Landslides and Engineered Slopes: Protecting Society through

Improved Understanding – Eberhardt et al. (eds)

© 2012 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62123-6

Investigation and monitoring of rock slope instabilities

in Norway by terrestrial laser scanning

T. Oppikofer, H.S.S. Bunkholt, L. Fischer, A. Saintot & R.L. Hermanns

Geological Survey of Norway, Trondheim, Norway

D. Carrea, C. Longchamp, M.-H. Derron, C. Michoud & M. Jaboyedoff

Institute of Geomatics and Analysis of Risk, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland

ABSTRACT: Long-range Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) is widely used in studies on rock slope
instabilities. TLS point clouds allow the creation of high-resolution digital elevation models for detailed
mapping of landslide morphologies and the measurement of the orientation of main discontinuities.
Multi-temporal TLS datasets enable the quantification of slope displacements and rockfall volumes. We
present three case studies using TLS for the investigation and monitoring of rock slope instabilities in
Norway: 1) the analysis of 3D displacement of the Oksfjellet rock slope failure (Troms, northern Norway);
2) the detection and quantification of rockfalls along the sliding surfaces and at the front of the Kvitfjellet
rock slope instability (Møre og Romsdal, western Norway); 3) the analysis of discontinuities and rotational
movements of an unstable block at Stampa (Sogn og Fjordane, western Norway). These case studies
highlight the possibilities but also limitations of TLS in investigating and monitoring unstable rock slopes.

1 INTRODUCTION mapping (Teza et al. 2007, Oppikofer et al. 2008,

2009, Jaboyedoff et al. 2009, Abellán et al. 2010).
The steep glacially carved valleys and fjords in TLS is used by the Geological Survey of Norway
Norway are particularly prone to many landslide for structural analysis of unstable rock slopes, i.e.
types, i.e. large rockslides, rockfalls, and debris to measure the orientation of main discontinuity
flows (e.g. Blikra et al. 2005). These landslides sets in the rock mass, and for periodic monitoring
and their secondary effects (rockslide-triggered of displacements and rockfall activity. Here, we
displacement waves, landslide dams, lake forma- present three applications of TLS for analyzing
tion and dam breach) pose a significant hazard to unstable rock slopes in northern and western
the population living in the valleys and along the Norway (Fig. 1).
fjords shoreline (Blikra et al. 2005).
The Geological Survey of Norway performs
systematic mapping of unstable rock slopes in
Norway (Hermanns et al. 2011a). More than 285
unstable slopes have been detected. Fifty-eight sites
are periodically monitored and six are equipped
with continuous monitoring and early-warning
systems.
Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) is a novel
technique for landslide investigation and monitor-
ing (Jaboyedoff et al. in press b). Common TLS
applications in landslide studies include: mapping
of landslide morphology (Dunning et al. 2009,
Jaboyedoff et al. 2009), characterisation of main
discontinuities (Jaboyedoff et al. 2007, Lato et al.
2009, Oppikofer et al. 2009, 2011b, Sturzenegger &
Stead 2009a, b), localisation of rockfall activity Figure 1. Situation map of Norway and topographic
and quantification of rockfall volumes and mecha- maps of the three study sites: 1 Oksfjellet in Troms
nisms (Rosser et al. 2005, Abellán et al. 2006, 2010, County, 2 Kvitfjellet in Møre og Romsdal County and
Pedrazzini et al. 2010), landslide displacement 3 Stampa in Sogn og Fjordane County.

