
ngt
hiscommand.
C:
\>i
pconf
ig/
all
3.Pat
hpi
ng/
Tracer
t
Pat
hpingisdesi
gnedforenvi
ronment
sinwhichoneormorerouter
sexi
stbetweenhost
s.I
tsends
aseri
esofpacketst
oeachroutert
hat’
sinthepatht
othedesti
nati
onhosti
naneffor
ttodet
ermine
whet
hertherout
erisperf
ormingsl
owlyordroppi
ngpacket
s.
g.pat
E. hpi
ng192.
168.
1.10

Exampl
eResul
tsmi
ghtbe:
1 3ms 1ms 1ms 192.
168.
0.1(
tot
her
out
er)
2 4ms 1ms 1ms 192.
168.
1.10 (
tot
hepr
oxyser
ver
)

NETWORKTOPOLOGI
ES
Thedevicesonanetworkarerefer
redtoasnodes.Nodescanbeconnectedusi nganyoft
he
vari
oustypesofmedia,i
ncl
udingtwist
edpai
rcopperwirecabl
e,opti
cal
fibercable,
coaxi
alcabl
e
andradi
owav es.Thenodesinanetworkcanbearrangedaccor
dingtoseveral ct
basi opol
ogies
(i
.e.
,l
ayouts)
.
Anetworkt
opologycanbephysi
calorl
ogical
.Phy
sical
Topol
ogyi
stheactual
lay
outofanetwork
andi
tsconnecti
ons.Logi
cal
Topologyi
sthewayinwhichdat
aaccessest
hemedium andpacket
s
aret
ransmi
tted/t
ravel
.

Phy
sicalTopol
ogi
es
Ther
ear
esev
eral
phy
sical
net
wor
ktopol
ogi
es:
St
arTopol
ogy

Themostcommonlyusedt opologyinLANsi
sthestart
opol
ogy.Al
lthenodesinastart
opology
areconnect
edt
oacentraldeviceli
keahub,aswi
tchorarout
erwit
hapoi nt
-t
o-poi
ntconnecti
on.
Thehubactsasasi
gnalrepeater.Thehuborswi
tchmanagesandcontr
olsall
funct
ionsofthe

112
net
wor
k.St
art
opol
ogi
escanbei
mpl
ement
edathome,
off
icesorev
eni
nabui
l
ding.

Adv
ant
ages
 Thest
art
opol
ogyi
sconsi
der
edt
heeasi
estt
opol
ogyt
odesi
gnandi
mpl
ement
.
 Thefai
l
ureofanodeorcabl
einastarnet
wor
kwi
l
lnott
akedownt
heent
ir
enet
wor
k
ascomparedt
otheBustopol
ogy.
 Signal
sdonotgettransmit
tedtoal
lthewor
kst
ati
onsi
faswi
tchi
susedand
theref
orebet
terper
formance.
 I
tisal
soeasiertomonitorduetothecentr
ali
zedmanagement.Cent
ral
i
zati
onallows
i
nspecti
onofthetr
affi
ct hr
oughthenetworkwhichmakesdet
ecti
onofsuspici
ous
behavi
ouronthenetworkeasy.
 I
tisv
eryeasyt
oaddaddi
ti
onal
nodes.
 I
tiseasyt
otr
oubl
eshoot(
det
ectf
aul
ts)andt
oremov
epar
ts.
 Dataissaferast
hepacket
sonl
ymov
ethr
ought
hreepoi
nts;
ori
ginat
or-
cent
ral
dev
ice-
desti
nati
on.
Di
sadv
ant
ages
 Thenetworkishi
ghlydependentonthecent
ral
connecti
ngdevi
ce.I
fthecentral
connecti
ngdevi
cesuchasahub, aswi
tchorarout
erfai
lsduet
oanyr eason,
then
ul
ti
mat el
ythewholenetworkcancomedownorcol l
apse.
 Ascomparedt
othebust
opol
ogy
,ast
arnet
wor
krequi
resmor
edev
ices&cabl
est
o
compl
eteanet
work.
 Theper
for
manceaswel
last
henumberofnodest
hatcanbeaddedi
nsucha

113
 t
opol
ogydependsont
hecapaci
tyoft
hecent
ral
dev
ice.

Phy
sicalBusTopol
ogy

Bust opologyusesacommonbackbone/ tr
unkt oconnectal
l t
henetworkdevicesina
networkinal i
nearlayout
.Asingl
ecabl efuncti
onsast hesharedcommuni cati
onmedi um
forallt
hedev i
cesat t
achedtothi
scabl ewithaninterf
aceconnectororT-connector
.The
device,whichwantst ocommunicate,sendsthemessage/ si
gnal t
oallt
hedev i
cesattached
totheshar edcablebutonlyt
heintendedrecipi
entactuall
yacceptsthemessage.A
terminatorisaddedatbothendsoft hecentralcable,
topreventbounci
ngofsi gnal
s.
10Base-
2and10BaseTar
etwopopul
art
ypesoft
heEt
her
netcabl
esusedi
ntheBus
topol
ogy.

Adv
ant
ages
 Bust
opol
ogi
esar
eeasyt
oimpl
ement
 I
tiseasyt
oext
endt
henet
wor
k
 Theyar
einexpensi
vet
oinst
all
anddonotr
equi
remuchcabl
i
ng.
Di
sadv
ant
ages
 Busnet
wor
ksworkwi
thv
eryl
imi
teddevices.Per
for
manceissuesar
eli
kel
ytooccur
i
ntheBust
opol
ogyi
fmoret
han12-15comput er
sareaddedi
naBusNetwork.
 Dependencyont
hecent
ral
cabl
eisr
isky
.Ift
heBackbonecabl
efai
l
sthent
hewhol
e
net
workbecomesusel
essandcommunicat
ionf
ail
samongallt
hecomput
ers.
 I
tisdif
fi
cul
ttodet
ectf
aul
tsati
ndi
vi
dual
stat
ionandaddi
ti
onofnewdev
icescanbe
di
ffi
cul
t
 Dat
acanbet
ransmi
tt
edonl
yinonedi
rect
ionandi
sthendest
roy
edwheni
treaches

114
 t
heendoft
hel
i
neel
sei
twi
l
lleadt
orepet
it
ion.
 Secur
it
yisv
eryl
owbecauseal
lthecomput
ersr
ecei
vet
hesentsi
gnal
.
 Becausethebusnetworkisjustacoll
ect
ionofcabl
e,connect or
s,andtermi
nators,
therei
snoampl i
fi
cati
onofthesignalasittr
avel
sont hewire.Thismeansthatthe
sizeofthenet
workwi l
lbeli
mitedbythemaximum distancethecabletypecan
actual
lymovethesignalt
hatholdsthedata.

Phy
sicalTr
eeTopol
ogy

Treetopol
ogiesarecomprisedofmultipl
estart
opologiesonabusi .
e.iti
sabus/starhybri
d
topol
ogy.Onlythehubdevicescanconnectdir
ectl
ywiththetreebusandeachhubf unct
ionsas
therootofat r
eefort
henet wor
kdevices.Theconcentr
atorhubisacommuni cati
onsdevice
thatmulti
plexes(
combines)sever
alsignalsf
ortr
ansmissionoverasinglemedium.
Adv
ant
ages
 Thi
sbus/st
arhybr
idcombi
nat
ionsuppor
tsf
utur
eexpandabi
li
tyoft
hecomput
er
net
works,muchbett
ert
hanabusorstar
.
 Thefactt
hatt
henetwor
ki sdi
videdi
ntosegmentsmakesthenet
wor
kmor
emanageabl
e
henceeasi
erf
aul
tident
if
icati
onandisol
ation(
maint
enance).
 I
fonesegmenti
sdamaged,
othersegment
sar
enotaf
fect
ed.
 Thehybri
dsystem over
comesthelimi
tati
onsofbotht hestarandthebustopol
ogy
.It
doesn’
thavethelimi
tat
ionofhubconnecti
onpoi
ntst hatastarhasandalsodoesnot
havetheli
mit
ationsoft
hebroadcastt
raff
icandoveralldependencyonasingl
ebusof
thebustopol
ogy .
Di
sadv
ant
ages
 Mai
ntenanceandmanagementoft
henet
wor
kmaybeani
ssuewhent
henet
wor
kspans
agr
eatarea.
 Si
ncei
tisav
ari
ati
onoft
hebust
opol
ogy
,ift
hebackbonef
ail
s,t
hev
ari
ousst
arnet
wor
ks

115
 wi
l
lnotbeabl
etocommuni
cat
e
MeshTopol
ogy

Thisisat y
peofnet workinwhichdevicesareconnectedwi t
hmanyr edundant
i
nterconnecti
onsbet weennetworknodessuchascomput er
s,routersandswi t
ches.Ever
y
nodenotonl ysendsitsownsignalsbutalsorel
aysdat afrom othernodesi.e.must
coll
aboratetopropagatethedatainthenetwork.Mesht opologiesworkont heconceptof
routes.Themessagesentt othedestinat
ioncantakeanypossi ble,short
est,easi
estrout
eto
reachitsdesti
nati
on.Meshnet worksaretypi
call
ywireless.
Routersworkinfi
ndi
ngt herout
esforthemessagesandi nreachingthem tothei
r
desti
nati
ons.Thetopologyinwhicheverydevi
ceconnectstoev eryotherdevi
ceiscalleda
ful
lMesht opol
ogyunli
kei nahybri
d/par
tialmeshinwhichsomenodesar econnectedt oal
l
theother
s,butsomeoft henodesareconnectedonlyt
ot hoseothernodeswi thwhicht hey
exchangethemostdata.
Adv
ant
ages
 Ameshnet worki
sreli
abl
eandoffer
sredundancy
.Ifonenodecannolongeroperat
e,
al
ltherestcanst
il
lcommunicat
ewitheachother
,dir
ect
lyort
hroughoneormor e
i
ntermediat
enodes.
 Thenetworkcanwithst
andhi
ght
raf
fi
canddat
acanbet
ransmi
tt
edf
rom di
ff
erent
devi
cessimult
aneously
.
 Expansi
onandmodi
fi
cat
ioncanbedonewi
thoutdi
srupt
ingexi
sti
ngnodes.
 Poi
nt-
to-
poi
ntconnect
ionsmakei
dent
if
icat
ionandi
sol
ati
onoff
aul
tseasy
.
 Messagest
ravelt
hroughadedi
cat
edli
ne,di
rect
lyt
othei
ntendedr
eci
pientand
t
heref
orepr
ivacyandsecur
it
yaret
husenhanced.
Di
sadv
ant
ages
 I
tisexpensi
vetoi
mplementduet
otheamountofcabl
ingandthenumberof
har
dwareportsi
twil
lrequi
rei
nor
dert
oensur
etheredundancy
.Iti
sther
efor
emost
ly

116
 usedi
nwi
rel
essnet
wor
ks.
 Set
upandmai
ntenancei
sver
ydi
ff
icul
t.

Phy
sicalRi
ngTopol
ogy

Inar ingtopology,allt
henodesar econnectedt oeachotherinsuchawayt hatt
heymakea
closedl oop/ri
ng.Eachwor kstati
onisconnectedt otwoothercomponent soneithersi
de
andi tcommuni cat
eswi t
ht hesetwoadjacentneighbours.Datatravel
saroundthenetwork
i
nonedi r
ecti
onandsendi ngandr ecei
vingofdat atakesplacebyt hehel
pofaToken.A
tokencont ai
nsapi eceofinformati
onwhichi ssentalongwi t
hthedatabyt hesource
comput er.Onceanoder eceivesapacket,itsendsaconf i
rmat i
ont ot
hesourcemachi ne.
Eachnodeget stosenddat awheni tr
eceiv
esanempt ytoken.
NB:
TokenRi
ngNet
wor
ks

Adv
ant
ages
 Thetopol
ogyi
sveryorgani
zedandel
i
minat
eschancesofcol
l
isi
onsi
nceonl
yone
tokeni
susual
l
yincir
culati
on.
 Addi
ti
onal
nodesont
henet
wor
kdonotaf
fectt
heper
for
manceoft
henet
wor
k.
 Eachcomput
erhasequal
accesst
onet
wor
kresour
ces.
 I
tiseasyt
oadddev
icest
othenet
wor
kduet
othepoi
nt-
to-
poi
ntl
i
neconf
igur
ati
on.
 I
tiseasyt
oident
if
yandi
sol
atef
aul
tsduet
othepoi
nt-
to-
poi
ntl
i
neconf
igur
ati
on.
Di
sadv
ant
ages
 Eachpacketofdat
amustpassthr
oughal
lthecomput
ersbet
weensour
ceand
dest
inat
ion.I
tist
heref
oresl
owert
hanast
artopol
ogy.
 I
fonewor
kst
ati
ongoesdown,
theent
ir
enet
wor
kget
saf
fect
ed.

Logi
calTopol
ogi
es
Ther
ear
ethr
eel
ogi
cal
topol
ogi
es(
bus,
ring,
andswi
tchi
ng)whi
char
eusual
l
yimpl
ement
edasa

117
phy
sical
star
.

Logi
calBusTopol
ogy

Moder nEthernetnetworksareStarTopologies(phy si
call
y)butl ogical
lytheyar
ebustopologies.
TheHubi satt hecentr
e, anddefi
nesaSt arTopology .
Inanynetwor k,computerscommuni cat
ebysendi nginformationacr ossthemediaasaser i
esof
signal
s.Inalogicalbustopology,t
hesignalstravelalongthel engthoft hecabl
einal
ldir
ections
untilt
heyweakenenoughsoasnott obedet ectableorunt i
ltheyencount eradevi
cethatabsor bs
them.Thistraveli
ngacrosst hemedium i
scal l
edsi gnalpropagat ion

Whenacomputerhasdat
atosend,i
taddressesthatdat
a,br
eaksi
tint
omanageabl
echunks,
and
sendsi
tacr
ossthenet
workasel
ectroni
csignal
s
 Al
lcomputer
sonalogi
calbusrecei
vethem
 Onl
ythedest
inat
ioncomput
eraccept
sthedat
a
 All
usersmustshar
etheav
ail
abl
eamountoft
ransmi
ssi
ont
ime,
impl
yi
ngnet
wor
k
perf
ormancei
sreduced
 Col
l
isi
onsar
eboundt
ooccursi
nceal
lnodesar
eshar
ingsamebus.

LogicalRi ngTopol ogy

Datai nal ogical
ringtopologyt rav
elsfrom onecomput ertot henextcomput erunti
lthedata
reachesi tsdesti
nat i
on.Tokenpassi ngi sonemet hodf orsendi ngdat aar oundar i
ng
Tokeni sasmal lpacketwhi chpassesar oundt heri
ngt oeachcomput erinturn.
Ifacomput er(sender)haspacket stosend, i
tmodifiesthet oken, addsaddr essanddat a,and
sendsi taroundt hering.Ther ecei
verreturnsanacknowl edgementpackett othesender .
Uponr ecei v
ingtheacknowl edgementpacket ,thesenderreleasest het okenandsendsi taround
theringf oranothersendert ouse.
Logical r
ingcanbei mplement edonaphy sicalst
ar.Moder nl ogicalringtopologiesusesmar thubs
thatrecogni zeacomput er
‘sfail
ureandr emov ethecomput erfrom t her i
ngaut omatical
l
y.One
advant ageoft heringtopologyliesini
tscapabi li
tytosharenet wor kr esourcesf ai
rl
y.

Switching
Aswi tchtakesasignalcomingf r
om adeviceconnectedandbui l
dsaci
rcui
tontheflytoforwar
d
thesignaltotheint
endeddestinati
oncomput er
Switchingissuperi
ortootherlogi
caltopol
ogiesbecauseunli
kebusandr i
ng,mult
ipl
ecomput er
s
cancommuni cat
esimultaneouslywit
houtaffect
ingeachother.Swit
chi
ngisthedominantlogi
cal
topologyinLANdesi gn.

NB:
Adv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofacer
tai
ntopol
ogydependont
hef
oll
owi
ngf
act
ors:
Easeofmanagement
,Perf
ormance,Troubl
eshooti
ng(maint
enance)
,easeofdesi
gnand
i
mplementat
ion,
saf
etyofdat
a,cost,expandabi
l
ityandr
obustness.
NB:TheBASEi sf
orbasebandoperat
ion.Baseband i
sanadject
ivet
hatdescri
bessignal
sand
sy
stemswhoser angeof 
fr
equenci
esismeasur edfrom cl
oseto0hert
ztoa cut-
offfr
equency
 (a
maximum bandwidt
horhighestsi
gnalfr
equency);
itissometi
mesusedasanounf orabandof

118
f
requenci
esst
art
ingcl
oset
ozer
o.

I
NTERNETANDWORLDWI
DEWEB
Specif
icObj ecti
ves:
Bytheendoft histopic,thetr
aineeshoul dbeableto:
a)Def inetheInternet
b)Expl aintheappl i
cati
onsoft heInternet
c)Expl ainthechal l
engesint heuseoft heInt
erneti
nthebusi
nessenv
ironment
d)Expl aintheneedf orInternetsecuri
ty
e)Opent hebrowser
f) Surfthenet
g)Cr eatee-mai l
account s
h)Usee- mail
i
) Usesear chengi nes
j
) Pr i
ntdocument s

Task1 Def
ini
ngt
heI
nter
netandappl
icat
ions

Def i
nit
ionoft heInt ernet
TheI nterneti sagl obal sy
stem ofi
nter
connect edcomput ernetworkst hatusethest andard
Inter
netPr otocolSui te(TCP/I
P)toservebil
lionsofuser sworldwide.Itisanetwor kofnet works
thatconsi stsofmi l
lionsofpriv
ateandpublic,academi c,busi
ness,andgov er
nmentnet worksof
l
ocal togl obal scopet hatareli
nkedbyabr oadar r
ayofel ectr
onicandopt icalnetworking
technologi es.TheI nternetcarr
iesavastarrayofinformat i
onresourcesandser vices,mostnot abl
y
theinter-
linkedhy pertextdocumentsoftheWor l
dWi deWeb( WWW)andt heinfr
astructur
et o
suppor telectronicmai l
.

Histor
yoftheI nt
ernet
I
nt he1960s,oneofMI T’
sprojectsMacwasfundedbyARPA( AdvancedResearchProj
ectsAgency)
ofthedepar t
mentofdef ense.Duringoneofitsconferences,ARPAr ol
ledoutthebluepr
int
sf or
networki
ngthemai ncomput er
sofaboutadozenARPA- fundeduniversi
ti
esinst
it
uti
ons.Theywer e
tobeconnect edwithcommuni cati
onli
nesatthen-st
unning56Kbps.Shor tl
yaf
tert
heconference,
ARPApr oceededtoimplementt heARPAnet
,thepredecessoroftoday’sInter
net
.

Thingswor kedoutdi f
fer entlyfrom whatwasor iginallyplanned.Rat herthant hepr imar ybenef i
tof
researchersshar ingeachot her’scomput er,itrapidlybecamecl eart hatenablingt her esearchersto
communi cateamongt hemsel vesv i
aelect ronicmai l(e-mail)wast hekeybenef itofARPAnet .One
oft hepr imarygoal sf orARPAnetwast oal low mul t
ipleuser st osendandr ecei veinformat i
on
simul t
aneouslyov erthesamecommuni cationpat hs.Thenet wor koper at
edwi t hat echniquecal l
ed
packetswi t
ching,i nwhi chdi gitaldatawassenti nsmal lpackagescal ledpacket s.Thepacket s
cont ai
neddat aaddr esses,er rorcont r
olandsequenci ngi nformat i
on.Theaddr essi nformat i
on
all
owedpacket st ober outedt odest i
nations.Thesequenci ngi nformat i
onhel pedr eassembl ethe
packet sintotheiror i
ginal orderf orpresent ati
ont ot her ecipi
entsi ncet heycoul dar ri
v eoutofor der.
Thepr otocolsf orcommuni catingov ertheARPAnetbecameknownasTCP( Tr ansmi ssionCont rol
Protocol).TCPensur edt hatmessageswer epr oper lyroutedf rom sendert or ecei verandt hatthose
messagesar r
ivedi nt
act .Ast hei nt
ernetev olved, organizationswor ldwidewer ei mpl ement i
ngt heir
ownnet worksf orbot hi ntra-organizati
onandi nter-organizationcommuni cati
ons.Awi dev ari
etyof
networ ki
ng har dwar e and sof tware appear ed.One chal l
enge was t o gett hese net works to
communi cate.ARPAaccompl ishedt hi
swi ththedev elopmentofI P–t heI nt
er net wor ki
ngPr otocol,
119
tr
ulycr
eati
nganetworkofnet
wor
ks,t
hecur
rentar
chi
tect
ureoft
heI
nter
net
.Thecombi
nedsetof
prot
ocol
sisnowrefer
r oasTCP/
edt I
P.

Thehi
storyoftheTCP/ I
Pprot
ocolsui
tecanbet r
acedbacktooneofthefi
rstWANsconsi
sti
ngof
computer
sf r
om differ
entmanufact
urersr
unningdiff
erentoper
ati
ngsystems.Befor
eARPAnet
,
mostcomput ernet
workswerehomogeneous,consist
ingofcomputer
sfrom thesamehar
dware
manufact
urerrunni
ngthesameoperati
ngsyst
em.

