Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation

IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development

Amjad Kallel · Mohamed Ksibi

Hamed Ben Dhia · Nabil Khélifi Editors

Recent Advances in
Environmental Science from
the Euro-Mediterranean
and Surrounding Regions
Proceedings of Euro-Mediterranean Conference
for Environmental Integration (EMCEI-1), Tunisia 2017
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation
IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable
Development

Series editors
Hassan Abdalla
Md. Abdul Mannan
Chaham Alalouch
Sahar Attia
Sofia Natalia Boemi
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Stella Kostopoulou
Yasser Mahgoub
Saleh Mesbah Elkaffas
Nabil Mohareb
Iman O. Gawad
Mieke Oostra
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Federica Rosso
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation (ASTI) is a series of
peer-reviewed books based on the best studies on emerging research that
redefines existing disciplinary boundaries in science, technology and innova-
tion (STI) in order to develop integrated concepts for sustainable development.
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Amjad Kallel Mohamed Ksibi
•

Hamed Ben Dhia Nabil Khélifi

•

Editors

Recent Advances
in Environmental Science
from the Euro-Mediterranean
and Surrounding Regions
Proceedings of Euro-Mediterranean
Conference for Environmental Integration
(EMCEI-1), Tunisia 2017
Volume I and Volume II

123
Editors
Amjad Kallel Hamed Ben Dhia
National School of Engineering of Sfax National School of Engineering of Sfax
University of Sfax University of Sfax
Sfax Sfax
Tunisia Tunisia

Mohamed Ksibi Nabil Khélifi

Higher Institute of Biotechnology of Sfax Springer Nature
University of Sfax Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg
Sfax Germany
Tunisia

ISSN 2522-8714 ISSN 2522-8722 (electronic)

Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation
IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development
ISBN 978-3-319-70547-7 ISBN 978-3-319-70548-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017958022

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

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Preface

Highlights

• Springer, in collaboration with the Editorial Office of the Euro-Mediterranean Journal for
Environmental Integration in Sfax, Tunisia, launched the First Euro-Mediterranean Con-
ference for Environmental Integration (EMCEI: www.emcei.net) in November 2017.
• The conference gathered new research contributions from all disciplines of the environ-
mental sciences by Euro-Mediterranean scientists with diverse backgrounds, in particular
from the geo- and bio-environmental sciences and engineering.
• More than 800 short contributed papers were received from authors based in 50 countries.
The evaluation process was managed by the Editors of this proceedings volume, who
invited the members of the conference scientific committee and other international experts
to review the papers. Ultimately, roughly 550 short papers were accepted.
• Papers are published in this proceedings volume, which is divided into 10 major sections
representing the tracks (topics) of the conference. They cover a broad range of environ-
mental research fields, mainly from the Euro-Mediterranean region, but also from sur-
rounding regions and some other parts of the world that show similar case studies on
environmental integration in general.
• Springer invited the Editors of the Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Inte-
gration and other distinguished scientists and experts to contribute to the conference in the
form of keynote lectures and workshops.
• Authors of the best papers from this proceedings volume will be invited after evaluating
their presentations during the conference to submit extended versions of their papers for
evaluation before publication in a number of special issues in selected Springer journals.
• This conference proceedings volume gathers these new studies, which demonstrate how
science and knowledge can help to promote a more sustainable environment for the
Euro-Mediterranean region.

Summary

The Euro-Mediterranean region is currently facing not only political, economic, and social
challenges but also an ever-growing environmental degradation—aspects that have made
environmental and resource protection an increasingly important issue. These aspects have
also rekindled the debate on revitalizing the Euro-Mediterranean integration process by means
of concrete cooperative projects in various sectors, especially those related to environmental
awareness, assessment, and improvement. This integration process is mainly intended to
reduce the development gap between the northern and southern shores of the Mediterranean

v
vi Preface

and to create new and closer political, economic, social, cultural, and most importantly sci-
entific ties between the two on the basis of common concerns.
In this context, and precisely in order to promote the Euro-Mediterranean scientific part-
nership so as to develop and integrate environmental research in the region, under the auspices
of Springer a group of Euro-Mediterranean scientists recently launched the
Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration (EMJEI). The journal, supported
and hosted by the University of Sfax, Tunisia and its Association University & Environment
(AUE), offers a scientific platform for showcasing and discussing the latest research advances
concerning emerging environmental issues and challenges in the Euro-Mediterranean region.
To further strengthen Euro-Mediterranean environmental research, the Editors of the
Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration launched, in close collaboration
with Springer, the First Euro-Mediterranean Conference for Environmental Integration
(EMCEI). This first installment of EMCEI, held in Sousse, Tunisia in November 2017, aims at
gathering new research contributions from all disciplines of the environmental sciences by
Euro-Mediterranean scientists with diverse backgrounds, in particular from the geo- and
bio-environmental sciences and engineering, and thus makes an essential contribution to
ensuring that science and knowledge can help to promote a more sustainable environment for
the Euro-Mediterranean region.
Once the conference’s call for papers had begun, the global relevance of EMCEI-2017 was
demonstrated by the more than 800 contributed papers submitted by authors from 50 different
countries. Following peer review, about 560 papers were ultimately accepted.
The papers gathered in this book offer a general and brief overview of current research on
emerging environmental issues and challenges, and of related applications to a variety of
problems in the Euro-Mediterranean region in particular, but also in surrounding regions and
other parts of the world. They are arranged in 10 major sections, reflecting the main topics
addressed at the conference, namely:

1. Innovative approaches and methods for environmental sustainability;

2. Environmental risk assessment, bioremediation, ecotoxicology, and environmental safety;
3. Water resources assessment, planning, protection, and management;
4. Environmental engineering and management;
5. Natural resources: characterization, assessment, management, and valorization;
6. Intelligent techniques in renewable energy (biomass, wind, waste, and solar);
7. Sustainable management of marine environments and coastal areas;
8. Remote sensing and GIS for geo-environmental investigations;
9. Environmental impacts of geo/natural hazards (earthquakes, landslides, volcanic, and
marine hazards); and
10. Environmental health sciences (natural and social impacts on human health).

Presenting a broad range of topics and results, EMCEI-2017 offered a valuable opportunity
for researchers and students to learn more about new advances in environmental research
initiatives in view of the ever-growing environmental degradation in the Euro-Mediterranean
region, which has made environmental and resource protection an increasingly important issue
with regard to sustainable development and social welfare.
In addition to the several oral and poster sessions, participants enjoyed revealing keynote
lectures by distinguished scientists and accompanying workshops. Keynote lectures high-
lighted the latest research results obtained in the Euro-Mediterranean region on topics
including the following: clean energy production; wastewater treatment and energy produc-
tion; novel approaches to contaminant removal in water; tracing pollution in aquatic systems;
ecological risk assessment of plant protection products; environmental risk in connection with
chemicals in soils; collecting and processing geodata for environmental and sustainable spatial
planning; assessment of coastal morphological changes and the impact of sea level rise on
Preface vii

shorelines; long-term sustainability of coastal zones and their adaptation to climate change;
urban agriculture and green infrastructures; seismic hazard assessment; new solutions for
energy, biomedical, and environmental applications; and several other interesting case studies,
all of which are included in the first section of this proceedings volume: “keynote lecturers and
workshops”. The workshops were also an opportunity to discuss in round tables several
regional issues hindering sustainable development in the Euro-Mediterranean community,
updating and summarizing the latest advances in connection with ongoing cooperation pro-
jects between scientists based on the northern and southern shores of the Mediterranean.
Lastly, they highlighted important case studies related to the environmental health sciences
and integrated approaches to achieving a better environment, as well as training sessions on
scientific writing and publishing techniques.
This first Springer EMCEI gave younger scientists, in particular, the opportunity to present
their findings—and the outcomes astonished and delighted us. We hope that the ideas in this
book can stimulate further work on environmental integration and sustainable development.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the authors for their significant contributions. We also wish to thank the
scientific committee and all the reviewers for their valuable comments. Lastly, our thanks go to
the Springer team for supporting the publication of these conference proceedings.

Sfax, Tunisia Amjad Kallel

Sfax, Tunisia Mohamed Ksibi
Sfax, Tunisia Hamed Ben Dhia
Heidelberg, Germany Nabil Khélifi
November 2017
Conference Organizing Committee

Honorary Chair

Hamed Ben Dhia, ENIS, University of Sfax, Tunisia

General Chair

Mohamed Ksibi, Director of the High Institute of Biotechnology, University of Sfax, Tunisia

Scientific Committee Chair

Sami Sayadi, Director of the Centre of Biotechnology of Sfax, University of Sfax, Tunisia

Public Relations Chair

Boubakker Elleuch, Director of Laboratory LGEET, ENIS, University of Sfax, Tunisia

Corporate Relations Chair

Mongi Seffen, ESSTHS, University of Sousse, Tunisia

Publications Chair

Nabil Khélifi, Springer, a part of Springer Nature, Heidelberg, Germany

Program/Submissions Chair

Amjad Kallel, ENIS, University of Sfax, Tunisia

Conference Manager

Mohamed Sahbi Moalla, ISET, University of Sfax, Tunisia

Conference Scientific Committee

Abdelazim Negm, Zagazig University, Egypt

Abdelfatteh Omri, King Abdul Aziz University, Saudi Arabia
Abdeltif Amrane, Institute of Chemical Sciences of Rennes, France
Abdelwaheb Aydi, FSB, Tunisia
Abderrahim Choukchou-Braham, University of A. Belkaid, Algeria

ix
x Conference Organizing Committee

Abdessalem El Ghali, FSB, University of Carthage, Tunisia

Abdullah Al-Amri, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Abdullah Al-Ghafri, University of Nizwa, Oman
Achraf Ghorbal, ISSAT Gabes, University of Gabes, Tunisia
Aida Kesraoui, University of Sousse, Tunisia
Akissa Bahri, National Agricultural Institute of Tunisia, Tunisia
Alexander P. Mathews, Kansas State University, USA
Ali Sdiri, ENIS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Ali-Akbar Sabziparvar, Faculty of Agriculture, Hamedan, Iran
Amal Zayen, Centre of Biotechnology of Sfax, Tunisia
Amjad Kallel, ENIS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Anastasios Zouboulis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Andrei Bala, National Institute for Earth Physics, Romania
Assia Harbi, Centre of Research of Astronomy, Algeria
Baghded Ouddane, University of Sciences and Technology, Lille1, France
Barbara Koch, University of Freiburg, Germany
Bassem Jaouadi, Centre of Biotechnology of Sfax, Tunisia
Biswajeet Pradhan, University Putra, Malaysia
Brigitte Kempter-Regel, Fraunhofer Inst. für Grenzflächen- & Bioverfahrenstechnik, Germany
Chavalit Ratanatamskul, Chulalongkorn University Bangkok, Thailand
Chedly Tizaoui, College of Engineering, Swansea University, UK
Cherif Ould Lahoucine, University of Guelma, Algeria
Dalel Belhaj, , FSS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Dario Omanovic, Ruder Boskovic Institute, Croatia
Elias Salameh, University of Jordan, Amman
Elio Giamello, Università degli Studi di Torino, Italy
Eric D. van Hullebusch, University of Paris-Est, France
Faouzi Ben Rabeh, King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia
Fatma Karray, Centre of Biotechnology of Sfax, Tunisia
Fausto Pedro Garcia Marquez, ETSI Industriales, Universidad Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
Francisco Javier Navas Pineda, Universidad de Cádiz, Spain
Gil Mahé, IRD Montpellier, France
Gilles Colinet, University of Liège, Belgium
Giovana Almeida, University of Antwerp, Belgium
Giulia Guerriero, Federico II University, Naples, Italy
Habib Abida, FSS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Hakim Gabtni, CERTE, Tunisia
Helder I. Chaminé, School of Engineering (ISEP), Polytechnic of Porto, Portugal
Ibrahim Ozdemir, University, Faculty of Forestry, Turkey
Imed Gargouri, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Imen Hamdi Nasr, FSB, Tunisia
Imene Dridi, FST, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunisia
Irie Mitsuteru, Miyazaki University, Japan
Ismail Rakip Karas, Karabuk University, Faculty of Engineering, Turkey
Ismail Trabelsi, Centre de Recherches et des Technologies des Eaux, Tunisia
Jean-Paul Barusseau, University Via Domitia, France
Jesús Cisneros Aguirre, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
Jordan Vidal, Manuel Miguel, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Spain
Jörg Römbke, ECT Oekotoxikologie GmbH, Germany
José Luís Pinho, University of Minho, Portugal
Kamel Gargouri, Olive Tree Institute of Sfax, Tunisia
Karima Fadhlaoui Zid, FST, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunisia
Kenichi Kachiwagui, University of Tsukuba, Japan
Khalid Elkalay, Cadi Ayyad University (EST Essaouira), Morocco
Laila Mandi, CNEREE, Marrakech, Morocco
Conference Organizing Committee xi

Lassaad Chouba, INSTM, Tunisia

Latifa Bousselmi, CERTE, Tunisia
Laurent Dezileau, University of Montpellier, France
Madhi Jaghbir, University of Jordan, Jordani
Marc Maboeta, North West University South Africa, South Africa
Marc Tedetti, IRD–Mediterranean Institute of Oceanography, France
Marco Lauteri, Istituto di Biologia Agroambientale e Forestale, Italy
Maria Snoussi, IRD, France and University Mohammed V, Morocco
Maria Teresa Melis, University of Cagliari, Italy
Marilyne Soubrand, University of Limoges, France
Masamoto Tafu, National Institute of Technology, Toyama College, Japan
Maurizio Barbieri, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Michaël Badawi, Institute of Jean Barriol, University of Lorraine, France
Moez Hanin, ISBS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Mohamed Abdulrazzak, Civil Engineering Department, Taibah University, Saudi Arabia
Mohammed Abdul Rasheed, Gujarat Energy Research & Management Institute, India
Mokhtar Guizani, Hokkaido University, Japan
Moncef Bouaziz, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany
Moncef Boukthir, IPEI Tunis, Tunisia
Moncef Khadhraoui, ISBS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Monem Kallel, ENIS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Mounir Medhioub, FSS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Mustapha Hasnaoui, University of Sultan Moulay Slimane, Morocco
Mustapha Meghraoui, University of Strasbourg, France
Nachida Kasbadji Merzouk, UDES, Tipasa, Algeria
Neşe Tüfekci, Istanbul University, Turkey
Nicolas Roche, University of Aix-Marseille, France
Nilanchal Patel, Birla Institute of Technology Mesra, India
Noureddine Soltani, Badji Mokhtar University, Annaba, Algeria
Olfa Hentati, ISBS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Oula Amrouni, INSTM, Tunis, Tunisia
Ozgur Kisi, Ilia State University, Georgia
Panagiotis Karanis, Qinghai University, China
Pierre-Louis Frison, University of Paris-Est-Marne, France
Rachid B. Slimane, Gas Technology Institute, IL, USA / SABIC, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Ridha Mzoughi, LRHSP, Tunisia
Rihab Hadji, University of Farhat Abbas, Setif, Algeria
Roman Tandlich, Faculty of Pharmacy, Rhodes University, South Africa
Salem Bouri, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Samir Bouaziz, ENIS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Sandeep Panda, Suleyman Demirel University, Engineering Faculty, Turkey
Seref Turhan, Kastamonu Üniversitesi, Turkey
Settimio Ferlisi, University of Salerno, Italy
Souad A. Benromdhane, HEID, OAQPS, U.S. EPA, USA
Sudip Chakraborty, University of Calabria, Italy
Suela Kellici, London South Bank University, UK
Sven-Uwe Geissen, Technical University Berlin, Germany
Tahar Mechichi, ENIS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Teresa A. P. Rocha-Santos, Aveiro University, Portugal
Vincenzo Naddeo, University of Salerno, Italy
Wolfgang Cramer, CNRS, IRD, University of Avignon, France
Yannick Mamindy-Pajany, Institut Mines Télécom (IMT), Lille Douai, France
xii Conference Organizing Committee

Yuji Murayama, University of Tsukuba, Japan

Zakaria Hamimi, Benha University, Egypt
Zouhair Ksibi, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunisia

