Animal Captivity

Keeping animals in zoos, circuses, or in a domestic environment.

Pros
- zoos protect endangered species as natural habitats are being destroyed by
human activity such as farming, logging, the creation of urban settlements
- zoos have initiated breeding programs to replenish the number of
threatened species by releasing bred animals back into the wild
- zoos allow scientific study of animals and their behavior
- many animals are bred in captivity, so have never known their natural habitat
and thus do not suffer
- zoos and circus represent a way by which people can see animals they would
never normally have an opportunity to see in real life
- domestic animals such as dogs and cats have been specifically bred for the
purpose of providing company and comfort and are, by and large, kept well by
their owners

Cons
- zoos and especially circuses only exist as a form of entertainment; e.g.
circuses train wild animals to perform tricks
- maltreatment of animals (the poor conditions of some zoos and circuses);
many zoos and circuses do not have the financial resources to maintain their
animals in an appropriate manner
- captivity is obviously not a natural state for wild animals and therefore can’t
be the best thing for them

Terms: animal welfare, be kept in captivity, cages, a life behind bars, breeding
programs, to perform/carry out experiments, be under the threat of extinction,
cruelty and maltreatment

Hunting Animals

To chase animals and birds in order to catch and kill them for food or sport.

Pros
- hunting provides food, especially for tribal societies
- source of income and useful products such as fur for clothing
- type of sport or entertainment (e.g. fox hunts)

Cons
- the cruelty involved when chasing and slaughtering prey
- poaching threatened species (e.g. elephants for their ivory tusks)
- using animal skins / furs for something as pointless as fashion accessories
Genetic Engineering
The ability to manipulate the genetic content of plants of animals to promote
desired characteristics and/or suppress undesirable ones.

Pros
- genetic research may lead to a cure for several diseases such as cancer
- may result in the creation of replacement organs in the laboratory instead of
relying on donors for organ transplants
- allows the creation of crops that are
- disease resistant
- pesticide resistant (thus leading to a decrease in the use of chemical
pesticides and insecticides)
- crop abundance; increased crop yield
- increased nutritional value of crops / increased flavor
- more uniformity of crops to make harvesting more efficient
- financial gains for farmers due to increased crop yields and efficiency

Cons
- is it a case of humans ‘playing God’? there are moral and ethical issues at
stake
- manipulation of nature may have unforeseen consequences which are
irreversible
- may lead to cloning or the creation of ‘super humans’ which, as many believe,
is morally and ethically wrong (who decides which genetic characteristics should
be expressed? are we all to become blonde and blue-eyed?)
- the creation of ‘super crops’ which are genetically similar and therefore
actually more prone to pests, insect attack or disease
- the nutritional value of genetically modified food may be questionable

Terms: unknown long-term consequences, the artificial manipulation of the

genetic pool, genetically modified food, genetic mapping

Advertising
The promotion and endorsement of manufactured goods

Pros
- allows/facilitates consumer choice
- an essential part of our consumer based economy
- offers employment opportunities
- sponsorship of sporting activities etc.
Cons
- leads to over production as manufacturers vie for consumer interest; waste
of dwindling natural resources
- form of manipulation in that it encourages people to buy products that they
may not necessarily need; - encourages compulsive buying / shopping
- can be misleading; many advertisements make outrageous claims about the
products they promote.
- advertising in the form of packaging of products in order to make them more
appealing to prospective buys causes a huge litter / waste problem

Terms: boost sales, buy/sell at a discount, reach a wide audience, promote a

product / service, present an upmarket image, raise a company’s profile, become
a household name, brand of washing powers, lipstick etc.

Tourism
The business of providing things for people to do, places for them to stay etc.
while they are on holiday

Pros
- stimulates local economies; provides jobs and generates income
- allows people to experience different cultures and locations
- going on holiday represents an important physiological need to break normal
routine

Cons
- the environmental cost; pollution cause by transportation, destruction of
local environments and animal habitats with the construction of huge hotel
complexes etc.
- popular tourist locations are swamped by tourists which detracts from the
holiday experiences (e.g. crowded beaches); local residents may also be
inconvenienced
- tourists often don’t witness any real diversity of culture but predetermined
sights and attractions which have little in common with a country’s real heritage

Terms: go sightseeing, a sightseeing tour, a guided tour, visit historical /

archaeological sites, influx of tourists

Urban Planning
The deliberate planning of the layout of towns and cities to alleviate some of
the problems associated with urban living
- makes with facilities and amenities (sports centers, theatres, hospitals and
so on) far more accessible for residents
- alleviate traffic jams and the difficulty of moving around and parking in
crowded cities
- zoning separates commercial and industrial areas from residential ones; thus
creating a more peaceful and less polluted living environment

Terms: planning, forethought, layout, zoning, alleviation of bumper-to-bumper

traffic, congested roads, urban sprawl, chaos, the hustle and bustle of city
living, relief from stifling fumes, relief from noise

Nuclear Power
The use of the nuclear fusion process to create electrical energy as a viable
alternative to conventional fuels.