TheARPAnet ’
spopul arit
ybecameappar ent,andi n1975,i twasconv er t
edf r
om anexper imental
resear
chnetworki ntoaf ull
yoper ati
onalnetwork.Resear chintonetwor kprotocolscont i
nuedand
theInt
ernetProtocolSuiter esulted.TheTCP/ I
Ppr otocolswer eadopt edasMi l
it
arySt andardsin
1983,andallcomput ersconnect edt otheARPAnetwer er equir
edt oadoptt henewpr otocol.The
ARPAnetwast henspl i
tintot wonet works:theMI LNET,usedf ormili
tarycommuni cati
ons, andthe
new,muchsmal lerARPAnet ,usedf orf ur
therresearch.MI LnetandARPAnett ogetherbecame
knownast heInt
er net
.Ini
tial
ly,Internetusewasl i
mi tedtot heuniver
sit
ies, r
esearchinst
ituti
onsand
themili
tar
y,buteventuall
ywi tht i
meI nternethasincorporatedcommer cialappl
icat
ions.

Thetermi nt
ernet( noti
cet helowercasei )i
snow usedt orefertoanycol
lecti
onofphy sical
l
y
separat
enetwor kst hatsharet hesamecommuni cati
onpr otocol
s(notnecessari
lyTCP/ I
P)to
appearasasi nglelogicalnetwork.Thet mI
er nt
ernet(noti
cetheuppercaseI)isusedt orefert
o
theworldwi
decol l
ectionofint
erconnectedcomputernetworksthatr
untheTCP/IPprotocol
s.

I
nter
net
wor
kingev
olv
edasasol
uti
ont
othr
eekeypr
obl
emswhi
char
easf
oll
ows:

i
)I sol
atedLANs
Itmadeelectr
oni
ccommunicati
onbetweendif
fer
entoff
icesordepart
mentsi mpossi
ble.
i
i)Dupl i
cati
onofResources
Thesamehar dwareandsof
twarehadtobesuppl
iedtoeachoffi
ceordepartment,
asdi d
separat
esupportstaf
f.
i
ii
)LackofNet workManagement
Nocentral
izedmethodofmanagingandtr
oubl
eshoot
ingnetworksexi
sted.

Webr
elat
edt
ermi
nol
ogi
es

•Webbr
owser
s

Webbr owser saresoftwareappli

cat
ionsthatareusedt oret
ri
ev ewebpagesf r
om theI
nter
netont
o
yourPC.Theyl etyousurf(orbrowse)thr
oughi nf
ormat i
onont heWeb.Infor
mat i
onontheWebis
str
ucturedintopages.Eachpagehasaspeci f
icaddressthatisusedtolocateandaccess
i
nformat i
onont hatpage.
Thethreebr owsersthatparti
cul
arl
ydominatetheInternetmarketare:
-Microsoft’
sInter
netExplorer
-Mozill
aFirefox
-Netscape’sNav i
gator

•Modem (Modulat
or/Demodul ator)
OntheInt
ernet
,computersexchangeinf
ormati
onvi
at el
ephoneli
nes.Amodem isadev
icethat
enabl
esyoutoconnecttotheInter
netandaccessi
nformati
on.Asat r
ansmi
tt
ingmodem,it

120
tr
anslatescomput erinformationi ntoaformt hatcant r
ansmitovertel
ephonel
ines(thi
sisthe
processofmodul ati
on) .
Asar eceivi
ngmodem, i
ttranslatest hei
nformat i
oninaf or
mt hatyourcomputercanunderst
and
(t
hisistheprocessofdemodul ation).
Af astmodem isessent ial
.Itwillreducetheamountoft imespentwaiti
ngforwebpages, f
il
es,or
messagesf rom t
heI nternet.Modem speedsar equotedin‘bps’(
bit
spersecond).
Typicalspeedsare9600bps, 4. 4Kbps( Kil
obitspersecond),28.8
Kbps, 56Kbps,et
c.

•InternetServ
icePr ovi
der(ISP)
Thisi sacommer ci
al or
ganizati
onthatpr
ovidesI
nter
netconnecti
ons,alongwithasetofsupport
servicesforafee.
Mostpeopl eandor ganizat
ionsgetaconnecti
ontotheInt
ernetoveratelephoneli
net hr
oughan
ISP,thoughsomel argerbusinessesandi
nstit
uti
ons(suchasuniversi
ti
es)havetheirownint
ernet
connect i
ons.

AnISPwi l
lusual l
yhav eanumberofhostcomput ers.Thesehostswi llt
ypical
lypr ovi
destorage
spaceforelectronicmailmessagesf ortheirusers,users’
ownwebsi t
esandasetofr el
ated
faci
li
ti
essuchasadv i
ce,supportsoftwar eandappr opri
atesecuri
ty .
Examplesofl ocal I
SPsincludeAf r
icaOnl i
ne,Keny aWeb, I
SPKeny a,SwiftKeny aandInter-
Connect.
Wheny ouopenanaccountwi t
hanI SPy ouwi l
lbepr ovi
dedwi t
hausernameandapasswor d:
Username-Ev eryti
mey ougetconnect ed,yourequireanamet oi dentif
yy ourselfontheInternet
.
Password-Thi si sneededf orsecuri
typur poses.Thisensuresthaty ourInter
netaccounti ssecure.
NB:I
SPschar
gef
ort
heser
vicesr
ender
ed.

TheWor
ldWi
deWeb
TheWor
ldWi
deWebi
sal
soknownast
heWeb,
WWW orW3.TheWebi
sapar
toft
heI
nter
net
.

TheWWW i sacollecti
onofhyper
li
nkedwebpagespubl
ishedontheI
nter
net.Thi
shugecol
l
ecti
on
ofdocumentsisstoredoncomputers, edhost
cal
l s,
aroundtheworl
d.Thedocumentsmaycont
ain
text
,pi
ctur
es,sounds,small
progr
amsorformstobecompl et
edbyauser.

WebPage
Webpagesaredocument
spubli
shedbyorgani zati
onsandi ndi
vidual
sint
erestedi
nputt
ing
themsel
vesont
heWeb.Webpagescani ncludet ext
,pi
ctures,soundandv i
deo.
EachwebpagehasanaddressontheI
nternet.ThisaddressiscalledaUnifor
m Resour
ceLocat
or
(URL)
.Webpagesarecr
eatedusi
ngHypertextMar kupLanguage.

WebSit
e
Acol
l
ecti
onofwebpagesbel
ongi
ngt
oanor
gani
zat
ionori
ndi
vi
dual
iscal
l
edawebsi
te.These

121
or
gani
zat
ionsori
ndi
vi
dual
smai
ntai
nthewebsi
te.

Hyper
li
nks
Al
lwebpageshavehyperl
inks.Theseli
nksconnect
:
1:
Onewebpaget oanotherpartofthesamewebpage.Thisisusef
uli
fiti
sareal
lyl
arge
page.
2:
Onewebpaget oanotherwebsitesomewhereontheWeb.
3:
Apagetoafil
e,suchasasoundcl i
p,vi
deo,aspr
eadsheetoraWorddocument
.

Thesel i
nkst ootherpagescanbel i
nkst oobject sst oredany whereont heInternet.Hypertextl
inks
areindicat
edbyunder l
inedtexthighl
ightedinbl ue( usual
ly).
Hyperli
nksar ealsorepresentedbybut tons,graphi csorpi ctures.
Anexampl eofhy perl
i
nks
Tof i
ndhy per li
nksonapage, movey ourmousepoi nteroverthepageandwher ethereisa
hyperl
inkthemousepoi nt
erwil
lchangei ntoahandwi thapoi nti
ngf i
nger.
Asy ousur far oundtheweb, Int
ernetExpl or
erst orest hesitesandpagest haty ouvisi
t.Youwi l
l
noti
cet hatt hehy perl
i
nksy oupreviousl
ysel ectedar ecoloreddi f
ferent
ly.I
nternetExplorerdoest hi
s
toremindy out hatyouhav ealr
eadyv i
sitedthepagei denti
fiedbyt hisl
ink.

WebHost i
ng
AWor l
dWi deWebserveri
sacomput erwit
hpr ogramst
hatanswerrequest
sfordocumentsfr
om
cl
ient
s(browser
s)overtheI
nter
net.Fi
lescontaini
ngwebsi
tesareplacedontheseser
versal
so
knownashostcomputers.Ahostcomputerisanycomputerconnectedtot
heInter
netandhas
stor
edinf
ormati
onthathasbeenmadeav ail
abletotheWeb.

HomePage
TheHomepageisthewebpageloadedwhenInt
ernetExplor
erisfi
rstst
art
edi.
e.whenyouaccess
theWeb.Youcansetanywebpageasyourhomepage.
Thehomepageisalsothef
ir
stpageofacompanyorani ndi
vidual
’
swebsiteontheWeb.
Note:Donotconfuseyourhomepagewi tht
hehomepageoft hewebsit
esyouvisi
t.Yourhome
pageissetthr
oughI nt
ernetExplor
er.
Thehomepageofawebsi t
eistheintr
oduct
orypagefort
hesit
e.
Ifyoucli
ckahyperl
inksuchasHomeonawebpage, youwil
lj
umpt othewebsi
te’shomepage,not
yours.
Toaccessyourhomepage, cl
icktheHomebuttonontheExpl
orert
oolbar.

WebAddress(Unif
orm ResourceLocator(URL))
Eachwebpagehasauni queaddressorlocati
on,call
edt
heUnifor
m ResourceLocat
or(URL).
Youcani
nstantl
ydispl
ayanyWebpagei fyouknowi t
sURL.Forexample,
http:
//www.compaq.com
Youcani
ncludewil
dcardsinaURLi ncaseswheny oumaynotknowthefullpat
h.Forexampl
e:
ht
tp:
//www.
mar
s.super
li
nk.
net
/~zor
ro/
humor
.com
Thewi l
dcard(~)isusedtorepr
esentcharacter
(s).I
ntheaboveexampl
e,sit
esthathaveAzor
ro,
Thezorroetci
nsteadof~Zorrowil
lbedisplay
ed.
Awr onglyent
eredcharact
ercanresul
tinaninvali
dURL,e.g.acommainsteadofafull
stopora
dashinsteadofanunderscor
e.

Sear
chEngines/
SearchServ
ices.
Asearchengi
neissoft
warethathel
psyoul
ocat
ei nf
ormati
onintheWeb.Therear
esever
alsear
ch
engi
nessuchasGooglesearchengi
ne,
Yahoo,I
nfoseek,
Lycos,WebCrawl
er,andExci
tet
hatoff
er

122
di
ff
erentki
ndsofsear
chi
ngcapabi
l
iti
es.

Spam
Unwant
edi
nter
netmai
landads.

Appl
icat
ionsoft
heI
nter
net

Onceyou’
reconnectedtotheI
nter
net
,ther
earel
imit
lesspossi
bil
i
ties.Youcansendmessagest
o
user
sinothercount
ries,
joi
nachatgr
oup,ort
ryoutnewgames.Someoft heserv
icesof
fer
edon
theI
nter
netincl
udethefoll
owi
ng:
1.El
ect
roni
cMai
l(e-
mai
l)
Emailisasy st
em fort
ransmitt
ingmessagesbet weencomput ers.Exchangingelect
roni
c
mailisthemostpopularfeatur
eont heInt
ernet.Wit
hI nter
netemailyoucansendmessages
topeopleallovert
hewor l
dincl
udingfri
ends,customer sandevenpeopl eyoumeetont he
I
nternet.El
ectr
onicmaili
sfasterthanordi
narymai l
,easytomanage, inexpensi
veandsav es
paper.
2.I
nfor
mat
ion
TheInter
netgivesyouinfor
mat i
ononv i
rt
uall
yanysubject.Thi
sisbecauseoftheWorld
WideWeb.TheWor l
dWi deWeb( www)i saglobalsyst
em ofli
nkedwebpagescont ai
ning
i
nformati
on-t ext
,pi
ctures,soundandv i
deo.
Youcanr evi
ewnewspaper s,magazines,academicpapersandmuchmor e.Gover
nment s,
col
leges,uni
versi
ti
es,compani esandindivi
dual
salloff
erfreei
nformati
onont heI
nter
net .
Forexample,youcaninquireaboutuniversi
ti
esinBrit
ainorAmerica.

3.Pr
ogr
ams
Thousandsofpr ogramsar eavai
lableont heI
nter
net
.Thesepr ogr
amsincl
udewor d
processors,spr
eadsheets,el
ectr
oniccardsandmuchmor e.Youcanlookforthelat
est
softwareovertheInter
net.Forexampl e,
youcangetthelatestAnt
i-
Vir
ussoftwareavai
l
abl
e
andinaddi t
ion,r
etr
ieveafreetri
alissue.

4.Ent
ert
ainment
Hundredsofsi
mplegamesareavai
labl
eontheI
nter
net,i
ncl
udingraci
ngcars,
chess,poker,
f
ootballandmuchmore.TheI
nter
netal
solet
syourevi
ewcurrentmoviesandheartel
evi
sion
t
hemesongs.

5.Di
scussi
onGr
oups(
Chatgr
oups/
Rooms)
Youcanj oindiscussi
ongroupsont heI
nter
netandmeetpeoplearoundthewor
ldwith
si
milarinterest
s.IRC(I
nternetRelayChat)i
sachatti
ngsyst
em ont heI
nter
nett
hatlet
syou
chatprivatel
yoringroups.Youcanaskquest i
ons,di
scussprobl
emsandr eadi
nter
esti
ng
stor
ies.Ther ear
emanydi scussiongroupsonvari
oustopi
cs.

6.Onl
ineShoppi
ng/
tradi
ngandadver
ti
sing
Youcanor dergoodsandser
vicesontheInt
ernetwi
thoutleavi
ngy ourdesk.Forexampl
e,
youcanviewacat al
ogueofacertai
nclot
hesshopov ert
heI nt
ernetandfil
linanonli
ne
orderf
orm.

7.Newsgr
oups
Thesear
edi
scussi
onsonar
angeoft
opi
csf
rom r
ecr
eat
ional
act
ivi
ti
est
osci
ent
if
icr
esear
ch.

123
 AnyInt
ernetsurf
ercanaccesssomeofthesenewsgroups,
whil
eother
swi
l
lneed
subscr
ipt
ion.Youcanreadanyart
icl
esorwri
teart
icl
esandpostthem.
8.Soci
alNet
wor
king
Byfarthemostpopul arandfastestgrowingcommuni cat
ionmet hodmadepossi bleby
broadbandI nternetservi
ce,socialnetworkingstartedoutasawayf orpeopletofindold
fr
iends,stayint ouchwi t
hcur r
entones, andmeetnewones.I thasnowgr owni nt
oapr oli
fi
c
communi cat i
ont oolf
orbothpersonal andbusinessuse.Youcanor ganizegroups,noti
fy
peopleofev ent s,sendmassemai lmessages, chat, andsomuchmor e.Facebook,Twitt
er,
andMy Spacear ecurr
entl
ythemostpopul arsocial networkingsites,andhav eatt
racted
bi
lli
onsofuser s.Manybusi nesseshav eusedsoci al networkingforadv ert
isi
ngand
mar ket
ingpur posesandseengr eatresults.
9.Asar
esear
cht
ool
Tolearnaboutnewdev
elopment
sorpr
oduct
s,compet
it
ors,
mar
ketnewsandcust
omer
opi
nions.

Thechal
lengesi
ntheuseoft
heI
nter
neti
nabusi
nessenv
ironment

Expl
aini
ngt
heneedf
orI
nter
netsecur
it
y
Wi t
ht henumberofbusi nessesthatar
econnectingtotheInter
netandusingcablemodems, DSL
l
ines, andT1circuits,
theneedtosecurethei
rconnecti
onsi snotonlynecessarybutal
sosimply
duedi li
genceont hepartofthecompany.Businessesrelyonthei
rInter
netconnecti
ontosend
creditcardpayment sthrough,
torunthei
rVoIPphones, andeventohostt hei
rwebpage.I
fInt
ernet
connect i
vi
tyisdisruptedthenbusi
nesscannotoper at
easusual .
Inordert
oi nsurethattheconnectiontotheInter
netissecur ether
earesomebasicmethodsthat
canbeut i
li
zedthatar efai
rl
ycheapandwi l
lmor ethanpayf orthemsel
veswit
htheincr
eased
securi
tyandupt i
meoft heInter
netconnecti
on.Abusi nessdoesnotneedtomakesur ethei
r
networkisast i
ghtasanAr mybase; t
heyjustneedt omakesur etheyaremoresecur
ethanother
s
sothatattackerswill
targettheeasiersi
tesandl eavethei
rsalone.
Thev eryfirstthingthatneedst obeputi nplaceateachandev eryInter
netconnectionisafirewall
.
Allbusi nessesshoul dhaveahar dwaref i
rewal lt
hatprotectsandsepar atesthei
rbusinessfrom the
Internet.Acabl emodem wi t
hbuilt
-i
nfirewallmaybeadequat eforahousehol d,
butabusi ness
shoul dlookatacommer cial
lyavail
abl
ef ir
ewal lsuchasaJuni perfir
ewall5seri
es,aSonicWal l
fir
ewal l,orev enaCi scoSOHO.Thesear eallinexpensi
veandar eeasyt omanageandconf i
gure.A
fir
ewal listhef i
rststepofprotect
ionthatkeepsoutt hosewhodonotneedt ohaveaccesst othe
i
nt ernal businessnet work.Essenti
all
yinstall
ingaf ir
ewallissimilartoinstal
l
inglocksonahouse.
Onl ythosewi tht heproperkeyscanaccesst hehousej ustasonl ythosewhohav ebeen
speci fi
callygr antedaccesscanaccesst henet workbehindt hefirewall
.
Onceaf ir
ewallhasbeeni nstal
l
ed,confi
gured,andiswor kingproperl
yabusi nessisgoingt owant
tolookatthecomput ersthemselves.Therearetwot hingst hatneedt obedoneonal lt
he
machinesthatwilli
nsuret hatt
hemachi nesstayupandoper at
ionallongerthanthosethatarelef
t
unprotect
ed.Thetwot hingsarenecessaryare:patchingt hemachi nesforthelatestupdatesfor
boththeoperati
ngsy st
em ( OS)andtheapplicat
ions,andt heninst
all
ingantivi
russoftware.
Thepatchingoft hesy
stemswi l
li
nsurethatt
hevulner
abil
it
iest
hatv i
rus/worm wr i
tersareusi
ngt o
expl
oitandt akeovermachineswil
lnotbeeff
ecti
veagainstapatchedmachi ne.Bypat chi
ngthe
machinetheent r
ydoorisclosedandtheworm wil
lnotbeabletogainaccess.Appl icati
onpatches
updat
et heirtool
sandsoftwarebei
ngusedont hemachine.Wit
ht helatestpatchesthistoowill

124
makei
tmor
edi
ff
icul
tforat
tacker
stoexpl
oitmachi
nesandgai
nent
ryt
othem.
Anti
vir
ussoft
wareisanabsolut
enecessi tyonmachi nes.System admi nistr
atorsanduserscan
becomeannoyedwithitasi
tisar esourcehogbutt hatisbecauset hesof twareistaskedwit
h
prot
ecti
ngthesyst
em andtheycont i
nuall
yscant hesystem fori
nfections.Whenusedi n“r
eal-
ti
me”
modeeachf i
l
eisscannedbeforedownl oading,upl
oading,orbeingsav edt othedisk.Thi
sis
i
mpor t
antwhenreadi
ngemails,sendingemai ls,
orevensur f
ingont heI nter
net.
Therearemanyot herstepsthatcanbet akentogi
veabusi nessastrict
ersecur
itypostur
e.
Howev er,bytakingt heabovestepsabusi nesscanrestassuredthattheyhavetakenthedue
dil
igenceandi nstall
edt hemostbasicsecur i
tymeasuresinthei
rbusinessthatwil
lmakei tdi
ff
icul
t
foranattackertogai nunaut
horizedaccesstoabusiness’snetwork.

Task4 Openi
ngt
hebr
owserandsur
fi
ngt
hei
nter
net

Therear esev eral way stostartInternetExpl

orer.
1.Tost ar tInternetExplorerfrom theWindowsdeskt op,doubl
e-cl
icktheInternet
Exploreri con.
OR
1.Ont heWi ndowst askbar,cli
ckSt art.
2.Selectt hePr ogr amsmenui tem.
3.From thesubmenudi splayed,selectInter
netExplorerf
rom theInt
ernetExplorergroup.
Youmayber equi
redt omakeaconnect i
onthroughyourISPinordertologont otheI
nter
net
.
4. Cl icki ntheUsername:boxandent eryourusername.
5. Ty pei nyourpasswor di nthePasswor dbox.
Thepasswor dappear sinasteriskfor
mat( *)f
oraddedpr i
vacyandsecur i
ty.
6. Cl ickConnectt oaccesst heI nter
net.
Note:TheDial
-upConnecti
ondial
ogboxwillnotbedisplayedi
fyouareconnect
edtotheISP
vi
aapr oxyser
ver.Aproxyser
verall
owsseveraluser
st oaccesstheI
nter
netaccountusi
ng
asingl
eaccount.