Local Organization Committee

Aiman Medhioub, FLSHS, University of Sfax, Tunisia

Cherif Moslah, LGEET, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Dhouha Mabrouk, FLSHS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Farah Bouhamed, FSG, University of Gabes, Tunisia
Mabrouk Eloussaief, FSS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Mehdi Nafa, University of Badji Mokhtar-Annaba, Algeria
Mohamed Sahbi Moalla, ISET, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Mongi Felhi, ENIS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Oula Amrouni, INSTM, Tunis, Tunisia
Sirine Bouguerra, LGEET, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Zied Marzouki, LGEET, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Yasmine Bacha, FLSHS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Salsabil Trigui, ENIS, University of Sfax, Tunisia
Senda Ben Jemaa, ENIS, University of Sfax, Tunisia

About the Conference Manager

Mohamed Sahbi Moalla is a lecturer at the Department of

Information Technology of the Higher Institute of Technological
Studies of Sfax (ISET Sfax) in Tunisia. He is a founding member
of the ISET’s LPI Training Center and the Cisco Academy. He is
a senior consultant in computer security and information systems
architecture, certified Cisco IT Essentials. Besides, he is a Risk
Manager ISO 27005, Google Apps Education Qualified Lead
Implementer ISO 27001, Kaspersky Certified Professional,
HTML developer, CSS developer, StonGate Firewall Engineer,
and StonGate Firewall Architect. He is the Journal Editorial
Office coordinator of the (Springer) Euro-Mediterranean Journal
for Environmental Integration at the University of Sfax, Tunisia.
He managed the organization of 35 international conferences. In
2014, Mohamed Sahbi Moalla together with Boubaker Elleuch
(Professor at ENI-Sfax) launched the First International Confer-
ence on Integrated Environmental Management for Sustainable
Development (ICIEM). In 2017, in collaboration with Nabil
Khélifi (Senior Editor—Springer), Mohamed Sahbi Moalla
helped in the launch of the First Springer Euro-Mediterranean
Conference for Environmental Integration.
Contents

Volume I
Part I Keynote Lectures and Workshops
New Pathways in the Synthesis of 2-Dimensional Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Suela Kellici
Environmental Risk Assessment of Pesticides in Soil:
Does It Have to Be Different in Different Regions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Jörg Römbke
New Challenges for the Ecological Risk Assessment of Plant
Protection Products to Soil Organisms in the EU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
José Paulo Sousa, Silvia Pieper, and Maria Arena
Hydrogeochemical Assesment of Groundwater Quality:
A Case Study of a Wetland System in Central Italy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Maurizio Barbieri
Novel Ozone Oxidation Process for Emerging Contaminants
Removal in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chedly Tizaoui
Wastewater Treatment and Energy Production Through Electro
Membrane Bioreactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Vincenzo Naddeo, Laura Borea, and Vincenzo Belgiorno
Implications of Sulphide on Trace Metal Pollution Mobility in Sediment . . . . . . . . 19
Baghdad Ouddane, Mariam Hamzeh, and Mirna Daye
Remediation of Selenium Contaminated Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Eric D. van Hullebusch
Services and Dysservices of Collective Gardens in Urban Areas:
A Soil Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Gilles Colinet, Amandine Liénard, Dinneke Schram, Piet Otte,
Louisa Boukharaeva, and Marcel Marloie
R&D for Clean Energy Production Through Responsible Utilization
of Various Feedstocks Including Coal, Biomass, and Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Rachid B. Slimane
Can ICZM Help the Resilience of Disappearing Beaches in the Face
of Climate Change? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Maria Snoussi, Otmane Khalfaoui, Latifa Flayou, Siham Kasmi, and Otmane Raji

xiii
xiv Contents

Assessment of the Impact of Dams on River Regimes, Sediment

Transports to the Sea, and Coastal Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Gil Mahe, Oula Amrouni, Thouraya Ben Moussa, Laurent Dezileau, Rajae El Aoula,
Hamadi Habaieb, Abderraouf Hzami, Ilias Kacimi, Abderrahmane Khedimallah,
Fatma Kotti, Mohamed Meddi, Nadia Mhammdi, and Saadi Abdeljaouad
Evolution of GSDs in the Coastal Zone, New Insights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Jean-Paul Barusseau
Geodata the Tool for Environmental and Sustainable Spatial Planning . . . . . . . . . 35
Barbara Koch
Earthquake Faulting and Their Implications for the Seismic Hazard
Assessment Along the Plate Boundary in North Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Mustapha Meghraoui
Cryptosporidium: Waterborne and Foodborne Transmission
and Worldwide Outbreaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Panagiotis Karanis
Springer Workshop on How to Get Published in a Scientific Journal:
Tips from Springer Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Nabil Khélifi and Abdullah Al-Amri
Editing a Paper from Submission to Publication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Amjad Kallel
3rd Workshop of the Euro-Mediterranean Consortium of Higher Education
and Industrial Institutions: Freshwater and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Abriak Nor-Edine, Ahmed Addou, Hentati Olfa, J. Cisneros-Aguirre,
Khaldi Abdelkrim, Kherbeche Abdelhak, Mohamed Ksibi, Zouhaier Ksibi,
Legube Bernard, Hakima Nassali, Ouddane Baghdad, Rives Alain, and Sehili Tahar
An Integrated Environmental Approach—City of Sfax, Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Hamed Ben Dhia
Groundwater Exploration in the Solar System: “the Restless Hunt for Life”. . . . . 53
Essam Heggy

Part II Innovative Approaches and Methods for Environmental Sustainability

Photocatalytic Membrane Reactor for Sustainable Environmental
Remediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Sudip Chakraborty, Jaya Sikder, Debolina Mukherjee, Stefano Curcio,
and Vincenza Calabro
REAGRITECH: A Relevant Model of Sustainable Water Management . . . . . . . . . 61
Marwa Ben Saad, Lorena Aguilar, Angel Gallegos, Beatriz Missagia, Raquel Rubio,
Myriam Ben Said, Carlos Alberto Arias, Ahmed Ghrabi, and Jordi Morato
Zero-Liquid Discharge Desalination of Hypersaline Shale Gas Wastewater:
Challenges and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Viviani C. Onishi, Juan A. Reyes-Labarta, and José A. Caballero
Integrating Future Climate Change, CO2 Increase and Technology
Progress on Wheat Production in Northern Tunisia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Mohamed Annabi, Haithem Bahri, and Hatem Cheick M’hamed
Terrace Gardens Sustainable Carbon Sinks in Modern Urban Dynamics . . . . . . . 71
Roohul Abad Khan, Amadur Rahman Khan, Abdullah M. Al Fatais,
and Abdulsalam Ahmed Ayed Alqarni
Contents xv

Urban Morphology for a Better Sustainable Urban Strategy:

City of Tunis as a Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Safa Achour Younsi and Fakher Kharrat
Water Quality Modeling in the Mediterranean River Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Anna Malagò and Faycal Bouraoui
Characterization of Glauber Hydrate Salt, Recoverable from the Disposal
of Lead Batteries, When Used for Thermal Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Maria Gabriela De Paola, Marilena De Simone, Natale Arcuri,
and Vincenza Calabrò
Can Conservation Agriculture Sequester Soil Carbon in Northern Tunisia
in the Long Run? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Haithem Bahri, Mohamed Annabi, Abir Saoueb, Hatem Cheikh M’Hamed,
Amir Souissi, Roukaya Chibani, and Bochra Amina Bahri
Climate Change and Water Resources Management in Arab Countries. . . . . . . . . 89
Attia El Gayar and Younes Hamed
Impact of Agricultural Policies on the Technical and Economic Parameters
of the Olive Value Chain in the Djelfa Region (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Leila Attallaoui, Salah Eddine Benziouche, and Komi Apédo Atchemdi
A New Method to Estimate the Instantaneous Pollutants Emissions
from Line Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Hicham Gourgue, Ahmed Ihlal, and Ahmed Aharoune
From Phyto to Agromining: Past, Present, and Future Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Luís A. B. Novo, Paula M. L. Castro, Paula Alvarenga,
and Eduardo Ferreira da Silva
Fernand Pouillon’s Architecture: A Sustainable Model in Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Kersenna Soumaya and Chaouche Salah
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Bio-drying: An Experimental Prototype
Conception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Mohamed Ali Saihi, Rami Hkiri, Mohamed Damak, Zaineb Braiek,
Mourad Ayadi, Emna Ammar, and Nabil Kechaou
Evaluation of the Inhibiting Effect of Organic Compounds on the Adsorption
of Iodine Compounds in Cation-Exchanged Zeolites: A DFT Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Etienne Hessou, Hicham Jabraoui, Mouheb Chebbi, Siwar Chibani,
Laurent Cantrel, and Michael Badawi
A Laboratory Investigation of the Hydraulic Performance
of String-Wound Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Giacomo Viccione and Stefania Evangelista
Soil Thermal Properties: Effects of Density, Moisture, Salt Concentration
and Organic Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Abdeen Omer
Decolourization of Real Textile Wastewater by the Combination
of Photocatalytic and Biological Oxidation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Teklit Gebregiorgis, Eric D. van Hullebusch, and Kiros Hagos
Efficient Removal of Methylene Blue from Aqueous Solutions
Using Olive Stone and Rye Straw as Abundant Adsorbents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Sana Dardouri, Asma Jedidi, and Jalila Sghaier
xvi Contents

Thermomechanical Properties of Plastic Films Based on Cassava Starch

Reinforced with Kaolin and Metakaolin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Namory Meite, Léon Koffi Konan, Drissa Bamba, Bi Irié Hervé Goure-Doubi,
and Samuel Oyetola
Electrocoagulation Process for Simultaneous Nitrate and Phosphate Removal
Using Parallel Iron Plates in the Presence of Organic Pollutant: Optimization,
Kinetic Study and Energy Consumption Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Mouna Ghazouani, Hanene Akrout, Salah Jellali, François Lapicque,
and Latifa Bousselmi
Fenton-like Catalytic Degradations of Neutral Red in Water
Using Cerium Oxide Polishing Powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Elaziouti Abdelkader, Laouedj Nadjia, Benhadria Naceur, Bouhadjar Boukoussa,
and Adnane Mohamed
The Promising Keratin-Biodegradation and Hide-Dehairing Activities
of the Keratinase KERUS from Brevibacillus Brevis Strain US575 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Nadia Zaraî Jaouadi, Hatem Rekik, Abdelmalek Badis, Sahar Trabelsi,
Mouna Belhoul, Chiraz Gorgi Hila, Ahlem Irmani, Haifa Khemir,
Abdessatar Toumi, Samir Bejar, and Bassem Jaouadi
The Attractive Proprieties of the Keratinase KERQ7 from Bacillus Tequilensis
Strain Q7 with Promising Potential for the Leather Bating Process . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Nadia Zaraî Jaouadi, Hatem Rekik, Mouna Belhoul, Chiraz Gorgi Hila,
Ahlem Irmani, Haifa Khemir, Abdelmalek Badis, Abdessatar Toumi,
Samir Bejar, and Bassem Jaouadi
Spinel Ni0.6Zn0.4Fe2O4 Nano-Catalyst: Synthesis, Characterization
and Heterogeneous Fenton-like Degradation of Congo Red Azo-Dye . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Laouedj Nadjia, Elaziouti Abdelkader, Benhadria Naceur, Bouhadjar Boukoussa,
and Bekka Ahmed
Biodegradation of Urban Stromwater Pollution in a Sequence
of Constructed Porous Riffles in a Mediterranean Creek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Pascal Breil, Jonathan Gervaix, Philippe Namour, Marie-Noëlle Pons,
and Olivier Potier
Effect of Chemical Modifications on the Adsorption of Nickel Ions
Using Micro-Particles of Dry Palm Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Asma Boudaoud, Mebrouk Djedid, Mokhtar Benalia, Chifaa Ad,
Hicham Elmsellem, and Amina Zaid
Effects of Petroleum Pollution in Niger Delta Wetlands: Interplay
Between the Social and Ecological Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Francis O. Arimoro, Jude E. Uku, and Nelson O. Odume
Influence of Temperature and Doping Content on the Photocatalytic
Activity in Visible Light of W-Doped TiO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Chérif Moslah, Teresa Aguilar, Mohamed Ksibi, Rodrigo Alcántara, and Javier Navas
Phosphorus Removal Efficiencies via a b Proteobacterium Isolated
from Active Phosphate Mine Area in Southern Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Imen Daly, Abdelwahab Chatti, and Salah Jellali
Eco-Friendly Finishes for Textile Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Imene Belhaj Khalifa and Neji Ladhari
Contents xvii

Variation of Ten Durum Wheat Genotypes Yield and Nitrogen

Agronomic Efficiency Under Mediterranean Subhumid Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Kalthoum Harbaoui, Karima Belguesmi, Amel Mguidiche, Abdennour Sebei,
and Chahine Karmous
Optimization of Coagulation/Flocculation Process for Landfill
Leachate Treatment Using Box–Behnken Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Rachid Elmoubarki, Mohamed Taoufik, Ahmed Moufti, Hanane Tounsadi,
Fatima Zahra Mahjoubi, Samir Qourzal, Mohamed Abdennouri,
and Noureddine Barka
Removal of Arsenic by Iron (Hydr)oxide Impregnated Granular
Activated Carbon Derived from a Tunisian Date Stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Farah Bouhamed, Zaineb Bacari, Zouheir Elouear, and Jalel Bouzid
Study of Methylene Blue Adsorption in Aqueous Solution Using
Alginate-Bentonite Beads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Asma Oussalah and Abdelhamid Boukeeroui
Easy and Cost Effective Preparation of Cellulose Beads from Almond
Shell: Characterization and Application in Copper (II) Adsorption
from Aqueous Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Najeh Maaloul, Paula Oulego, Manuel Rendueles, Achraf Ghorbal, and Mario Díaz
Carboxylic Magnetic Latex Particles Using Seeded Emulsion Polymerization
for Wastewater Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Zied Marzougui, Mohamed Damak, Ahmed Bitar, Geraldine Augsti,
Quentin Lelong, Boubaker Elleuch, and Abdelhamid Elaissari
Fixed Bed Adsorption Dynamics Experimental Study and Modeling
of C3H6 Capture into Faujasite Type Zeolite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Olfa Ouled Ltaief, Nesrine Dammak, and Mourad Benzina
Organic Acids Assisted Phytoextraction of Heavy Metals: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Hafiz Muhammad Tauqeer and Muhammad Sagir
Adsorptive Removal of Cationic and Anionic Dyes from Aqueous Solution by
Utilizing Reed Treated with Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate as a New Bioadsorbent . . . . 189
Sarra Karoui, Rim Ben Arfi, Karine Mougin, and Achraf Ghorbal
Enhanced Removal of Eriochrome Black T from Water Using Phragmites
Australis Functionalized with Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide (CTAB) . . . . . . . 195
Rim Ben Arfi, Sarra Karoui, Karine Mougin, and Achraf Ghorbal
Removal of Cadmium(II) Ions from Synthetic Aqueous Solutions
Using Maize Leaves as an Eco-Friendly Sorbent Material in Batch Mode:
A Preliminary Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Houcine Benaïssa and Mohamed Meziani
Effect of Amphiphilic Copolymers on Armco Steel Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Narimene El Korso, Fatima Zohra Sebba, Seghier Ould Kada, and Nihel Dib
Simplified Model for Adsorption Method on Activated Carbon in Fluidized
Bed Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Ghozlane Khaled, Kahina Abdelkrim, Fares Zouaoui,
and Saliha Bourouina-Bacha
Cupronickel Alloy Corrosion Inhibition in a Medium (0.5 M Nacl) . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Hamida Essom
xviii Contents