Pros
- nuclear energy is virtually limitless and therefore can solve the problem of
ever increasing energy demands
- its arguably the most inexpensive source of electricity
- nuclear power plants are far cleaner than conventional fuel power plants as
they don’t require the combustion of fossil fuels

Cons
- the dire consequences of a nuclear accident such as Chernobyl (radioactivity,
contamination of the local environment)
- the creation of radioactive waste such as plutonium and the problem of its
disposal as it remains radioactive for thousands of years

Environmental Issues

Acid Rain:
Acid rain is caused by airborne exhaust pollutants from cars and factories which
condense in clouds with water and fall as acidic rain. In extreme cases this
causes deforestation.

Global Warming:
Is a general increase in world temperatures caused by increased amounts of
carbon dioxide around the Earth. The gaseous carbon dioxide released by the
burning of fossil fuels (esp. in the internal combustion engine, used for
transportation) traps the energy of the sun’s rays in the atmosphere, resulting
in a rise in global temperature. Possible long-term consequences include the
melting of polar ice and the resultant flooding of low-lying coastal areas.
Fossil Fuels:
Conventional fuels such as coal or oil that is produced by the very gradual
decaying of animals or plants over millions of years. Fossil fuels are an
exhaustible or finite energy source and supplies are rapidly being depleted. The
use of fossil fuels results in pollution, particularly the alarming increase of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which threatens global warming.

Alternative Energy Sources:

Renewable energy sources such as wind power (wind turbines, wind mills), tidal
and wave power (floating platforms), solar power (solar panels), geothermal
power (underground pipes), and hydroelectric power (hydroelectric dams and
power stations) are possible solutions to the problem of rapidly depleting fossil
fuels. Their main advantages are that they are inexhaustible and pollution free
energy sources. However, currently, with the exception of hydroelectric power
(using falling water to drive turbines in order to create electricity), most of
these technologies are less efficient and therefore far more expensive than
traditional energy producing alternatives. Additionally, solar and wind power may
not be suitable in many areas as they are climate dependent – it’s difficult to
generate electricity if there is no wind or sun!

Industrial Waste:
Manufacturing processes that have created an increased standard of living,
especially in developed countries, cause both airborne pollution and industrial
waste. Toxic chemicals become part of the food chain and are eventually
consumed by people, resulting in adverse health effects.

Depletion of the Ozone Layer:

The ozone layer, which is in the upper atmosphere, serves as natural protection
from harmful UV (Ultra Violet) radiation from the sun. CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons), which are gases used in fridges and aerosol cans, are
responsible for damaging the ozone layer. Thus, animals and plants are becoming
increasingly exposed to damaging UV rays. This, in turn, may lead to increased
mutation in living organisms and an increased incidence of skin cancer in humans.

Fuel Cells:
Fuel cells are a promising alternative to vehicles with petrol or diesel internal
combustion engines. Liquid hydrogen is combined with oxygen extracted from
the air to produce energy to power an electric motor which propels the vehicle.
The main advantages are that there are zero emissions as normal, harmless
water is the by-product of the chemical reaction.

Rubbish Disposal:
The disposal of rubbish is an ongoing problem. Current solutions include dumping
rubbish at sea, dumping it in landfill sites or incinerating it. Each method has
serious environmental consequences.

Landfill Sites:
Toxic residues from industrial effluence and domestic rubbish seep into the
ground water under landfill sights and is carried away to agricultural areas. It,
therefore, becomes a part of the food chain. Residue also makes its way to the
sea, polluting water and effecting the marine ecosystem.

Incineration:
The burning of rubbish produces large amounts of carbon dioxide, thus adding to
the global warming problem. Additionally, harmful toxins may be released into
the air by this process and cause environmental damage including deforestation.

Logging:
Incessant logging and the wholesale destruction of the world’s forests has dire
effects. When trees are removed, the topsoil (the upper level of soil in which
most plants have their roots) is wasted away by rain, thus plants cannot re-
establish themselves and forests cannot be rejuvenated. This may result in
mudslides, the creation of barren, infertile land, and the depletion of
atmospheric oxygen.