Uponsuccessf
ull
oggi
ngon,theInt
ernetExpl
orerdispl
aysthe‘homepage’
andaConnect
ion
I
ndicat
orappear
sontheTaskbartoindi
catet
haty ouareonli
ne.

NB:Allt
heti
meyouar
econnect
ed,
youi
ncural
ocalt
elephonechar
get
othel
ocalphonecompany
andaccesst
imet
otheISP.
Connect
ioni
ndi
cat
or
Youcanfindoutatwhatspeedyouar erecei
vi
ngdata,
howmucht
imeyouhavespentonl
i
neet
c.,
bydoubl
e-cl
ickingt
heConnecti
onIndicator
.
Otherbr
owser shaveasi
milarprocedureforopeni
ng.

CUSTOMI
ZINGTHEWEBBROWSER.

Purpose.
Mov ingfrom sitetosit
ecanbesl owi ft
heISPorInter
netli
nesarebusy,i
fthehostser
ver(the
serverstori
ngt hesiteyouaretryi
ngtoaccess)isbusyorifyouareusi
ngasl owmodem.
Thev olumeoft r
aff
icisalsogrowingontheInter
netandsowebdesi gner
sareconstant
lylooki
ng
forway sinwhi chtheycanmaket hei
rpagesloadfast
er.
Ifasitecontainsgraphics(orothermulti
mediacontentl
i
kev i
deo,audi
oetc)youcanpreventthe

125
gr
aphi
csf
rom downl
oadi
ngsoast
ospeedupbr
owsi
ng.

Step-by-
Step.
1.From theViewmenu, selectInt
ernetOpt i
ons….
2.Cli
cktheAdv ancedtab.
3.ScrolldowntotheMul t
imedi asecti
on.
4.Deselecttheopti
onsorcont entthatyouwantturnedof
fe.
gShow
Pictur
es,
PlayAnimat i
onsorPl ayVideos.
5.Cli
ckOK.

NB:I
ftheShowpi
cturescheckboxi
scl
eared,
youcanst
il
lvi
ewanindi
vi
dualpi
ctur
eona
webpagebyri
ght
-cl
icki
ngit
siconandt
hencli
cki
ngShowPict
ure.
I
nfor
mat
ionandCommuni
cat
ionPage8

ELECTRONI
CMAI
L(E-
MAI
L)
Oneoft hecommonser v i
cespr ovidedbyt heI nt erneti selectr
onicmai l
,alsoknownase- mail.Thi
s
i
sawor ldwidesy stem forsendi ngandr eceivingel ect ronicmessagesf rom onecomput erto
anot
her .
E-mail
isamuchf aster
, economi cal andconv enientwayofsendi ngmessagest ofamil
y,fri
ends
andcolleaguest hant heol dfashionedmai lcalled“ snai lmail
”.With“snailmail”amessageorl ett
er
i
ssentt ot herecipientthrought hepostof ficeandt akesday sorweeksbef orereachi
ngthe
dest
ination.Ane- mai lmessagecant r
av el aroundt hewor ldi
nmi nutes.
Foronet obeabl et ocommuni cateusi ngemai l,thef ollowingcomponent sar eneeded:
1. Acomput erwher ey ouwi ll sendorr ecei vet hee-mailmessages.
2. Youre- mai laddressandt hatoft her ecei ver.
3. AnI SPcompanywhowi lldelivery ourmessaget othereceiver
.
4. Ane- mailprogram t hatletsy ousend, r
ecei veandmanagey oure- mailmessages,e.
g.
Micr osoftOut l
ook, Out l
ookExpr ess, Lot usNot es,Eudora.
Oncey ousendal etter,i
tt r
avelsfr om yourcomput er, throughamodem, whichconnectsyour
comput ertotheI nternetv i
athet elephonenet wor k.Themai lt
ravelsthr
oughv ar
iouscomput er
s,

126
unt
ili
treachest
hef
inal
dest
inat
ion.

Component sofane- mai laddress:

Ane- mai laddr essconsi stsoftwopar tsseparat
edbyt he@ symbol.
I
fy oure- mai laddressi sdrg@t r
opi cal
heat .
com:
i
)Thef ir
stpar tref er
st otheperson’ sidenti
tyorlog-
inname, e.
g.
“dr g”
i
i)Thesecondpar tfollowingthe“ @”sy mbol i
susuallymadeupof
twot ot hreesub- part
stof urtheridenti
fyt
heindivi
dual,
or ganizationorI SP.Inthiscase:
•‘Tropical heat’identi
fiesthebusi ness.
•‘.com’ ist heext ensionandt hisidentifi
esthetypeofthe
or ganization.
Thet ablebel owshowssomeext ensionsandwhatt heyrepresent
:-

Ext
ensi
onRepresents
.
org non-prof
itmakingorganizati
on
.
edu aneducat i
onalinst
it
ution/or
gani
zat
ion
.
ac anacademi cinsti
tut
ion
.
com acommer ci
alorganizati
on
.
net network
.
mil mi l
i
tary
.
gov government

Somet i
mest henameoft hecount ryi
sincludedint
hee-mail
address
e.g.sky news@sky .co.ukornat i
on@af ri
caonli
ne.
co.
ke.Here‘
.co.
uk’r
efer
stoacompanyi
nthe
UnitedKi ngdom whi lst‘
.co.ke’r
eferstoonei nKeny
a.
Exampl esofE- mail Addresses:
Smi th@compuser ve.com
Iat@af r
icaonli
ne.co.ke
Wer e@ku. ac.
ke
Hr-manager @kpl c.
or g
Bridge@ar cc.or
.ke
Tim@y ahoo.com (freee- mailaddress)
Dougl as@hot mail.
com ( freee-mailaddress)

Adv
ant
agesofemai
lsov
erTr
adi
ti
onalPaper
-BasedMai
l

 Emai l
saref ast.Theyaredel i
veredatoncear oundt hewor ld.Nootherf or
m ofwrit
ten
communi cat i
onisasf astasanemai l
.
 Wheny oureplytoanemai lyoucanat tachtheori
ginal messagesot hatwhenyouanswer
therecipi
entknowswhaty ouaret al
kingabout.Thisi simpor t
anti
fy ougethundredsof
emai l
saday .
 Itispossibl
et osendaut omat edemai l
swi thacertaintext.Insuchawayi ti
spossibl
etotel
l
thesendert hatyouareonv acati
on.Theseemai lsar ecall
edaut oresponders.
 Emai l
sareeasyt ouse.Youcanor ganizeyourdail
ycor respondence, sendandreceiv
e
electr
onicmessagesandsav ethem oncomput er
s.
 Emai l
sdonotusepaper .Theyar eenvironmentfr
iendl yandsav ealotoftreesfr
om being

127
 cutdown.
 E mail
scanalsohavepi
cturesi
nthem.Youcansendbirt
hdaycardsornewsl
ett
ersasemai
l
s.
 Productscanbeadvert
isedwit
hemails.Compani
escanreachalotofpeopl
eandinf
orm
them inashortt
ime.
 Itispossi
bletot
ell
whetheranemailhasbeendel
iver
edornot.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofemai
ls

 Emailsmaycar ryvi
ruses.Thesearesmallpr
ogramst hatharmy ourcomputersy stem.They
canreadouty ouremailaddressbookandsendt hemselvestoanumberofpeopl earound
theworld.
 Ma nypeoplesendunwant edemailstoother
s.Thesear ecal
ledspam mails.Ittakesal otof
ti
met ofil
terouttheunwantedemai l
sfrom t
hoset hatarer
eall
yimportant
.
 Emailscannotreall
ybeusedf oroff
ici
albusi
nessdocument s.Theymaybel ostandy ou
cannotsignthem.
 Yourmai l
boxmaygetf l
oodedwithemai l
saft
eracer t
ainti
mesoy ouhavetoempt yitfrom
ti
met otime.

EMAI
LSYSTEMS
1.
POP3

I
tsf
ull
nameisPostOffi
ceProt
ocol3.Wit
haPOP3emai l
servi
ce,emailmessagesar
edownl
oaded
t
othecomput
erandthenusual
lydel
etedf
rom t
hecent
ralemai
lserver
.

I
foneusesPOP3t orecei
vebusi
nessemail
,theyareusual
lyr
est
rict
edtousi
ngonecomputerfor
theemai
l
.(Eachpersoncanhavethei
rownemai l
account,
butevery
onewil
lber
estr
ict
edtotheir
owncomputer.
)

Mostemai
laddr
essest
hatcomeaspar
toft
hei
nter
netconnect
ionpackagear
ePOP3account
s.

2.
IMAP
I
MAPst andsforInt
ernetMessageAccessPr
otocol.I
t’
sanalt
ernat
ivet
oPOP3whi chkeeps
messagesstoredonacentralbusi
nessemai
lserv
er ,
alongwi
thinf
ormati
onaboutwhethereach
messagehasbeenr eadorrepl
iedto.

Wit
hIMAP, y
oucanlogi
nfr
om anycomput
erandseeyourwhol
einbox,
completewi
tht
hest
atus
ofmessages–soyoucanseewhichy
ou’
veread,
whichyou’
ver
epli
edto,andsoon.

IMAPisagoodwaytoaddextr
afl
exi
bil
i
tytoyourbusi
nessemail.I
t’
sawell
-est
abl
i
shedt echnol
ogy
andyou’
l
lfi
ndmanyentr
y-l
evel
email
servi
ces(l
iket
hosefrom webhost
ingcompanies)wil
lincl
ude
IMAPasstandar
d.

3.
Micr
osof
tExchange
Themajorit
yofcompani
esuseExchangeServertostor
eemailandOut l
ookastheclient
.Li
ke
I
MAP, Exchangest
oresmessagescent
ral
l
y,soy oucanlogi
nfrom dif
ferentpl
aces.Buti
tal
so
off
ersl
otsofextr
afunct
ions,
incl
udi
ngcentr
all
ystoredcal
endars,
taskandcont actl
i
sts.
ExchangeandOut
looki
ntegr
atewel
lwi
thWi
ndows,
butmakel
esssensei
nami
xedenv
ironment
128
wit
hmanyAppl edesktopsandiPhone/Androi
dmobil
euser
s.Oft
enusedtocreat
eaclosedemai
l
envi
ronmentoutofsecuri
tyconcer
ns,wher
eitcanbehar
dtogetyouremai
ltoout
sidesyst
ems.

4.WebmailorHTTP
Asthenamesuggest
s,webmail
ser
vicesrequi
reyoutouseawebbr
owser( l
i
keInt
ernetExpl
oreror
Fi
ref
ox)tol
oginandaccessy
ourbusinessemail
.Somepeopl
ecal
lthem HTTPemailservi
ces.

Manyf r
eebusi
nessemai
lser
vices–i
ncl
udi
ngHot
mai
l
,YahooMai
landGoogl
eMai
l–ar
ewebmai
l
ser
vices.

Tosendorr
ecei
veemai
l
,youv
isi
taspeci
fi
cwebsi
teandl
ogi
nwi
thy
ouruser
nameandpasswor
d.

Webmailisconv
enientbecauseyoucanl
oginf
rom anywher
e.However,i
t’
susel
essunl
essyou’r
e
connect
edtotheint
ernet,
meaningmostcompani
esprefert
ouseanotherbusi
nessemai
lserv
ice
whichal
sooffer
swebmai lasanopti
on.

Fori
nstance,Mi
crosof
tExchangei
ncl
udesawebmai
li
nterf
ace,soy
oucancheckyourbusi
ness
emaili
fyou’r
enotatyourowncomputer
.SodomanyoftheIMAPandPOP3-
basedservi
ces
avai
l
able.

Readi
nge- lmessages.
mai
Onceane- mailmessaget hathasbeensentt oy ouar ri
vesatyourcomputer
,tor
eadthecontents
youmustopeni tusingt hepr ogr
am y ouhavei nstal
ledforsendi
nge-mai
l,e.
g.Micr
osof
tOut l
ook.
Step-
by-Step.
1. Launcht hee-mai lprogram MicrosoftOut l
ookfrom theStar
tmenuorashor t
cutont he
deskt
op.
2. Ent erthepasswor difpromptedandcl ickOK.
Alternativel
y,youmayneedt oselectyourpr ofi
lefr
om theChoose
Pr ofil
edialogboxt hatappear s.
3. I nt hiscase,selecty ourprof
il
ebycl i
ckingt hedownar rowkeyoftheProf
il
eNamedi alog
boxandcl i
ckOK.
NB:AUserProfi
lei
sagr oupofset
ti
ngst
hatdef
inehowOutl
ookissetupforapart
icul
ar
user.I
tal
sodefi
nesthr
oughtheinf
ormat
ionser
viceshowausercansend,
stor
e,and
recei
vemessages.
4. TheI nboxiswher eal
lincomi
ngmessagesarestoredwhenyouconnectt
oOutlook.
Displayedarethee-mailmessagest
hatyouhaverecei
ved.
Unopenedmai l
Openedmai l
Alistofe-mailmessages
5. Toopenandr eade-mai l
messagesi
ntheInbox,
choosethemessagethatyouwanttor
ead.
Then, doubl
eclickonittoopenit
.

Message
Thelowergri
dofyourscr
eenwil
lhav
ethefullmessage.Asyoureadthei
temsiny ourI
nbox,
youcanrepl
yto,f
orward,
orfi
let
hem i
notherfol
dersthaty
oucreate.
Wheny ouhavef
ini
shedreadi
ngamessage,youcanclosethewindowbyselect
ingtheFil
e

129
 menu, t
henchoosingClose.Thi
swil
ltakey oubackt otheOut l
ookwindow.
Wheny oudonotneedt ouseanyothere-mailservices,youcanexi
ttheOutl
ookprogr
am by
sel
ecti
ngt heFi
lemenu, t
henchoosi
ngCl ose.
Ift
hereareanye-mailmessagesint
heOut boxt hathavenotbeensent ,
amessagewill
appearprompti
ngy outosendthee-
mai l
(s)atthatpar t
icul
arti
meory oucanchooset
osend
i
tlater
.

Repl
ytoe-
mai
lmessages.

I
fyouhavereadamessage,
youmaywanttosendar
epl
ytotheor
igi
nal
sender
.
I
ftheor
igi
nalmessaget
hatyouar
erepl
yi
ngtowasal
socopi
edtoanumberofotherpeopl
e,y
ou
maywanttosendarepl
ytoall
oft
hem.

St
ep-by -
Step.
Whenr eplyi
ngtoamailmessage,youcanchoosetorepl
ywithorwit
houttheor
igi
nalmessage
i
nsert
ion.Theorigi
nalmessage,sometimesref
err
edtoasthehist
ory
,appearsi
nthebodyofthe
message.Thi si
sjustf
orref
erencepurposesandcanberemovedbyselect
ingt
hetextand
pr
essingt heDel
etekeyorsett
ingopti
onsinthe
Opti
onsdi al
ogbox.

Repl yandi ncludet heor iginal message

1.Ift hemessagey ouwantt or eplyisnotopen, selecti tandopeni t
.
2.Cl i
ckt heRepl ybut toni nt heMai lwindow.TheRepl ymessagewi ndowappear s.Thi
swi ndow
cont ainst hemessagey ouar er epl yi
ngt oatt hebot t
om.
TheRepl ybut ton
Histor y/Or i
ginal
Messagepar t
3.Ty pet her epl ywher ethei nser t
ionpoi ntis.
4.Wheny ouhav efi
nishedt y pingandedi t
ingt her eply, cl
icktheSendbut t
onifyouareon- l
inet o
sendt hemessage.Sendbut ton
NB: Ify oucl i
ckt heSendbut tonwhi l
ey ouar eof fl
ine,t hemai lwi l
lbeplacedintheOutboxf older
andwi l
lautomat i
callybesentt hemomenty ougoonl ine.
Repl ywi thouti ncludingt heor iginal message
1.Fr om t heTool smenu, clickOpt i
ons.
2.Cl i
ckt hePr eferencest ab, andt hencl i
ckEmai l Options. 3.I
nt heOnr epli
esandforwardssect i
on,
cli
ckt hedownar rowkeyunderWhenr eplyi
ngt oamessagebox.
4.Sel ectDonoti ncludeor igi nal message.
5.Cl i
ckOK.
6.Opent hemai lmessagey ouwantt or eplyto.
Informat ionandCommuni cat ionPage45
7.Cl i
ckt heRepl ybut toni nt heMai lwindow.TheRepl ymessagewi ndowappear s.Thi
s
wi ndowdoesnotcont ai
nt hemessagey ouar er eplyingt oatt hebottom.
8.Ty pet her epl ywher ethei nser t
ionpoi ntis.
9.Wheny ouhav efi
nishedt y pingandedi t
ingt her eply, cl
icktheSendbut t
on.
Not es:
Wor ki ngOf f-l
ineConnect iont ot heI nternetusual lymeanst haty ouareusingtel
ephonelines, and
theref oreincur ri
ngt elephonechar gesandusageony ourI SPaccount .Oncey ouhavelaunchedt he
Mai lpr ogram, i
tisnotnecessar yfory out obeconnect eddirectl
ysot hatyoucanreadandwr i
te
youre- mai lmessages.Youmaychooset owor kof fl
inet osav eoncost sandwheny ouarer eadyt o

130
sendy ourmessagesy oucanconnectandsendt hem al
latonce.
1.Ont heTaskbar ,cl
ickont heSt at
usbutton.
2.ChooseDi sconnect.
ConnectionI
ndicator
3.TheConnect i
onI ndicatordisappear
sfrom t
heTaskbarshowi ngt
hatyouar
enowworki
ngoff
-
l
ine.Someser vicesli
keI nter
net,Usenet,
newsroom, orshoppingwi
l
lnotbeavai
l
abl
ewhenyouare
off
-l
ine.
Touset heseser vi
ces,youneedt ore-
est
abli
shtheconnection.

Sendi
ngane-
mai
lmessage.

1.Tocommuni catewit
hanot heruserwhohasane- mailaddr
ess.Thi
sischeaperthansendi
ngf
ax
orusingt hetelephoneespeciall
yforl
ongdi stancecall
s.
2.I
tisal sofastertosende-mai lt
hant opostal et
ter.
Forexampl e,tosendal ett
eraroundt hewor l
dusinge-maili
sjustamatterofminutesas
compar edtot heweeksor dinarymailtakes.
Forthisreason, mostInter
netusersref ert
oor di
narymailas‘
snail
mail
’.

Step-by-Step.
1.From t heOut lookwi ndow, clicktheNewMai lMessagebut ton.
TheNewMai lMessagebut t
on
Themessagecomposi ti
onwi ndowi sdi spl ayed:
Subj ectbox
Messagear ea
2.IntheTo…box, ty pet hee- mai laddress( orsel ectonef rom t headdr essbookby
clicki ngont heTo…but ton)oft her ecipientofy oure- mai l
.
3.Ifyouwantcopi esoft hemessaget obesentt oot herpeopl e,t
ypei nt heire-mail
addr essesi nt heCc…box.Besur etosepar ateeachaddr esswi thasemi -
colon.
Youcanal sosendaBl indCar bonCopy( Bcc) .Her e,ther ecipi
ent sent eredreceivethe
messagebutt heirnamesar ehi ddenf rom ot herr ecipientsoft hemessage.ToaddaBcc
fi
el d, clickt heVi ewmenuandsel ectBccf i
eld.
Cc: st andsf or" car boncopy ".Any onel i
stedi nt heCc: fi
eldofamessagewi l
lreceiveacopy
oft hatmessagewheny ousendi t
.All ot
herr eci pient soft hatmessagewi l
lbeabl etosee
thatt heper sony oudesi gnat edasaCc: recipienthasr eceivedacopyoft hemessage.The
Cc: fieldisusef ul ininst anceswheny ouwi sht oshar eamessagewi thsomeonebutar enot
request i
ngt hatt heyr eplyort akeanydi rectact ioni nr esponse.
Bcc:st andsf or"bl i
ndcar boncopy "
.Thi si ssimi l
art otheCc: f
eat ure,exceptt hatBcc:
recipi ent sar einv isibl
et oal loftheot herr ecipi ent soft hemessage( includi
ngot herBcc:
recipi ent s).Forexampl e,ifyousendamessageTo: johndoe@y ahoo. com andBcc:
j
anedoe@y ahoo. com, thenj ohndoewi l
lseehi msel fast hemessage' sonlyrecipient
, whil
e
j
anedoewi ll seet haty ouhav eal sosentt hemessaget ojohndoe.TheBcc: f
ieldisusef ul
in
i
nst anceswheny oudon' twisht oshar ey ourr eci pient s'emai laddr esseswi t
hev eryonewho
recei v esy ourmessage.
Tosendamessage, youmustal way sspeci f
yatl eastoner ecipientint heTo: fi
eld.I
fy ou
don' t, aner r ormessagewi llappearwheny ouat temptt osendt hemessage.
4.Typet hesubj ectort opi cint heSubj ectbox.
5.I nt hel owergr idoft hemessagecomposi tionwi ndow, t
ypei nthemessaget haty ouwant

131
 tosendasseeninthei
ll
ustr
ati
onabove.
Youcanformattheemailmessageusi
ngthef
ormat
ti
ngt
ool
sli
ke
Bold,
Fontsi
ze,Under
li
neetc.