Optimized Physico-Chemical Treatment of the Fuel Washing Water

of an Industrial Gaz-Blok with Ferric Chloride and Polymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Hajar Qachach, Mohamed Tahiri, Salah Souabi, Meriem Abouri, and Imane Chanaa
Degradation of Pharmaceutical Contaminant in Water via
Fountain Photoreactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Djilali Tassalit, Nadia Chekir, Ouassila Benhabiles, Nachida Kasbadji Merzouk,
Manel Bradai, and Hakim Kissarli
Solar Photodegradation Using Zinc Oxide Catalyst for the Elimination
of Phenol and Acetamiprid from Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Djilali Tassalit, Ouassila Benhabiles, Nadia Chekir, Nachida Kasbadji Merzouk,
Naima Sahraoui, Smail Nouissi, Mazigh Brahimi, and Sara Mahidine
Comparative Study of Natural and Synthetic Clays Used as Supported
Catalysts in Dyes Degradation by Advanced Oxidation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Hafsa Rabah, Khadidja Khaldi, Abderrahim Choukchou-Braham,
Djahida Lerari-Zinai, and Khaldoun Bachari
Enhanced Efficiency of the Coagulation/Flocculation Treatment of Vegetable
Oil Refinery Wastewater Using Response Surface Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Ghofrane Louhichi, Imen Khouni, and Ahmed Ghrabi
Static Studies on Cationic Dye Desorption Efficiencies from Chemically
Modified Orange Tree Sawdust: Experimental Results and Mechanisms
Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Ahmed Amine Azzaz, Salah Jellali, Hanene Akrout,
and Latifa Bousselmi
Biosorption of Methylene Blue from Aqueous Solution Using Seagrass:
Batch Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Riyad Mahfud, Nada Abd EL Latief, and Omar Sultan
Adsoptive Removal of an Azo Dye (Methyle Orange) onto a Low Cost
Adsorbent Using the Experimental Research Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Imane Bencheikh, Imane Abourouh, Said Kitane, Abdelmalek Dahchour,
Mohammadine El Mrabet, and Souad El Hajjaji
Catalytic Wet Air Oxidation of Parahydroxybenzoic Acid by Catalysts
Based on Zirconia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Itidel Belkadhi, Mohamed Achref Bouabdellah, Lassaad Ben Hammouda,
and Zouhaier Ksibi
Elaboration of a Lignocellulosic Material for a Comparative Study
of Adsorption of Micropollutants in Aqueous Solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Mustapha Rechache and Seghier Ould Kada
Study of the Effectiveness of Copper Retention on Three Different Hydrogels . . . . 243
Nour Elhouda Ben Ammar, Taieb Saied, Mohamed Barbouche,
and Ahmed Hichem Hamzaoui
Orange Methyl Adsorption from Aqueous Solutions by Layered
Double Hydroxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Miloud Aissat and Noureddine Bettahar
Biodegradion Studies and Thermomechanical Caracterisations of PDLA/TPS . . . . 251
Khadija Mbarki, Mariem Fersi, Adel Sayari, and Boubaker Elleuch
Contents xix

Part III Environmental Risk Assessment, Bioremediation, Ecotoxicology

and Environmental Safety
Green for Brown (G4B): A Novel Tool for Evaluating Phytoextraction
in Soils Polluted by Heavy Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Alejandro Gonzalez-Ollauri and Slobodan B. Mickovski
Optimization of Different Key Culture Conditions for Enhanced
Biodegradation of a Refractory Emerging Pollutant by a Bacterial
Isolate Through a Statistical Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Claudia Popa Ungureanu, Lidia Favier, and Gabriela Bahrim
Assessing the Milk Production Impacts on the Aquatic Ecosystem in Algeria . . . . 261
Ferroudja Younsi and Krim Louhab
Behavior of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles in Terrestrial Systems—Evaluation
Trough Batch and Leaching Column Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Eliana Tassi, Francesca Bretzel, Manuele Scatena, and Roberto Pini
Organic Carbon in Urban Wetland Sediments and Implication
for Potential Greenhouse Gas Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Shuai Shao, Xiuquan Tai, Feng Zhen, Jianbing Li, and Yubao Li
Application of Bacteriophage and Essential Oil to Monitor Bacterial
Biofilm Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Myriam Ben Said, Dhekra Trabelsi, Faouzi Achouri, Marwa Ben Saad,
Latifa Bousselmi, and Ahmed Ghrabi
Biostimulation of Microbial Community by Carob (Ceratonia siliqua)
to Degrade Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon (TPH) in Contaminated Soil . . . . . . . . . 275
Latifa Hamoudi-Belarbi, L’Hadi Nouri, Leila Bendifallah, Safia Hamoudi,
and Khaled Belkacemi
Magnetically Separable Low Cost Adsorbent for Bioremediation of Th(IV)
and Methylene Blue Dye from Water Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Sugam Chavan, Sandip Sabale, Vikas Jadhav, and Prashant Chikode
Characterization of Bacteria Isolated from Hydrocarbon Contaminated
Soils and Producers of Biosurfactants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Farida Benzina-Tihar, Thanina Chaouche, Mohamed Khoja,
and Hakima Mohand-Kaci Oulebsir
Response of Solanum lycopersicum to the Exposure to the Most
Used Pesticides in Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Ikram Jaabiri Kamoun, Rim Baccar Yangui, Jalel Bouzid,
and Radhia Gargouri Bouzid
Clay Soil: A Good Conditioner for Amended Alfalfa with Different
Organic Amendments Under Saline Irrigation Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Sonia Mbarki, Artemi Cerdà, Chaima Jabri, Marian Brestic, Chedly Abdelly,
and Jose Antonio Pascual
Environmental Impact Evaluation of Cropping Systems Using Life Cycle
Assessment: Case Study of Central Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Meriem Jouini, Yannick Biard, Nadhira Benaissa, Julien Burte, Hajer Amara,
and Carole Sinfort
Metal Induced Cytopathologies in the Copepod Tigriopus brevicornis. . . . . . . . . . . 291
Sabria Barka and Corrine Cuoc
xx Contents

Use of Response Surface Methodology for the Biodegradation of Textile

Industrial Effluents by Coniophora puteana IEBL-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Raja Tahir Mahmood, Muhammad Javaid Asad, and Muhammad Asgher
Phosphogypsum Effect on Soil and Rain Water Incubated
and Soil Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Kaouther Ardhaoui and Mohamed Moussa
Short Term Treated Wastewater Reuse Impact on Soil Microbial Biomass,
Bacterial Functional Diversity and Enzymatic Activities in the Presence
of Earthworms Eisenia andrei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Marouane Mkhinini, Iteb Boughattas, Hamadi Boussetta, Vanessa Alphonse,
Alexandre Livet, Stéphanie Gıusti-Miller, Mohamed Banni,
and Noureddine Bousserrhine
Development of Electrochemical Immunosensors for Endocrine
Disrupting Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Najet Belkhamssa, Teresa Rocha-Santos, and Mohamed Ksibi
The Effects of 15-Year Treated Municipal Wastewater Irrigation
on Biological Parameters of Olive Cultivated Soil (Zaouit Sousse Perimeter,
Oriental Tunisia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Yassine Hidri, Olfa Boussadia, Naceur Jedidi, and Abdennaceur Hassen
Impact of a Neonicotinoid Insecticide Thiamethoxam on Metric Indexes
and Enzymatic Activity of Glutathione S-Transferase in Adult Females
of a Mosquitofish Gambusia affinis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Salima Chouahda, Yasmine Cheghib, and Noureddine Soltani
Pseudomonas putida mt2; A Potential Candidate for Cadmium
Bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Saba Shamim
Filtration and Viability Rate Study of Alexandrium catenella
After Contact with Clams Ruditapes decussates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Morsi Gdoura, Hanen Sellami, and Radhouane Gdoura
Biological Control of Meloidogyne javanica Associated with Cultivated
Peach in Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Noura Chihani-Hammas, Hajer Regaeig, Lobna Hajji-Hadfi,
and Najet Horrigue-Raouani
Fluctuating Asymmetry in Acanthodactylus boskianus Living
in a Contaminated Area Close to Gabès City (Southern Tunisia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Intissar Nasri and Slaheddine Selmi
Organic Compounds and Heavy Metals Simultaneous Removal
from a Tunisian Landfill Leachate Using Dairy Rejects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Yasmin Cherni, Mariam Kasmi, Lobna Elleuch, and Ismail Trabelsi
Evaluation of the Potential Side-Effects of Novaluron an Insect Growth
Disruptor on the Shrimp Palaemon adspersus: Cuticle Secretion
and Chitin Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Hinda Berghiche, Hamida Benradia, and Noureddine Soltani
Antioxidant Responses and Gene Level Expressions of Sulla coronaria
Inoculated by Heavy Metals Resistant Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria
Under Cadmium Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Salwa Harzalli Jebara, Manel Chiboub, and Moez Jebara
Contents xxi

Growth and Responses of Biomarkers in the Snail Helix aspersa

(Mollusca, Gastropoda) Used as Bioindicator of Soil Pollution
in Northeast of Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Yousra Bairi, Karima Sifi, and Noureddine Soltani
Chemical Composition and Some Trace Element Levels in the Surface
Waters of Three Coastal Marine Areas Under Contrasted Pollution
Influences in the Gulf of Gabes, Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Zaher Drira, Samia Gharsallah, Houda Sahnoun, Marc Tedetti, Marc Pagano,
and Habib Ayadi
Antifungal Activity of Isolated Lactic Acid Bacteria Strain
from Wheat Against Some Fusarium graminearum Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Souad Makhloufi, Serra Djaboub, Abdallah Moussaoui, and Sliman Benouis
Thiamethoxam (Neonicotinoïd) and Spinosad (Bioinsecticide) Affect
Hypopharyngeal Glands and Survival of Apis mellifera intermissa
(Hymenoptera: Apidae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Hichem Ahmed Menail, Wided Fella Bouchema-Boutefnouchet,
Guy Smagghe, and Wahida Ayad-Loucif
Bioremediation of Crude Oil Contaminated Sea Water in Lab Microcosms . . . . . 351
Zohra Chekroud, Mona Khameess Gouda, and Moussa Houhamdi
Heavy Metals Assessment and Their Effects on the Hepatopancreas
in Orchestia montagui (Amphipoda, Talitridae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Raja Jelassi, Chedliya Ghemari, Hajer Khemaissia, Maryline Raimond,
Catherine Souty-Grosset, and Karima Nasri-Ammar
Life Cycle Assessment of Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) Fertilizer
Production in Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Soumaya Aribi, Mohamed Razak Jday, and Noureddine Hajjaji
Growth and Yield of Triticale Plants Amended with Sewage Sludge
Under Sub-humid Mediterranean Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Rajia Kchaou, Rim Baccar, Yassine Hidri, Kalthoum Harbaoui, Jalel Bouzid,
and Saloua Rejeb
Assessment of Trace Metals in Marine Magnoliophyta in Port
El Kantaoui (Sousse, Tunisia). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Rym Zakhama-Sraieb, Yassine Ramzi Sghaier, Ahmed Ben Hmida,
and Faouzia Charfi
Exogenous Proline Improves Olive Plant Performance Against
Cadmium Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Mohamed Zouari, Nada Elloumi, Salma Mseddi, Pascal Labrousse,
Bechir Ben Rouina, Ferjani Abdallah, and Chedlyia Ben Ahmed
DDT-Induced Hypothyroidism Mechanisms in Rats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Olfa Tebourbi, Neila Marouani, Dorsaf Hallègue, Mohamed Tahar Yacoubi,
Mohsen Sakly, and Khémais Ben Rhouma
Rotifers of Foum El Ghis Dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Nassima Doukhandji, Somia Hamil, and Abdeslem Arab
Sources and Distributions of Dissolved and Particulate Hydrocarbons
in Surface Coastal Waters from the Gulf of Gabès (Tunisia, Southern
Mediterranean Sea) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Rania Fourati, Marc Tedetti, Catherine Guigue, Madeleine Goutx,
Hatem Zaghden, Sami Sayadi, and Boubaker Elleuch
xxii Contents

Biodegradation of Liquid Sludges Hydrocarbons Issued from Oil Refining

by a Soil Bacterial Consortium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Nadia Khelifi, Ichrak Ben Hriz, Intidhar Jbali, Ayed Halleb, Issam Smaali,
and Moktar Hamdi
Excess Fluoride Ion Removal from Saharan Groundwater Using
Local Clay Adsorbent: Adsorption Conditions Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Nouria Nabbou, Meriem Belhachemi, Mustapha Boumelik, Yahia Harek,
Touhami Merzougui, and Ikram Mokadam
Environmental Fate of the Insecticide Chlorpyrifos in Soil Microcosms
and Its Impact on Soil Microbial Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Asma Ben Salem, Nadine Rouard, Marion Devers, Jérémie Béguet,
Fabrice Martin-Laurent, Pierluigi Caboni, Hanene Chaabane, and Sami Fattouch
Impact of Carbon Nanotubes on the Germination of the Phaseolus
Vulgaris Seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Messaouda Boulmaali and Amel Zafour Hadj-Ziane
Isolation and Characterization of Lecanicillium sp. for Antagonistic
Activity Against Meloidogyne Javanica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Lobna Hajji-Hedfi, Asma Larayedh, Laura Tormo, Hajer Regaieg,
and Najet Horrigue-Raouani
Fumigant Toxicity and Repellent Effect of Azadirachtin Against the Lesser
Grain Beetle, Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Col.: Bostrichidae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Samir Tine, Ahlem Halaimia, Jihene Chechoui, and Fouzia Tine-Djebbar
Physical Factors Influence on Phytomediation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Natalia Politaeva, Lubov Olshanskaya, Ulia Smyatskaya, and Ulia Bazarnova
Deriviation of Terrestrial Predicted No-Effect Concentration (PNEC)
for Cobalt Oxide Nanomaterial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Sirine Bouguerra, Ana Gavina, Maria da Graça Rasteiro, Teresa Rocha-Santos,
Mohamed Ksibi, and Ruth Pereira
Effects of UV-C Radiation on Viability, Outer Membrane Proteins
and Lipopolysaccharides of Shigella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Kalthoum Chourabi, Susana Campoy, Jesus Rodriguez, Ahmed Landoulsi,
and Abdelwaheb Chatti
Titanium Dioxide Nanomaterial and Copper Binary Mixture
Phytotoxicity in Maize Plants (Zea mays. L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Sirine Bouguerra, Yosra Frikha, Ruth Pereira, Mohamed Ksibi, and Olfa Hentati
Biochemical and Enzymatic Characterization of a Gram-negative Fish
Pathogen Isolated in Morocco from Rainbow Trout and Comparison
with Isolates of Other Countries and Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Assia Kritihi, Khadija Ouaissa, Abdel Aziz Maychal, Youness Oumessaoud,
Mustapha Barakate, and Mustapha Hasnaoui
Effects of Boron Distribution on Sugar Beet Crop Yield in Two Soils
of Dour Ismail Irrigated Perimeter (Béja-Goubellat-Northwest Tunisia) . . . . . . . . 417
Ahlem Tlili, Imene Dridi, Salma Fatnassi, Hédi Hamrouni,
and Moncef Gueddari
Hydrocarbon Pollution of Kuwait Bay: Differentiation of Petrogenic,
Anthropogenic and Biogenic Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Talat Saeed, Hassan AlShimmari, Nisar Ahmad, Ahmad Al-Mutairi,
and Hameeda Abdullah
Contents xxiii

Effects of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers and the Benzo[a]Pyrene

on Survival and Settlement of Moon Jellyfish (Aurelia solida) Planulae . . . . . . . . . 425
Fatma Bouzidi, Cherif Ensibi, and Mohamed Nejib Daly Yahia
Phytoremediation of Metal Industry Wastewaters: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Sukru Dursun and Zeynep Cansu Ayturan
Assessment of Heavy Metal Concentrations in the Muscles of Ten Commercially
Important Fish Species from Lagos Lagoon, Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Iyabode O. Taiwo, Mabel O. Ipinmoroti, Olaniyi A. Olopade,
Bashir T. Adeniyi, and Nathanael A. Bamidele
Field and Laboratory Study of Nitrogen Mineralization Dynamics
in Four Tunisian Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Imene Dridi
Mercury Bioaccumulation via Genus Baetis (Ephemeroptera,
Macroinvertebrates) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Djaouida Bouchelouche, Imane Saal, Mouna Hafiane, and Abdeslem Arab
Soils Characterization Around Erstwhile Oyem Electrical Station and Sediments
and Water of Neighboring Lake in the Northern Region of Gabon . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Jean Bernard Mombo, Mesmin Edou, and Jean Aurelien Moukana Libongui
Pesticides Used in Tunisian Vineyards: What’s the Risk for the Environment
and the Human Health? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Ala Bouagga, Hanene Chaabane, Wiém Chtioui, Amira Mougou Hamdane,
and Bouzid Nasraoui
Using an Eco-System for Frightening Fish-Eating Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Mohamed A. Al-Rajhi
Estrogenic Potency Assessments in a Context of Treated Wastewater
Reuse for Artificial Groundwater Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Selma Etteieb, Atsuchi Kawachi, Jamila Tarhouni, and Hiroko Isoda
Bioecology of Culicidae (Diptera; Nematocera) of the Tizi-Ouzou
Wetlands (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Zohra Lounaci, Salaheddine Doumandji, and Bahia B. Doumandji-Mitiche
Occurrence, Sources and Environmental Health Risk Assesement
of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Domestic Effluents Discharges
in Wadi El Bey (Tunisia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Imen Gdara, Ines Zrafi, Catia Balducci, Angelo Cecinato, and Ahmed Ghrabi
Effect of 17a-Ethinylestradiol Exposure on Phycocyanin Metabolite
Production and Antioxydant System of Phormidium Versicolor NCC466 . . . . . . . . 467
Dalel Belhaj, Donyez Frikha, Bouthaina Jerbi, Khaled Athmouni, Moneem Kallel,
Sami Maalej, John Zhou, and Habib Ayadi
Determination of Trace and Oligo-Elements in the Constantine Region Soils . . . . 471
Samira Naili, Assia Nait Merzoug, George Dénès, Hocine Merazig,
and Abdelhak Lakehal
Former Extractive Activities in Tunisia: Environmental Risk Assessement
and Heavy Metals Immobilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Jihène Nouairi, Walid Hajjaji, Joao A. Labrincha, Fernando Rocha, Carla Patinha,
Eduardo Ferreira da Silva, and Mounir Medhioub
Urban Sediment Contamination with Heavy Metals in Southern China . . . . . . . . . 479
Jinmeng Xia, Lihui Chen, Feng Zhen, and Yubao Li
xxiv Contents

