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Nageh EL-Mahdy1, Tarek El-Banna2, Ahmed Abd El-Aziz3 and Yasmine Samy4*
1
Professor of Pharmacology, Pharmacology Department, Vice Dean of Faculty of Pharmacy,
Tanta University, Egypt
2
Professor & Chairman of Pharmaceutical Microbiology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Tanta University, Egypt
3
Professor of Pharmaceutical Microbiology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Tanta University, Egypt
4
Pharmacist at General Mahalla Hospital, El-Mahalla El-Koubra, Egypt
*Corresponding author
ABSTRACT
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The interaction was recorded as synergism Antimicrobial therapy and dosage regimen:
(S) when FIC 0.5, indifference (I) when All tested antimicrobial agents and
FIC > 0.5 to 4, and antagonism (A) when tenoxicam, each alone and in combinations
FIC > 4. were administered I.P. The 5 treated animal
groups in addition to the two: naiive and
Studying the efficacy of tested antibiotics, infected control groups were handeled as
tenoxicam and their combinations on follows:
healing of resistant bacterial infected I- Naïve group: It consists of normal rats not
wound in animal model: This was achieved receiving any treatment.
as described by Lau et al., (2009). II- Infected control group: Included animals
infected with selected MAR E.coli strain
A total of 56 adult male rats (about 150 and left 9 days post infection without
gm/each) were used in this model, they were treatment.
divided into 1 naiive; 1 infected control and III- Tenoxicam treated group: This group of
5 treatment groups, each group was rats were treated with tenoxicam (standard
composed of eight rats. one rat of each of NSAID), in a dose of (20 mg/kg) (Naziro lu
the 7 groups was sacrified on day 3 of the et al., 2008).
experiment for the histopathological studies IV- Cephradine treated group: animals
to confirm the formation of the bacterial treated with cephradine (1600 mg/kg)
biofilm within the wound bed. (Amacher et al., 1991).
V- Cephradine/tenoxicam combination
Formation of wound in rat hind paw: On the group: animals treated with cephradine (800
day of wound induction (defined as day 0) mg/kg)/tenoxicam (10 mg/kg) combination.
each rat was anesthetized with an VI- Ampicillin group: animals were treated
intraperitoneal injection (I.P) of 50 mg/kg with ampicillin (1000 mg/kg) (Halpert et al.,
thiopental sodium (Abd El-Aziz et al., 1985).
2010). A rectangular pattern was marked on VII- Ampicillin /tenoxicam combination
the dorsal surface of the foot using a flexible group: animals were treated with ampicillin
transparent plastic template, and then a layer (500 mg/kg)/tenoxicam (10 mg/kg)
of skin in full thickness with standard area combination. The antibiotics were given to
of 2 mm x 5 mm was removed, Figure (1). the treated groups in equally divided doses
The initial wound size was measured on day at 6- hours intervals and the tenoxicam was
1 (Lau et al., 2009). given once daily for 9 days.
Evaluation of wound healing: Observations
Bacterial inoculum and induction of wound of wound surface provided information on
infection: The bacterial inoculation was the gross extent of wound healing and
carried out one day after the wounding improved wound healing by facilitating
development to reduce mortality due to tissue regeneration (Lau et al., 2009).
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Figure.1 Steps of making wound on the dorsal surface of the rat hind paw
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model. Antibiotics were administered I.P malondialdhyde (MDA) (in rat hind paw
prior to carrageenin injection. Rats were tissue according to standard methods
allocated into the following groups: directed by (Miranda et al., 2001; Ellman,
i- Naïve group: Including normal animals 1959; Yoshioka et al., 1979 respectively).
without any treatment but were injected with
(0.1 ml) of saline only into the subplantar Histopathological examination
region of the right hind paw of rats and Histopathological Examination of rat hind
serve as control group. paw sections through sectioning and staining
ii- Carrageenan control group: Rats were with Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) was
slightly anesthetized with ether and 0.1 ml achieved using standard methods adopted by
of 1.5% (carrageenan sodium solution in 0.9 (Bancroft & Stevens, 1975).