Wheny
ouhav
efi
nishedt
ypi
ngt
hemessage,
edi
ti
ng,
andspel
l
checkedi
t,cl
i
ckt
heSendbut
ton.

NB:Amessaget hatr
etur
nst
othesenderbecausei
tcannotr
eachi
tsdest
inat
ioni
sref
err
edt
oasa
bouncedmessage.

Todi splayt heFormat t

ingtoolbar
Ift
hef ormat t
ingtool
barisnotv i
sible,
y ouwil
lneedtodisplayit
.
1.Clickt heVi ewmenuf rom themenubar ,
highl
ightToolbarsthenclickt
heFor matt
ingopti
on.
Format t
ingtoolbar
•YoucanaddSmi ley
/Smi l
i
est oyourmessages.Thesear especialsymbolsusedtoexpress
emot ionsi nmessages.Thesechar actersr
esemblehumanf acesifyoutur
nt hem si
dewaysas
showni nt hetabl
ebelow:
Smi l
eyRepr esents
:`-
(Cry
:
-(Frown
:
-IIndifferent
:
-oSur pri
se
:
-)Smi l
e

Spell
-Checki ngMai lMessages.
Beforesendi ngamai l
messagey oucanspellcheckittocorr
ectanyspel
li
ngmist
akesint
hemail.
1.From theTool smenucl i
ckSpel li
ng.
2.TheSpel l
ingdialogboxappear sasshownbel ow.Themi sspell
wordsarehi
ghl
i
ghtedandshown
i
nt hi
sdi alogbox.Chooset hecor rectword
bysel ect
ingi tandcli
ckingtheChangebut ton.
3.Ifthewor dorphr aseiscorrectbutisnotinthedicti
onary
,cli
ck
Ignore.
4.Oncet hespel lcheckiscompl ete,cl
ickOK.

Setupv
iewopt
ions.

Tomaket heMicrosoftOut
lookscreencomfor
tabl
eandconveni
enttoyouri
ndiv
idualpr
efer
ences.
Forexample,
ifyouusuall
yrecei
veal otofmai
lyoumaypref
ertoseethemailgroupedbysender’
s
name,oryoucanpr ev
iewthecontentsofane-
mailmessagebefor
eopeningi
t.

Step-by
-Step.
1.LoadMi crosoftOutlook.
2.From theViewmenuhi ghli
ghtCur
rentVi
ew.
Thesubmenudi splaysthev ari
ousvi
ewopti
onsthatcanbesel
ect
ed:
3.Asanexampl e,highli
ghttheBySenderopti
onandcli
ck.
Groupedmessages

4.Themai
lmessagesar
ethengr
oupedbyt
hesender
.Todi
spl
ayt
hecont
ent
sofagr
oupcl
i
ckt
he

132
pl
usbut
tonoft
hegr
oup.

Toremovefolderlisti
ng.
Thefol
derli
stisdisplayedbydefaul
t.Howeveri
fyoudonotwantt
ovi
ewt
hef
olderl
i
sty
oucan
removei
t,byselectingFolderLi
stfr
om theViewmenu.
Toredi
spl
aythef olderli
st,r
epeatt
hesamest epout
li
nedabov
e.

Usi
ngt
heAddr
essBook.

TheAddr essBooki sadi rectoryofpersonaldet

ails,includingemai l
addresses,forthepeopl etowhom y ousendmessages( calledcontacts)
.
Youcanst oresuchaddr essesintheAddr essBooksoast oaddr essmailmoreeasi
lyi
.e.eacht
ime
youwantt osendemai lmessagesy ousimplyselectt henamesf rom t
heli
stofaddr
esses.
Thiswi l
lsav et het imeusedt oent erli
stsofemai laddr essesaswel lashelpmaintaint
hei
r
accuracy.
Forexampl e,theemai laddress‘nj
ii
ri.
mwor i
a@mi t.edu.uk’ canbe
dif
fi
culttoremember .Besides,onecaneasi l
ymakeat ypinger ror
whent ypi
ngi tin.I
fy oust orethisaddressaccuratelyint heAddr ess
Bookt henyouwi l
lnotwor r
yaboutr emember i
ngi tort ypingi twrongly
.

St
ep-
by-
Step.
ToAddaCont
actt
otheAddr
essBook
1.Toopent heAddr essBook, cl
i
ckont heAddr essBookbutton.
AddressBookbut ton
Theremaybesev er altypesofaddr essbooksi ntheAddressBookdialogbox i ncl
uding
thePer
sonal AddressBookandot herAddr ess
Bookscr eatedbyt headmi nistrator .
2.Sel
ectthetypeofaddr essbookt haty ouwantt ouseintheShownamesf rom t he:
box.
ThePer sonalAddr essBooki st headdr essbookusedt ostoreper
sonal distr
ibuti
onli
stsyou
fr
equent l
yaddr essmessagest o, suchasal i
stofyourfri
ends.
TheGl obalAddr essLi st(orot herl istedaddr essbooks)istheaddressbookt hatcontai
ns
all
e-mai laddressesf oruser s,gr oups, anddistr
ibut
ionli
stsinyourorganizationthatyoucan
addressmessagest o.Iti
st henet wor kadmi ni
strat
orwhocr eat
esandmai ntainsthi
s

133
 addressbook.
3.Cli
ckont heNewEnt rybutton.
NewEnt rybut t
on
4.Specifyt
heent rytypeoft hecont acti
.e.whetheriti
saPr i
vate
AddressBookMai lRecipi
entoranent r
yf oraDist
ri
butionLi
st.
5.Typei nt
henamesf orthecont actaswellasthef ul
lemailaddr
ess.
6.Compl et
et hedialogboxwi ththerestofthecontactdetai
l
susing
theothertabse. g.Wor korHomei nf
ormat i
on.
7.Cli
ckonOK.
Thecont actoraddr essisaddedt otheAddr essBook.

ToEdi taContactintheAddressBook
Youmaywantt oeditacontact
’sdetai
ls.Youcandothi
sf r
om t
he
AddressBook.
1.Opent heAddressBook.
2.Selectthecontactt
hatyouwanttoedi t
.
3.From theFil
emenu, sel
ectProperti
es.
4.Maket henecessarychangestotheinformat
ionandcl
ickOK.

ToCr eat
eaCont actfrom aMai lMessage
Wheny our ecei
veamai lmessage, y
oucanaddt hesender
’sdetai
l
s(nameandemai l
address)t
o
yourAddr essBookint hesest eps.
1.Opent hee-mailmessaget hatcont ai
nsthenameyouwantt oaddtoyourcontactl
ist
.
2.IntheFr om f
iel
d,ri
ght -
cli
ckt henamey ouwanttomakeint
oacont act
,andthencli
ckAddt o
Contactsont heshortcutmenu.
Orfrom theshor t
cutmenu, sel ectAddsendertoAddress
Book.

ToDeleteaContactfr
om t heAddressBook
1.OpentheAddressBookandsel ecttheaddr
essthaty
ouwanttoremov
e.
2.Cli
ckontheDelet
ebut ton.
Delet
ebutt
on
3.Cli
ckYestoconfi
rmt hatyouwanttodeletethenameorent
ry.

ToCr eateaDi st
ributionList
I
fy ousendmai l
tot hesamegr oupofpeoplefrequently
,youcancreate
agr oupaddresslist.Wheny ouaddr essamessaget othatgroup,
eachindi
vidual
inthegroup
receivesi
t.Groupaddr essl
ist
sar eknownasdistr
ibuti
onlist
s.
Youmusthav eaPer sonalAddressBooksetupinor dertobeabletocreat
eaper sonal
dist
ri
but
ion
l
ist.

1.Ont heFi
lemenu,pointtoNew, andthencli
ckDistr
ibuti
onLi
st.
2.I
nt heNamebox, ty
peaname.
Thedist
ri
but
ionlisti
ssavediny ourContact
sfolderbyt
henamey ougivei
t.
3.Cl
ickSelectMember s.
Int
heShownamesf rom t
hel i
st,cl
i
cktheaddressbookthatcont
ainst
hee-mai
laddr
esses

134
 youwanti ny ourdist r
ibutionl ist.
4.I
nt heTy penameorsel ectf rom l istbox, typeanamey ouwantt oincl
ude.I
nthelist
below, sel ectthename, andt hencl ickAdd.
Toaddmember swhoar enotont headdr essbooks, clickonAdd
Newandt ypei nthedet ai l
sandcl i
ckOK.
Thel istofmember sint hedi st r
ibutionlisti
sdi splayed.
5.Cli
ckonSav eandCl oset oexi t.
Ther eisanot hermet hodofcr eati
ngadi str
ibutionli
st.I nthi
smet hod,y
ouuset heNewEnt r
y
button.
6.Thensel ectt heent rytypebox, clickPr ivateAddr essBook
Distri
but ionLi standt hencl ickOK.
7.I
nt heDi stributionLi stNamebox, typeanamef ort hegr oupandcl i
ckOK.
Thel imi t
at i
onwi t
ht hismet hodi st haty ouhav etoinv olvetheadminist
rat
orwhenaddi ng
namest ot hegr oup.
8.Oncet hisi sdone, thecont acti scopi edt othePrivateAddr essBook
Distri
but ionLi stbox.
Repeatt hispr ocessunt i
l youhav eal lt
henamesy ouwanti nyourgroupinthePersonal
Distri
but ionLi st.
9.Cli
ckOK.
Thegr oupordi stri
but i
onl istisnowl i
stedint heAddr essBook.
Agr oupi conshowi ngadi stributionl i
st

ToSendaMessageusi ngt
heAddressBookorDi str
ibuti
onList
1.I
nOutlook,sel
ecttheNewMailMessageoptionfrom theFil
emenu.
2.Cli
ckontheTo…but tont
oopentheAddressBook.
3.Sel
ectthecontactnamesfr
om t
heli
storselectthedistr
ibut
ionl
i
standcl
i
ckonTo-
>.
NB:Toseetheful
lemai
laddr
essessel
ectt
henameoft
heper
sonf
rom t
hel
i
standcl
i
ckon
Pr
opert
iesbutt
on.
4.Cl
ickOKt
oret
urnbackt
otheMessageComposi
ti
ondi
alogbox.
5.Ty
peoutt
herestoft
hemessageandcl
i
ckonSend.

At
tachi
ngf
il
est
oemai
lmessages.

Youcanattachanyt
ypeoff
ilesuchasadocument
,spr
eadsheet,
graphi
cimageorpresentat
iont
o
youremail
messages.
Wheny ouatt
achafi
le,
you'
reactual
l
yat
tachi
ngacopyofthefi
le,
sotheori
ginal
isnotaffect
ed.

Step-
by -
Step.
1.Cli
cktheNewMessagebut ton.
2.IntheMessageComposi t
iondialogboxent ertheemailaddressandtypeint
he
messaget obesent .Thenclickwher eyouwantt hefi
leattachmentt
oappear.
3.Cli
ckont heInsertFil
ebut ton.
I
nsertFi
lebutton
4.TheInsertFi
ledialogboxi sdisplayed.Locatethefi
le’
sfolderandthensel
ectt
hefi
le.
Youcansel ectmul ti
plefi
lesbypr essi
ngthe
CTRLkeywhi lecli
ckingonceont hefil
enames.
However,whenat tachingsev er
alfil
estakecarenottoat t
achtoomanylargef
il
esort
hey

135
 wil
ltakealongtimetosendandr ecei
ve.
5.Cl
i
ckOK.
Theattachedfi
l
ei sdispl
ayedasaniconi
nthebodyofthemessage.
Theiconindi
catesthef i
l
etypeandname.Forexampl
e,shownbel
owisani
conf
oranExcel
workbookfil
eattachment:
6.Cl
i
ckonSend.

ToOpenorVi ewanAt tachment

Documentsthatcontai
nf i
leattachmentsdisplayapaperclipimageinthe
vi
eworfoldernexttothedocumentt i
tl
e.
Oncethedocumenti sopen,Out l
ookdisplaysaniconrepresenti
ngtheatt
achment
.
1.I
ntheInbox,sel
ectthemessaget hatcontai
nstheattachmentandopeni t
.
2.Doubl
e-cl
ickthei
cont hatrepresent
stheat t
achment.

Youmusthavet heappl
icat
ioni
nwhicht heatt
achmentwascomposedi nordertoopeni
t.The
MIME(Mult
ipurposeInt
ernetMai
lExtension)t
ypeoffil
eenabl
esInt
ernetbrowserst
oaccessan
I
nter
netmailf
il
ewi t
houtprompti
ngtheusert ospeci
fythepr
ogram usedtocreat
etheat
tachedf
il
e.

Asaprecaut
ion,
donotopenf il
eatt
achmentsunlessy ouaresurey
ouknowwher et
heycamefrom.
Ther
ehavebeensev eralcasesofenti
rehar
ddisksget ti
ngdamagedduetov
irusessentv
iae-
mails.
Exampl
esofemai l
virusesare‘Meli
ssa’
,‘
Bugbear’
,’Sasser’
etc.

Delet
inganAtt
achment
1.Openthemessagethathast
heattachmentyouwantt
odelet
e.
2.Sel
ectthef
il
e(at
tachment)i
conandpresstheDel
etekey
.

Or
gani
zinge- lmessages.
mai

YoucanuseOut l
ookt
oorganizeyourincomi ngmessagesandmakei teasytosendmail.
Therearesomemessagest hatyouwoul dliketokeepforfut
ureref
erence.Inst
eadoflett
ingt
hem
cl
uttertheInbox,
youcanmaket hem easiertofi
ndbyst or
ingthem i
nf ol
dersyoucreat
e.
Step-by
-Step.
Or
gani
zingt
heI
nbox
Youcanor ganizet
hemessagesi nyourI
nboxqui ckl
ybysorti
ngthem.
Toquicklysortmessagesbysubject
,senderorthedaterecei
ved,cl
i
ckont her
espect
ivecol
umn
header.
Forexample,tosortyourmessagesinalphabet
icalor
derbysender,youcancl
i
ckonFr om i
nthe

136
col
umnheader
.

ToCr
eat
eaMai
lFol
der
1.From theFil
emenu,chooseNewthenFolder
.
2.Enterthenameofthefol
derint
heNamebox, e.
g.Per
sonalSt
uff
.
3.SelecttheI
nboxf
oldersothatt
hemailf
oldercr
eat
edwil
lbecomeasubf
olderoft
he
I
nbox.
4.Cli
ckOK.

ToMov eMessages
1.Sel
ectthemessage(s)y ouwantt
omov e.
2.Usingthedraganddropmet hodmovethemaili
ntothenewf ol
dercreated.
3.Inthepop-upmenu,selectMove.
OR
From theEdi
tmenu,selecttheMovetoFolderopt
iont
henselectthefolderyouwantt
omov
ethe
messaget o.
4.Cli
ckOK.

Task6 Usi
ngsear
chengi
nes

NGTHEWEB.
SEARCHI

1.Ifyouwanttogetsomei nf
ormati
onconcerni
nganar eaorsubjectofi
nterestovert
heWebbut
youdonotknowwher etof i
ndit
,youcanuseasear chengineorservi
cetolocatesit
esthatcont
ain
thati
nformati
on.
2.Locatepart
iculari
nfor
mat i
oninawebsi t
e,e.
g.youcanloadawebsi t
elike
http:
//www.cnn.com/andwi shtoreadthespor
tsnews.
Youcanuseasear chenginewit
hinthatsi
tetol
ocateinfor
mationonspor t
s.

HowSear
chEngi
nesf
indWebPages.
Hundredsofthousandsofnewwebpagesar ecr eat
edeachday,
iti
salmostimpossibl
efora
searchengi
netocatalogeverynewpageont he
Web.Therearetwoway sthatsear
chenginesuset olocat
ewebpages:
a)Spider
s/Robot s
Automatedrobotscaledspi
l der
strav
elar
oundt heWebl ooki
ngf
ornewpages,creati
ngli
nksto
them.
b)Submissi
ons
Thesearederi
vedfrom peoplewhohavecreatednewwebpagesandt hensubmitinf
ormati
on

137
aboutpagest
heyhav
ecr
eat
ed.

Step- by-Step.
1.Sel ectasear chengi ne,e. g.Yahoo, andt ypeitsaddr essintheAddr essbox, i
.e.
ht tp:/
/www. yahoo. com.Oncet hesear chenginehomepageappear s,t
ypeakey word
orphr aseintheSear chbox, e.g.Keny a,thenclickt heSearchbut t
on.Thest epsmay
v arydependi ngont hesear chengi ney ouareusi ng.
2.Assoonast hesear chiscompl eted, y
ouwi llbepr esentedwi t
hal i
stofsitesthat
cont ainthekey wordorphr asey ouar elookingf or.Selectasitewhosedescr ipt
ion
comescl osesttot heinformat i
ony oudesireandcl i
ckoni t
sl i
nk.
3.Ift herearemanysi tes,notal ll
inkswi llbedisplayed.Howev erther
ewi l
lbeanopt i
on
thatal l
owsy out ov iewt henext10orsomat ches.Cl i
ckont hisifnecessarytoview
thenextsetofl inks.Informat i
onandCommuni cat i
onPage24
NB:I
fther
ear
etoomanymat chesyoumaywantt ouseanadditi
onalkeywordto
narr
owdownthesear
ch.Typetheaddit
ionalkeywordinthesearchboxe.g.“Kenya
ANDEconomy”tonar
rowdownt osit
est hatcont
aini
nfor
mationabouttheeconomy
i
nKenya.
4.Cl
ickSearch.
5.Fr
om thesearchresul
ts,
selectt
heli
nksthatmayhelpyougettheinfor
mat i
onyou
r
equire.Youmayneedt ocli
ckonanumberoflinkstogetyourexactrequi
rement
.
I
nformationandCommuni cati
onPage25

Locateinformationwithinawebsi t
e.
Oncey ouaccessawebsi te,y
oucansear chforspecif
ictextorinf
ormati
ononthatsi
teorpage.
Unli
kesear chenginesli
keYahoo,
I
nfoseek,Ly cos,WebCr awler
,andExcit
et hatpr
esenty ouwiththe
URLsorl i
nksofsi t
esthatholdinformat
iony ouarelookingfor,
searchengi
neswit
hinawebpage
l
ocateinformat i
onwithinthatwebpage.

Step-
by-
Step.
1.Loadt
hewebpaget obr
owse.I
ntheexampl
ebel
ow,
thef
oll
owi
ngwebsi
tei
sused:
htt
p:/
/www.carl
eton.
ca.
NB:Thest
epsi
nvol
vedi
nsear
chi
ngar
enotst
andar
d,t
heydi
ff
erf
rom onewebpaget
oanot
her
.
2.Posi
ti
ont
hecur
sorwi
thi
ntheSear
chboxandt
ypeakey
wor
d(s)
,e.
g.I
nter
nat
ional
ANDSt
udent
.
NB:Whentypinginakeywor
dyoucanuselogi
calwor
dsoroper
ator
sli
keAND(whenyouwantto
displ
ayr
esult
sthatmeetbot
hcri
ter
ia)andOR(whenyouwantt
odispl
ayr
esul
tst
hatmeetoneof
thetwocri
ter
ia)
.
3.Cl
ickt
hegobuttont
obeginthesearch.
4.Fr
om theSear
chResul
tsscr
een,cl
ickonal
i
nkt
hati
scl
osestt
oyourr
equi
rement
s.

Task7 Pr
int
ingdocument
s

PRI
NTI
NGWEBPAGES.

Toobt
ainahar
dcopyoft
hei
nfor
mat
iont
haty
ouhav
eresear
chedonandcol
l
ect
ed,
fort
he

138
pur
posesofr
evi
ewi
ngl
aterorf
il
ing.

St
ep-
by-
Step.
Set
ti
ngPageSet
upopt
ions.
Beforepr
int
ingawebpagei tisadvisabletocheckthesetti
ngsinthe
PageSetupdialogbox.Thi swi l
lensurethattheri
ghtpapersize,
marginsandor
ient
ati
onoft
he
pagearesetcorrect
ly.Youcanal soaddheader sandfooterstoawebpage.
1.From t
heFilemenucl i
ckPageSet up….
2.I
nt heMargi
nsboxes, ty
pet hemar ginmeasurements.
3.I
nt heOri
entati
onar ea,selecteit
herPortrai
torLandscape.
4.I
nt heHeaders&Foot er
ssect i
on,specifythei
nformati
ont obepri
nted.
5.Cli
ckOK.

Pri
ntingthewebpage.
1.From t
heFilemenuselectPrint
.
2.ThePrintdi
alogboxappears.
3.Setthepri
ntopti
onsifnecessaryandcl
i
ckPr
int
.