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2 METHODOLOGY
2.1 Terrestrial laser scanning
Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) is based on the
reflectorless and contactless acquisition of a point
cloud of the topography using the time-of-flight
distance measurement of an infrared laser pulse. The
Optech ILRIS-3D used for this study has a wave-
length of 1500 nm and a range in practice of about
800 to 1200 m on rock slopes, depending on the
reflectivity of the object. The instrument is described
in detail by Oppikofer et al. (2009) for example.
The high-resolution point clouds of the topog-
raphy provided by TLS can be used for the struc-
tural analysis of rock slopes and for displacement
measurements using multi-temporal TLS data.
The data acquisition and treatment include several
steps (Oppikofer et al. 2009, Jaboyedoff et al. in
press a) briefly reported herein (Fig. 2):
1. TLS acquisitions from different viewpoints
and/or different view directions
2. Cleaning of scans and removal of vegetation
3. Co-registration of individual scans of the same
epoch and of multi-temporal scans using only the
stable area, i.e. the surroundings of the unstable
slope, using a point-to-surface Iterative Closest
Point (ICP) algorithm (Besl & McKay 1992)
4. Georeferencing of the entire dataset using
ground-control points or a DEM
5. Structural analysis using Coltop3D software
(Jaboyedoff et al. 2007, 2009)
6. Displacements analysis of multi-temporal TLS
datasets using the shortest distance comparison
(Oppikofer et al. 2008, 2009)
7. Displacement vectors from selections of identi-
cal points in multi-temporal point clouds.
Figure 2. Flowchart for the acquisition, treatment and
analysis of TLS data (steps 1 to 5 apply for single acquisi-
tions; steps 6 to 10 require multi-temporal point clouds).
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8. Detailed 3D displacement analysis using the
rototranslation matrix technique (Monserrat &
Crosetto 2008, Oppikofer et al. 2009)
9. Rockfall volume computation using difference
between the pre-rockfall and post-rockfall sur-
faces (Rabatel et al. 2008, Abellán et al. 2010)
10. Creation of an instability model combining the
geometry of the main fractures, displacements
and cross-sections (Oppikofer et al. 2008, 2009).
Data treatment and analysis are performed using
PolyWorks® software (www.innovmetric.com).
2.2 Shortest distance comparisons
Displacements between multi-temporal TLS
datasets can be assessed by a Shortest Distance
Comparison (SDC) using the ICP algorithm
(Oppikofer et al. 2008, 2009). Positive differences
mean that the data points are situated above or in
front of the reference, for example when the rock-
slide is advancing. Negative differences signify that
the data points are behind or below the reference, for
example in case of vertical settlement or rockfalls.
The standard deviation on SDC is in the order
of 2–4 cm and depends mainly on the resolution
of the scans and on the precision of the point
coordinates (Oppikofer et al. 2009). These errors
can be reduced using an averaging with neighbor-
ing points (Abellán et al. 2009) or the technique
described in section 2.3.
2.3 Detailed 3D displacement analysis
The 3D displacements of a rock slope instability
can be assessed using the roto-translation matrix
technique. This technique takes advantage of the
high point density of TLS datasets and enables
the computation of translational and rotational
displacements of an entire unstable rock slope,
or even for individual, morphologically coherent
parts of it (see Oppikofer et al. (2009) for compu-
tational details).
2.4 Rockfall volume computation
Rockfalls are detectable on SDCs. The volume of
rockfalls is assessed by creating meshes of the initial
and final TLS point clouds. That is, for example by
triangulation on a plane perpendicular to the scan
direction, followed by computing the difference in
volume between these meshes (see Rabatel et al.,
2008 for details).
2.5 Orientation of discontinuities
Georeferenced TLS data permit to measure the
orientation of discontinuities. The Coltop3D
software (www.terranum.ch) computes the spatial
orientation of each point with respect to its
neighborhood and displays the points with an
orientation-specific color (Jaboyedoff et al. 2007).
Selecting surfaces with homogeneous color (i.e.
planar or quasi-planar surfaces) allows obtaining
the mean orientation and variability of each dis-
continuity set.
2.6 Rotational movement quantification
According to Viero et al. (2010), the differences in
orientation of discontinuity sets between a slope
instability and its stable surroundings can be used
to compute the total rotational movement. This
analysis assumes that the orientations of the dis-
continuity sets in the unstable slope matched those
of the surroundings before the displacement and
that differences are directly related to rotational
movement.
After having identified pairs of discontinuities
that are found both on the instability and its sur-
roundings, the rotation angles leading from the ini-
tial to the final orientation of the discontinuities
can be computed. This is achieved in a spreadsheet
calculator by minimizing the differences between
the point pairs by varying the rotation angles α, β,
and γ around the three coordinate system axes. See
Hermanns et al. (2011b) for computational details
and the transformation of the rotational angles
into direction and angle of toppling.
3 CASE STUDIES
3.1 Rock slope displacements: Oksfjellet (Troms)
Oksfjellet is a large unstable rock slope located on
the northeast-facing slope of Kåfjord valley. The
Oksfjellet unstable rock slope has a 550 m long, up
Figure 3. Photograph of the Oksfjellet instability taken from the scanner position along the northwestern instability
limit showing the main morphologic features and the compartments used for the detailed displacement analysis (names
refer to Table 1).
1237
to 100 m wide graben as back-bounding structure
(Fig. 3), which testifies of large past displacements
probably exceeding 30 m. The upper part of the
unstable slope is divided into several large blocks
by steep discontinuity sets. Bunkholt et al. (2012,
this volume) provide a detailed site description.
The unstable slope was scanned by TLS from
several viewpoints along the back-scarp and the
lateral limits in order to detect displacements. Site
accessibility and visibility restricted the scanned
area to the upper part of the slope (Fig. 3). The
back-scarp and lateral limits were used as refer-
ence for the comparison of the multi-temporal
TLS datasets.
The SDC between the 2009 and 2010 TLS point
clouds does not show significant displacements (see
Bunkholt et al. 2011 for the SDC). This is mainly
due to the error of the SDC technique: the standard
deviation measured on the SDC is 3.3 cm. For a
more detailed assessment of slope movements, the
roto-translation matrix technique was applied to
five compartments of the unstable slope (I1 to I5 in
Fig. 3) and to four reference compartments along
the back-scarp (R1 to R4 in Fig. 3). The reference
compartments allow assessing the errors of the tech-
nique with the used dataset (average errors: transla-
tion length: 1.36 cm; rotational angle: 0.027°).
The detailed 3D displacement analysis reveals 3
to 3.9 cm of translation displacement in eastward
direction, except for I3 that is a freestanding col-
umn (Table 1, Fig. 3). Rotational movements are
low and only significant for compartments I1 and
I2 (Table 1) and indicate toppling in a NNE direc-
tion. Compartment I5 is located close to the back-
scarp and is likely not moving (Table 1). However,
these movements are likely representative for only
the analyzed compartments and not for the entire
rock slope.
 Table 1. Detailed displacement analysis of the Oksfjellet unstable rock slope between
2009 and 2010 using the roto-translation matrix technique. Values in parentheses are not
significant. (Comp. = compartments in Fig. 3).