% saline) was injected S.C into the
subplantar region of the right hind paw of In bacterial infected wound animal model,
rats. Thus oedema will be produced acutely biopsy specimens were obtained 48 hours
into the right hind paw of the rat, and the left after inoculation and colonization to ensure
hind paw (used as self control), was injected the biofilm formation, and at the end of the
with similar volume (0.1 ml) of saline only. treatment of each group in addition to naiive
Those rats did not receive any treatment. and infected control group for examination
iii- Tenoxicam treated group: Tenoxicam with light microscope. Specimens were
(20 mg/kg,) I.P (Naziro lu et al., 2008), was placed in buffered 10 % formaldehyde for
taken 30 minutes before carrageenan fixation and stained with H&E and Gram
injection (Al-Arfaj et al., 2003). crystal violet (Kugelberg et al., 2005; Davis,
iv- Vitamin C treated group: Vitamin C et al., 2008; Abd El-Aziz, et al., 2010). In
has antioxidant and anti-infalmmatory Carrageenin hind paw oedema animal
activities. It was taken I.P in a dose of 500 model, all treatment groups in addition to
mg/kg (Ikeda, et al., 2004; Kanter, et al., naiive and carrageenin control group in
2005) used for comparison. carrageenin model, the rat hind paw was
v- Cephradine treated groups: It is divided removed, washed with saline, immediately
into three subgroups according to fixed in 10% buffered formalin solution (pH
cephradine concentrations (1600, 800, 400 7.4) for 24 hrs and then routinely processed
mg/kg respectively) I.P. in ascending grades of alcohol, then xylene.
vi- Ampicillin treated groups: It is divided The tissues were then embedded in paraffin
into three subgroups according to ampicillin wax, serially-sectioned to (3-5 mm)
concentrations (1000, 500, 250 mg/kg thickness, and stained with H&E. Finally,
respectively) I.P. each stained tissue section was examined
using a light microscope (Olympus BX 51,
Assessment of immunological mediators Olympus America, Melville, NY) and
photographed with a digital camera
In both animal models (E.coli infected (Olympus DP11) connected to the
wound and acute inflammation by microscope.
carrageenin), the immunological mediators
that resulted in response to the bacterial Statistical analysis: Minitab computer
infection and acute inflammation were software (version 16) was used to carry out
assessed, such as tumor necrosis factor the statistical analysis. Results were
factor- (TNF- interleukin IL- expressed as the mean ± Standard Error of
(in rat serum using ELISA kits); nitric oxide mean (S.E.M) and analysed using Student t-
(NO); glutathione (GSH) and test.
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in a significant (p < 0.001) reduction (90.13 while treatment of rats with ampicillin and
and 88.1 % respectively) in TNF- content ampicillin/tenoxicam combination resulted
in rat serum as compared to the infected in a significant (p < 0.01) increase (310.6
control. Treatment of rats with ampicillin and 323.5 % respectively) in hind paw GSH
and ampicillin/tenoxicam combination content as compared to the infected control
resulted in a significant (p < 0.001) group on the other hand treatment of rats
reduction (87.2 and 90.6 % respectively) in with tenoxicam resulted in a significant (p <
TNF- content in rat serum as compared to 0.001) increase (394.4 %) in hind paw GSH
the infected control. Also treatment of rats content as compared to the infected control
with tenoxicam resulted in a significant (p < group Figure 5 (B).
0.05) reduction (40 %) in TNF- content in
rat serum as compared to the infected MDA content of rat hind paw in infected
control, Figure 4 (B). control group showed a significant (p <
0.001) increase (527.9 %) as compared to
The effect of tested antibiotics and/or naïve group. Treatment of rats with
tenoxicam on other immunological cephradine and cephradine/tenoxicam
mediators in rats infected with MAR combination resulted in a significant (p <
E.coli strain: 0.001) reduction (80.3 and 80.5 %
respectively) in hind paw MDA content as
NO content of rat hind paw significantly compared to the infected control. Treatment
increased in infected control group rats by of rats with ampicillin and ampicillin
(412.2 %) as compared to naïve group, but /tenoxicam resulted in a significant (p <
cephradine and cephradine/tenoxicam 0.001) reduction (71.6 and 74.7 %
combination treated groups have shown a respectively) in hind paw MDA content as
significant (p < 0.001) reduction (71.3 and compared to the infected control; Treatment
80 % respectively) in hind paw NO content of rats with tenoxicam resulted in a
as compared to the infected control; while significant (p < 0.001) reduction (63.2 %) in
ampicillin and ampicillin/tenoxicam hind paw MDA content as compared to the
combination treated groups have shown a infected control Figure 5 (C).