139
DATAPROCESSI
NG
DATAANDDATAPROCESSI
NG
Dataareraw,unpr ocessedandunor ganized( unstructured)f
actsandf i
guresrel
atingt obusi
ness
acti
vit
y.Databyi tselfhasnomeani ngunt il
whenr elateddataarebroughttogether.Exampleisthe
noofitemssol d,nameofi ndiv
idualandmanyot hers.
Inf
ormati
oni sobt ai
nedbyassembl ingdat aitemsi ntomeani ngf
ulformf orexamplet hepayr
oll,
an
i
nvoice,f
inancial
st atement,
orar eport
.
Dataprocessingist heprocessofcollectingandmani pulat
ingdatait
emst oproducemeani ngful
i
nformation.

DATAPROCESSI
NGCYCLE
Thedat
aprocessi
ngcycl
eist
heorderi
nwhi
chdat
aispr
ocessed.Ther
ear
efourst
ages;
1.Datacoll
ecti
on
2.Datainput
3.Dataprocessi
ngandst
orage
4.Dataoutput

1.DATACOLLECTI ON
Therear esev eraldat a-collect i
ont echni quest hatal low ust osy stemat ical
l
ycol lectdat aand
i
ncludet hef ollowi ng:
 Us i
ngav ailablei nformat ion
Usual lyt her eisal ar geamountofdat at hathasal readybeencol lectedbyot hers,althoughit
maynotnecessar il
yhav ebeenanal y zedorpubl i
shed.Locat i
ngt hesesour cesandr et
riev
ing
thei nfor mat i
oni sagoodst ar t
ingpoi nti nanydat acol l
ectionef fort.
 Ob ser v i
ng
Thisi sbei ngpar toft hesy stem wher et heper soncol lectingdat asy stemat i
call
ysel ects,
wat chesandr ecor dsspeci ficsi t
uationort ypeofsi tuat i
ons.
 I nterv i
ewi ng( face-to-face)
Ani nt erv iewi sadat a-collect i
ont echni quet hatinvol v esor alquest i
oningofr espondent s,
eit
heri ndi v iduallyorasagr oup.
Answer st ot hequest ionsposeddur ingani nt
er vi
ewcanber ecordedbywr iti
ngt hem down
(ei
therdur ingt heint erviewi tselfori mmedi atelyaf tert hei nt
erview)orbyr ecordingt he
responses, orbyacombi nat ionofbot h.
 Ad mi ni ster ingwr i
ttenquest ionnaires
Awr ittenquest ionnai re( alsor eferr
edt oassel f
-admi nisteredquest i
onnaire)isadat a
collect iont ool inwhi chwr i
ttenquest i
onsar epr esent edt hatar et obeanswer edbyt he
respondent si nwr itt
enf orm.
Awr ittenquest ionnai recanbeadmi nisteredindi ffer entway s, suchasby :
 Se ndi ngquest i
onnai resbymai lwit
hcl earinstructionsonhowt oanswert hequest i
onsand
askingf ormai l
edr esponses;
 Ga ther ingal lorpar toft her espondent sinonepl aceatonet ime, gi
vingoral orwr i
tt
en

140
 i
nstruct
ions,andletti
ngtherespondentsfi
ll
outt hequest i
onnai
res;or
 Hand-deli
veri
ngquest i
onnair
estorespondentsandcol lecti
ngthem later
.
Thequestionscanbeei t
heropen-
endedorcl osed( wit
hpre-cat
egorisedanswers)
.
 Focusgroupdi scussi
ons
Afocusgr oupdiscussionall
owsagr oupof8-12i nformantstofr
eelydiscussacert
ain
subj
ectwi t
hthegui danceofafacil
it
atororreporter.

2.DATAI NPUT
I
tisthepr ocesst hroughwhi chcol lect
eddataistransformedi ntoaformt hatthecomputercan
understand.Iti
sav eryi
mpor tantstepbecausecor r
ectout putresul
ttotal
l
ydependsont he
i
nputdat a.Inthi
sst age,thef oll
owi ngacti
vit
iesar
et obeper formed.
i
)Ver i
ficati
on
Thecol l
ecteddat aisv er
ifiedt odeter
minewhet heritiscorrectasrequired.I
ferr
orsoccuri
n
coll
ecteddat a,dataiscor rectedoritiscoll
ect
edagai n.

i
i)Coding
Thev er
ifi
eddatai
scodedorconv
ert
edi
ntomachi
ner
eadabl
efor
m sot
hati
tcanbe
processedthr
oughcomputer
.

i
ii
)St
ori
ng
Thedat
ai sst
oredonthesecondarystorageint
oaf il
e.Thest
oreddat
aont
hest
orage
medi
awill
begivent
othepr
ogram asinputforpr
ocessi
ng.

3.DATAPROCESSI NGANDSTORAGE
Themai npur poseofdat aprocessi ngistogett her equi
redresul
t.Int hi
sstage,t hefoll
owing
act
ivi
ti
escanbeper formedinasy stematicmanner .Someoft heimportantactiv
itiesare:
i)Classi f
icat i
on
Thedat ai sclassifi
edi nt
odifferentgroupsandsubgr oups,sothateachgr ouporsub- group
ofdat acanbehandl edseparately.
ii
)St oring
Thedat aisar r
angedi ntoanor dersot hatitcanbeaccessedv eryquicklyasandwhen
required.
ii
i)Calcul ations
Thear ithmet i
coper ati
onsareper f
ormedont henumer i
cdatatogett herequiredresult
s.For
exampl e,totalmar ksofeachst udentarecal
cul at
ed.
iv)Summar i
sing
Thedat aispr ocessedt orepr esentitinasummar i
zedf or
m.Summar yofdat ai soften
prepar ed f ort op management .Forexampl e,thesummar yoft hedat aofst udentsis
prepar edt oshowt hepercentageofpassandf ail
studentexaminati
onet c.

4.DATAOUTPUT
Most
ly,t
heout
puti
sst
oredont
hest
oragemedi
aforl
ateruser
.Inout
putst
ep,t
hef
oll
owi
ng

141
 act
ivi
ti
escanbeper formed.
i)Retri
eval
Outputstoredont hestoragemediacanberetri
evedatanyti
meandf ordif
fer
entpurposes.
ii
)Conv ersion
The gener at ed out putcan be convert
ed i
nto dif
fer
entforms.Forexampl e,itcan be
represent
edi ntogr aphi
calfor
m.
ii
i)Communi cati
on
Thegener at edout putissenttodiff
erentpl
aces.Forexample,weat
herf or
ecastisprepar
ed
andsentt odi f
fer
entagenci esandnewspapersetc.wherei
tisrequi
red.

DATAPROCESSI
NGMODES
 Interact i
v ecomput ingorI nter activ epr ocessi ng: -refer st osof t
war ewhi chaccept si nput
from humans—f orexampl e,dat aorcommands.I nt eract ivesoftwar eincludesmostpopul ar
progr ams, suchaswor dpr ocessor sorspr eadsheetappl icati
ons.Bycompar ison, non-
i
nt eractivepr ogr amsoper atewi t
houthumancont act ;exampl esoft hesei ncludecompi lers
andbat chpr ocessi ngappl i
cations.I fther esponsei scompl exenoughi tissai dt hatt he
sy stem isconduct ingsoci alint eract i
onandsomesy st emst r
yt oachi evet hist hrought he
i
mpl ement ationofsoci al i
nterfaces.
 Transact ionPr ocessi ng:-isinf ormat i
onpr ocessi ngt hati sdiv i
dedi ntoindi vi
dual ,indiv i
sibl
e
oper ations, calledt ransact i
ons.Eacht ransact ionmustsucceedorf ailasacompl eteuni t
;it
cannotr emai ninani ntermedi at est ate.
 Ba tchPr ocessi ng: -isexecut i
onofaser iesofpr ogr ams( "j
obs")onacomput erwi thout
humani nteract ion.Bat chjobsar esetupsot heycanber untocompl et
ionwi t houthuman
i
nt eractioni .e.pr ogr amsanddat aar ecol l
ectedt oget heri nabat chbef orepr ocessi ngst arts.
Thi sisi ncont r
astt o" onli
ne"ori nt eractivepr ogr amswhi chpr omptt heuserf orsuchi nput.
Spool ingbat chsy st emsuset heconceptofspool i
ngwhi chi sanacr onymf orsi mul taneous
per i
pher al oper at i
onsonl i
ne.Spool i
ngr eferstoput t i
ngj obsi nabuf fer
,aspeci al areai n
memor yoronadi skwher eadev icecanaccesst hem wheni tisr eady .
Spool ingi susef ul becausedev i
ceaccessdat at hatdi ff erentrates.Thebuf f
erpr ov idesa
wai ti
ngst ati
onwher edat acanr estwhi lethesl owerdev i
cecat chesup.

Themostcommonspool
ingappl
i
cati
oni spri
ntspool
ing.I
npr
intspool
i
ng,document
sar
e
l
oadedi
ntoabuf
ferandt
henthepri
nterpul
lsthem of
fthebuf
ferati
tsownrate.

 Realti
mepr ocessi ng
Dataprocessi ngt hatappearstotakeplace,oract
ual
lytakespl
ace,i
nstant
aneousl
yupon
dataentryorr eceiptofacommand
 Off-
li
neandI nteracti
veprocessing
Off-
li
neiswhent heinput/out
putdevicesarenotindir
ectcommunicati
onwiththeCPU.
 Timeshar i
ngsy stem
Thisinvolvesaccessi ngofonecent ralcomputerbymanyusersinwhichcasethe
processortimei sdi vi
dedintosmallunitsoftime-
sli
ces,wit
heachcomputeruserbei
ng

142
 al
l
ocat
edat
ime-
sli
ce

ELEMENTSOFDATAHI
ERARCHY
Dat
aHier
archy 
ref
erstot
hesystemati
corganizat
ionofdat
a,of
teninahi
erar
chi
cal
for
m.Dat
a
or
gani
zat
ioninv
olvesdat
abases,f
iel
ds,r
ecords,f
il
es,by
tesandbi
ts.
Computer
sprocessalldatai
temsascombi nati
onsofzer
osandones
 Abi ti
ssmallestdatait
em onacomput er,
canhaveval
ues0or1
 Aby teismadeof8bi ts
 Achar act
erisalargerdat
aitem whi
chcanconsist
sofdeci
maldi
git
s,l
ett
ersandspeci
al
symbol
 A dat
afiel
d hol
dsasi
nglefactoratt
ri
buteofanenti
ty.Consideradatefiel
d,e.
g.
"Sept
ember19,2004"
.Thiscanbet r
eatedasasingl
edatefield(e.
g.bir
thdate)
,or3f
iel
ds,
namely,
mont h,
dayofmonthandy ear.
 A r
ecord 
isacoll
ect
ionofrelat
edfi
elds.AnEmpl
oyeer
ecor
dmaycont
ainanamef
iel
d(s)
,
addressf
iel
ds,bi
rt
hdatef
ieldandsoon.
 A 
fi
le i
sacol
l
ecti
onofrelat
edrecor
ds.I
fther
eare100employees,t
heneachempl
oyee
wouldhav
earecord(
e.g.cal
ledEmploy
eePersonal
Det
ail
srecord)andt
hecoll
ect
ionof100

143
 suchrecordswouldconstit
uteafil
e(i
nthi
scase,
cal
l
edEmployeePersonal
Detai
l
sfi
l
e).
 Database–agr oupofrelatedfi
l
es
Fi
l
esar
eintegrat
edint
oa database. 
Thisi
sdoneusi
ngaDatabaseManagementSyst
em.

FI
LEORGANI
ZATI
ONANDACCESSMETHODS
Thereareal argenumberofway
sr ecor
dscanbeor
gani
sedondi
skort
ape.Themai
nmet
hodsof
fi
l
eor ganisati
onusedforfi
l
esare:
Seri
al
Sequential
I
ndexedSequent ial
Random ( orDirect)

a)SerialOr ganization
Seri
alfilesarest oredinchronologicalor
der ,
whichisaseachr ecordi
sr eceivediti
sstoredinthe
nextav ail
ablestor ageposit
ion.Ingeneraliti
sonlyusedonaser i
almedi um suchasMagnet ictape.
Thistypeoff il
eor ganizati
onmeanst hattherecordsareinnoparti
cularor derandther
eforeto
ret
riev
easi nglerecordt hewholefileneedst obereadfrom thebeggi
ngt oend.Seri
alorgani
zation
i
susual lythemet hodusedf orcreati
ngTr ansact
ionfi
les(unsort
ed),Wor kandDumpf i
les.

b)SequentialOrgani
zat
ion
Sequenti
alfil
esareseri
alf
il
eswhoser ecordsaresortedandstor
edinanascendingordescendi
ng
orderonapar ti
cul
arkeyfi
eld.Thephysicalor
deroftherecor
dsonthediskisnotnecessar
il
y
sequenti
al,
asmostmanuf act ur
erssupportanorgani
zati
onwherecert
ainrecor
ds(inser
tedaft
er

144
thefil
ehasbeensetup)arehel
dinalogical
sequencebutarephy
sical
l
yplacedi
ntoanov er
flow
area.Theyar
enolongerphysi
call
ycont
iguouswit
ht hepr
ecedi
ngandfoll
owingl
ogical
records,but
theycanberetr
iev
edinsequence.

c)IndexedSequent ialOr ganization

IndexedSequent i
alfileorganizationislogicall
yt hesameassequent ialorgani
zation, butani
ndexis
builti
ndicati
ngthebl ockcont ainingtherecor dwi t
hagi venval
uefortheKeyf iel
d.
Thismet hodcombi nest headv antagesofasequent i
alfil
ewiththepossibil
it
yofdi rectaccess
usingthePr i
mar yKey( thepr i
mar yKeyi sthef i
eldthatisusedtocont r
olthesequenceoft he
records).Thesedaysmanuf acturersprovi
dingI ndexedSequentialSoft
war eall
owf ort hebui
ldi
ng
ofindexesusi ngfi
eldsot herthant hepr i
mar yKey .Theseaddit
ionalfi
eldsonwhi chi ndexesare
builtar
ecal l
edSecondar yKey s.
Ther ear
et hreemajort ypesofi ndexesused:

d)Random ( orDirect)
Ar andomlyorganisedf i
l
econt ai
nsr ecor
dsarrangedphysical
lywit
houtregardtothesequenceof
thepr i
marykey.Recordsar eloadedt odi
skbyest abl
i
shingadi r
ectrel
ati
onshipbetweentheKeyof
therecordandi t
saddr essont hefi
le,normal
lybyuseofaf or
mula(oralgori
thm)thatconver
tst
he
primaryKeyt oaphy si
cal diskaddress.This
rel
ationshi
pisalsousedf orretri
eval.
Theuseofaf ormula(oral gorit
hm)i sknownas' KeyTransfor
mat i
on'andtherear
esev er
al
techniquesthatcanbeused:

Divi
sionTaki
ngQuot
ient
Divi
sionTaki
ngRemainder
Truncati
on
Foldi
ng
Squaring
RadixConver
sion

Thesemet
hodsar
eof
tenmi
xedt
opr
oduceauni
queaddr
ess(
orl
ocat
ion)f
oreachr
ecor
d(key
).

145
DATASECURI
TY
THREATSANDHAZARDSTODATA
Thef
ollowingareamongt hethreatst odat asecur i
ty:
1.Dat amaygetl ostordamageddur ingasy stem crash -especi
all
yone
affect
ingthe harddisk
2.I tcanbecor ruptedasar esultoff ault
ydisks, di
skdr i
ves,orpowerfai
l
ures
3.I tcanbelostbyacci dentall
ydel eti
ngorov erwri
ti
ngf i
les
4.I tcanbelostorbecomecor r
upt edbycomput er 
vi
ruses
5.I tcanbehacked  int
obyunaut horizeduser sanddel et
edoral t
ered
6.I tcanbedest royedbynat ur
al disasters,
act softerrori
sm, orwar
7.I tcanbedel etedoralt
eredbyempl oyeeswi shingtomakemoneyort ake
revengeont heiremployer

METHODSOFSECURI
NGDATA
Datasecur it
yreferstopr ot
ect i
ngdataf rom dest ruct
ivef or
cesandunwant ed
acti
onsofunaut hor i
zeduser s.Dataneedst obepr ot
ect edfrom lossthrough
acci
dental ormalici
ousdel etion,vi
rusattackshar ddiskorsy stem fai
lures,
unauthor
izedaccesset c.Met hodsofpr otectingdat ainclude:
i
) Useofpasswor ds( AccessAut hent icat i
on) :
Apasswor disa
secretwor dorstri
ngofchar acterst hatisusedf oruser
authenti
cation/ver
ificat
ionbef oretheusercangai naccesst odata.
Thepasswor dshoul dbekeptsecr etfrom thosenotal lowedaccess.
Passwor dsar eusedt ogetherwi t
huser namesbyuser sinalog-i
n
processthatcont r
ol saccesst oprot ectedsy stem data.

i
i) Ri
ghtofAccessr
efer
stot
heaut
hor
izat
iony
ouhav
etoaccess
dif
ferentdat
af i
les.Rightofaccesshel
psdet er
mi neswhohastheright
todowhati nrelati
ont ocert
aindataorinfor
mation.Forexampl
e,
databaseadmini st
ratorsmaybeabl et
or emove,editandadddata
whileageneralusermaynothav etherightt
odot hesame.Rightof
accessinanor ganizati
onisusuall
ygiven/speci
fiedbythesyst
em or
databaseadmini st
rators.

i
ii
) LogsandAudi
ttr
ail
s:Anaudi
ttr
aili
sar
ecor
dshowi
ngwhohas
accessedacomput ersystem,whenandwhatoper at
ionsheorshehas
perf
ormedduringagi v
enper i
odoftime.Anaudittrai
l canalso
maintai
narecordofact i
vi
tybythesystem i
tsel
f.Audittrai
l
sar euseful
bothformai
ntaini
ngdat asecuri
tyandforr
ecoveringlosttransact
ions.

i
v) Ant
i-
vir
uspr
ogr
amsar
esof
twar
eusedt
opr
event
,det
ectand
removemalici
oussof t
waresuchasvir
useswhichcani nt
erferewithor
l
eadtothelossofdat ast
oredonacomput er
.Av i
rusoramal warein
gener
alissoft
war eusedorprogr
ammedbyat tacker
st odi
sr upt
computeroperat
ionsorgainaccesst
opriv
atecomput ersystemsi n

146
 ordertostealordestroysensi
ti
veinf
ormat i
onofper
sonal
,fi
nanci
alor
businessimportance.Examplesofanti
-vi
russof
twarei
ncl
udeNorton,
AVG, Kasperskyetc.

v
) Encr
ypt
ion:Thi
sist
hepr
ocessofencodi
ng(
conv
erti
ntoacoded
form)infor
mati
onstor
edonadev i
ceespeci
all
ywherethedatais
storedonaportabl
edevi
ceortr
ansmit
tedoverapubli
cnetwork.The
keyt odecr
yptt
hedatashoul
dbekeptsecur
ely.

v
i) Fi
rewal l
s: Afi
rewalli
sasof twareorhar
dware-
basednetworksecuri
ty
syst
em thatpreventsunauthori
zedaccesstoorf
rom apri
vatenetwork.
Suchasy stem i
sv er
yimpor t
antwherether
eisanyext
ernal
connect
ivit
y,ei
thertoothernetworksortot
heint
ernet
.

v
i) Ph
i ysicalSecurit
y:Thi
sincludesl
ocki
ngofoffi
cesanduseofalarms,
keepi
ngcomputersordat
abaseserver
sinst
rong-r
ooms,useof
securi
tycamer
asandempl oyi
ngsecur
it
yguardswherenecessar
y.

v
ii
i)Dat
aPr
otect
ionAct
ThisreferstoanActofPar liamentenact edtoregulatet hecoll
ecti
on,
processing,storage/keepi ng, useandmi suseanddi sclosureof
i
nf or
mat ionrelati
ngt oindi vidualsthatispr ocessedaut omat i
cal
ly.The
Actcreat edaCommi ssion- Freedom ofI nformat i
onCommi ssionof
Kenya-wi tht
hemandat eofensur ingt heimplement ationoftheAct, t
o
recei
vecompl aint
sr egar dingv iol
at i
onsoft heAct ,i
nst i
tut
elegal
proceedingsandset tl
ementconcer ningsuchv iolat
ions.TheAct ,
howev er,onl
yappl iestoper sonal informationheldbypubl i
cauthorit
ies
andexcl udespr i
vatebodi es.

i
x) Dat
aBack-
upr
efer
stot
hecopy
ingandar
chi
vi
ngofcomput
erdat
a
i
nasecur elocat
ionsot hatitmaybeusedt orestoretheori
ginaldat
a
aft
eradatalossev entoccasionedbyei
theraccidentalormali
cious
del
eti
on,system fai
lur
e,vir
usat t
ack,
dat
acor r
upt i
onornatural
di
saster
s.