Life Cycle Assessment of Sulfuric Acid Production System in Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . 483

Marwa Mami, Mohamed-Razak Jeday, and Noureddine Hajjaji
Eco (Geno) Toxic Assessment of Urban Sewage Sludge from Sfax
Wastewater Treatment Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Bouthaina Jerbi, Dalel Belhaj, Houda Ayadi, Donyez Frikha, Sami Maalej,
Habib Ayadi, and Monem Kallel
Cellular Compartmentalization and Chemical Forms of Cell Accumulation
of Nickel in the Halophyte of Sesuvium Portulacastrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Emna Fourati, Katarina Vogel-Mikuš, Mitija Kelemen, Primož Vavpetič,
Primož Pelicon, Chedly Abdelly, and Tahar Ghnaya
Study of the Toxicity of Cadmium Selenide (CdSe) Nanoparticles
on a Terrestrial Ecosystem Model Helix Aspersa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Salmi Aya, Toualbia Nadjiba, and Rouabhi Rachid
Investigation of Nanoparticles and Ultra Fine Particles in the Workplace . . . . . . . 499
Med Salah Benlatreche, Ouafa Boukhmis, and Kahina Slimane
New Environmental Culture in Algeria: Eco Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Sihem Tireche and Abdelaziz Tairi
Chemical Composition and Insecticide Properties of the Essential Oils
from Mentha Pulegium Against Aedes Caspius (Diptera: Culicidae) . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Fouzia Tine-Djebbar, Raja Guenez, and Noureddine Soltani
Comparison of Three Techniques for the Detection and Quantification
of Enteric Parasites in Wastewater Samples in Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Layla Ben Ayed, Sonia Sabbahi, and Panagiotis Karanis
Morphological and Biochemical Effect of Iron Stress on Date Palm
V.Deglet Nour Seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Wiem Mnafki, Zayneb Chaâbene, Kais Mnafgui, and Amine Elleuch
Copper Effect on Phosphate Nitrogen and Fungicide Removal
from Water Using an Aquatic Plant Lemna Gibba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Smain Megateli and Michel Couderchet
Mitochondrial Dysfunction of Rat Wistar Nervous System After an Exposure
to Abamectin (Oxidative Stress Status, Caspase-3, Stromal Enzymes and
Mitochondrial Respiration and Swelling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Rachid Rouabhi and Salim Gasmi
Assessment of Lead Contamination in Pepper and Agricultural Soils
in Hammam Boughrara, Northwest Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Abderrazzak Baba Ahmed and Tahar Kebir
Determination of Heavy Metals in Sediments and Gardon (Rutilus rutilus)
of the Sikkak Dam, Northwest Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Zineb Derrag and Nacéra Dali Youcef
Towards a Thermoregulation Filter Facing the Urban Heat Stress:
Algiers Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Assia Fernini-Haffif and Ewa Berezowska-Azzag
Impact of the Neonicotinoid Insecticide, Actara®, on the Shrimp
Palaemon adspersus: Biomarkers Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Hinda Berghiche, Khaoula Touati, Salima Chouahda,
and Noureddine Soltani
Contents xxv

Occurrence and Enhanced Removal of Heavy Metals in Industrial

Wastewater Treatment Plant Using Coagulation-Flocculation Process . . . . . . . . . . 535
Zied Marzougui, Mohamed Damak, Boubaker Elleuch,
and Abdelhamid Elaissari
Impact of Wind on the Temporal Distribution of Rotifers in the Foum
El Gherza Dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Nassima Doukhandji, Somia Hamil, and Abdeslem Arab
Effect of Copper on the Physiological Parameters of Broad Bean
(Vicia faba L.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Benouis Slimane, Houcine Abdelhakim Reguieg Yssaad, El Haj Bouziani,
Djoudi Abdelhak, Imane Cherief, and Amrane Fatiha
Field Assessment of Sewage Sludge as Sustainable Agriculture Practice. . . . . . . . . 549
Rim Baccar, Rajia Kchaou, Yassine Hidri, Saloua Rejeb, and Jalel Bouzid
Contamination by Selected Trace Elements in Groundwater of Azzaba
District in Northeast of Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Moussa Benhamza, Abdelaziz Laraba, and David Landry
Assessment of the Bioaccumulation Capacity of Heavy Metals
of the Species: Quercus Ilex L Tree Plant Garden of El Hamma-Algeria
for Use in Phytoremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Nadjib Benosmane, Keltoum Namani, and Manal Saichi
Effect of Salinity and Compost of Aleppo Pine Pinus halepensis L
on the Proline and Chlorophyll Content of the Bean Vicia faba L Minor . . . . . . . 559
Tayeb Nouri, Houcine Abdelhakim Reguieg Yssaad, Hadj Bouyahia,
Keira Nouar, Nabil Ghenami, and Ahmed Latigu
Impact of Soil Properties on Groundwater Contamination Risks
by Nickel and Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Mohamed Abdelwaheb and Sonia Dridi-Dhaouadi
Evaluation of Hepatotoxicity: Nickel on an Indicator Model of Pollution
(Oryctolagus cuniculus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Toualbia Nadjiba, Salmi Aya, and Rouabhi Rachid
Effect of Coal Fly Ash on Vegetative Growth, Photosynthetic Pigmens
and Heavy Metal Content of Helianthus annuus L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Nilakantha Dash, Gayatri Nahak, and Rajani Kanta Sahu
Isolation and Characterization of Some Chlorpyriphos-Degrading Bacteria
from Pertaining to Different Ecological Niches of the “Ouargla” Province. . . . . . . 575
Nabiha Aloui, Samia Bissati, and Houria Ouled-Haddar
Effects of Gold Nanoparticles on the Mediterranean Clams Ruditapes decussatus:
Chemical and Biochemical Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Badreddine Sellami, Imen Bouzidi, Wiem Saidani, Amine Mezni,
David Sheehan, and Hamouda Beyrem
Fusarium Brachygibbosum and Fusarium Chlamydosporum Causing
Wilt and Die-back of Olive in Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Rahma Trabelsi, Radhouene Gdoura, and Mohamed Ali Triki
Paper Industry Effluent Short and Long Effect on Soil Heavy Metals
Accumulation and Phytoremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Abdelkader Ltifi, Neila Saidi, Mokded Rabhi, James Downer, Abderrazak Smaoui,
Chedly Abdellly, and Amor Hafiane
xxvi Contents

Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment Arising from Consumption

of Salad Crops Irrigated with Contaminated Water by Human Sewage
in the Infulene Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Mario Tauzene Afonso Matangue, Honissimo Tisai David Saize,
and Lateiro Salvador de Sousa
A Naïve Bayesian Network Approach to Determine the Potential Drivers
of the Toxic Dinoflagellate Coolia monotis in the Gulf of Gabès, Tunisia . . . . . . . . 589
Wafa Feki-Sahnoun, Hasna Njah, Moufida Abdennadher, Asma Hamza,
Nouha Barraj, Mabrouka Mahfoudi, Ahmed Rebai, and Malika Bel Hassen
Contaminant-Driven Habitat Fragmentation: Should Ecological Risk
Assessments Include Avoidance and Recolonisation Testing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Rui Ribeiro, Matilde Moreira-Santos, José Paulo Sousa,
and Cristiano V.M. Araújo
Biodegradation of the Antibiotics Oxytetracycline and Enrofloxacin
by Microbial Communities from Douro Estuary (Portugal) Sediments . . . . . . . . . . 595
Harrabi Malek, Diogo A. M. Alexandrino, Marisa R. Almeida, Ana P. Mucha,
Fatma Aloulou, Elluech Boubaker, and Maria F. Carvalho

Part IV Water Resources Assessment, Planning, Protection and Management

Gabes Jeffara Aquifers Management in Relation with Oasien Ecosystems . . . . . . . 599
Jean-Francois Vernoux, Faten Horriche, Rhida Ghoudi, Slah Abdedaiem,
and Mekki Hamza
Management of the Laayoune-Dakhla Deep Aquifer System
(South Sahara, Morocco) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
Sidi Mokhtar El Kanti, Bouabid El Mansouri, and Youssef Arjdal
Assessment of the Impact of Climatic Variability and Human Activities
on Groundwater Quality: Case of Mitidja Plain, North of Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Abdelkader Bouderbala
Groundwater Economics in Arid Regions: Abu Dhabi Emirate Case Study . . . . . 611
Mohamed A. Dawoud
A New Model (DRASTIC-LU) for Evaluating Groundwater Vulnerability
in Alluvial Aquifer of Upper Cheliff (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
Djelloul Zafane, Benyoucef Gharbi, and Abdelkader Douaoui
Geochemical Characteristics of Groundwater and Its Suitability for Irrigation
in the Lower Cheliff Plain, Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Abdelhamid Bradaï, Abdelkader Douaoui, and Ibrahim Yahiaoui
Groundwater Depletion in Tunisian Arid Regions: Causes, Consequences
and Possible New Policy Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
Hacib El Amami and Taoufik Hermassi
Efficiency of Aquifer Artificial Recharge from Hill Dam
by Analytical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
Zouheira Ibn Ali and Moncef Zairi
Integrated Multi-criteria Evaluation and Weighted Overlay Analysis in
Assessment of Groundwater Potentiality in Segui Region, Southern Tunisia . . . . . 631
Mohamed Haythem Msaddek, Dhekra Souissi, Yahya Moumni, Ismail Chenini,
and Mahmoud Dlala
Contents xxvii

Optimal Groundwater Sampling Design for Nitrate Monitoring

by Geostatistical Analysis and Vulnerability Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
Ibtissem Triki, Nadia Trabelsi, Imen Hentati, and Moncef Zairi
Hydrochemical Analysis and Evaluation of Groundwater Quality
of an Alluvial Aquifer. Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
Tarek Drias, Chemseddine Fehdi, and Moufida Bellouala
Building Constrained (3D) Geostatistical Models Case of the Triassic
Sandstone Aquifer System (SE Tunisia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
Mohamed Amin Hammami, Hayet Chihi, and Ghislain De Marsily
Exploitation of the Main Aquifer Units in the Biskra Region: Analysis
of the Current Situation and Prospects for Rationalization of Their
Use in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Nasser-Eddine Soualili, Gabriela Mihaela Afrasinei, Yacine Louadj,
Nouara Degui, and Salah Belghemmaz
Ground Water Quality Characterization in the South of Algeria
(Tindouf Region)—In Excess Fluorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Nouria Nabbou, Meriem Belhachemi, Touhami Merzougui, Yahia Harek,
Bahous Nasri, and Ikram Mokadam
Assessment of Different Irrigational Practices on Managing the Nitrogen
Loss into the Groundwater Using HYDRUS-1D Numerical Software Gaza
Strip as a Case Study—Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
Abukmeil Reem, Guizani Mokhtar, Ito Ryusei, and Funamizu Naoyuki
Assessment of Groundwater Quality for Irrigation in Chelghoum Laid
Area (Eastern Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
Abdelhamid Khedidja, Abderrahmane Boudoukha, and Samir Djenba
Statistical Characterization of Groundwater Quality in Jijel Plain Area
(Northeastern Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
Abdelmadjid Boufekane and Omar Saighi
Nitrate Impact on the Groundwater Quality Degradation in Arid Areas
(Timiaouine Region South of Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
Bahous Nasri, Ali Benatiallah, Sliman Kaloum, and Sara Soulimani
Water Geochemistry for a Sand Aquifer of the Complex Terminal
in the Northern Algerian Sahara (Case of the Lower Oued Rhir Valley) . . . . . . . . 673
Idir Menad Houari and Imed Eddine Nezli
Application of the GALDIT Method to the Study of Groundwater
Vulnerability of the East Mitidja Alluvial Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
Dahbia Djoudar/Hallal, Sadek Zahouani, and Abdelkrim Khaldi
Evaluation of Hydrogeochemical Quality Parameters of Groundwater
Under Urban Activities. Case of Beni Mellal City (Morocco) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
Mohamed El Baghdadi, Amal Jouider, Ahmed Barakat, and Radouane Medah
Application of Inverse Geochemical Modelling to Understand
Geochemical Evolution of Groundwater in Berrechid Aquifer, Morocco . . . . . . . . 683
Tibari El Ghali, Hamid Marah, Mohamed Qurtobi,
and Bouâbid El Mansouri
Hydrochemical Evolution of Groundwater in the Tamlouka Plain,
Influence of Lithology, Geomorphology and Anthropogenic Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Samir Djorfi, Saadane Djorfi, Laroussi Beloulou, Mohamed Djidel,
and Salima Guechi
xxviii Contents

Water Supply and Waterborne Diseases in the Population of Za-Kpota

Commune (Benin, West Africa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
Léocadie Odoulami, Brice S. Dansou, and Nadège Kpoha
Estimation of Aquifer Parameters from Pumping Test Data Using
the Only Corresponding Competitor Method (OCC): Case Oude
of Korendijk (South of Rotterdam) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Noureddine Oulad Naoui, El Amine Cherif, and Abdelkader Djehiche
Dohuk Syncline as an Artificial Recharge Aquifer, Northern Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
Nabeel K. Al-Azzawi and Myasar S. Al-Saraj
Assessment of Seawater Intrusion in the Maritime Djeffara Coastal
Aquifer (Southeastern Tunisia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
Bachaer Ayed, Ikram Jmal, Samir Sahal, Salwa Saidi, and Salem Bouri
Geochemical and Isotopic Study of a Coastal Phreatic Aquifer
from the NE of Tunisia: Guenniche Basin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Safouan Ben Ammar, Jean-Denis Taupin, Mohsen Ben Alaya, Kamel Zouari,
and Mohamed Khouatmia
Naturel Tracer and Isotopic Approach to Describe Groundwater Behaviour:
An Example of the Mateur Plain (North-Eastern Tunisia). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
Mohsen Ben Alaya, Safouan Ben Ammar, Jean-Denis Taupin,
Mohamed Khouatmia, Raouf Jbeali, and Fetheddine Melki
Inhibition of Scaling of Potable Water by a Food Product Phosphate Based . . . . . 711
Said Ben-Aazza, Abdallah Hadfi, M’Bark Belattar, and Ali Driouiche
Lessons Learned from a Partnership Between the University of Liège
and Water Agencies for the Management of Surface Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . 713
Jean-François Deliege, Etienne Everbecq, Pol Magermans, and Aline Grard
Physical, Chemical and Bacteriological Characterization
of Wastewater Discharged into Wadi Tleta (NW, Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
Fatiha Hadji and Mohammed Benabdelkader
Brine Outfall Discharges Modelling and Design: Case of a Desalination
Plant in Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
M’hamed Belkacem Filali and Mohamed Bessenasse
Qualitative Study of Irrigation and Drinking Water in Tindla Area . . . . . . . . . . . 723
Omar Ben Mya, Chaima Ben Dallali, and Abd Elhalim Bouzidi
Providing Clean Water to Rural Villages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
Tullia Valeria Di Giacomo and F. Paolo Di Giacomo
Assessment of Two Conceptual Models IHBV and HBV-Light in Estimation
of Increase Water Harvesting to Help Cloud Seeding Technology
(Case Study: Catchment Taft-Dehshir, Iran). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
Mohammad Mehdi Javadianzade and Samaneh Poormohammadi
A 3-Parameter Empirical Model to Predict Extreme Rainfall Rates
in the Extreme North-East of Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
Laroussi Beloulou, Salima Guechi, Saadane Djorfi, Hadjer Benzine,
Halima Maalem, and Wassila Saaidia
Impact of Spring Water Qualitative Assessment on the Environmental
Management System in the West Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
Marwan Ghanem
Contents xxix