significant (p < 0.001) reduction (57 and 58
% respectively) in hind paw NO content as Acute inflammatory model (Carrageenin
compared to the infected control; also induced hind paw oedema in rats)
tenoxicam treated rats resulted in a
significant (p < 0.01) reduction (48.8 %) in This model was performed to illustrate the
hind paw NO content as compared to the possible mechanisms beyond the
infected control Figure 5 (A). antimicrobial activity of tested antibiotics,
by which they healed infected wounds
GSH content of rat hind paw in infected despite resistance of E.coli strain used in
control group showed a significant (p < infection, through assessing the anti-
0.001) decrease (92.8 %) as compared to inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities of
naïve group. Treatment of rats with different doses for those antibiotics.
cephradine and cephradine/tenoxicam tenoxicam and vitamin c were used as
combination resulted in a significant (p < standard anti-inflammatory and antioxidant
0.001) increase (372 and 383.8 % respectively for comparison. The results of
respectively) in hind paw GSH content as tested immunological parameters in this
compared to the infected control group; model were shown in Table (1).
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Data are presented as mean (± S.E.M; n = 8/group). * Significant from naïve at P < 0.001,** Significant from naïve
at P < 0.01, ***Significant from naïve at P < 0.05, # Significant from carrageenin control at P < 0.001,
## Significant from carrageenin control at P < 0.01
Figure.2 Effects of the treatment with cephradine, ampicillin each alone and/or tenoxicam on
wound healing of rat hind paw infected with MAR E.coli
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Figure.3 Effect of cephradine (1600 mg/kg); tenoxicam (20 mg/kg); cephradine (800
mg/kg)/tenoxicam (10 mg/kg) combination; ampicillin (1000 mg/kg) and ampicillin (500
mg/kg)/tenoxicam (10 mg/kg) combination on inflammation of rat hind paw infected with
resistant E.coli
* Significant from naïve at P < 0.001 for infected control and at P < 0.05 for tenoxicam group.
# Significant from infected control at P < 0.001. The results are means ± S.E.M.
Figure 4: (A) Effects of cephradine (1600 mg/kg), tenoxicam (20 mg/kg), cephradine (800
mg/kg)/tenoxicam (10 mg/kg) combination, ampicillin (1000 mg/kg) and ampicillin (500
mg/kg)/tenoxicam (10 mg/kg) combination on IL-1 content in serum of rats infected with MAR E.coli.
* Significant from naïve at P < 0.001 and at P < 0.01 for tenoxicam.
# Significant from infected control at P < 0.001. The results are means ± S.E.M.
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Figure.4(B) Effects of cephradine (1600 mg/kg), tenoxicam (20 mg/kg), cephradine (800
mg/kg)/tenoxicam (10 mg/kg) combination, ampicillin (1000 mg/kg) and ampicillin (500
mg/kg)/tenoxicam (10 mg/kg) combination on TNF- content in serum of rat infected with
MAR E.coli.
Figure.5 The results are means ± S.E.M. (A): Effects of cephradine (1600 mg/kg), tenoxicam
(20 mg/kg) and cephradine (800mg/kg)/ tenoxicam (10 mg/kg) combination, ampicillin (1000
mg/kg) and ampicillin (500 mg/kg)/ tenoxicam (10 mg/kg) combination on NO content of rat
hind paw infected with resistant E.coli.
* Significant from naïve at P < 0.001 for all groups but for ampicillin/tenoxicam combination group significant at P < 0.01
and for tenoxicam, ampicillin groups significant at P < 0.05.
# Significant from infected control at P < 0.001 for all groups, but for tenoxicam at P < 0.01.
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(B): Effects of cephradine (1600 mg/kg), tenoxicam (20 mg/kg), cephradine (800 mg/kg)/tenoxicam (10 mg/kg)
combination, ampicillin (1000 mg/kg) and ampicillin (500 mg/kg)/tenoxicam (10 mg/kg) combination on GSH of rat
hind paw infected with MAR E.coli.