Met
hodsofDat
aBack-
up
i
) DiskMi rr
oring/RAI DAt echni queinwhi chdataiswr i
ttent ot wo
dupli
catedi sksconcur r
entlytoensur econt i
nuousav ailabil
it
y .This
meansi nstalli
ngtwodi skdr ivesandanequal numberofdr ive
contr
ollerssuchthatwhent hecomput erwrit
esdataononedr iv
e, i
t
automat i
callywri
test hatdat atotheot herdri
vesandt hereforeof f
ers
synchronizedcopiesonsev er aldr
ives.Ifonedrivefail
s, thesy stem
swapst hef ail
eddriveforanewone, ensuringcontinuity.Thepr oblem
withmi r
rori
ngi sthatifadel etionoccur si
nonedi sk,thesamewi l
lbe
delet
edi nthemi r
rorback- up.Thedi skscanbei nst
alledont hesame
147
 machi
neorov
erl
ongdi
stance.

i
i
) DiskCopycopiesthecontent
sofadiskinthesourcedr i
vetoadi ski
n
t
hedestinati
ondri
veortoanimagef i
le.Di
skcopywor ksonlywith
removabledi
sks.Diskcopyorimagi
nghasadi sadvantageinthatit
t
akesal otofti
met odobecausethei
magei susuall
yv erybi
g.

i
i
i) Remot e/Onlinedat aback-up:somecompani esof ferser
vicesfor
onli
nedat ast oragealsoknownascl oudservices.Themai nadv ant
age
tothi
smet hodi sthatsi
ncet hedat
aisnotiny ourphy si
callocat
ion,i
f
ther
ei sanat uraldisast
er,yourdat
awi l
lbesaf e.Thedataisalso
encryptedandsokeptv er
ysafe.

HARDWARESAFETY
Har
dwaresafetyprotect
sthemachineandperi
pher
alhar
dwar
efrom t
hef
tand
f
rom el
ect
ronicint
rusionanddamage.Hardwar
esafet
ycanbeensur
edthr
ough:

a)Saf
etyAgai
nstThef
t

Comput ersar everyv

aluableandrelati
vel
yport
abletheyandcaneasi l
ybestolen
whichwoul dbemadewor sebythelossoftheval
uabledatastoredont hem.
Physicalsafetyshoul
dbeputi npl
acesuchaslockingtherooms, i
nstal
li
ngalarm
systemsandCl osedCircuitTel
evi
sionCameras(CCTV)wher etheyarekeptto
preventtheft.Thecomput erscanalsobebolt
edtobenchesorcabi netsinor
der
tomaket hef
tdiffi
cul
t.

b)Pr
otect
ionf
rom PowerI
nter
rupt
ions

Thepowerdel iveredtocomput ersshouldbestabl

eandconst antbutsomet imes
fl
uctuati
onsinpowersuppl yoccur .Forexample,v
oltagesur
gesandspi kes,
a
blackoutorbrownoutcancauseacomput ertoshutdownabr uptl
y.Informati
on
thatisstor
edonl yinshort
-ter
m memor ywil
lbelost.Aswell
,thefluctuati
oncan
physical
lydamagecomput ercomponent ssuchast hepowersuppl yunit.
Comput ersystemscanbepr otectedfr
om suchinterr
upti
onsthrough:

i
)Useofuni
nter
rupt
ibl
ePowerSuppl
y(UPS)

AUPSi sadevi
cethatall
owsacomputert
okeeprunni
ngf
oratl
easta
shortt
imeaft
erthepri
marypowersour
ceisl
ost
.Thedevi
ceal
soprov
ides
prot
ecti
onagai
nstpowersurgesanddr
ops.

i
i)Useofpowersur
gepr
otect
ors/
suppr
essor
s

Asurgeprot
ectororsuppressori
sanappl
iancedesignedtopr
otectel
ect
ri
cal
dev
icesfr
om volt
agespikescausedbyeventsl
ikel
ightni
ngstr
ikesandshor
t

148
 ci
rcui
ts.Vol
tagespikesmightdamageacomput er’
selectr
onicparts,
melting
pl
asticandmetalpartsorevencorrupt
ingthedatastoredont hecomputer.
Surgeprot
ectorsl
imitthevol
tagesuppliedtoadevi
cebyei therbl
ockingthe
unwantedvolt
agesorbyshor t
ingthevoltagest
oground.

c)Env
ironment
alSaf
ety

Comput ersal
sor equi r
et heri
ghtbalanceofphysicalandenv ironment al
condit
ionstooper atepr operl
y.Measur esshoul
dbeputi nplacet oprotect
comput ersf
rom fire,smoke, dust,excessi
vetemperatures,highlevelsof
humidityandelectricalnoisesuchasf rom motors.Suchmeasur esinclude
i
nstall
ationofcli
mat econtrolsyst
emsanddehumi difi
ers,f
iref i
ghti
ngsy st
ems
etc.

d)Otherphysi
calmeasuresincludet
hedisabl
ingofUSBpor t
sorCDROM Dr i
ves,
i
nstall
ati
onofdri
velocksandcasei nt
rusi
ondet ect
ion.Thiswill
helpin
prot
ecti
ngagainstunauthor
izedcopyi
ngandt ransferofdataaswel l
as
prevent
ingi
nfect
ionofthecomput erwit
hvirusesthroughportablest
orage
devi
cessuchaspendr ives.

SOFTWARESAFETY
Logical/
SoftwareSafet
yconsistsofsof
twaresafeguardsforasy stem,
i
ncludinguseridenti
fi
cati
onmechanismsandsaf et
ysof t
war e.These
measur esensurethatonl
yauthori
zedusersareabletoperform acti
onsor
accessi nf
ormati
oninanet workoraworkstat
ion.

El
ement
sofl
ogi
cal
saf
etyi
ncl
ude:

a)Bi
omet
ri
caut
hent
icat
ion

Biometri
caut hent
icationistheuseofauser ’
sphysiol
ogi
cal f
eaturest
oconfir
m
thei
rident
itybeforetheyar eall
owedaccesst oacomput ersyst
em.These
featur
esincludesof t
war ethatver
ifyuseri
denti
fi
cati
onthroughfinger
pri
nts,
eye
reti
nasandi ri
ses,
v oicepatter
ns,faci
albonestr
uctureet
c.

b)Tokenaut
hent
icat
ion

Tokenauthenticati
oncompr i
sessafet
yt okenswhicharesmalldevicesthat
authori
zeduser sofcomputersyst
emsornet wor
kscarrytoassistinident
if
ying
them astheylogintothesystem.Theyincludesmartcardsorsmal lUSBdrives
withbuil
t-
incodegener at
orsandareinsertedtot
hecomput erthroughUSBpor ts.

c)Passwor
daut
hent
icat
ion

Thismet hodusessecretdat
ae.g.str
ingsofchar
act
ertocontr
olaccesst
oa
system andisnormall
yusedtogetherwit
husernames.Thepasswordsar
eei
ther

149
createdbytheuserorassignedbysyst
em administr
ator
s.Usual
l
y,l
i
mit
ati
onsto
passwor dcreat
ionincl
udelengt
hrest
ri
cti
ons,arequir
ementofnumber
characters,
uppercaselet
ter
sorspeci
alcharact
ers.Thesyst
em mayal
sofor
cea
usertochanget hei
rpasswordsaft
eragivenamountoft i
me.

d)AccessRi
ght
s

e)Audi
tTr
ail
s

f
) UseofSaf
etySof
twar
e

Saf
etysoft
war er
eferstoanycomputerprogram whosepurposeist
o
hel
psecureacomput ersyst
em oracomput ernetwork.Ty
pesof
saf
etysoft
wareincl
udeAnt i
vi
russof
tware,Anti
-keylogger
s,Ant
i-
Spam
sof
tware,
Firewal
lsystemsetc

Thesesof t
waresy stemspr otectcomput ersandthedat atheyhold
fr
om variousthr
eat s.Thet hreatsinclude,amongot hers,i
ndustri
al
espi
onage, l
ossofdat at ohacker s( peopl
ewhoexpl oitweaknessesin
acomput ersystem togai naccessandmot iv
atedbyr easonsli
ke
prof
it
/theftofdata,protestorchal lenge)andattacksfrom malici
ous
codesuchas:

o v
iruses

Av i
rusisamalici
ouspr ogr
am thatrepl
i
catesit
sel
fandspreads
fr
om onecomput ertoanother.Theyatt
achthemselv
estoexist
ing
programsinordertospread.Vir
usesalmostalway
scorruptor
modi f
yfil
esonat ar
getedcomput er
.

o Tr
ojanhor
ses

Thisisatypeofmalwar e(
mali
cioussoft
ware)thatgainspri
vi
leged
accesstoacomput ersyst
em whil
eappeari
ngt operforma
desir
ablefunct
ionbutinst
eadinst
allsamal
iciouscodethatall
ows
unauthori
zedaccesstothetar
getcomputer.Theyusuall
ycomeas
fr
eesof t
wareoffer
sinsomewebsi teswhi
chuser sdownloadand
i
nstallonthei
rmachines.

Troj
ansdonotself-
repl
i
cat
e.Dist
ri
but
ionchannel
sincludee-mai
l,
mali
ciousorhackedWebpages,I
nter
netRel
ayChat(IRC),peer
-t
o-
peernetwor
ksetc.

o Wor
ms

Wor msaremalwarethatspreadthemselvestoothercomputer
s
usingcomputernetworksanddonotneedt oattachthemsel
vesto
exist
ingsof
tware.Theyharm networksbyconsumingbandwidth
(byincr
easi
ngnetworkt r
aff
icetc)butdonotatt
emptt ochangethe
150
 sy
stemst
heypasst
hrough.

o Root
kit
s

Ar oot
ki tisat ypeofmal i
cioussof t
war ethatisacti
vatedeacht ime
yoursy stem boot sup.Root ki
tsarediffi
culttodetectbecauset hey
areactiv atedbeforetheOper ati
ngSy stem hascompl etelybooted
up.Ar oot kitof
tenall
owst hei nst
allat
ionofhi ddenfi
les,processes,
hiddenuseraccount s,andmor einthesystemsOS.Theyar ealso
abletoi nterceptdatafrom terminals,
networ kconnections,andt he
keyboar d.

o Key
logger
s

Thisisatypeofmal waret hatr

ecords(
orlogs)t hekey
sstruckona
keyboard,usual
lyi
nacov ertmannersothatthepersonusingthe
keyboardisunawarethatt hei
racti
onsarebeingmoni t
oredand
thentheinformati
onistransmittedtot
heoriginator
s.

Anti
-vi
russoftwar
eincl
udeNor
ton,
AVG,Kasper
sky,MacAf
ee,Av
astetc.These
soft
war epr
ogramsaremeantt
oprevent
,det
ectandremovemal
ici
oussoftware
fr
om comput ersy
stems.

Thesof t
war ecomewi thadat abaseofallknownori dent i
fi
edmalwar eagainst
whichtheypr otectthesy stemst heyarei
nstal
ledon.Thedat abasesandt he
softwarethemsel vesneedt obeupdat edregularl
ytoensur econtinuedprotect
ion
forthesystem.Oncei nst al
ledonamachi ne,theanti-
virussoft
war ealwaysruns
i
nt hebackgr oundwat chingoutf orsuspi
ciousacti
vit
yt hatcouldbei ni
ti
atedbya
vir
usandi fitmakesdet ection,itwarnsthecomput eruserandpr ovidesa
soluti
ontot hethreat.

Av i
russcani
nvolvestheexami ni
ngofthecontentoft
hecomput er
’smemory
(RAM andbootsectors)andthefi
lesstor
edonf i
xedandremov abl
edri
vesand
comparingt
hosefilesagainstt
hedatabaseofknownv i
ruses.

Anti
-vi
russoftwareshouldberegi
steredinordert
obeusedev eniftheyare
off
eredf r
eeofcharge.Soft
wareregistr
ationisameansofprovidi
ngt heEnd-
Userwithalicensefr
om thedevel
operwhi chmakestheuseofthesof twarelegal
.
I
talsomakesi tpossibl
efortheEnd-Usertoupdatet
hesoft
war eforcontinued
pr
otection.

Fi
rewal
ls
Afi
rewal
li
ssoftwareorhar
dware-
basednet
worksaf
etysy
stem thatcont
rol
sthe
i
ncomingandoutgoi
ngnetwor
ktraf
fi
cbyanaly
zingt
hedatapacketsand

151
det
ermi
ningwhet
hert
heyshoul
dbeal
l
owedt
hroughornot
,basedonsetr
ules.

COMPUTERCRI
MES
BreachesofPhysi
calSecur
it
y
Dumpst erDi
vi
ng
Dumpst erdiving,ortrashing,i
sanamegi vent oaverysimpletypeofsecuri
ty
attack-scavengi ngthroughmat eri
alsthathav ebeenthrownaway ,asshowni n.
Thistypeofat tackisn'til
l
egal i
nanyobv iousway .I
fpapersarethrownaway ,
nobodywant sthem- -
right?Dumpsterdiv i
ngalsoisn'
tuniquetocomput er
facil
it
ies.Al l
kindsofsensi t
ivei
nformationt ur
nsupint hetr
ash,andindust
rial
spiesthr ought heyear shaveusedt hi
smet hodtogetinfor
mationabouttheir
compet i
tors.
Aroundtheof f
icesandi nthet r
ash,cracker
scanf i
nduseddisksandt apes,
di
scardedpr i
ntouts,andhandwr it
tennotesofallki
nds.Theymayal soretr
iev
e
pri
ntout
s, computermanual s,andotherdocument sfrom whi
chtheyextract
i
nformationneededt ocrackt hesystem.Inthesystem i
tsel
farefi
l
est hathave
beendeleted,butthathaven'tactual
lybeenerasedfrom thesy
stem.Comput ers
Wi
ret
appi
ng
Ther
eareanumberofwaysthatphysi
calmet
hodscanbreachnet
worksand
communicat
ions.Cr
imi
nal
ssometimesusewir
etappi
ngmethodstoeavesdr
op
oncommunicati
ons.
Eav
esdr
oppi
ngonEmanat
ions
Comput erequi pment ,l
ikeev eryot hertypeofel ectri
calequipmentf rom
hairdryerst ostereos,emi tselectromagnet i
cimpul ses.Whenev ery oustr
ikea
comput erkey ,
anel ectronicimpul sei ssentintot heimmedi atearea.Foreign
i
ntelligenceser vices,commer cialent er
prises,andsomet i
mesev ent eenage
cracker smayt akeadv antageoft heseel ectr
onicemanat i
onsbymoni tor
ing,
i
nter cepting,anddecodi ngthem.
Becauseoft heemanat i
ont hreat,gov ernmentcomput ersthatareusedt ostore
andpr ocessclassi f
iedinformat ionr equirespecialphysicalshi
elding.

Deni
alorDegr
adat
ionofSer
vice
Insecur i
tyt er
ms, avai
labil
it
ymeanst hatthecomput erfaci
li
ty,t
hecomput er
i
tself,andt hesoftwareanddat ausersneedar eallworkingandav ai
labl
eforuse.
Someonewhoshut sdownser vi
ceorslowsi ttoasnai l
'
spacei scommi tti
ngan
offenseknownasdeni alofservi
ceordegr adationofser vi
ce.Therearemany
way stodi sruptservi
ce,incl
udingsuchphy sicalmeansasar sonorexplosi
ons;
shutti
ngof fpower ,
airconditi
oni
ng,orwat er(neededbyai rconditi
oning
systems) ;orperformingv ari
ouskindsofel ect
romagnet icdist
urbances.
Turningoffpowerorsendi
ngmessagestosystem soft
waretel
l
ingitt
ost
op
processi
ngar eexampl
esofthef
ir
sttypeofatt
ack--acl
assi
cdenial
ofser
vice.
Theot
hertypeofat
tack,
knownasfl
oodi
ng(orsomet
imeswedgi
ngor
spamming)ist
hetypeemploy
edbytheI
nter
networ
m.Astheworm spr
ead
152
acrosssystemsandnet
works,itkeptcreati
ngnewpr ocessest
hatsocl
ogged
theaffect
edsyst
emsthatotherwor kcouldn'
tgetdone.

Br
eachesofPer
sonnelSecur
it
y
Masquer
adi
ng
Masquer adingoccur swhenoneper sonusest hei dentit
yofanot hert ogai n
accesst oacomput er.Thismaybedonei nper sonorr emot ely.Ther ear eboth
phy sicalandel ectronicf ormsofmasquer ading.I nper son,acr imi nalmayusean
author i
zeduser '
sident ityoraccesscar dtogeti ntorestrict
edar easwher ehewil
l
hav eaccesst ocomput ersanddat a.Thismaybeassi mpl eassi gningsomeone
else'snamet oasi gn-insheetatt hedoorofabui ldi
ng.Itmaybeascompl exas
playingbackav oicer ecordingofsomeoneel set ogai nentryv i
aav oice
recogni t
ionsy stem.
Ar elatedat t
ack, somet i
mescal ledpiggybacki ng, i
nvolvesf oll
owi ngan
author i
zedper soni ntoar estr
ictedarea--
abui ldingoracomput err oom.
Peopl ear everyl i
kel ytopickpasswor dst hatcanbeeasi lyguessedbyi ntr
uders
orcanbecr ackedbypasswor dcrackingordict ionarypr ograms.Theypi ckthe
namesoft heirspouses, chil
dren,orpets,theirbi r
thdatesorl icensepl atesor
astrologicalsigns, ort henamesofspor tsteamsorf icti
onal char acter s.

Har
assment
Apar t
icul
arl
ynastyki
ndofper
sonnelbreachwe'
veseenlat
elyi
sharassmenton
theInt
ernet.Sendi
ngthr
eat
eni
ngemai l
messagesandslanderi
ngpeopleon
bull
eti
nboar dsyst
emsandnewsgroupsisall
toocommon.
Thesekindsofatt
acksar enotnew,andper sonal
lyt
hreateni
ngremarkscanas
easil
ybesentbyletterorpost edonawal l
,astheycanbesentov ert
heI nt
ernet
.
Buttheelectr
oni
caudi enceisamuchl argerone,andsuchmessages, sentout
fr
om anor gani
zat
ion'snet wor
kdomai n,maydamaget hereput
ati
onofthe
organi
zati
onaswel last hatofthepar
ticul
arperpetr
ator.
Sof
twar
ePi
racy
Softwar epir
acyi sani ssuet hatspanst hecat egor yboundar iesandmaybe
enforcedi nsomeor ganizationsandnoti not her s.Pir
at edcomput erprograms
arebigbusi ness.Copy i
ngandsel l
ingof f-
the- shelfappl i
cati
onpr ogramsi n
vi
olationoft hecopy ri
ght scost ssoftwar ev endor smanymi l
li
onsofdol l
ars.The
problem isani nter
nat i
onal one, r
eachi ngepi demi cpropor ti
onsinsomecount ries.
Empl oyeesneedt obeeducat edaboutt helegal i
t i
es,ethics,andcompany
poli
ciesr el
atingtosof twarepi racyandot herf ormsofunaut hori
zedcopy i
ngof
i
nformat ion.Somebr eachesr eallycomedownt opol icyandpol icyenforcement .
Whatmi ghtbeconsi der edacr imei nsomeor ganizationsmi ghtbeami nor
i
nfraction,orev enlegiti
mat e,inanot her.Forexampl e, doesanor ganizati
onallow
employ eestocar rysensi ti
vedat aout sidetheof fi
ce?Cant heempl oyeeuse

153
companysof
twar
eanddat
abasesf
rom ahomecomput
er?

Br
eachesofCommuni
cat
ionsandDat
aSecur
it
y
Inthiscategoryat t
acksincl
udet hoseoncomputersof
twareandonthedata
i
tself.Theot hercategor
iesdiscussedabovear
emor efocusedonphysi
cal
equipment ,people,andprocedures.
Dat
aAt
tacks
Therearemanyt ypesofat tacksontheconfi
dential
it
y,i
ntegr
it
y,andav ai
labi
l
ity
ofdata.Confi
denti
alit
ykeepsdat asecretf
rom thosenotauthori
zedt oseeit
.
Int
egri
tykeepsdatasaf efrom modif
icati
onbythosenotaut hor
izedtochangei t
.
Avail
abil
i
ty,aswedi scussedunder"DenialorDegradati
onofService"above,
keepsdataavail
ableforuse.
Thetheft
,orunaut hor
izedcopyi
ng,ofconfi
dential
dat ai
sanobv iousatt
ackt hat
fal
lsi
ntothiscategory.Espi
onageagentsstealnationaldefenseinformation.
I
ndustri
alspiesstealt
heircompeti
tors'
productinformation.Crackerssteal
passwordsorotherkindsofinfor
mationonbr eaki
ngi nt
osy stems.
Twot ermsy ou'l
lhearinthecont extofdataattacksar
einferenceandleakage.
Withinference,auserlegiti
mat elyvi
ewsanumberofsmal lpiecesofdat
a,butby
putt
ingt hosesmallpiecest ogetherisablet
odeducesomepi eceofnon-obvi
ous
andsecr etdata.Wit
hl eakage, ausergainsaccesstoaflowofdat avi
aan
unauthor i
zedaccessrout e(e.g.,
througheavesdroppi
ng)
.
Unaut
hor
izedCopy
ingofDat
a
Preventi
nganddet ecti
ngthi
stypeofattackrequi
rescoor
dinat
edpolici
esamong
thediff
erentcategori
esofcomputersecuri
ty.I
ntermsofpersonnelsecur
it
y,user
educati
oni svi
tal.I
ntermsofoperat
ionssecurit
y,aut
omatedloggi
ngand
audi
tingsoftwarecanplayapartaswell.
Tr
aff
icAnal
ysi
s
Somet i
mes, t
heattacksondat ami ghtnotbesoobv i
ous.Ev endatat hatappear s
quiteordinarymaybev aluabletoaf orei
gnorindustrialspy.Forexampl e,t
rav el
i
tinerar
iesf orgeneralsandot herdignit
ari
eshelpterrori
stspl anattacksagai nst
theirvi
cti
ms.
Account spay abl
ef i
lestell
out si
derswhatanor ganizati
onhasbeenpur chasi ng
andsuggestwhati tsfutureplansf orexpansi
onmaybe.Ev ent hefactthattwo
peoplear ecommuni cat
ing--nevermindwhatt heyaresay ingt oeachot her--
may
giveawayasecr et.Traff
icanal y
sisisthenamegi vent othist y
peofanal y
sisof
communi cati
ons.