Technology
Knowledge about scientific or industrial methods or the use of these methods -
machinery and equipment used or developed as a result of this knowledge.

Pros
- improves comfort and standard of living from housing to the ability to keep
food cold in refrigerators)
- makes communication easier; global reach
- technology is the foundation stone of our economy
- medical care and longevity
- allows scientific research and consequent advancement of human knowledge
(e.g. space exploration etc.)

Cons
- industrialization has caused pollution
- the misuse of technology to make conventional, chemical, biological and
nuclear weapons

Computers
An electronic machine that can store information and do things with it according
to a set of instructions called a program.
Pros
- make work processes faster and far more efficient; who uses a typewriter to
write a letter anymore?
- store vast amounts of information in the form of digital data; far more
efficient method of storage as it is space saving (an entire encyclopedia can be
stored on a single DVD-ROM, even more on Blu-ray) and easier to access
material (computer search engines)
- computers are an important educational tool for both students and
researchers alike
- allow and encourage the free exchange of information on a global basis; the
dissemination of news and opinion via the internet

Cons
- people become too dependent on computers; e.g. the use of calculators to
work out even the simplest mathematical sums / use of spell-checkers in word
processing programs.
- the internet has become a forum for illicit material including pornography,
advice on how to construct explosive devices at home and so on
- computers can be overused, even addictive (e.g. computer games) and normal
communication between friends and family can suffer

Internet Shopping
Using the internet to browse and shop for products, rather than going to regular
stores on the High Street.

Pros
- 0n-line shopping quick and easy – all done with a simple click of a mouse. Can
be done from anywhere with an internet connection at any time (24/7)
- Vast array of products, including those from other countries, are made
readily available
- Search engines make finding and
comparing prices for products easy

Cons
- Deceptively easy to shop and websites attractive and encourage spending.
This can lead to over-spending (and even addiction)
- Delivery charges and/or shipping insurance often apply, making products
more expensive than they seem to be
- Delivery can be slow and sometimes unreliable. Risk of products lost during
shipment.
- Credit card fraud risk
Crime & Punishment
Retribution for illegal, and illicit activities.

Purpose of Prison
- punishment for the crime committed
- isolate dangerous individuals from the rest of society
- re-educate and rehabilitate criminals
- act as a deterrent to would-be criminals

Solutions to the Crime Problem

- having more police patrols and officers on the beat to deter criminal activity
- improving education and social services for everyone in society
- imposing harsher punishments
- installing CCTV (Closed Circuit Television) cameras in public places which act
as a deterrent
- establishing better rehabilitation systems for reforming offenders
- setting up neighborhood watch schemes (where neighbors have a proactive
role in detecting crime in local areas)

Terms: prohibited, illegal, restricted, under age, accuse of, stand trial for,
convicted of, sentenced to, police brutality, the criminal justice system,
burglary, arson, assault, fraud, drug trafficking, shoplifting, murder,
manslaughter, effective deterrents, community service, lenient punishments,
harsh punishments, capital punishment, corporal (physical) punishment etc.

Plastic Surgery:
The medical practice of changing the appearance of people's faces or bodies,
either to improve their appearance or to repair injuries.

Pros
- appearance and self-image very important for people, probably for
psychological reasons; leads to more self confidence and self-esteem
- is there anything wrong with trying to improve on nature?
- re-constructive surgery for car accident victims or people who are born with
abnormalities is justifiable

Cons
- many operations only for the sake of vanity or self-image
- debasement or misuse of medical technology; the medical establishment
should be focused on more serious problems and afflictions

Terms: cosmetic surgery, plastic surgeon, a nose job / facial reconstruction

Stereotypes
A fixed idea or image of what a particular type of person or thing is like.
- generalization; not all stereotypes are accurate; racial stereotypes are
particularly inaccurate (i.e. not all Germans are cool and efficient, not all
Italians are warm and friendly)
- stereotypes are often discriminatory; should all women be housewives?
- stereotypes result in stigmatization (to be treated by society as if you
should be ashamed of your situation or actions)

Authority
The power you have because of your official position or because people respect
your knowledge and experience.

- those in authority may abuse the power they wield

- corruption in government circles (bribery)
- nepotism (treating family (and friends) with favoritism)
- unfair treatment and/or persecution of minority groups; e.g. police brutality

Discrimination
The practice of treating one particular group in society in an unfair way because
they are not seen as fitting into the mold.