Scheduling Deficit Subsurface Drip Irrigation of Apple Trees to Optimize

Water Use Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
Azzeddine Chenafi, Philippe Monney, Maria Isabel Ferreira,
Houria Chennafi, and Christoph Carlen
Multivariate Statistics of Physico-Chemical Parameters to Develop
the Baseline Level of Water Quality Around the Proposed Jaitapur
Nuclear Power Plant, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
Ramesh Shinde, Prashant Chikode, Sugam Chavan, and Sandip Sabale
Impact of Climate Variability on Hydrology of the Western Mitidja
Watershed, Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
Faiza Hallouz, Hafsa Karahacane, Mohamed Meddi, Gil Mahe, Fadhila Sadi,
Hanane Benchikh, and Faiza Kemmerchou
Assessment of Citizens’ Virtual Water Footprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
Mahdi Kolahi, Saeideh Heydari, Mina Ansari, and Farzaneh Nouraei
Water Management and Related Environmental Issues in Large Mediterranean
Basins: Case Studies from the Ebro and the Po Catchments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
Francesca Salmaso, Paolo Espa, Ramon J. Batalla, Giuseppe Crosa,
Gaetano Gentili, Livia M. L. Servanzi, and Silvia Quadroni
Spatial Evolution of Physical-Chemical Parameters Characterizing
the Quality of the Surface Waters After the Developpement of the Marchica
Lagoon (North-East Morocco) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
Asmae Aknaf, Mustapha Akodad, Mostapha Ayachi, Faid El Madani,
Abdessamad Jaddar, Abdelhakim Mesfioui, and Mourad Baghour
Comparison of Three Different Biochemical Compositions of Foods
in the Rainbow Trout (Onchorynchys mykiss) and Their Effect on Oum
Er-Rbia River Water Quality (Morocco) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
Khadija Ouaissa, Assia Kritihi, Youness Oumessoud, Abdelaziz Maychal,
and Mustapha Hasnaoui
Modeling Integrated Water Resources Management by WEAP,
Case of Watersheds Mabtouh (North-Western Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
Laidia Zerkaoui, Mohamed Benslimane, and Abderrahmane Hamimed
Water and Energy Nexus in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Countries . . . . . . . 775
Mohamed A. Dawoud
Wheat Yield and Water Use Efficiency in the North of Tunisia
Under Supplemental Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
Amel Belhaj Mguidiche, Boutheina Douh, Hiba Gazouani, Kalthoum Harbaoui,
and Ferjoui Sahbi
Prediction of Dams Silting in Semi-arid Region Using Erosion Map Under
GIS Environment, Case of Ksob Watershed in Hodna Region (Algeria) . . . . . . . . 781
Mahmoud Hasbaia, Sara Zeroual, Mostefa Dougha, André Paquier,
and Christine Poulard
Identification of Emerging Contaminants in Drinking Waters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
Sana Mokrane, Djamila Harik, and Hubert Cabana
The Stormwater Network Behavior Simulation by SWMM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
Fares Laouacheria, Moncef Chabi, and Said Kechida
Characterisation of Mean Monthly Rainfall Variability Over Mellegue
Catchment—Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
Haifa Feki, Taoufik Hermassi, and Nessrine Soualhia
xxx Contents

Monitoring and Modeling Digestate Fate and Transport in Infiltrating

Afforested Areas Versus Maize/Ray-Grass Rotation Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
Micòl Mastrocicco, Nicolò Colombani, Bruno Boz, and Bruna Gumiero
Fertilizing Value of Treated Wastewater Under Short Term Irrigation
of Olive Tree (Olea europaea L.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
Ameni Ben Hassena, Mohamed Zouari, Nada Elloumi, Wahid Khabou,
and Nacim Zouari
A Multivariate Analysis of Water Quality in Lake Ghrib, Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
Somia Hamil, Mounia Baha, Sihem Arab, Nassima Doukhandji, and Abdeslem Arab
Phytoplankton Community Diversity and Seasonal Variation in the
Boukourdane Lake, Northern Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
Arab Siham, Hamil Somia, and Arab Adeslem
Trophic Status Assesement of Lacustrine Ecosystem, Boukourdane
Lake, Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
Siham Arab, Hamil somia, and Arab adeslem
Correlation Between the Extreme Climate Indices and the AMO
Index in Northern Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
Hafsa Karahacane, Mohamed Meddi, Xuebin Zhang, Hamoudi Abdelamir Saaed,
and Faiza Hallouz
Impact of DEM Data Resolution on SWAT Model in Runoff Simulation . . . . . . . . 815
Jalel Aouissi, Ramzi Ennajeh, and Sihem Benabdallah
Analysis of Stream Flow Trends in Sub-basins of the Upper Blue Nile Basin . . . . 819
Abeer Samy, Mona G. Ibrahim, and Wael Elham Mahmod
Modeling and Forcasting of Surface Runoff in the Beni Bahdel Dam:
Using ARDL Model (Autoregressive Distributed Lag) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
Abdelwahab Rahmouni, Mohamed Meddi, and Hafsa Karahaçane
Desalinated Water for Human Consumption and Public Health Risks
in West Algeria: The Case of Souk Tleta Water Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
Naïma Badid, Chahrazed Aggab, Aboubaker Hachemaoui, and Fatiha Hadji
Integrating Hydrological and Hydraulic Modelling for Flood Risk
Management in a High Resolution Urbanized Area: Case Study Taibah
University Campus, KSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
Mohamed Abdulrazzak, Anis Al-Shabani, Kashif Noor, Amro Elfeki,
and Ahmed Kamis
A Double Effect Desalination Unit Parametric Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
Hafdhi Fathia, Khir Tahar, Ben Yahia Ali, and Ben Brahim Ammar
Modelling Catchment Scale Agricultural Pollution in North Tunisia
Using the PEGASE Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835
Amira Boukari, Etienne Everbecq, Sihem Ben Abdallah, Pol Magermans,
Aline Grard, Hamadi Habaieb, and Jean-François Deliège
State of Organic Pollution in Waters of the Seybouse Wadi, Region
of Guelma (Northeast of Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839
Marwa Aissaoui and Moussa Benhamza
Water Governance and Collective Action Performance in Tunisian
Irrigated Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
Jamel Ben Nasr and Mohamed Salah Bachta
Contents xxxi

Phytoremediation Potential of Terrestrial Herbaceous Species

for Nitrate in Contaminated Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
Ikram Mokeddeme, Meryem Belhachemi, Touhami Merzougui, and Nouria Nabbou
Understanding the Evolution of Water Deficit in the North African Region . . . . . 849
Annamaria Mazzoni, Essam Heggy, and Giovanni Scabbia
ANN-Based Approach to Predict Changes in Ground Water Levels
as a Result of Constructing New Naga-Hammadi Barrage, Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
Ahmed S. Noureldeen, Shenouda Ghaly, Kamal Ali, and Gamal Abozaid
Depuration of Wastewater from Table Olive Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
Jesús Cisneros-Aguirre, Mario Manzanera, and Emilio Bursón
Evolution of Water and Soil Conservation Interventions in the Merguellil
Catchment: Impact on the Agricultural Land Protection and the Income
of the Local Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
Taoufik Hermassi and Hacib Amami
Hydrological Modeling of Stream Flow in Trans boundary Catchment
and the Climate Change Impact: Case Study of Mellegue Catchment,
Northwest Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
Taoufik Hermassi, Haifa Feki, and Soualhia Chabbi
Drought Stress Effects on Growth and Yield of Three Soybean Genotypes
in Second Cropping of Moghan Plain of Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
Manoochehr Farboodi, Masoomeh Rostamzadeh, and Kaveh Khaksar
Analysis of Dam Deformation Using Artificial Neural Networks Methods
and Singular Spectrum Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
Bachir Gourine and Sofiane Khelifa
BOD and COD Estimation in Wastewater Outflow via Artificial
Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
Maryam Bayat-Varkeshi, Kourosh Mohammadi, and Reza Najib
Wetting Patterns Estimation Under Subsurface Drip Irrigation Systems
for Different Discharge Rates and Soil Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877
Boutheina Douh, Olfa Didouni, Amel Mguidiche, Hiba Ghazouani, Sami Khila,
Abdelhamid Belaid, and Abdelhamid Boujelben
Flood Risk Mapping in the Region of Ouled Ben Abdelkader
in the Wilaya of Chlef, Northern Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879
Youssouf ZaÏri
How Does the Rainwater Harvesting Protect the Urban Areas
Against Flooding? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
Abdelkarim Guebail, Lotfi Zeghadnia, and Yacine Djebbar
Sanitation Scheme Development of the Urban Community
of Harhoura Contribution to Sectoral Liquid Sanitation Survey
of Skhirat-Témara Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
Hanane Ait Hmeid, Nadia El Khamli, Mustapha Akodad,
Mohamed EL Gattafi, Aziza EL Ouati, and Aknaf Asmae
Assessment of the Quality of Liquid Waste of Traditional Hammams
in the Periurbain of Casablanca, Morocco (Case of Dar Bouazza
Community) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
Nihad Chakri, Btissam EL Amrani, Faouzi Berrada, Halima Jounaid,
and Fouad Amraoui
xxxii Contents

Changes in Species Composition of Brachionidae (Rotifera) Community

in Ghrib Lake (North West Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891
Somia Hamil, Mounia Baha, Sihem Arab, Nassima Doukhandji, and Abdeslem Arab
Trivariate Copulas for Characterisation of Past and Future Droughts
Over North-West Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
Ayoub Zeroual, Senna Bouabdelli, Mohamed Meddi, Ramdane Alkama,
and Ali A. Assani
Energy Dissipation by Hydraulic Jump in a Half Circular Channel
with Bench Seat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
Mohammed Khattaoui, Sonia Ziani, Omar Boudlal, and Bachir Achour
Physical and Chemical Quality of Surface Waters of the Wilaya de Bouira
(Northern Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
Hakim Djafer Khodja, Amine el Cherif, Saad Dahmani, and Ahmed Ferhati
Measuring Crop Evapotranspiration Over Hilly Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
Nissaf Boudhina, Masmoudi Mohamed Masmoudi, Frédéric Jacob, Laurent Prévot,
Rim Zitouna-Chebbi, Insaf Mekki, and Netij Ben Mechlia
Estimation of Specific Degradation by Application of a Regional Model
for the North of Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
Rachid Chellali and Rabah Ladjal
Effects of Treated Wastewater Irrigation of Sfax, Agareb and Mahres
Stations on Olive Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917
Zaineb Bakari, Nesrine Boujelben, Frah Bouhamed, Monem Kallel,
and Boubaker Elleuch
Modeling Watershed Operation: Case Study of the Chaffia Dam
(Algerian Extreme North East) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921
Mehdi Nafa, Keblouti Nafa, and Abir Achache
To What Extent Can Groundwater Uses Affect Long Term Sustainable
Exploitation Schemes? Case Study of the Bouhefna-Haffouz Aquifer
System (Central Tunisia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
Hamza Jerbi, Sylvain Massuel, Christian Leduc, Jeanne Riaux, and Jamila Tarhouni

Volume II
Part V Environmental Engineering and Management
Morphological, Chemical and Electrochemical Carbon Based and Nobel Metal
Electrode Characterization for Use in Water Electrochemical Disinfection . . . . . . 933
Mokhtar Guizani, Kento Yajima, Toshikazu Kawaguchi, Ryusei Ito,
and Naoyuki Funamizu
Development of Eco-Engineering Sector Specific Routines and Curricula
for the Mediterranean Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
Slobodan B. Mickovski, Guillermo Tardio Cerrillo, Paola Sangalli,
Jerome Perez, Craig S. Thomson, and Caroline Gallagher
Codigestion: Toward a Simple Model to Predict Methane Production . . . . . . . . . . 941
Mokhles Kouas, Philippe Sousbie, Michel Torrijos, Jérôme Harmand,
and Sami Sayadi
Refuse Derived Fuel Gasification Possibilities in Small Scale Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945
Maris Klavins, Dmitry Porsnov, Valdis Bisters, Juris Kalviss, and Raivo Damkevics
Removal of Methylene Blue Dye by Fenton-like Process Using Laterites . . . . . . . . 947
Gloria M. R. Kpinsoton, Hela Karoui, Yohan Richardson, and Hamma Yacouba
Contents xxxiii

Effects of Recycled Materials Added to the Substrate on Nursery Trees . . . . . . . . 951

Francesca Bretzel, Eliana Tassi, Francesca Vannucchi, Manuele Scatena,
and Fabrizio Cinelli
Effect of Acclimatization on Earthworm’s (Eisenia Andrei) Potential
on Olive Mill Wastewaters Detoxification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955
Barhoum Kharbouch, Hicham Lakhtar, Sandrine Amat, Sevastianos Roussos,
Nathalie Dupuy, and Abdelhamid El Mousadik
Production and Characterization of Activated Carbon from Orange
Peels by Chemical Activation with Sulfuric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 959
Sami Guiza, Salwa Hajyahia, Franck Launay, and Mohamed Bagane
Cheap and High Quality Housing with Emphasis on Modular Building . . . . . . . . . 963
Shaham Asadi, Hassan Mohammad Jafari Sadeghi,
and Ataollah Beigzade
Methylene Blue Removal from Aqueous Solution by Using Smectite
Clay and Silty Soil: Batch and Fixed Bed Column Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967
Sana Dardouri, Asma Jedidi, and Jalila Sghaier
A Theoretical Study on Municipal Solid Waste Characterization
in Jordan and Its Economic Feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
Khalid Bani-Melhem and Mahmoud Alshorman
Optimization of Cost and Pollutant Emissions from MSW Collection
Using GIS. The Case Study of Mostaganem, Western Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
Islam Safia Abdelli, Fatiha Abdelmalek, and Ahmed Addou
Optimal Locations Determination for an Electric Vehicle Charging
Infrastructure in the City of Tunis, Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979
Seifeddine Bouguerra and Safa Bhar Layeb
Preparation of Graphite Ultrafiltration Membrane Over Macroporous
Graphite Support for Oily Waste Water Separation by Air Gap
Membrane Distillation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
Imen Derbel and Raje Ben Amar
Diagnostic and Treatment of Leachate from Municipal Solid Waste
in Morocco Using Experimental Design Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985
Meriem Abouri, Imane Chanaa, Salah Souabi, Hajar Qachach, and Amane Jada
Combined Process for Olive Oil Mill Wastewater Treatment Based
on Flocculation and Heterogeneous Photocatalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989
Gassan Hodaifa, Jose Antonio Páez Fernández, and Cristina Agabo Garcia
Analyses of Complex Rainfall Change Using Non Parametric Trend
Tests in Semi Arid Zone-Case Study: Center of Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993
Manel Snoussi, Mohamed Hamdi, and Jamila Tarhouni
Catalytic Wet Air Oxidation of Phenol Using W-La/CexZr1−XO2 Catalysts . . . . . . 997
Mohamed Achraf Bouabdellah, Lassaad Ben Hammouda, Gwendoline Lafaye,
Jacques Barbier, Jr, and Zouhaier Ksibi
Comparative Study of Pressure Reduction Valve Controllers in Water
Distribution Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001
Mouna Doghri, Sophie Duchesne, Annie Poulin, and Maxim Ouellet
Salt Solar Wastelands: To New “Saltscapes” Resilient in the Mediterranean . . . . . 1005
Jean-Louis Pacitto and Odile Jacquemin
xxxiv Contents

Radioactive Waste Management in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009