Sof
twar
eAt
tacks
Tr
apDoor
s
Oneclassi
csoftwareattacki
sthetr
apdoororbackdoor.At
rapdoorisaquick
wayintoaprogram;ital
lowsprogr
am devel
oper
stobypassal
lofthesecur
it
y
bui
l
tintotheprogram noworinthefut
ure.
Toaprogr
ammer,
trapdoorsmakesense.I
faprogrammerneedstomodifyt
he
pr
ogr
am somet
imeinthefutur
e,hecanusethet
rapdoori
nsteadofhav
ingtogo
154
throughallofthenor mal,customer -di
rectedpr otocolsjustt omaket hechange.
Trapdoor sofcour seshouldbecl osedorel iminatedint hefinalv
er si
onoft he
program afteral
l t
esti
ngiscompl ete,but ,
intenti
onallyoruni nt
entional
ly,some
arelefti
nplace.Ot hertr
apdoor smaybei ntr
oducedbyer rorandonl ylater
discoveredbycr acker
swhoar er oami ngar ound,lookingf orawayi ntosy st
em
programsandf i
les.Typi
cal tr
apdoor susesuchsy st
em f eatur
esasdebuggi ng
tools,pr
ogram exitsthattransfercont roltoprivi
legedar easofmemor y ,
undocument edappli
cati
oncal lsandpar amet er
s, andmanyot hers.
Tunnel
ing
Techni
callysophi
sti
catedtunnel
ingat
tacksfalli
ntothiscategoryaswel l
.
Tunneli
ngusesonedat atransf
ermethodt ocarrydataforanothermet hod.
Tunneli
ngisanoftenlegit
imatewaytotransferdataoverincompat i
blenetwor
ks,
butiti
sil
legit
imat
ewheni tisusedtocarryunauthori
zeddat ainlegi
ti
mat edat
a
packet
s.
Tr
ojanHor
ses
ATr ojanhor seisamet hodf orinsert
inginstr
uctionsinapr ogram sothat
program per for
msanunaut hor i
zedfunctionwhileapparentlyper
f or
mingauseful
one.Tr ojanhor sesar eacommont echniqueforplanti
ngot herprobl
emsin
comput ers,includingvi
ruses,wor ms,logicbombs, andsalami at
tacks(more
aboutt hesel at
er).Troj
anhor sesareacommonl yusedmet hodforcommi tt
ing
comput er-basedf raudandar everyhardt odetect.
Botnet s
Abot
netisanetworkofhi
jackedhomecomput
ers,t
ypi
cal
lycont
rol
l
edbya
cr
imi
nalgang.Abotref
erstooneofthei
ndi
vi
dualcomput
ersinabotnet
.Bot
s
ar
eal
socalleddr
onesorzombi es.
Ransomwar
e
Mal
war
ewhi
choncei
ncont
rol
demandsaf
eet
ounl
ockt
hecomput
er.
Vi
rusesandWor
ms
Inacomput er
, avi
rusi sapr ogram whichmodi fi
esotherpr ogramssot hey
repl
icatethevirus.Inotherwor ds,theheal t
hylivi
ngcel lbecomest heor iginal
program, andthev i
rusaf fect sthewayt hepr ogram operates.Itinser t
sacopyof
i
tselfinthecode.Thus, whent heprogram runs, i
tmakesacopyoft hev i
rus.Thi
s
happensonl yonasi nglesy stem.(Virusesdon' tinf
ectnetwor ksint heway
wormsdo, aswe' l
lexplainbel ow.)Howev er
,ifav ir
usinfectsapr ogr am whi chis
copiedtoadi skandt r
ansf erredtoanot hercomput er
,itcouldalsoi nfect
programsont hatcomput er .Thisishowacomput ervi
russpr eads.
Unl
ikeavir
us,awormisast andal
oneprogr
am init
sownr ight.I
texist
s
i
ndependentl
yofanyotherpr ogr
ams.Torun,i
tdoesnotneedot herprogr
ams.A
worm si
mplyrepl
i
catesit
selfononecomput erandtriest
oi nf
ectother
computer
sthatmaybeat tachedtothesamenet work.
Aworm oper
atesoveranet
wor
k,buti
nor
dert
oinf
ectamachi
ne,
avi
rusmustbe
phy
sical
l
ycopied.

Sal
ami
s
TheTr
ojanhor
sei
sal
soat
echni
quef
orcr
eat
inganaut
omat
edf
orm ofcomput
er
155
abusecall
edt hesal
amiat
tack,
whichworksonf i
nanci
al data.Thi
st echni
que
causessmal l
amountsofasset
stober emovedfrom alargerpool.Thestolen
assetsar
eremov edonesl
iceatati
me( hencethenamesal ami )
.Usually,
the
amountstoleneachtimei
ssosmal l
thatthevi
cti
m ofthesal amifraudnev er
evennoti
ces.
Aclev
ert
hiefcanuseaTr oj
anhorsetohideasalamiprogr
am t hatput
sal
loft
he
r
oundedoffvaluesi
ntohi
saccount.Atinyper
centageofpenniesmaynotsound
l
ikemuchuntil
y ouaddupthousandsofaccount
s,monthaftermont h.
Logi
cBombs
Logicbombsmayal sofindt hei rwayintocomput ersystemsbywayofTr ojan
horses.At ypicallogicbombt ell
sthecomput ertoexecut easetofi nstr
uctionsat
acer t
aindat eandt imeorundercer tai
nspecifi
edcondi t
ions.Thei nstr
uctions
mayt ellt
hecomput ertodi splayamessageont hescreen, ori
tmayt ellt
heent i
re
system tostar terasingitself.Logicbombsof tenwor kint andem withvir
uses.
Wher easasi mpl ev i
rusinfect sapr ogr
am andt henrepli
cat eswhent heprogram
start
st orun,thel ogicbombdoesnotr epl
icat
e-i tmerelywai t
sforsomepr e-
specifi
edev entort imet odoi tsdamage.
Somebombsdot heirdamageaf teraparti
cularprogr
am i srunacert
ainnumber
oftimes.Tr
ojanhorsespresentamaj orthreattocomput ersystems,notjust
becauseofthedamaget heythemsel vescando, butbecauset heypr
ov i
dea
techni
quetofaci
li
tatemoredev astat
ingcrimes.

Br
eachesofOper
ati
onsSecur
it
y
Becauseoperat
ionssecuri
tyincl
udest
heset
ti
ngupofprocedur
estoprev
entand
detectal
lty
peofattacksonsy st
emsandper
sonnel
.Her
ear eafewspeci
alki
nds
ofbreachesofoperat
ionssecuri
ty.
Dat
aDi
ddl
ing
Datadiddl
ing,sometimescall
edfal
sedat aentry,
invol
vesmodif
yingdat
abefor
e
oraft
eritisenteredint
othecomputer.Considersit
uat
ionsi
nwhichemployees
areabl
et ofal
sifyti
mecar dsbef
orethedatacont ai
nedonthecardsi
senter
ed
i
ntothecomput erf
orpayrol
lcomputati
on.
I
PSpoof
ing
Amet hodofmasquer adingt hatar ei
nusei nvariousInter netattackstodayi s
knownasI Pspoof i
ng( I
Pst andsf orI
nternetPr otocol,oneoft he
communi cati
onspr otocol sthatunder li
est heInter net
).Cer tai
nUNI Xpr ograms
grantaccessbasedonI Paddr esses;essential
ly,thesy stem runningt hepr ogram
i
saut henti
cated,rathert hant heindiv
idual user.Theat tackerf orgesthe
addressesont hedat apacket shesendssot heyl ookasi ftheycamef rom insi
de
anetwor konwhi chsy stemst rusteachot her.Becauset heat tacker'
ssy stem
l
ooksl i
keaninsidesy stem, hei sneveraskedf orapasswor doranyot hertypeof
authenti
cati
on.

Passwor
dSni
ff
ing
Passwordsniff
ersareabl
et omoni t
oral
ltraff
iconareasofanetwork.Cr
acker
s
haveinstal
l
edthem onnetwor ksusedbysy st
emsthattheyespeci
all
ywantto
penet
rate,l
iket
elephonesystemsandnet workprov
iders.Passwor
dsniff
ersar
e
156
programst hatsi mpl
ycollectthefirst128ormor eby tesofeachnet work
connectionont henet workthat'
sbei ngmoni t
ored.Whenausert ypesinauser
nameandapasswor d--
asrequiredwhenusi ngcer tai
ncommonI nternetservi
ces
l
ikeFTP( whi chisusedt otransferfil
esfrom onemachi netoanother )orTelnet
(whichletst heuserl oginremot el
yt oanothermachi ne)--t
hesniff
ercol l
ectsthat
i
nformat i
on.Addi ti
onalprogramssi ftthr
ought hecollectedinfor
mat ion,pull
out
theimpor tantpi eces(e.
g.,theusernamesandpasswor ds),andcov erupt he
exist
enceoft hesnif
fersinanaut omat edway .Bestestimat esar
et hatin1994as
manyas100, 000si t
eswer eaffectedbysni f
ferattacks.
ExcessPr
ivi
leges
Ifacr ackerbr eaksintooneuser '
saccount ,hecancompr omiseanddamaget hat
user'sfiles,buthecan' tor
dinari
lygetbey ondtheboundar iesoftheuser '
s
accountt odamaget herestofthesystem.Tooof ten, usersinasy stem have
excesspr ivi
l
eges--morepr i
vil
egesthant heyoughttohav e.Anor dinaryuseron
anor dinarysy stem doesn'
tneedt obeabl et omodifyallofthef i
l
esont hat
system.Andy et,i
nmanysy stems,auserhast hesy stem priv
il
egest hatenti
tl
e
himt odoj ustthat.Theusermaynev eractuall
ywantt ochangeany oneelse's
fil
es--
hemaynotev enknowt hatheisal l
owedt o-
-butnev ert
helessthepr i
vi
leges
arether e.Ifanintrudergetsaccesstot hesy st
em throught heuser'saccount,he
canexpl oitt
hisweakness.

Way
sofDet
ect
ingCommonAt
tacks
Thi
ssecti
onpr
ovi
desaqui
cksummar yofhowyoumi ghtbeabletoant
ici
pat
eor
det
ectt
hemostcommontypesofat
tackswe'
vediscussedinthi
schapter
.
Thi
ssect
ionbr
ief
lysummar
izes:
 Pot
ent
ialof
fender
s--
whatt
ypeofi
ndivi
dual
(e.
g.,
apr
ogr
ammer
,a
spy
)mightcommitacri
meofthi
stype.
 Methodsofdet
ecti
on-
-howsuchcri
mesar
efoundout(
e.g.
,tr
aci
ng
equi
pmentofvari
ouskinds,
anal
yzi
ngl
ogf
il
es).
 Evi
dence-
-tr
ail
sthatmightbel
eftbytheintr
uder
sandthatmight
hel
pindetecti
on(e.
g.,
sy st
em l
ogs,t
elephonecompanyrecor
ds)
.
Dumpst
erDi
vi
ng
Pot
ent
ialOf
fender
s
 Sy
stem user
s.
 Any
oneabl
etoaccesst
het
rashar
ea.
 Anyonewhohasaccesst
ocomput
erar
easorar
easusedt
ost
ore
backups.
Met
hodsofDet
ect
ion
 Tr
aci
ngpr
opr
iet
aryi
nfor
mat
ionbackt
oit
ssour
ce(
e.g.
,memos

157
 wi
thcompanynamesorl
ogos)
.
 Obser
vat
ion(
guar
dsmayact
ual
l
yseei
ntr
uder
sinact
ion)
.
 Testi
nganoper
ati
ngsy
stem t
odi
scov
erdat
alef
tov
eraf
terj
ob
execut
ion.
Ev
idence
 Computerout
putmedi
a(e.
g.,
maycont
ainv
endornameor
i
dent
if
yingpagenumber
s).
 Si
mil
ari
nfor
mat
ionpr
oducedi
nsuspect
edway
sint
hesamef
orm.
 Char
act
eri
sti
csofpr
int
outorot
hermedi
a(e.
g.,
typef
ont
sorl
ogos)
.
Wi
ret
appi
ngandEav
esdr
oppi
ng
Pot
ent
ialOf
fender
s
 Communi
cat
ionst
echni
ciansandengi
neer
s.
 Agent
sforcompet
it
ors.
 Communicati
onsempl
oyees,
for
merempl
oyees,
vendor
s,and
cont
ract
ors.
 Agent
sforf
orei
gni
ntel
l
igenceser
vices.
Met
hodsofDet
ect
ion
 Voi
cewi
ret
appi
ngmet
hods.
 Tr
aci
ngwheretheequi
pmentusedi
nthecr
imecamef
rom (
e.g.
,
moni
tor
ingequi
pment)
.
 Tr
aci
ngcomput
erout
put(
e.g.
,di
sksandt
apes)t
othei
rsour
ce.
 Obser
vat
ion.
 Di
scov
eryofst
oleni
nfor
mat
ion.
Ev
idence
 Voi
cewi
ret
appi
ngasev
idence.
 Comput
erout
putf
orms.
 Comput
eraudi
tlogs.
 Comput
erst
oragemedi
a.
 Char
act
eri
sti
csofpr
int
outorot
hermedi
a(e.
g.,
typef
ont
sorl
ogos)
.
 Manual
aft
er-
hour
ssi
gni
n/si
gnoutsheet
s.
Masquer
adi
ng
Pot
ent
ialOf
fender
s
 Pot
ent
ial
l
yev
ery
one.
Met
hodsofDet
ect
ion
 Anal
ysi
sofauditl
ogsandjournal
s(e.
g.,
al ogshowst
hatan
aut
hori
zeduserappar
ent
lyloggedin,
butitisknownt
hatt
heper
son

158
 wasawayatt
hatt
ime)
.
 Observ
ati
on(e.
g.,aney
ewi
tnesssawani
ntr
uderatanaut
hor
ized
user
'ster
minal
).
 Passwordvi
olat
ions(
e.g.
,al
ogshowsr
epeat
edf
ail
edat
tempt
sto
useaninval
i
dpassword).
 Repor
tbythepersonwhohasbeeni mper
sonated(
e.g.
,the
aut
hori
zedpersonlogsi
n,andthesyst
em t
ell
shimthathehashad
si
xunsuccessf
ullogi
nssi
ncethelastt
imeheknowsheact ual
l
y
l
oggedin)
.
Ev
idence
 Backups.
 Sy
stem audi
tlogs.
 Telephonecompanyrecor
ds(
penr
egi
steranddi
alednumber
recorder(
DNR)recor
ds).
 Vi
olat
ionr
epor
tsf
rom accesscont
rol
packages.
 Not
esanddocument
sfoundi
nthepossessi
onofsuspect
s.
 Wi
tnesses.
 Excessiv
elylar
gephonebi
l
ls(excessi
vemessageuni
tsmay
i
ndicatethatsomeonei
susingresour
ces)
.
Sof
twar
ePi
racy
Pot
ent
ialOf
fender
s
 Pur
chaser
sanduser
sofcommer
cial
sof
twar
e.
 Sof
twar
epi
rat
es.
 Empl
oyeeswhost
eal
propr
iet
arysof
twar
e.
Met
hodsofDet
ect
ion
 Obser
vat
ion.
 Test
imonyofl
egi
ti
mat
epur
chaser
sofsof
twar
e.
 Sear
chofuser
s'f
aci
l
iti
esandcomput
ers.
Ev
idence
 Pi
ctur
esofcomput
erscr
eenswher
epi
rat
edsof
twar
eisbei
ng

159
 execut
ed.
 Thecont
ent
sofmemor
yincomput
erscont
aini
ngpi
rat
edsof
twar
e.
 Copi
esofmedi
aonwhi
chpi
rat
edsof
twar
eisf
ound.
 Pr
int
out
spr
oducedbypi
rat
edsof
twar
e.
Tr
apDoor
s
Pot
ent
ialOf
fender
s
 Sy
stemspr
ogr
ammer
s.
 Appl
i
cat
ionspr
ogr
ammer
s.
Met
hodsofDet
ect
ion
 Exhaust
ivet
est
ing.
 Speci
fi
ctest
ingbasedonev
idence.
 Compar
isonofspeci
fi
cat
ionst
oper
for
mance.
Ev
idence
 Pr
ogr
amst
hatper
for
mtasksnotspeci
fi
edf
ort
hem.
 Outputr
eport
st hati
ndi
cat
ethatpr
ogr
amsar
eper
for
mingt
asksnot
speci
fi
edforthem.
Ti
mingAt
tacks
Pot
ent
ialOf
fender
s
 Adv
ancedsy
stem anal
yst
s.
 Adv
ancedcomput
erpr
ogr
ammer
s.
Met
hodsofDet
ect
ion
 Sy
stem t
est
ingofsuspect
edat
tackmet
hods.
 Compl
aint
sfr
om sy
stem user
sthatt
hei
rjobsar
enotbei
ng

160
 per
for
medef
fi
cient
ly.
 Repeatexecut
ionofaj
obundernor
mal
andsaf
econdi
ti
ons.
Ev
idence
 Out
putt
hatdev
iat
esf
rom nor
mal
l
yexpect
edout
putofl
ogs.
 Comput
eroper
ati
onsl
ogs.
Tr
ojanHor
ses,
Vir
uses,
Wor
ms,
Sal
ami
s,andLogi
cBombs
Pot
ent
ialOf
fender
s
 Pr
ogr
ammer
swhohav
edet
ail
edknowl
edgeofapr
ogr
am.
 Empl
oyeesorf
ormerempl
oyees.
 Vendororcont
ract
orpr
ogr
ammer
s.
 Fi
nanci
alsy
stem pr
ogr
ammer
s.
 Comput
eruser
s.
 Comput
eroper
ator
s.
 Cr
acker
s.
Met
hodsofDet
ect
ion
 Compar
isonofpr
ogr
am codewi
thbackupcopi
esoft
hepr
ogr
am.
 Traci
ngofunexpect
edevent
sofpossi
blegai
nfr
om t
heactt
o
suspect
edperpet
rat
ors.
 Det
ail
eddataanalysi
s,incl
udi
nganal
ysi
sofprogr
am code(
e.g.
,you
maydetectavir
usbecauseaf i
lei
ncr
easesinsi
zewheniti
s
modif
iedorbecausediskspacedecr
eases)
.
 Observat
ionoffinanci
alact
ivi
ti
esofpossi
blesuspect
s(especi
all
y
forsal
ami at
tacks).
 Test
ingofsuspectpr
ogr
ams.
 Examinati
onofcomputeraudi
tlogsforsuspi
ciouspr
ogr
amsor
pert
inentent
ri
es(e.
g.,
logentr
iesthatshowthatmanypr
ogr
ams

161
 wer
eupdat
edatt
hesamet
ime)(
especi
all
yforv
iruses)
.
 Tr
ansact
ionaudi
ts.
Ev
idence
 Out
putr
epor
ts.
 Unexpect
edr
esul
tsofr
unni
ngpr
ogr
ams.
 Comput
erusageandf
il
erequestj
our
nal
s.
 Undocument
edt
ransact
ions.
 Anal
ysi
stestpr
ogr
am r
esul
ts.
 Audi
tlogs.
Dat
aDi
ddl
ing
Pot
ent
ialOf
fender
s
 Par
ti
ci
pant
sint
ransact
ionsbei
ngent
eredorupdat
ed.
 Suppl
i
ersofsour
cedat
a.
 Pr
epar
ersofdat
a.
 Nonpar
ti
ci
pant
swi
thaccess.
Met
hodsofDet
ect
ion
 Compar
isonofdat
a.
 Manual
cont
rol
s.
 Anal
ysi
sofcomput
erv
ali
dat
ionr
epor
ts.
 I
ntegr
it
ytest
s.
 Val
i
dat
ionofdocument
s.
 Anal
ysi
sofaudi
tlogs.
 Anal
ysi
sofcomput
erout
put
.
Ev
idence
 Dat
adocument
sforsour
cedat
a,t
ransact
ions,
etc.
 Manual
logs,
audi
tlogs,
jour
nal
s,et
c.
 Backupsandot
hercomput
ermedi
a(e.
g.,
tapesanddi
sks)
.
 I
ncor
rectcomput
erout
putcont
rol
viol
ati
onal
arms.
Scanni
ng
Pot
ent
ialOf
fender
s
 Mal
i
ciousi
ntr
uder
s.
 Spi
esat
tempt
ingt
oaccesssy
stemsf
ort
arget
eddat
a.
 Cr
imi
nal
sint
entoncommi
tt
ingf
raud.
Met
hodsofDet
ect
ion
 Comput
erl
ogst
hatshowwhent
elephonecal
l
swer
erecei
vedby

162
 t
hecomput
erandwhenat
tempt
swer
emade.
 Lossofdat
aort
ransf
eroff
undsorot
herasset
s.
 Tel
ephonecompanyr
ecor
ds.
Ev
idence
 Telephonecompanyrecor
ds(
penr
egi
steranddi
alednumber
recorder(
DNR)recor
ds).
 Possessi
onofwardi
ali
ngpr
ogr
ams.
 Comput
erl
ogs.
 Possessi
onofinf
ormationcompr
omisedasar
esul
tofscanni
ng,
i
ncludi
ngli
stsoft
elephonenumbers.
ExcessPr
ivi
leges
Pot
ent
ialOf
fender
s
 Pr
ogr
ammer
swi
thaccesst
oSuper
zap-
typepr
ogr
ams.
 Comput
eroper
ati
onsst
aff
.
Met
hodsofDet
ect
ion
 Compar
isonoff
il
eswi
thhi
stor
ical
copi
es.
 Exami
nat
ionofcomput
erusagel
ogs.
 Di
scr
epanci
esnot
edbyt
hosewhor
ecei
ver
epor
ts.
Ev
idence
 Di
scr
epanci
esi
nout
putr
epor
ts.
 Comput
erusageandf
il
erequestj
our
nal
s.
 Undocument
edt
ransact
ions.