Types:
- gender discrimination; the inequality of the sexes; stigmatization and
expected roles
- class and wealth discrimination; impoverished people are not treated with the
same respect as the rich and powerful
- age discrimination; old people treated unfairly by younger members of
society
- racial discrimination; different racial groups being treated as second-class
citizens in a multi-cultural society
- religious discrimination; people being intolerant of the religious beliefs of
others, even to the extent of persecution
- the discrimination towards mentally or physically handicapped people; unfair
treatment towards intellectually challenged people or those with physical
impediments or disabilities.

Globalization
Manufacturing including and affecting the whole world.

Pros:
- Decreases manufacturing costs as multinational companies establish
factories in countries such as Taiwan and China which have low labor costs.

- Lower manufacturing costs increase profits for companies; that is their

bottom line but also decreases the costs to the consumer (resulting in an
increased standard of living) due to increased manufacturing volume and
competition.

Cons:
- While manufacturing in Asian countries stimulates local economies, it robs
countries such as America and Germany of employment in the production sector.

- Globalization results in a loss of local culture and traditions as products and

the behavior associated with the use of such products become truly global.

Addictions
Unable to stop taking a harmful substances, especially a drug / Liking to do or
have something so much you do not want to stop

- Addiction comes in many forms; drug addition, alcoholism, chain smoking,

compulsive gambling, uncontrolled computer gaming etc.

- Obviously, many forms of addiction have detrimental effects on health. They

can also have physiological and social effects; alcoholics and gamblers become
unreliable and ineffective at work. They may also not be able to contribute to
the needs of their families and therefore become both a burden to both their
relatives and society as a whole.
E.C.P.E. Michigan & C.P.E. Cambridge Proficiency Expression Booster

These notes can be used as a basis for boosting your expressions in (C2) E.C.P.E.
and C.P.E. compositions and interviews.

Opening phrases:
It is often said / argued that ...
It is a fact that ...
Over the past few years, it seems that ...
Recently, we have all become concerned that ...
In the past, people ... but now...
These days, it seems that / people are becoming aware that ...

Time:
in contemporary times
in modern times
in antiquity
since the industrial revolution
since the dawn of time

Examples:
To exemplify, …
A is an example of B
Education, for instance, could be improved.

Listing arguments:
To begin with,…
A second area to consider is ...
Another point to consider is ...
Finally, … should (also) be considered.
Finally, it is clear that ...

Results:
This, in turn, may lead to …
One possible outcome of this situation is that …
Thus / Therefore / Hence / Consequently, …
This is bound to result in …

Problems & Negative Results:

the situation has come to a head
economic burden
count against
aggravate / exacerbate the situation
take a toll on sth
have grievances
be in grave danger
come to grief
wreak havoc on
vicious circle
be fraught with peril / danger
be at stake
be in jeopardy
be at odds with
a double edged sword
the situation is getting out of hand
people fall into the trap of doing sth
serious (/negative) repercussions
adverse consequences
detrimental effects
render sth impossible
a negative impact on
dire consequences

Changing the topic:

Turning to the question of ...
With regard to ...
On the question of ...
Another point to consider is ...

Contrast:
However / Nonetheless / Nevertheless, …
Despite / In spite of …
Not withstanding the fact that …
Although it is often seen as an insoluble problem, there are viable solutions.

Support:
subscribe to an idea
be a(n) ardent (/fervent/passionate) supporter (/advocate) of (doing) sth
Many embrace the idea that…
A bewildering number of people advocate that…
Many would go to any lengths to prove the opposite.

Disagree:
go against the grain
Many are conscientious objectors to the idea that…
Many take exception to the idea that…
Many are at odds with this point of view.
Action:
clamp down on
take austere measures
ameliorate sth
the current situation requires / necessitates immediate action
rectify sth
put a ban on sth
be banned from (doing) sth
viable / feasible solution
set a plan in motion
do sth as a last resort
the onus is on sby to do sth

Adding to a point:
Additionally / Moreover / Furthermore, …
A further contributory factor is that …
This problem is further exacerbated by …
This problem should be considered in conjunction with …
A & B go hand in hand

Solutions:
Fortunately, there are solutions to this problem, one of which is the idea of …
There are many ways by which this problem can be dealt with. Firstly, …
There are several ways by which people can deal with the problem at hand. One
idea is to … . Another is to … . A final solution could be … .
Those who are aware of the problem are, by and large, determined to resolve it.
This can only be made possible, however, by / if …
reap the benefits
an effective deterrent
innovative ideas
implement new policy / legislation
instigate changes