Translation Rotation

Comp. Length [cm] Trend/plunge Azimuth Angle [°]

I1 3.52 103°/46° ± 22° 020°N ± 26° 0.061

I2 3.85 077°/26° ± 20° 032°N ± 44° 0.037
I3 3.92 166°/22° ± 20° (018°N ± 78°) (0.022)
I4 3.00 081°/42° ± 26° (177°N ± 180°) (0.013)
I5 (0.61) (143°/39° ± 128°) (128°N ± 110°) (0.017)

3.2 Rockfalls: Kvitfjellet (Møre og Romsdal)

Kvitfjellet is a prominent spur on the west-facing
slope above the village of Norddal. It was identi-
fied as unstable rock slope and characterized by a
wedge sliding mechanism (Henderson et al. 2006)
(Fig. 4a).
The SE-bounding sliding surface is readily
identified and dips 60° towards the W, while the
NW-bounding sliding surface is 45° S-dipping.
SW-NE-steep fractures appear to delimit the
instability into several compartments (Henderson
et al. 2006).
Kvitfjellet was scanned four times since 2006
and shows no significant displacements up to
now. However, several historic rockfalls occurred
from the cliff and several large boulders reached
the settlement in the valley floor (Oppikofer et al.
2011a).
The SDC between the 2006 and 2011 TLS point
clouds reveals ten rockfalls (Fig. 4). Their spatial
distribution reveals an activity all over the cliff
with, however, several rockfalls specifically occur-
ring along the basal sliding surfaces (rockfalls #3,
4, 5 and 9 in Fig. 4) and one rockfall along a major
SW-NE open fracture (#8). These specific rockfalls
may be an indication for deformation of the entire
unstable rock slope, i.e. sliding along the basal sur-
faces and opening along the steep fracture.
The rockfall volumes range from 0.12 m3 to
65.0 m3 (Table 2). The largest rockfall (#1) occurred
from an overhanging part in the upper section of the
cliff (Fig. 4a and b). This rockfall was 11.9 m wide,
4.9 m high and up to 2.3 m thick (Fig. 4c). Some of
the rockfalls located along the instability limit and
the major SW-NE-fracture have also relatively large
volumes (#3: 5.8 m3; #9: 2.1 m3; #8: 1.9 m3). Figure 4. Rockfalls at Kvitfjellet between 2006 and
2011: a) Photograph of the rock slope instability, the
sliding surface in the SE and the location of rockfalls
3.3 Rotation analysis: stampa (numbers refer to Table 2); b) 3D view of the 2011 TLS
(sogn og fjordane) point cloud; c) detail of rockfall #1 displaying isolines
of the shortest distance comparisons between the 2006
Stampa is a large unstable rock slope located above and 2011 TLS point clouds. The volume of rockfall #1
the village of Flåm and developed in phyllitic rock equals 65.0 m3.