163
HEALTHANDSAFETYI
SSUESI
NACOMPUTER
ENVI
RONMENT(
ERGONOMI
CS)
Ergonomicsisthescienceofmat chi
ngworkplaceconditi
onsandjobdemands
tothecapabil
it
iesofthewor kingpopulat
ion.Aneffecti
veandsuccessf
ulmatch
assureshighproduct
ivi
ty,avoidanceofil
l
nessandi njur
y,andincr
eased
sati
sfact
ionamongt hewor kforce.

Ergonomi cs,f
urt
her,ref
erstoassessingthosework-r
elat
edf act
orst
hatmay
posear iskofmusculoskelet
aldisorder
sandr ecommendat i
onstoal
levi
atethem.
Commonexampl esofergonomicr i
skfactor
sar ef
oundinjobsrequi
ri
ng
repeti
tiv
e, f
orcef
ul,orprol
ongedexer ti
onsofthehands,prol
ongedawkwar d
posturesetc.

Er
gonomicstr
essareasi
ncomput
ingenv
ironment
sincl
ude:
1.Eyes
2.Neck
3.Shoulders
4.Elbow
5.Wr i
st
6.Hand
7.Back/Spine

Resul
ti
nginjur
iesarecal
l
edCumulati
veTraumaDisor s(
der CTD)orRepet
it
ive
Str
ainI
njur
ies(RSI)orMuscul
oskel
etal
Disor s(
der MSD)
.

EXAMPLESOFMSDs

1.REPETITIVESTRAI NI NJURI ESWHI CHI NCLUDE:

 CARPALTUNNELSYNDROME-I r
r i
tationoft hemedi annerv e,
whi ch
runsthroughabonychannel i
nthewr istcal ledthecarpaltunnel.
Usuallyresultsf r
om excessi vefl
exi ngort wistingofthewr i
st.
 TRIGGERFI NGERSYNDROME-Tendonsi nthef i
ngersbecome
infl
amed, causingpai n,swell
ing,andal ossofdext eri
ty.
 HAND/ ARM VI BRATI ONSYNDROME-St inging,numbness, paleness,
lossofdext eri
tyi nthehand/ arm.Iti sr elatedt oaconditi
oncausedby
repeatedandf requentuseofhand- hel dv i
brati
ngt ool
s.
 TENDONI TI
S-Ani nflammat ionoft het endon.Ty pical
lyoccursint he
shoulder,wrist,hands, orelbow.

PRECAUTI
ONARYMEASURES

o Adj
ustkeyboar
dheightsothatshoulderscanr el
axandallowarmstorest
att
hesides.
o Thekeyboar
dshoul
dbecl oset otheusertoav oi
dextendedreachi
ng. 
o For
earmsshouldbeparal
leltothefloor(approxi
matel
y90degr eeangl
eat
el
bow).
 
o Mouseshouldbepl
acedadj acenttothekey boar
dandatt hesameheight

164
 ast
hekeyboard(usear
ticul
ati
ngkeyboar
dtrayi
fnecessary
).
o Donotr
estthehandont hemousewheny ouarenotusingi
t.Resthands
i
nyourl
apwhennotent eri
ngdata.

2.EYESTRAI N
Theey esbecomestrai
nedasar esul
tofpoorlighti
ng,gl
areorvi
ewi ng
from uncomfor
tabl
eposit
ions.Focusi
ngont hescreenatcloserangeand
forl
ongper i
odscancauseey est
rai
n,headaches,anddoublevi
sion.

PRECAUTI
ONARYMEASURES
o Takea15- minutebr eakev eryhourort wo
o Minimizer efl
ectedgl areont hescr eenbykeepingt hescreenawayf r
om
windowsandot hersour cesofbr ightl i
ghtorti
l
tedatr i
ghtanglesfrom
windows.
o Purchaseanant igl
arescr een/shieldforyourscreen
o Thescr eenshoul dbet hr eeorf ourt i
mesbr i
ghterthanther oom l
i
ght.
o Bi
ggermoni torscausel essey estrainthansmallones.
o Cleanthescr eenr egularly.
o Positi
ont hemoni t
ordirect lyinfr
ontofusert oav oidexcessivet
wisti
ng
oftheneck.
o Positi
ont hemoni t
orappr ox.20-26i nches(ar
m'sl engt
h)f r
om user.
 
o Ti
ltthet opoft hemoni torback10t o20degrees
o Thetopoft hev i
ewingscr eenshoul dbeateyelev elwhentheuseris
si
tti
nginanupr i
ghtposi tion.

3.BACKANDNECKPAI
N
Si
tti
ngf orl
ongper i
odsofti
mecancauseincreasedpressur
eonthe
i
nterv
er t
ebral
discs.Si
tt
ingisal
sohardonthefeetandlegs.Gr
avi
tytendst
o
poolbloodinthelegsandfeetandcr
eateasluggishr
eturntot
heheart.
 
PRECAUTI
ONARYMEASURES
o Themoni t
orshouldbeablet oti
ltandswi vel
o Thekey boardshouldbedet achablesucht hatyoucansomet i
mespl acei
t
onyourl ap.
o Don'tstayinonestaticpositi
onforext endedperiodsoftimei.e."Dy
namic
si
tt
ing".
 
o Adj
usthei ghtofbackresttosuppor tthenaturali
nwar dcurv
atureofthe
l
owerback.
o Adj
usthei ghtofchairsuchthatthef eetrestf
latont hefl
oor.
o Si
tupr i
ghtinthechairwiththelowerbackagai nstthebackrest.
 

EFFECTSOFELECTROMAGNETICFIELDS
Vi
deodi
spl
ayter
minal
sgener
ateel
ect
romagnet
icf
iel
ds(
EMF)emi
ssi
ons,

165
 whi
chcanpasst
hrought
hehumanbody
.
MEASURES
Uselow-
emi
ssi
onmoni
tor
sespeci
all
ythemodernscr
eens 
SYMPTOMSOFMUSCULOSKELETALDI SORDERS

 Muscl ef
ati
gueorpai
n
 Aching
 Burning
 Numbness
 Sti
ffness
 Ti
ngl i
ng/st
ingi
ng

166
EMERGI
NGTRENDSANDI
SSUESI
NICT
1.E-
LEARNI
NG
Referst
otheuseofel
ect
roni
cmedi
aandi
nfor
mat
ionandcommuni
cat
ion
technol
ogi
es(I
CT)i
neducati
on.
(
a)Usesofe-
lear
ningi
ncl
udeengagi
ngl
ear
ner
stouset
hewebas:

 Asour ceofmat eri

alsinawi der angeoff ormats.E-lear ni
ngpr ovides
i
nteracti
vemat er i
alsandact i
viti
essuchast ext
,graphi cs,animations,and,
assessment s,andf eedback.Onl ineint er
actionmayi ncludet ool
sl ikee-
mail,bul
leti
n/discussionboar ds, chatr ooms, andinst antmessagi ng.
 On l
inemat er
ialscancont ainv oice,dat a,andv i
deo,andar eav ai
lableto
thestudentsatanyt imef rom anypl ace.
 Studentscanf ollowl i
nkst odif f
er entreferencesandt osubj ectexper t
sin
ordertoenhancet heirlearni
ngexper i
ence.
 On l
inediscussiongr oupsandmessageboar dsenabl east udentto
coll
aboratewi t
ht heinst r
uctor, withot herstudentsint heclass,orev en
withstudentsacr osst hewor ld.

(
b)I
ntroducti
onofOnl i
neCourseswhi
chprov
ideonl
i
necoursemat er
ial
s,onl
i
ne
i
nteract
ionbet weenl
ect
urersandst
udent
saswellasonl
ineassessment.
Onli
necour ses:
a.Of
fereducati
ontolar
genumber
sofstudentsi
.e.makeseducat
ion
moreaccessi
blet
opeoplewi
thl
imi
tedfinanci
alresour
ces.
b.Offereducat
ionatl
owercost
s(t
rav
el,
inst
ruct
orf
ees,
accommodat ionet
c)
c.Of
fershor
tercour
ses
Onli
necourses,
howev er
,requi
relar
gecommitmenttotechnol
ogybythecoll
eges
off
eri
ngthecourses.Thereisal
solackoff
ace-
to-
facecontactbet
weenstudents
andinst
ruct
ors.
Onli
nedist
ancel
ear
ninghasr
emov
edgeogr
aphi
cbar
ri
ersandi
mpr
ovedst
udent
opport
unit
y.

2.E-
COMMERCE
Electr
oni ccommer ce,commonl yknownase- commer ceoreCommer ce,i
sa
typeofi ndustrywheret hebuyi
ngandsel l
ingofpr oductsorserv i
cesis
conduct edov erelect
ronicsyst
emssuchast heInt er
netandot hercomput er
networks.
Technol ogycanhel pthroughouttheprocessincludingpromot i
on, searchi
ng,
select
ing, negotiati
ng,deli
very
,andsuppor t
.
ADVANTAGESOFE- COMMERCE
 I ncreasest hespeedandaccur acywithwhi chbusinessescanexchange
informat i
on
 El ectronicpayment s(t
axrefunds,paychecks, et
c.)costlesstoissueand

167
 aremor esecure
 Enablespeopletoconductbusi
nessfrom home
 Makespr omotioneasierf
orsmall
erfi
rms
 Marketi
ngcampai gnscanbedesignedandi mpl
ementedt
otargetspeci
fi
c
cust
omersegment sforexampl
ebasedont hei
rsear
chbehavi
ouront he
i
nternet.

DI
SADVANTAGESOFE-
COMMERCE

• Somebusi nessprocessesarenotsui tedtoe- commer ce,ev enwith

i
mpr ov ementsintechnology
• Manypr oductsandservicesrequi
reacr it
icalmassofpot ent i
albuyers(e.
g.
onli
negr ocers)
• Cult
ural impediments:Peoplearereluctanttochangei nor dertointegrate
newt echnology
• Thelegal envir
onmenti suncertai
n.Lawscov eringsomear easofe-
commer cedonotexi standinsomeot herareas, t
hejudici
al offi
cer
sl ack
therelevantcapacit
yandt rai
ning.

3.DOMESTI
CAPPLI
CATI
ONSOFI
CT
Advancesi
nICThavealsoal
l
owedit’
sappli
cationi
nmanyar easofourl
iv
es
i
ncl
udinghomeswheremostofthedomesticappli
ancesnowcontainan
embeddedcomputersy
stem t
ocarr
youttheircont
rolf
uncti
ons.
Forexampleamodernwashi
ngmachinehasacomputersyst
em tohandl
eal
lthe
complexwashi
ngcycl
es.I
tensur
esthatt
hecor
rectamountofwateri
susedfor
theprogr
ammeselect
edandthatthewat
eri
sheatedtothecorr
ectt
emperat
ure.
Ot
herexampl
esofembeddedcomput
ersy
stemsi
nthehome:

 cent ral
heati
ngsy st
ems
 bur gl
aralarm sy
stems
 fi
real arm sy
stems
 mi crowaves
 dishwasher s
 TVs

ADVANTAGES
(
a)Theappli
ancesdonotneeddirecthumancont
rol
becausetheyhave
ti
mers.Thi
smeanst heusercanleavet
hem t
ocompletet
heirtasksso
theyhavemorelei
suret
ime.
(
b)Theappli
ancesar
esafertouseastheyhavesafetychecksbuil
tin.I
na
way,computer
ssyst
emssuchast heseare'
invi
sible'
totheuserandare
cal
l
edembeddedsy stems.
(
c)Computersl
inkedt
otheInt
ernethavegr
eatl
yreducedtheneedforpeopl
e
tol
eavethehomeinordert
oacquiregoodsandservi
cesforexample:

 Ent
ert
ainment-musi
candgamescanbedownloaded.Mov i
escanbe
downl
oadedandthi
s,al
ongwi
thI
nter
act
ivedi
git
altel
evi
sion,means

168
 thereisnoneedt ogot othecinemaorv i
deorent
alshop.
 Go ods-thesecanbeeasi l
yorderedfr
om onl
i
nestoresanddeliv
ered
tothehome.
 Food-t akeawayf oodandgr ocer
iescanbeorder
edonlineand
deliv
ereddirect
lytothedoor .
 Services-banking,order
inginsur
anceandmanyot herserv
icescanbe
carri
edoutov ertheInter
net.

4.
 E-
GOVERNMENT
a.E-
gov er
nmentser vicescanbei mpl ementedusingICTt opromot e
tr
ansparencyi npublicadmi ni
str
ationsanddemocr ati
cpr ocesses,i
mprovi
ng
eff
ici
encyandst r
engtheningrelat
ionswi t
hciti
zens.Suchser vi
cesincl
ude
Taxfili
ngandr ev
enuecol lect
ion,elect
ronicvoti
ng,registr
ati
onofpersons
andbusi nessesetc.
b.Servi
ces,atalllev
els,canbeadapt edt otheneedsofci t
izensandbusiness,
toachieveamor eeffici
entall
ocati
onofr esourcesandpubl i
cgoods.

5.E-
HEALTH
a.Theadopt i
onofI CTscanbeusedt oimprov
eandext endheal t
hcar eand
healthi nformat i
onsy stemstor emoteandunder servedareasandv ulner
able
popul ations.Forinst ancei nt
eracti
onbetweenapat ientandadoct orwhoar e
mi l
esapar tcanbemadepossi blethr
oughICT.
b.I
CTscanbeusedt oal ert
,monitorandcontrolthespr eadofcommuni cable
diseases, throught hei mpr ovementofcommoni nformat i
onsy st
ems.
c.I
CTcanbeusedf ort heexchangeofheal thdata,takingdueaccountof
privacyconcer ns.
d.I
CTcanbeusedt opr omot econti
nuousmedi caltr
aining,educati
on, and
resear chf orhealth-carepr ovi
dersinthei
rar
easofwor kwithoutt
heneedf or
i
nst i
tut i
onalizedtraining.
e.

6.E-
EMPLOYMENT
a.ICTcanusedt opr omotetel
eworkingtoallowcitizens,par
ticul
arl
yinthe
dev el
opingcount r
iesandsmalleconomi es,t
olivei nthei
rsociet
iesandwork
any where.
b.ICTcanbeusedt oincr
easeempl oymentoppor tuniti
esforthosewith
disabil
i
ties.
c.Promot enewway soforganizi
ngwor kandbusi nesswi ththeaim ofr
aisi
ng
productivit
y,growthandwell-
beingthroughinvest mentinICTsandhuman
resourcesf orexampleinautomatingbusinesspr ocessestomaket hemor e
effici
entandcheaper .

7.E-
ENVI
RONMENT
a.I
CTcanbeusedtoest
abl
ishmonit
ori
ngsystems, t
oforecastandmoni
tort
he
i
mpactofnat
ural
andman-madedi
saster
s,part
icular
lyi
ndev el
opi
ng

169
 countries
b.Government s,i
ncooper ationwi t
hot herst akeholdersareencouragedtouse
andpr omot eICTsasani nst r
umentf orenv i
ronment alpr
otecti
onandt he
sustainableuseofnat ural resources.
c.Governmentandt hepr i
v at eshoul dimpl ementpr ogrammesf orsustainabl
e
product ionandconsumpt i
onandt heenv i
ronment all
ysafedisposaland
recycl
ingofdi scar dedhar dwar eandcomponent susedinICTs.
d.E-Wast ecanber educed:
i.Fr om t hemanuf actur ingphaset hrough:
a.Desi gningf oreasydi sassembl yandr ecycli
ng
b.Av oidi
nguseofheav ypollutants
c.Mi nimizat i
onont heuseofr esour ces
d.Regul ationsandst andards
i
i.Dur ingthelif
eofequi pment :
a.Pr ol
ongi ngi tsl i
f eti
me
b.Desi gningf orr euse/ multi
pleuse
i
i
i.Atendofl i
fe:
a.E- wasteconsci ousmanagement

8.E-
AGRI
CULTURE
a.ICTcanbeusedt oensur ethesy stematicdi sseminationofinfor mati
onon
agr i
cult
ure,animal husbandr y,fi
sheries,forestryandf ood,inor dert
oprovi
de
readyaccesst ocompr ehensive,up-to-
dat eanddet ai
l
edknowl edgeand
i
nf ormation,parti
cularlyinruralareas.
b.ICTscanbeusedt omar ketandsel l
agriculturalproductsforexampl eli
nki
ng
thepr oducersandpot entialbuyerstherebyr educinglossf orthef ar
mersand
ensur i
ngpr operdistri
butionoff oodi nthecount r
y.
c.Aut omationoff ar
mi ngt echnologye. g.comput er
izedirri
gationsy st
em whi
ch
reducehumaner rorandwast ageofwat er.

EMERGI
NGI
SSUESI
NICT
1.I
CThasbr oughtaboutt heemer genceofCy bercrimessuchas
pornography,Electronicf r
aud,cy berstal
king,ter
rori
sm etc
2.Wr onguseofI CTl eadst oInternetandot hertypesofcomput eraddi
cti
on
3.Emer genceofheal thandot hersafetyissuesrelatedtocomputerusee.g.
Muscul ar
-skel
etal disorderssuchast endonit
is,backacheandeyestr
ain.
4.Erosionofsocial andi nter
-personal ski
ll
s

9.TECHNOLOGYTRANSFER
TechnologyTransfer,
alsocal l
edTransferofTechnology(TOT)andTechnol ogy
Commer ciali
zati
on,i
sthepr ocessoftransferri
ngskil
ls,
knowledge,t
echnologies
andfacil
it
iesamonggov er
nment soruniver
si t
iesandotheri
nsti
tuti
onstoensur e
thatsci
entif
icandtechnologicaldev
elopment sareaccessi
bletoawi derr
angeof
userswhocant henfurtherdev el
opandexpl oi
tthetechnol
ogyintonewpr oducts,

170
pr
ocesses,
appl
i
cat
ions,
mat
eri
alsorser
vices.

Ty
pesofTechnol
ogyTr
ansf
er:
o Cooper
ati
ver
esear
chanddev
elopment

o Li
censingorsal eofi nt
ell
ectualpr
operty
Eitheracrossf i
rmsort oastartupspi
n-of
ffi
rm
o Technicalassistance
o Publi
cexchangeofi nformation
 E .g.conferences,publi
cati
ons,net
worki
ng

TheInter
netisanexcel l
entexampl eofat echnol
ogyini
ti
allydevel
opedwi th
governmentsuppor tdif
fusi
ngtohav eabr oadercommer cial
impact. 
The
governmentthr oughtheDefenseAdv ancedResearchProjectsAgency( DARPA)
fundedconstructionoftheI
nternetbutlatermadethenet workavai
lableforuse
bythegeneral publi
c.

I
nst
it
uti
onsf
orTechnol
ogyTr
ansf
er
 Technologytransfercani
nv ol
vefi
rms,
gov
ernment
s,anduni
ver
sit
ies.
 Researchjoi
ntv entur
es(RJV)
 I
ndustry-uni
versi
tycoll
aborati
ons

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