Conclusions:
To recapitulate, it seems that …
On balance, it appears that the advantages far outweigh the disadvantages.
By and large, it seems that people have good reason to be quite pessimistic
about…
Success or failure seems to be contingent on how much the general population
really cares.
It seems that the onus is on us / the government / the authorities to do
something about this issue and redress the balance.
On the whole, …
Weighing up arguments:
Some of the pluses and minuses should be looked at.
The benefits are offset by some major problems.
While it is true that ..., it must not be forgotten that ...
Although it could be argued that ..., it is also a fact that … .
On the one hand ..., but on the other hand ...
It is important to balance (a positive point) against (a negative point)

Opinions:
For my part,
It is widely believed that…
There is little / no doubt that…
It goes without saying that…
E.C.P.E. Michigan & C.P.E. Cambridge Proficiency Grammar Booster

These phenomena can be used as a basis for boosting your grammar in (C2)
E.C.P.E. and C.P.E. compositions and interviews.

Τα φαινόμενα αυτά μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν ως βάση για την ώθηση της

γραμματικής σας σε (C2) ECPE και C.P.E. συνθέσεις και συνεντεύξεις.

Tenses:
Ever since the industrial revolution, pollution has become a problem that mankind
has had to face.

Participle Clauses:
Being efficient, computers have become an integral part of our lives.
Having considered all points of view, it’s my firm conviction that …

Reference Words:
The implementation of such a proposal would only be possible if governments and
private Industry would work together.
The reason for this is best explained by the consideration of several factors.
Racism is a serious social issue. Governments who have failed to deal with it have
been overthrown in the past.
This is especially true of …

Conditionals:
Unless people act to preserve the environment soon, the health and welfare of
future generations may be at stake.
It seems that there is no point implementing new rules unless they are going to
be enforced.
It was once the case that you wouldn’t be allowed into certain buildings if you
were foreign.
If it were asked to choose between them, I would opt for the latter option.
If this problem remains unchecked, then there may be dire consequences.

Reported Speech:
It is said that very little has been done to alleviate this problem.
It is expected that inflation will continue to rise.
Money is thought to be the main motivation behind this problem.

Passive:
Something definitely has to be done about this problem.
Under a dictatorship. citizens are oppressed.

Comparison/Superlative:
No other organisation tries to ameliorate the situation as much as the
Greenpeace seem to do.
It is perhaps the worst problem the world faces today.
More attention is paid to this problem than any other.

Result clauses:
There are such a lot of cars that cities have become choked with toxic smog.
There are so many cars on the road that some municipalities have already closed
city centres to all motorised traffic.

Concession:
While it is true that the government has failed to act, it is also true that voters
have failed to spur politicians into action.
Despite implementing laws, poaching remains a problem.

Connectors of Cause & Effect:

Owing to the risks involved, it is unwise to keep exotic pets.
For this reason, endangered animals must be protected by law.
Acid rain is due to the combination of water and toxic chemicals in the
atmosphere.
Consequently, many students find the process of education boring.
As a result, many patients seek the aid of alternative medicine.

Connectors of Opinion:
In my opinion, …
In my view,…
To my mind,…
As far as I’m concerned,…
From my point of view,…
My point of view is…

Defining/Non-Defining Relative Clauses:

The problem of pollution, which has been a point of contention for many years, is
still an issue with no immediate solution.
Most cities have areas where cars are banned so that pedestrians can walk
safely.

Inversions:
Not only is smoking hazardous to the smoker, but it is also harmful to those in
the immediate area.

Either.. or/Neither…nor:
Neither the government nor the private sector has managed to solve the
problem of unemployment.
Either the government does something or they may face public outrage.
Quantity:
It’s an issue which has provoked a great deal of public debate.
A number of people firmly believe that gun control is essential for public safety.
A lot of effort has gone into the development of an improved curriculum.
A lack of diligence has caused a whole host of problems.

Adjectives and Adverbs:

If the government acted, the situation would improve -> governmental assistance
would alleviate the situation
One result could be that … -> One resultant effect could be that …
Obviously / Evidently, …
Fortunately / Unfortunately, …
Seemingly, …
People are becoming increasingly worried about the rising rate of crime.
It is highly unlikely that this problem will ever be solved.
Paradoxically, there are more and more people despite improvements in the
global economy.
Cities are so densely populated that stress and frustration are inevitable
consequences.
It’s unlikely that government efforts will ever make a substantial difference.
As to whether or not efforts will ever make a tangible difference, is yet to be
seen.
It certainly is a most alarming situation.
Overwhelming support is given to the idea that …
Research has concluded that smoking has a detrimental effect on one’s life.
It’s vital that people realise the extent of the problem.