Thabo Matyaba, Priscilla Keche, and Roman Tandlich
Numerical Simulation of Dye Adsorption/Desorption in Three Layered
Soil and Models Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
Sana Dardouri, Asma Jedidi, and Jalila Sghaier
Nitrogen Oxide Removal from Nitric Acid Production Process
by Absorption into Hydrogen Peroxide Solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017
Ons Ghriss, Hédi Ben Amour, Mohamed-Razak Jeday, and Hassen Chekir
Effect of Preparation Manufacturing Process on the Quality of Cotton
Recycled DENIM Yarn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021
Mohamed Ben Hassen, Béchir Wanassi, and Béchir Azouz
Methylene Blue Removal from Brackish Water by Natural Algerian Clay . . . . . . 1025
Ammar Fadel and Nacef Saci
On the Use of Brouers-Sotolongo Kinetics Equation and Isotherm
for the Removal Fluorine from Aqueous Solutions by Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027
Francois Brouers and Sami Guiza
Numerical Study of Soil Water Content to Estimate the Hydraulic Properties
of Soil in Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
Asma Jedidi, Sana Dardouri, and Jalila Sghaier
An Alternative Method for Predicting Bed Load Transport Rate
in River—Application to the Medjerda River, Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
Mohamed Gharbi, Amel Soualmia, and Denis Dartus
Adsorption of Model Dyes Onto Porous Materials: Effect of pH
and Temperature on the Parameters of Brouers-Sotolongo Kinetic
Fractal and Generalized Isotherm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1039
Taher Selmi, Mongi Seffen, François Brouers, Vanessa Fierro, and Habib Sammouda
Evaluation of Diallyl Phthalate Biodegradation Mechanisms in the Treatment
of Synthetic Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043
Ehsan Ahmadi, Mitra Gholami, Mahdi Farzadkia, and Ramin Nabizadeh
Abnormal Behavior of Chott Ain Beida Brines, Ouargla Basin,
Algerian Sahara. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
Merzouk Zatout, Messaoud Hacini, Ahmed Hichem Hamzaoui, and Adel M’nif
Dimunition of Pollution by Improving the Properties of Polymers
Against Climatic Aleas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051
Noureddine Hassini
Prediction of Solid Transport in the Wandering Section of the Maritime Reach
of the Congo River, Accounting for the Limits of the Ashmore’s Method . . . . . . . 1055
Edouard Konzi Panise Siamo and Yohanan Dzama-Likwanda
The Communication Process for a Sustainable Urbanism in Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
Lyazid Hadj-Smaha
Simplification of Soil Description for the Modeling of Nitrogen Leaching
with STICS Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061
Rahma Ines Zoghlami, Virginie Parnaudeau, and Christian Walter
Design and Achievement of a New Hybrid Filter System Used
in Cement Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
Abbes Ouari, Ahmed Alibida, Farid Miloua, and Amar Tilmatine
Contents xxxv

Kinetic Study of Removal of Pollutants from Aqueous Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067

Sarra Hamouda, Salima Bouteraa, Abdellah Bahmani, Nourredine Bettahar,
and Djahida Lerari
Spatial Distribution of Methane Emissions at Bizerte Active Landfill
(Northern Tunisia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Sana Abid and Moncef Zairi
Control of Particles Flow in Pneumatic Conveying Lines
by Capacitive Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Rafik Sayah, Miloua Farid, and Ouari Abbes
Seawater: Affordable, Reliable and Sustainable Energy for All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075
Mohammed K. Al Mesfer
Study of Nusselt Number Evolution in PCM Shell-and-Tube Configuration . . . . . 1079
Mohammed Bechiri and Kacem Mansouri
Analysis of Numerical Simulation of the Hydrodynamics in Swimming Pools,
in Terms of Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081
Mostefa Dougha, Mahmoud Hasbaia, and André Girou
Flow Behaviour Analysis Through a Venturi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
Wahiba Mokrane and Ahmed Kettab
Investigating the Impacts of Soil and Water Conservation Measures
on Hydrology and Soil Loss in Humid Ethiopian Highlands of Upper
Blue Nile Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
Addisu Dagnew, Habtam Mekonnen, Seifu Tilahun, Nigussie Haregeweyn,
and Enyew Adgo
Experimental Analysis of the Morphological Evolution of a Sand
Bed Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091
Mohamed Gharbi, Amel Soualmia, and Denis Dartus
Magnetic Treatment Effects on Salt Water and Tomato Plants Growth . . . . . . . . . 1095
Nesrine Fakhri, Hsan Youssef Mehdaoui, Nada Elloumi, and Monem Kallel
CO2 Adsorption on Activated Carbon Based Olive Stone:
A Comparison of Langmuir and Freundlich Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099
Meriem Moussa, Najoua Bader, Nausika Querejeta, Inès Duràn,
Covadonga Pevida, and Abdelmottaleb Ouederni
Study of Oxidized Stainless Steel Thin Films Obtained by Reactive
Thermal Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1101
Noureddine Merakeb
LCA and Cherry Tomato Production in the South of Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1105
Meriem Maaoui, Rachid Boukchina, and Noureddine Hajjaji
Offshore Drilling: Drilling Fluids and Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1107
Samira Baba Hamed
Response Surface Methodology Optimization of Heterogeneous Catalyst
Fe2O3-Zeolite Synthesis for the Discoloration of Indigo Carmine Dye
by Photo-Fenton Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1109
Chamirane Moumni, Nadim Fakhfakh, Haithem Bel Hadjltaief, and Mourad Benzina
Green Collaborative Vehicle Routing Problem with Environmental Concerns . . . . 1113
Akram Rekik, Amel Jaoua, Safa Bhar Layeb, and Jouhaina Chaouachi
xxxvi Contents

Effect of Temperature, Humidity and Gas Flow on PEM Fuel Cell

Performances for Environmental Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1117
Mohamed Barbouche, Zakarya Ahmed, Khaled Charradi, Radhouane Chtourou,
and Gaetano Squadrito
Thermal Stability Evaluation Through the Comparison of Potassium
Chloride to Potassium/Sodium Formate Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1119
Afshin Davarpanah and M. Mehdi Nassabeh
Optical Annealing Effect on Zinc Oxide Thin Films Synthesized
via Sol Gel Method as Used in Water Treatment Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123
Soumia Haya, Ouarda Brahmia, Ouahiba Halimi, Miloud Sebais,
and Boubaker Boudine
Combined Process for Olive Oil Mill Wastewater Treatment Based
in Flocculation, Photolysis, Microfiltration and Microalgae Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127
Gassan Hodaifa, Ana Malvis Romero, Mansour Halioui,
and Sebastián Sánchez
Rapid Analysis of Antibiotic Residues in Urban Wastewater of South Sfax
WWTP by Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled
to Quadrupole-Linear Ion Trap Tandem Mass Spectrometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1131
Malek Harrabi, Fatma Aloulou, Sara Rodriguez-Mozaz, Saulo Verela,
and Boubaker Elluech
Separation of Pb (II) and Cu (II) Ions by the Cloud Point Technique:
Statistical Study by the Taguchi Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1135
Meriem Mesli and Nasr-Eddine Belkhouche
Atmospheric Emission Inventory and Modeling of VOCs in a Petroleum
Site in Sfax Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1139
Sahar Masmoudi, Mohamed Jamel Rouis, and Dalila Taieb

Part VI Natural Resources: Characterization, Assessment, Management

and Valorization
Valorisation of Berry Pomace: From Waste to Bioactive Compounds . . . . . . . . . . 1145
Maris Klavins, Agnese Kukela, Jorens Kviesis, and Linards Klavins
Lemonene Recovery from Waste Lemon Peels with Supercritical Extraction. . . . . 1147
Catia Giovanna Lopresto, Alessandra Meluso, Giuseppe Di Sanzo,
and Vincenza Calabrò
Integrating Science and Knowledge to Boost Mediterranean Traditional
Products: The REALMed Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1151
Manuela Giovanetti, Jose L. Araus Ortega, Naziha Atti, Angela Augusti,
Federica Camin, Casparus J. Crous, Marco Lauteri, Nives Ogrinc,
Maja Podgornik, Pedro Reis, Fouad Taous, and Cristina Máguas
Improving Cellulose Structure for Bioconversion: Sugarcane Bagasse
Pretreatment Accompanied by Lignin Recovery and Ionic Liquid Recycle . . . . . . 1155
Koel Saha, Jaya Sikder, Paulomi Diwedi, Ankita Ghosh, Sudip Chakraborty,
Debolina Mukherjee, Stefano Curcio, and Vincenza Calabro
Interactions Between Cationic Porphyrins and Standards Clays:
Spectroscopic and 3D Confocal Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
Amira Lajmi, Emmanuel Joussein, Stéphanie Leroy-Lhez, Marilyne Soubrand,
Claire Carrion, Matthias Monneron-Guyrits, Catherine Riou, and Mounir Medhioub
Contents xxxvii

Emerging Use of Plant-Based Flocculants for Industrial Wastewater Treatment:

Case Study from Phosphate Clay of Metlaoui (Gafsa-Tunisia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1159
Raouen Rachdi, Feyda Srarfi, Karim Khela, and Najet Slim Shimi
A New Stratigraphic Correlation for the Upper Campanian Phosphorites
and Associated Rocks in Egypt and Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1161
Fayez Ahmad, Sherif Farouk, and Mohamed W. Abdel Moghny
Analytical Characterization of Eocene Deposits for the Identification
of Dolomitic-Palygorskite in Jebel Rheouis, Central Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165
Imen Saadaoui and Mabrouk Eloussaief
Characterization and Valuation of Clays in the North Eastern Region . . . . . . . . . 1169
Hanane Ait Hmeid, Mustapha Akodad, Mourad Baghour, Mohamed El Gattafi,
Abdelmajid Moumen, Asmae Aknaf, Lahcen Daoudi, and Mimoun Aalaoul
Technological Characterization of Organo-beidellite for a New
Insecticidal Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
Sana Ghrab, Samir Bouaziz, and Mourad Benzina
Synthesis and Characterization of Nanocomposite Prepared
from Tunisian Bentonite Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1175
Wiem Hamza and Mourad Benzina
Assessment of Seed Propagation Ability of Almond Genotypes
(Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb.) for a Mediterranean Environment . . . . . . . . . . 1179
Saloua Msalmi Taoueb, Mehdi Trad, Imène Ouergui, Hana Jemai,
and Messaoud Mars
Methods to Estimate Water Use Efficiency (WUE) of Two Olive Tree
Cultivars (Olea europaea L. cv Koroneiki and Chemlali) Under Water
Restriction Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1181
Mortadha Ben Hassine, Olfa Boussadia, Ines Moula, Mariem El Hafi,
and Mohamed Braham
Carotenoids-Rich Fatty Fractions Extraction from Tomato Industrial
By-Products, Peels and Seeds, Using Supercritical CO2 Green Technology . . . . . . 1183
Mouna Kehili, Ayachi Zammel, Carsten Zetzl, Irina Smirnova,
Noureddine Allouche, and Sami Sayadi
Tunisian Extra Virgin Olive Oil: Richness in Antioxidants
and Aroma Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1187
Hedia Manai-Djebali, Imen Oueslati, Zeineb M’zah, Sonia Ben Temime,
Mokhtar Zarrouk, and Guido Flamini
Effect of Temperature and Density on Diet Training of the Largemouth
Bass (Micropterus Salmoides, Lacepede, 1802) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191
Anouar Ouizgane, Fatima Zahra Majdoubi, Bahija Harzani, Sara Elghizi,
Aziz Elmoujtahid, Mohammed Droussi, and Mustapha Hasnaoui
The Effect of Environmental Factors on the Development
of Pine Root Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1193
Slobodan B. Mickovski
Phylogenetic Insights into the History of Tunisian and Iberian
Cattle Using the Illumina BovineSNP50 BeadChip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1197
Slim Ben Jemaa, Elena Ciani, and Mekki Boussaha
A Hydrodynamic Approach to Hydrocarbon Migration Analysis
in the Onshore Niger Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
G. Ezekwesili Ene, Chidubem Emedo, and Basil Okwuolisa
xxxviii Contents

Geo-historical Review of the Mediterranean Rivers from Kitab-ı Bahriye

(Book of Navigation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205
Mustafa Yilmaz, Ibrahim Yilmaz, Bayram Turgut, and Mevlut Gullu
Phytosociometry, a Tool for Managing Resources and Maintaining
the Sustainability of Livestock Systems in Arid Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209
Bouyahia Hadj, Benabdeli Kheloufi, and Nouri Tayeb
Effect of Polyethylene Glycol on in Vitro Gas Production of Three
Leguminous Shrubs in Algerian Arid Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213
Samir Medjekal, Mouloud Ghadbane, Laid Benderradji, Raoul BODAS,
Hacène Bousseboua, and Secundino Lopez
Essential Oil of Mentha Spicata Leaves from Algeria: Chemical Composition
and Antibacterial Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1217
Mohammed Khiari, Zine Kechrid, A. Halbaoui, and M. Halbaoui
Biodiversity, Traditional Medicine and Diabetes in North-Eastern Algeria . . . . . . 1219
Amel Bouzabata
Urban and Industrial Wastes Induced Water Pollution Diagnosis
and Risk Assessment of the Kherraza Plain Aquifer (N-E Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223
Saadane Djorfi, Samir Djorfi, and Laroussi Beloulou
Plants Extracts as Coagulants-Flocculants for Wastewater Treatment:
A Short Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1227
Bouthaina Othmani and Moncef Khadhraoui
Grapevine Prediction of End of Flowering Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1231
Matteo Gentilucci
Physical and Chemical Characterization of Ampelodesmos Mauritanicus . . . . . . . . 1235
May Chenah and Moussa Amrani
Research of Secondary Metabolites with Non-polyenic Antifungal Activity
Produced by Actinomycetes Isolated from Different Moroccan Habitats . . . . . . . . 1237
Ahmed Nafis, Najoua Elhidar, Brahim Oubaha, Asma Azmani, Salam eddine Samri,
Noureddine Mezrioui, Timo Niedermeyer, Lahcen Hassani,
and Mustapha Barakate
Screening of Insect Pathogenic Bacteria Isolated from Agricultural Soils,
Characterization of Their Bioactive Metabolites and Study of Their
Effects Against Galleria Mellonela (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239
Hakima Oulebsir-Mohandkaci and Farida Tihar-Benzina
Acridicidal Activity of Cassia italica Butanolic Extract on Locusta migratoria
(Linnaeus, 1758) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1241
Abderrahmane Soudani and Abdelhamid Moussi
Nitrophenol Removal from Wastewater onto Prepared Activated
Carbon from Opuntia ficus-indica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1245
Hanedi Elhleli, Faten Mannai, Elimame Elaloui, and Younes Moussaoui
NaOH-Activated Carbon Prepared from Date Palm Petiole as Adsorbent
for Indigo Carmine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247
Nisrine Khadhri, Mohamed EL Khames Saad, Elimame Elaloui,
and Younes Moussaoui
Protective Effects of Nigella Sativa Oil on IL-4 and Nitric Oxide Levels
in a Model of Experimental Asthma in Wistar Rat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249
Taha Khaldi, Zineb Rouibah, Meriem Rouag, Mahfoud Messarah,
and Amel Boumendjel
Contents xxxix

Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities of Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.)