(C): Effects of cephradine (1600 mg/kg), tenoxicam (20 mg/kg) and cephradine (800 mg/kg)/tenoxicam (10 mg/kg)
combination, ampicillin (1000 mg/kg) and ampicillin (500 mg/kg)/tenoxicam (10 mg/kg) combination on MDA of
rat hind paw infected with MAR E.coli.
wound of rat hind paw), there were signs of Carrageenin acute inflammatory
acute inflammation manifested as severe (noninfected) animal model:
oedema, prominent capillary diltation and
prevascular inflammatory cellular Carrageenin control group, all studied
infiltration associated with severe dense animals showed severe dermal dense acute
interstitial acute inflammatory cellular inflammatory cellular infiltration (dilated,
infiltration down in deep dermis figure 6(b). engorged capillaries with prominent
Infected group without treatment showed endothelial swelling with oedema) figure
mild relief of acute signs (decrease in 6(h).
oedema and density of acute inflammatory
infiltration with early fibrosis) figure 6(c). In both of tenoxicam and vitamin C groups
Tenoxicam treated group showed decrease (used for comparison as standard (NSAID)
of inflammatory reaction signs figure 6(d). and standard antioxidant respectively),
studied animals showed apparently normal
Cephradine treated group: all animals sections as naïve group with early
showed evidences of healing (decrease inflammatory changes manifested as mild
inflammatory cellular infiltration) with mild oedema with dilated, congested capillaries
oedema, figure 6(e). and normal covering epidermis figure 6(i).
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Antibiotics were used as first line drugs for with the narrower spectrum of activity
the treatment of bacterial infections, but the (Alanis, 2005). This to be urgently
widespread resistance to these agents established to conserve antibiotics for the
combined with the shortage of novel future, through optimization of dosing
antimicrobial compounds developed by the regimens and global harmonization of
pharmaceutical industry results in an urgent breakpoints that will achieve the
need for new strategies to combat bacterial microbiological and clinical outcome
infections (Fernebro, 2011). Therefore it is desired and would add efficacy to antibiotic
worthy reminding the clinician that it is therapy (Mouton et al., 2011).
necessary to be far more selective, when an
antibiotic is prescribed, it should be the one In contrast the focus was directed to the
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clinical aspects such as the efficiency of infection in rat hind paw animal model,
antibiotics in clearing infections and using selected one of highly MAR strains of
pathogens that are resistant to antibiotic E.coli, revealed that cephradine and
treatment (Aminov, 2009), where it has been ampicillin each alone and in combination
reported that some antibiotics have curing with tenoxicam, were effective in treatment
activity of resistant bacterial infections of those wounds despite of resistancy in
although absence of suscebetibility to those vitro. This pay attention to the increased
antibiotics, due to other mechanisms beyond efficacy of some antibiotics when used by
their antimicrobial activity (Nagata et al., lower dose in combination with NSAIDs.
2004 and Tsai et al., 2009). Several efforts
in re-evaluation of older antimicrobial These results were coincided with
agents have been established and further Viehmann and coworkers who had reported
understanding and investigation of their that combination therapy of an antibiotic
mechanisms of actions was suggested (enrofloxacine-arginine) and NSAID
(Mouton et al., 2011; Garonzik et al., 2011; (ketoprofen) had a superior therapeutic
Velkov et al., 2013). effect compared to a single antibiotic
treatment in nursery piglets experimentally
On account of that, it was interesting to infected with Haemophilus parasuis
investigate the possible mechanisms beyond (Viehmann et al., 2013). Also combination
the antibacterial activity of some beta- therapy of administering subantimicrobial
lactam antibiotics that contribute to curing dose doxycycline plus low-dose NSAID
resistant E.coli infection. The present study (two host modulating drugs) to chronic
focused on assessment of the efficacy of periodontitis patients, synergistically
cephradine and ampicillin (narrow spectrum enhancing clinical efficacy of doxycycline
and old antibiotics) in healing E.coli (Lee et al., 2004).
infected wounds. As the shortage in
discovering new antibiotics concuurently Early stimulation of the acute inflammatory
with wide spread of resistant bacterial response may be beneficial in infections, but
infections, paid attention to re-evaluation of its resolution is crucial to avoid excessive
old antibiotics using highest safest dose of injury to structural tissue. Inhibition of
them or using them in combination with unresolved inflammation, either by
other drugs. antibiotics or specially anti-inflammatory
agents, is needed (Parnham, 2005; Rubin &
This work included in vitro and in vivo Tamaoki 2005; Aminov, 2013).