1238
Table 2. Location and volume of rockfalls at Kvitfjellet
between 2006 and 2011.
# Particular location
1 Overhanging wall
2 Overhanging wall
3 Along sliding surface
4 Along sliding surface
5 Along sliding surface
6 Within the main cliff
7 Within the main cliff
8 Along SW-NE-fracture
9 Along sliding surface
10 Outside of the instability
mass (Böhme et al. 2012, this volume). Along the
front of the unstable slope several localized and
clearly detached instabilities are detected. Here, we
Altitude Volume focus on one of these instabilities (Fig. 5a). It has
[m] [m3]
an estimated volume of 280,000 m3, displacements
516.6 65.0 measured by dGNSS of approximately 11 mm/year
455.9 1.34 and presents possible toppling movements.
352.2 5.78 The structural analysis of this instability and
352.0 0.56 its surroundings reveals numerous distinct discon-
348.8 0.12 tinuity sets (Fig. 5b). A total of 11 discontinuity
478.2 0.26 pairs between the back-scarp and the instability
420.3 0.33 are found, but some may not co-exist. For exam-
472.7 1.93 ple, each initial orientation can only go to one final
474.7 2.08 orientation (S1 to S1′ or S1′2; D5 to D5′ or D5′2)
448.3 0.53 and each final orientation may only have one ini-
tial orientation (S1 or S12 to S1′2) (Fig. 5b). Taking
into account these constraints only 9 pairs can be
jointly present.
All possible combinations of discontinuity pairs
(from 3 pairs up to 9 pairs) were tested and the
rotational parameters computed. The final result
for the rotational movements linking the discon-
tinuity orientations of the back-scarp to those
on the instability is obtained by applying several
selection criteria to find the best combinations of
discontinuity pairs. The instability has a total top-
pling movement of 4.1° towards N338° (Hermanns
et al. 2011b).
This computed rotation fits with a toppling
mechanism along D5 discontinuities, which form
the back-scarp (Fig. 5a) and satisfy the kinematic
criteria for toppling failure. However, toppling by
4.1° cannot fully explain the opening of a 20 to
30 m wide graben between the back-scarp and the
instability. The remaining part of the total observed
displacement has to be caused by sliding in a slide-
topple mechanism (Hermanns et al. 2011b).

4 CONCLUSIONS

Terrestrial laser scanning has plenty of applications

Figure 5. a) Photograph of the instability at Stampa
showing the compartmentalization by discontinuities D2
and D5 (photograph: Marc-Henri Derron); b) Stereonet
of the discontinuity sets identified on the instability at
Stampa and its surroundings and the 11 discontinuity
pairs used for the rotation analysis.
for identification, characterization and monitoring
of unstable rock slopes and rockfall-prone areas.
The presented case studies highlight several advan-
tages of TLS compared to other techniques:
− TLS detects slope displacements over the entire
landslide area and enables their quantification
in 3D (with both translational and rotational
movements), while many conventional tech-
niques (dGNSS, total station, extensometers)
only provide monitoring at selected points and
InSAR only measures displacements in the line-
of-sight.
− TLS is versatile and can cover a very wide range
of displacements from about 1 cm to several
meters, which is particularly useful in rockfall
detection and quantification.

1239
− TLS provides precise point clouds of the topog-
raphy, which enables detailed analyses of major
discontinuity orientations and quantifica-
tion of total rotational displacement in slope
instabilities.
− Most TLS instruments are portable, easy to
deploy and thus possible to use in difficult
terrain.
Challenges and limitations of TLS are:
− The measurement of single points is less accurate
than most point-based techniques (dGNSS, total
station etc.), but the high point density, which is
for example used by the roto-translation matrix
technique, counterbalances this drawback.
− TLS is an optical remote sensing technique and
so is sensible to atmospheric changes. These can
induce errors exceeding the amount of slope
movements and thus impeding their detection.
Scanning from short distances and same alti-
tudes reduces this problem.
− Rain and wet surfaces drastically reduce the
maximum range of most TLS instruments.
− Ideal scan locations provide a frontal view and
should include stable areas in the surroundings
of a rock slope instability. This configuration can
often not be achieved due to site inaccessibility,
lack of visibility and TLS range limitations.
New long-range scanners operating in the near
infrared domain may remediate the last two limita-
tions by scanning from the valley bottom. In turn,
instrumental and atmospheric errors are expected
to increase with extending the distance and larger
displacement are needed before being detectable.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank the Norwegian Water and
Energy Resources Directorate for funding this
study through the national plan for mapping
unstable rock slopes.
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