Essential Oil Growing in Djelfa (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1253
Samah Lakehal, Cherifa Chaouia, and Fatma Zohra Benrebiha
Diagnosis of Biodiversity of Rhizobium Leguminosarum Nodulating Pea
(Pisum Sativum L.) in Differents Soils of Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1255
Amira Hachana, Imene Hemissi, Hanene Cherif, Dorsaf Hlel, Manel Bouraoui,
Neila Abdi, Houda Maazaoui, Ameur Cherif, and Bouaziz Sifi
Treated Olive Mill Wastewater Effects on Soil Properties and Olive Plants . . . . . . 1257
Salma Mseddi, Mohamed Zouari, Yosr Smaoui, Leila Chaari, Monem Kallel,
and Nada Elloumi
Ecophysiological, Nutritive and Growth Responses of Two Olive Tree
Cultivars (Olea Europaea L. ‘Chemlali’ and ‘Koroneiki’) Under Salt Stress . . . . . 1259
Olfa Boussadia, Rihem Zaabar, and Mohamed Braham
Variability of Chemical and Physical Parameters and Plankton
in the Rearing Ponds of Three Species of Carp-Rearing Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1261
Sana Farid, Anouar Ouizgane, Mustapha Hasnaoui, and Mohammed Droussi
Extraction of Chitosan from Shrimp Shells: Effect of Deacetylation Time
on the Morphological, Thermal Properties and the Value of Deacetylation
Degree (DD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263
Fatima Zahra Bougueraa, Fatima Essabti, Saoussan El Mouhri, and Said Ettaqi
Yogurt Enrichment with Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis): Effect
of Storage on Physicochemical Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1267
Hajer Debbabi, Badis Boubaker, Taysir Gmati, Moncef Chouaibi,
Aziza Boubaker, and Ahmed Snoussi
Impact of Ploughing Techniques on Wind Erosion: Field Experiments
Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1269
Mohamed Labiadh
Volatile Compounds as Propolis Characterization Markers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1271
Narimane Segueni, Fatiha Khadraoui, and Salah Rhouati
Effect of Interaction Between Tow Cytokinins and Tow Auxins
on Alkaloidss Accumulation in Hyoscyamus Albus L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1275
Kenza Kadi, Sofia Hamli, Sabah Boukeria, Dounia Dib, Dalila Addad,
and Abdelouahab Yahia
Quality of Crop Residues Influence on the Variations of Soil Microbial
Biomass (Tiaret Region -Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1277
Karima Oulbachir, Nadia Bouchenafa, Fatiha Labdelli, Sabrina Ait abderrahim,
and Malika Adamou-djerbaoui
Spatio-Temporal Variability of the Soil Hydraulic Properties—Effect
on Modelling of Water Flow and Solute Transport at Field-Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279
Sabri Kanzari
Perceptions and Threats to Wetlands in South-Eastern Algeria:
The Case of Lake Ayata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1283
Fatma Demnati, Naima Madjour, Farid Allache, Anis Guelmami, and Lisa Ernoul
From the Characterization, Geochemical Behavior and Health Risk
Assessments of Tunisian Phosphogypsum to a Potential Way of Inerting
and Valorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287
Sonia Lazaar, Emmanuel Joussein, Soubrand Marilyne, Alexandra Courtin-Nomade,
Rania Hbaieb, Matthias Monneron-Guyrits, and Mounir Medhioub
xl Contents

Assessment of Land Degradation Related to Groundwater Irrigation

of Oasis Environments: (Case Study: The Zibans, Biskra, Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
Salah Belghemmaz, Mohammed Fenni, Gabriela Mihaela Afrasinei,
Yacine Louadj, and Nouara Degui
Electrochemical and Surface Morphological Studies of a Carbon Steel
Corrosion by Natural Product in Acidic Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1291
Hana Ferkous, Meriem Zerroug, Manelle Radjai, Mohamed Aymen Chaouch,
Zayneb jebali, and Hatem Majdoub
Green Corrosion Inhibitor for Carbon Steel in 1 M HCl: A Comparative
Study of Polysaccharides Extracted from Prickly Pear Nopals of Opuntia
Ficus-Indica (Peel and Pulp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1293
Hana Ferkous, Meriem Zerroug, Mohamed Aymen Chaouch, Manelle Radjai,
Hatem Majdoub, and Abderrazak Bouzid
Extraction and Characterization of Tannins Obtained from Fresh
and Dried Tunisian Pomegranate Peel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1297
Samia Ben-Ali
Methane Production from Browse Species of Algerian Arid Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1301
Samir Medjekal, Mouloud Ghadbane, Laid Benderradji, Raoul Bodas,
Hacène Bousseboua, and Secundino Lopez
Adsorptive Removal of Nickel (II) Using Luffa cylindrica: Effect of NaCl
Concentration on Equilibrium and Kinetic Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1305
Chifaa Ad, Mebrouk Djedid, Mokhtar Benalia, Asma Boudaoud,
Hicham Elmsellem, and Fatiha Ben Saffedine
Efficiency of SSR Markers to Analyze the Molecular Fingerprinting
of Some Tunisian Olive Cultivars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1307
Sameh Mnasri Rahmani, Olfa Saddoud Debbabi, and Ali Ferchichi
Kinetic, Equilibrium and Thermodynamic Studies of Nickel Adsorption
in Batch on a Red Alga Corallina Elongata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1311
Farida Bouremmad, Abdennour Bouchair, Shalima Shawuti,
and Mehmet Ali Gulgun
Valorization of Industrial Glass Debris in Road Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1321
Omar Boudlal, Mohammed Khattaoui, and Saliha Belhaouci
The Oued Amizour VHMS Zn-Deposit, Northeastern Algeria:
Does It Have a Kuroko-Type Signature?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1325
Rabah Laouar, Abdelmalek Lekoui, Tayeb Bouima, Sihem Salmi-Laouar,
Salah Bouhlel, and Adrian A. J. Boyce
Recycling of Tunisian Phosphogypsum as Road Material:
Assessment of the Mechanical and Leaching Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1329
Raja Zmelma, Ikram Naifer, Mounir Benjdidia, and Boubaker Elleuch
Heat Shock Effects on Physiological Parameters Durum Wheat Seedlings
and Relationships with Stress Tolerance Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1333
Sofia Hamli, Mostapha Labhilili, Kenza Kadi, Dalila Addad,
and Hmenna Bouzerzour
An AFM Study of the Surface Propriety and Corrosion Inhibition
on Carbon Steel in Acidic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1337
Meriem Zerroug, Hana Ferkous, Manelle Radjai, Mohamed Aymen Chaouch,
Anis Madaci, Hatem Majdoub, and Abderrazak Bouzid
Contents xli

Design of the Bricks Based on the Marine Sediments of Bethioua Port . . . . . . . . . 1341
Nasr Boudjenane, Djamila Benyerou, and Mansour Belhadri
Classification of Some Pristine Sand Deposit from Ajali Formation
(Southeastern Nigeria) as Construction Aggregate and Industrial Material . . . . . . 1345
G. Ezekwesili Ene, Chidubem Emedo, and Basil Okwuolisa
Thermodynamic Analysis of an SOFC Coupled with Gas Turbine
Power Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1349
Tahar Khir, Salha Faleh, and Ammar Ben Brahim
Mass Transfer During Combined Processes of Osmotic Dehydration
and Blanching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1353
Basma Khoualdia, Samia Benali Aoun, and Ahmed Hannachi
Characterization and Assessment of Fig (Ficus carica L.) Genetic
Resources in Tunisia: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1355
Fateh Aljane and Awatef Essid
Characterization of Three Different Sewage Sludge for Reuse in the Context
of Sustainable Development in Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1357
Ishak Belkaid, Abdelkader Namane, Hubert Cabana, and Maamar Nakib
Variability in the Response of Citrullus Colocynthis (L.) to Water
Deficiency Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1361
Said El Madidi, Abdelhamid Ben Moumou, and Fatiha Hakimi
Enthalpy-Entropy Compensation in Carob Seeds Sorption Phenomena
(Ceratonia selequa L.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1363
Zakaria Tagnamas, Heytem Moussaoui, Younes Bahammou, Mounir Kouhila,
Abdelkader Lamharrar, and Ali Idlimam
Metallic Contamination of Water and Sediments of “Hillil River”
(North-West of Algeria) Near Wild Dump Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1367
Ouiza Ould Ali, Florence Vouvé, Fatiha Abdelmalek, Dominic Aubert,
Régis Rouillon, and Ahmed Addou
N-Doping Effect on the Activity of TiO2 Supported Catalysts
in Glycerol Oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1369
Dhia Cherni, Noomen Moussa, Mohamed Faouzi NCIB, Laura Prati,
and Alberto Villa
Breeding Regime of Two Accessions of Vicia Narbonensis L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1371
Siwar Bouabid, Lamia Jemai, and Aziza Zoghlami Khélil
Optimization of Humic Acid Liquid Fertilizer Production from Lignite:
Effect on Wheat and Barley Seeds Germination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1375
Ines Ben Salah, Ahmed Wali, Abderrahim Choukchou-Braham, and Mohamed Ksibi
Methanolic Extract of Artemisia Herba Alba as Eco-Friendly Inhibitor
of Carbon Steel Corrosion in 1M HCl Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1379
Manelle Radjai, Hana Ferkous, Meriem Zerroug, Souad Djellali,
Mohamed Aymen Chaouch, Bilal Hattabi, Hatem Majdoub,
and Mokhtar Boutahala
Tunisian Almond Shell for Efficient Removal of Eriochrome Black T
and Malachite Green Dyes from Aqueous Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1383
Rim Ben Arfi, Sarra Karoui, Karine Mougin, and Achraf Ghorbal
Geo-Environmental Information About Tunisian Cities and Coasts
Within Kitab-ı Bahriye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1387
Ibrahim Yilmaz and Mustafa Yilmaz
xlii Contents

Valorization of Fish Processing Waste: A Microbial Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1391

Asha Embrandiri, Parveen Fatemeh Rupani, Mohd Azrul Naim Mohamad,
and Mohd Hafiz Jamaludin
Growth Hormones Effect on the Regeneration of Three Wild Medicinal
Plants from Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1395
Souad Mehalaine and Slim Bouguessa
Karyotype Analysis of Echinus Medic (Medicago ciliaris L.) Populations
Collected in Tunisia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1399
Cheima Jabri, Neila Farah Trifi, and Aziza Zoghlami Khelil
Effect of the Ripening Stage on the Volatile Composition of Chétoui
Virgin Olive Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1403
Imen Oueslati, Hédia Manai, Gidou Flamini, and Mokhtar Zarrouk
Sprouting, an Eco-Friendly Technology for Improving Nutritional
Quality of Tunisian Wheat Cultivar “Khiar” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1407
Sarra Jribi, Khaled Sassi, Dorra Sfayhi, and Hajer Debbabi
The Effect of the Spawning Period on the Viability of Silver Carp
(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) Eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1409
Fatima-Zahra Majdoubi, Anouar Ouizgane, Mohammed Droussi,
and Mustapha Hasnaoui
Ethnobotanical Survey on the Use of Traditional Medicine for the Treatment
of Osteoarthritis in Oran, Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1413
Abderrahmene Lardjam, Rim Mazid, Aicha Sadaoui, Safia Bensahaila, Ali Khalfa,
Walid Khitri, A. Azaiz, Noureddine Djebli, and Houari Toumi
Chemical Composition of Leaves and Fruits of a South Algerian
Pistacia Atlantica Desf. Ecotype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415
Aicha Fetati and Aicha Lassouani
Sediment Geochemistry and Weathering Indices of Asa River Sediments,
Lower Niger River Basin, West Central Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1419
Lateef L. Kolawole, Moshood N. Tijani, Rasaq R. Owolabi,
and A. Ipoola Okunola
Understanding the Resilience of Mediterranean Ecosystems to Global Changes:
An Overview on Applications of Stable Isotopes of Light Elements
in Ecophysiological Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1423
Marco Lauteri and Maria Cristina Monteverdi
A Socio-ecological Analysis of the Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.)
System in Jericho Area, Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1425
Giuseppe Russo, Isabella Dalla Ragione, Linda Fantinati, Carlo Simonetti,
and Marco Lauteri
Evolution of Earthen Pond Water Chemical and Physical Parameters
in Polyculture System (Case of Nile Tilapia, Largemouth Bass, Chinese Carps)
at Deroua Fisheries Station (Fkih Ben Saleh, Morocco) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1429
Anouar Ouizgane, Sana Farid, Fatim Ezzahra Majdoubi, Mohammed Droussi,
and Mustapha Hasnaoui
Adaptation to Climate Change: The Dynamics of Production Systems
in the Semi-arid Regions of Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1431
Amira Sansa, Jamel Ben Nasr, Ayoub Fouzai, and Mohamed Bechir Sai
Phosphate Ions Sequestration Strategy by Agricultural By-Products . . . . . . . . . . . 1435
Hana Boubaker, Rim Ben Arfi, and Achraf Ghorbal
Contents xliii

Study of Sludge at the Beni Messous Purification Station (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439

Maamar Nakib, Ahmed Kettab, Salah Karef, Salim Benziaada,
Nacer M. Chabaca, Saadia Benmamar, Walid Boumalek, Hanane Bouanani,
and Youcef Djillali
Study of the Physicochemical Characteristics of Marine Sediments
of Oran Port (Northwest Algeria) for Their Valorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1443
Asmaa Dehilis, Eddine Boudjenane Nasr, Djamila Benyerou,
and Mansour Belhadri
Diversity and Distribution of Fish Species in Lake Asejire,
South West Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1447
Mabel O. Ipinmoroti, Adams O. Iyiola, Olumuyiwa A. Akanmu,
Olugbenga Orisasona, and Niyi Fawole
Multi-biomarker Approach in Transplanted Donax trunculus
(Mollusc, Bivalve) from the Gulf of Annaba (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1449
Amina Rabei, Hayet Beldi, and Noureddine Soltani
First Record of Doris verrucosa Linnaeus, 1758 (Mollusca: Heterobranchia:
Nudibranchia) in the bay of Tunis, Tunisia (Central Mediterranean) . . . . . . . . . . . 1453
Mouna Antit, Donia Kalthoumi, Marta Pola, Javier Urra, and Atf Azzouna
Effect of Mineral Amendment in Gypsum and Salinity Distribution
in Oasis System of South Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1455
Nissaf Karbout, Boujila Essifi, Habib Lamourou, Mohamed Moussa,
and Habib Bousnina
Instant Controlled Pressure Drop Texturing for Intensifying Physicochemical
Characteristics of Orange by Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1459
Ines Louati, Neila Bahloul, Karim Allaf, and Nabil Kechaou
Occurrence and Bioindication of Lichens Within Oak Forests of Tunisia . . . . . . . 1463
Ridha El Mokni, Lamia Boutabia-Telailia, and Mohamed Hédi El Aouni
Geotechnical and Environmental Characterization of Sediments
in the Commercial Port of Sfax City, Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1467
Abdelwaheb Ben Slema, Nessma Feki, and Mohamed Jamel Rouis
Effectiveness Use of Olive Mill Wastewaters as Impregnator Agent
for the Production of Biochars from Cypress Sawdust: Chemical
Charcterization and Effects on a Plant Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1471
Khouloud Haddad, Mejdi Jeguirim, Salah Jellali, Nicolas Thevenin,
Lionel Ruidavets, and Lionel Limousy
Diachronic Evolution and Spatial Changes in the Steppe Ecosystem
of the Southern Region of Tlemcen (North-West of Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1475
Driss Haddouche and Smina Zennouche
Phosphate Sludge from Tunisian Phosphate Mines: Valorisation
as Ceramics Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1479
Hajer Baccour, Hela Koubaa, and Samir Baklouti
Comparison of Pollen Distribution in Surface Sediments of the Northeastern
Tunisia (Ghar El Melh Lagoon) with Remotely Sensed Vegetation Data . . . . . . . . 1481
Emna Gaceur, Stéphanie Desprat, Imene Rouis-Zargouni, and Nejib Kallel
Development of Antibacterial Braided PET Sutures Using Chitosan—Laurus
nobilis Essential Oil Emulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1485
Nesrine Bhouri, Faten Debbabi, Mejdi Snoussi, and Saber Ben Abdessalem
xliv Contents

Part VII Intelligent Techniques in Renewable Energy (Biomass, Wind,

Waste, Solar)
Passive Solar Energy in Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1491
Shiva Teja Kacham, Jerome Wawrzon, Muhammad Mukhlesur Rahman,
and Indubhushan Patnaikuni
Selecting Suitable Areas for New Solar Energy Projects in the South
of Algeria Using Combined GIS and MCDA Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1493
Abdelghani Dokkar, Noureddine Settou, and Boubekeur Dokkar
Modeling of a Forced Convection Solar Drying System
by Experimental Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1497
Haytem Moussaoui, Ahmed Aït Aghzzaf, Ali Idlimam,
and Abdelkader Lamharrar
Experimental and Theoretical Investigation of the Temperature Difference
and Its Effect on the Efficiency in a New Solar Still System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1501
Sara Ladouy and Abdelhamid Khabbazi
Collector Area and Storage Tank Volume Size in the Solar Air
Conditioning System: Case of Ouargla Town in Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1505
Yacine Marif, Mohammed Mustapha Belhadj, and Moussa Zerrouki
Models for Obtaining the Daily Global Solar Radiations in Clear Sky
in Sahara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1509
Djelloul Benatiallah, Ali Benatiallah, Bahous Nasri,
and Kada Bouchouicha
Feasability Study of Evaporative Cooling Under Algerian Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1513
Leila Merabti, Ala Bouhanguel, Walid Taane, and Mohamed Abbas
Simultaneous Decontamination of Seven Residual Antibiotics in Secondary
Treated Effluents by Solar Photo-Fenton and Solar TiO2 Catalytic Processes . . . . 1517
Bilel Moslah, Evroula Hapeshi, Amel Jrad, Despo Fatta-Kassinos,
and Abderrazek Hedhili
Characterization of the Catalytic Glass Plates GP-TiO2 Elaborated
by Heat Attachment Method: Application in the Photocatalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1519
Abdenour Aitatmane, and Saliha Bourouina-Bacha
Solar Adsorption Cooling System Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1523
Amal Bel Haj Jrad, Abdelaziz Zagnani, and Abdallah Mhimid
Solar Photocatalytic Degradation of Tartrazine Via Immobilized Catalyst . . . . . . . 1527
Ouassila Benhabiles, Nadia Chekir, Djilali Tassalit, Nachida Kasbadji Merzouk,
Meriem Ghenna, Anes Abdessemed, and Rachid Issaadi
Study of Pharmaceutical Pollutant Degradation in Solar
Immobilized Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1531
Nadia Chekir, Djilali Tassalit, Ouassila Benhabiles, Nachida Kasbadji Merzouk,
Sarah Mahidine, Madina Belmihoub, and Houria Habbi
The Landscape of the City of Biskra in Front of Proposal Strategies of Wind
and Solar Energy: Evaluation of the Quality of Energetic Landscape . . . . . . . . . . 1535
Souad Brahimi, Boudjemea Aichour, and Soumia Bouzaher
Experiences with the Borehole Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1539
Abdeen Omer
Contents xlv