studies. In vitro study includes screening of
resistancy of E.coli to tested antibiotics, The relevance of the immunomodulatory
where it was confirmed that all of these actions of some antibiotics for their
bacterial strains were resistant to cephradine therapeutic efficacy in various diseases is
and ampicillin either alone or in now generally admitted, with growing
combination with tenoxicam, as standard number of supportive experimental and
NSAID. The addition of tenoxicam to clinical studies, (Pasquale & Tan, 2005;
cephradine or ampicillin, has indifferent Labro, 2011). Various classes of
effect on the MICs of those antibiotics on antibacterial agents were demonstrated in
the tested bacterial strains. Thus data vitro and invivo immunomodulatory
revealed that tenoxicam alone lacked properties, such as tetracyclines, quinolones
antimicrobial activity against those tested and cephalosporins may have beneficial
isolates. In vivo study has included wound immunomodulatory effect (Choi, et al.,
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2003; Nau & Tauber, 2008; Zhang & Ward, carrageenan-induced inflammation (paw
2008; Labro, 2012). oedema) animal model was adopted for the
quantification of the inflammatory response
E.coli is one of most commonly isolated (Salvemini et al., 1996; Lam & Ng, 2003).
microorganisms from wound infections Tenoxicam has antioxidant effects
(Taiwo et al., 2002; Nazeer et al., 2014). (Ozgocmen et al., 2005; Naziro lu et al.,
E.coli was used as a model system to 2008). So it could be used as control for
explore intrinsic mechanisms of MAR evaluation of anti-infalmmatory efficacy of
which is a major cause of clinical failure in tested antibiotics.
treating bacterial infections (Duo et al.,
2008). Where it had been reported that Hind paw inflammation in this study was
several E.coli strains have intrinsic evaluated in both E.coli infected rat model
resistance to various antimicrobial agents and carrageenan-induced paw oedema rat
with a wide range of activities such as model, the inflammation was significantly
gentamicin, trimethoprim, mecillinam and reduced by both cephradine and ampicillin.
-lactam antibiotics (Greenway & England,
1999; Moore et al., 2013; Carone et al., IL-1 in E.coli infected animal model of the
2014); some strains express the beta- present study significantly decreased by
lactamase causing ampicillin resistance cephradine and ampicillin nearly with about
(Chakrabarti et al., 2014). ninety percent. Similarly, when using
Bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the cell combination of those antibiotics and
wall component of all gram-negative tenoxicam revealed synergestic effect in
bacteria including E.coli, causes the vivo irrespective of its indifferent effect in
systemic inflammatory response syndrome. vitro. IL-1 in carrageenin acute
It triggers the synthesis and release of inflammatory model significantly decreased
cytokines, NO, and ROS (Zhang et al., by cephradine and ampicillin in a dose
2000; Cimen et al., 2005). dependent manner.
The present study revealed that cytokines TNF- and Il-1 produced acutely in large
expression; inflammatory reaction and amounts, are extremely potent inflammatory
oxidative stress were considered as possible molecules: they are the primary cytokines
pathways. It was found significant down that mediate acute inflammation induced in
regulation of hind paw inflammation, some animals by intradermal injection of bacterial
immunological mediators (Il-1 , TNF- , LPS and two of the primary mediators of
NO, MDA) and increased GSH by both septic shock (Feghali & Wright, 1997).
cephradine and ampicillin each alone and in Those results of examined antibiotics on IL-
combination with tenoxicam. On account of 1 were in line with previous reports where,
that, it was necessary to confirm that It was demonstrated that reduction in
obtained results from bacterial infected endogenous IL-1 activity improves host
model were beyond the antibacterial activity defense against various infections while
of tested antibiotics. This was achieved by suppressing the inflammatory response
using carrageenan induced acute (Boelens, et al., 2000; Schultz, et al., 2002).
inflammation rat model, through examining
the effects of different concentrations of TNF- in E.coli infected animal model of
tested antibiotics on the investigated the present study significantly reduced by
immunological mediators. Where both ampicllin and cephradine alone and in
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synergestic effects when used in Al-Arfaj, A.S.; Mustafa, A.A.; Alballa, S.R.;
combination with tenoxicam. Tuwaijri, A.S. and Al-Dalaan, A.N.
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