Economic Feasibility of a Biogas System in a Small Palestinian

Poultry Farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1541
Rowayda Ali and Rashed Al-Sa’ed
Open Pond Culture of Green Algae Chlorella sp. Using Municipal
Wastewater as Medium in an Arid Desert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1545
Zinedine Omari, Djamal Zerrouki, and Mohammed Djaafri
Two-Stage Culture Strategy to Enhance Both Biomass and Lipid
Content of Microalgae for Biodiesel Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1549
Redouane Benhima, Hicham El Arroussi, Abdelaziz Smouni, and Najib Bendaou
Alkaline Pretreatment Effect on the Production of Biogas from the Sludge
of the Lagoon Station of Adrar City (Southwest of Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1553
Mohamed EL-Amine Dahou and Abdelkader Touzi
Sewage Sludge as Source of Energy: Experimental and Numerical Investigations
of Thermochemical Conversion of Sewage Sludge via Pyrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1557
Aïda Ben Hassen Trabelsi, Rym Zayoud, and Kaouther Zaafouri
Pyrolysis of Tunisian Date Palm Residues for the Production
and Characterization of Bio-Oil, Bio-Char and Syngas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1561
Gmar Bensidhom, Aïda Ben Hassen-Trabelsi, Maher Sghairoun,
Koray Alper, and Ismail Trabelsi
Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Variation in Switchgrass
(Panicum virgatum) for Lignin Biosynthesis-Involved Genes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1565
Bochra Amina Bahri, Guillaume Daverdin, Xiangyang Xu, Jan-Fang Cheng,
Kerrie W. Barry, E. Brummer Charles, and Katrien Martha Devos
Analysis of the Methanol Production Starting from SSC and Fluegas . . . . . . . . . . 1567
Carlo Borgianni, Giuseppe Cherubini, and Martino Paolucci
Biofuels and Bioenergy from Residual Biomasses: When a Waste Becomes
a Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1569
Laura Albo, Alessandra Verardi, Catia Giovanna Lopresto,
Maria Francesca Policicchio, Sudip Chakraborty, Stefano Curcio,
and Vincenza Calabrò
Mineral Composition, Growth Performance and Yield of Pleurotus ostreatus
on Rice Straw-Based Substrate Enriched with Natural Calcium Sources . . . . . . . . 1573
Arianne V. Julian, Michael R. Umagat, and Renato G. Reyes
Experimental Investigation of Palm Fiber Surface Treatment Effect on Thermal,
Acoustical, and Mechanical Properties of a New Bio-Composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1577
Marwa Lahoui, Magali Fois, Rim Ben Arfi, Laurent Ibos, and Achraf Ghorbal
Performance Analysis and Optimization of a Hybrid Solar Geothermal
Power Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1581
Rafika Maali, Tahar Khir, and Ammar Ben Brahim

Part VIII Sustainable Management of Marine Environments

and Coastal Areas
A Hierarchy of Models for the Numerical Modelling of the Tunisia
Marine Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1587
Ali Harzallah and Béchir Béjaoui
xlvi Contents

Water Masses Exchanges Within Boughrara Lagoon-Gulf of Gabes

System (Southeastern Tunisia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1589
Sana Ben Ismail, Cristèle Chevalier, Abdelfatteh Atoui, Jean-Luc Devenon,
Cherif Sammari, and Marc Pagano
Modeling Baroclinic Circulation off the Tunisian Coasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1591
Imen Ben Jaber, Jihene Abdennadher, and Moncef Boukthir
Simulation of Hydrodynamic Behavior Using Data from Coastal Weather
Stations at the Bejaia Bay, Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1595
Khalid Amarouche, Nour-El-Islam Bachari, and Fouzia Houma
A 2350-Year Sequence of Extreme Events Revealed by Lagoonal Deposits
in Northeastern Tunisia (Ghar el Melh Lagoon) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1599
Balkis Samah Kohila, Laurent Dezileau, Nejib Kallel,
and Soumaya Boussetta
Non-uniform Morphological Trend of Sheltered Microtidal Flats: Example
the Gulf of Gabes, Southern Mediterranean Coast, Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1603
Maher Gzam, Chadlia Ounissi, Said ben Hamed, Mona Angar, and Younes Jedoui
Physical and Numerical Modeling Complementarity for an Overtopping
Study of the Algerian Center Zone “The Site of the Sablettes” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1607
Abd El Alim Dahmani, Fouzia Bachari, Khoudir Mezouar, and Zahia Boudouma
Sedimentological Study for the Monitoring of the Sediment Transport
Pattern in the Lagoon of Bizerte (Northern Tunisia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1611
Nessim Douss, Oula Amrouni, Nadia Gaaloul, Alberto Sanchez, Béchir Bejaoui,
and Mohamed Moncef Serbaji
Estimation of Beach Erosion Due to Future Sea Level Rise in Morocco. . . . . . . . . 1615
Otmane Khalfaoui, Maria Snoussi, Otmane Raji, Latifa Flayou, and Sihame Kasmi
Risk Analysis of Antalya Konyaalti Beach in Turkey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1619
Serter Kocababa, Murat Uysal, and Nizar Polat
Monitoring of Coastal Erosion of Karasu Coast in Black Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1623
Murat Uysal, Nizar Polat, and Murat Aydın
Satellite Images Survey for the Identification of the Coastal Sedimentary
System Changes and Associated Vulnerability Along the Western Bay
of the Gulf of Tunis (Northern Africa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1627
Abderraouf Hzami, Oula Amrouni, Gheorghe Romanescu,
Cristian-Constantin Stoleriu, Mihu-Pintilie Alin, and Saâdi Abdeljaouad
Assessing Coastal Flood Vulnerability and Marine Erosion Risk.
Case of the Bay of Algiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1629
Farid Atroune, Mohamed Bouhmadouche, and Yacine Hemdane
Valuing the Economic Costs of Beach Erosion Related to the Loss
in the Tourism Industry: The Case of Tetouan Coast (Morocco) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1633
Latifa Flayou, Maria Snoussi, Raji Otmane, and Otmane Khalfaoui
Mathematical Model for Primary Production Within the Portuguese
Coastal Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1637
Jose Pinho, Diogo Neves, and Jose Vieira
Seasonal and Interannual Variability of Primary Production and Chlorophyll
Concentrations in the Algerian Basin: Application of Ocean Color . . . . . . . . . . . . 1641
Romaïssa Harid, Malik Aït Kaci, Mehdia Asma Keraghel, Mohamed Zerroukı,
and Fouzia Houma-Bachari
Contents xlvii

Salinity as a Growth-Regulating Factor of the Toxic Dinoflagellate

Alexandrium Minutum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1645
Moufida Abdennadher, Amel Bellaaj Zouari, Wafa Feki Sahnoun, and Asma Hamza
Swimming Behavior and Acetylcholinesterase Activity of the D-Larvae
of the Mediterranean Mussel Mytilus Galloprovincialis Exposed to Copper
and/or Silver at Different Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1649
Khouloud Boukadida, Jérôme Cachot, Alicia Romero Ramirez,
Christelle Clérandeau, and Mohamed Banni
Marine Anticancer Drug Research: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1651
Kartikay Pandey
Preliminary Analysis of the Nador Lagoon (NE Morocco) Trophic
Network with the Ecopath Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1653
Hanane Rhomad, Karima Khalil, Abdelhakd Egdadi, and Khalid Elkalay
An Ecopath Model For the Management of Moroccan Fisheries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1655
Khalid Elkalay, Ilham Zafzafi, Hanane Rhomad, Damsiri Zainab, and Khalil Karima
Spatiotemporal Variation of Physicochemical and Bacteriological Parametres
for Site Selection of Finfish Cage in Souahlia Bay, Chlef (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1657
Chahinez Laama and Nour El Islem Bachari
Population Dynamics of Two Lessepsian Migrant Goatfish Species;
Upeneus Pori and Upeneus Moluccensis from the Southeastern Mediterranean,
Port Said Region, Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1659
Sahar Fahmy Mehanna
Diagenetic Modeling of Organic Matter Recycling in Two Eutrophicated
Estuaries: Bioirrigation Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1663
Karima Khalil, Mélanie Raimonet, Anniet Laverman,
and Christophe Rabouille
Long Term Survey of Dissolved Nutrient (N, P, Si) Fluxes from Seybouse
and Mafragh Estuaries into Annaba Bay (NE Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1665
Mahlouf Ounissi, Aicha Beya Amira, and Ahcène Haridi
Organotin Pollution Along the Tunisian Coasts: Status of Imposex Before
and After the Ratification of the Anti-Fouling Systems (AFS) Convention . . . . . . . 1669
Youssef Lahbib, Sami Abidli, and Najoua Trigui El Menif
Application of Geochemistry to Characterize the Progressive
Paleoenvironmental Changes Linked to Abrupt Warming Hyperthermal
Event During the Latest Danian of Central Tunisia (Southern Tethys)
and Impact on Foraminifera Fauna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1673
Noura Kotti, Besma Mardassi, and Jamel Abdennaceur Ouali
Granulometric Analysis and Environtment of Deposits of Surface
Sediments of the Marchica Lagoon (North-East of Morocco) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1677
Asmae Aknaf, Mustapha Akodad, Hanane Ait Hmeid, Mostafa Layachi,
Abdelhakim Mesfioui, Karim Andich, and Mourad Baghour
Spatial Distribution and Pollution Assessment of Heavy Metals
in the Surface Marine Sediments of the Southern Coast of Sfax, Tunisia . . . . . . . . 1679
Ikram Neifar, Raja Zmemla, and Boubakker Elleuch
Characterization of Marine Dredged Sediment, from the Port of Kalâat
Andalous (Bay of Gulf of Tunis), Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1683
Oula Amrouni, Wième Ouertani, Alberto Sánchez, Lassaâd Chouba,
Abdelaziz Sebei, Waleed Chmingui, and Saâdi Abdeljaouad
xlviii Contents

Kalâat Andalous Harbor Lagoon Sediments: Quality and Characteristics . . . . . . . 1685

Samia Khsiba, Oula Amrouni, Karim Ben Mustapha, Nadia Gaâloul,
and Chrystelle Bancon-Montigny
Trace Metals Accumulation in Surface Sediments of the Gulf of Gabes,
Tunisia: Usefulness of Metal Sediment Fractionation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1687
Sirine Amri, Noureddine Zaaboub, and Walid Oueslati
Identification of Key Issues for Integrated Coastal Zone Management
in Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1691
María Merino, Roland Garnier, Ignacio Aguirre-Ayerbe, Raúl Medina,
and Mauricio González
The Contribution of Endemism in Biomimetic Eco-architecture Applied
to Coastal Tourist Facilities: Case of Ben M’hidi ZET in Skikda Town,
Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1693
Saida Teraa and Meriama Bencherif
Some Model Studies on Reinforced Dredged Soil for Sustainable
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1697
Bashir Ahmed Mir, Basit Majid Shah, and Faizan Amin Shah
Human Impact on the Morpho-Sedimentary Evolution on the Coastal Deltaic
Zones (Case of Application: Artificial Canal of Medjerda River, Tunisa) . . . . . . . 1701
Thouraya Benmoussa, Oula Amrouni, Abderraouf Hzami, Laurent Dezileau,
Gil Mahe, and Saâdi Abdeljaouad
Toward a Study of Environmental Impact of Conventional Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1705
Abdelmoula Ait Allal, Khalifa Mansouri, Mohamed Youssfi,
and Mohammed Qbadou
Toward a Study of Environmental and Social Impact of Autonomous Ship. . . . . . 1709
Abdelmoula Ait Allal, Khalifa Mansouri, Mohamed Youssfi,
and Mohammed Qbadou
Environmental Effects of Implementation of Offshore Wind Turbines
Close to Coastal Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1713
Gisele Alves and Slobodan B. Mickovski
The Global Phenomena of Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB): Environmental
and Socioeconomic Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1717
Leila Basti, Kiyohito Nagai, Jiyoji Go, Keita Higuchi, Sho Okano, Tatsuya Oda,
Toshiyuki Suzuki, and Satoshi Nagai

Part IX Remote Sensing and GIS for Geo-environmental Investigations

Finding Space to Grow Urban Hedges as a Natural Air Filter Along
Pedestrian Paths: A GIS Based Investigation of Cardiff City Centre, Wales . . . . . 1721
Muhammad Irfan, Hishiv Shah, Aleksandra Koj, and Hywel Thomas
Potentially Invasive Alien Plants Surveying and Monitoring
in the Agro-ecosystems of the Tunisian Sahel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1723
Najla Sayari and Mounir Mekki
Utilizing Remote Sensing at a Subsistence Farming Level to Explore
Child Undernutrition in the Context of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725
Raissa Sorgho, Franke Jonas, Seraphin Simboro, Sandra Barteit,
and Rainer Sauerborn
Modelling Bird Species Richness Using Satellite Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1729
Ibrahim Ozdemir, Ahmet Mert, Ulas Yunus Ozkan, Sengul Aksan, and Yasin Unal
Contents xlix

Applied of Non-parametric Kriging Method to Improve Soil Salinity Map:

The Case Study of the Lower Cheliff Plain, Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1733
Noureddine Koulla, Abdelhamid Bradaï, and Abdelkader Douaoui
A Hydrogeological Information System (HISM) Design and Implementation
for Groundwater Management of Monastir, Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1737
Imen Hentati, Nadia Trabelsi, Ibtissem Triki, and Moncef Zairi
Using Geographic Information System for Mapping Water Erosion
of Wadi Sahel-Soummam Watershed’s Soils (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1741
El Hadj Mokhtari, Belkacem Merzouk, Taraq Chikhi,
and Mohamed S. Hamiche
Burned Area Mapping Using Single-Date Principal Component Analysis . . . . . . . 1745
Mazari Aitkaci, Ioannis Z. Gitas, Amel Alioua, and Tammam Khaddaj
Use of GIS and Satellite Imagery in the Study of the Spatial Distribution
of Vegetation in the Entifa Forest (High Atlas Central, Morocco). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749
Mohammed Amine Slimani, Ahmed El Aboudi, Abdelmejid Rahimi,
and Zahra Khalil
Remote Sensing for Drought Assessment and Monitoring:
A Case of Botswana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1753
Sithabile Tirivarombo and Gladness Oromeng
Coastline Change of the Aksehir Lake (Southwestern Turkey)
Between 1984 and 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1757
Murat Uysal, Nizar Polat, and Mehmet Ali Dereli
Refining Surface Net Radiation Estimates in Arid and Semi-arid
Climates of Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1759
Ali-Akbar Sabziparvar, Foroogh Golkar, and William B. Rossow
Multi-level Risk Analysis and Sensitivity Mapping for the Mediterranean
Sea Basin—RAOP-MED Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1763
Kyriakos Ph. Prokopi, George G. Olympiou, and Costas N. Costa
Land Cover Change Detection in Tunisian Oases Through MODIS
Data (Products: MOD13Q1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1767
Cherine Ben Khalfallah, Dalel Ouerchefani, Khouloud Mazouzi, Eric Delaitre,
and Faiza Khebour-Allouche
Investigating the Morphological Changes of the Nile River from Aswan
High Dam to Delta Barrages, (Egypt) Using RS/GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1771
Abdelazim Negm, Mohamed Elsahabi, Neama Abd El-Basset, Reham El-Sayed,
Shenouda Ghaly, and Kamal Ali
The Use of Remote Sensing and GIS for the Mapping of Diachronic
Evolution from Wetlands to the Arid Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1775
Habib Oukba Kounta, Imed Eddine Nezli, Messaoud Hacini,
and Sultan Hasan Al Sultan
Vegetation Changes Detection in Gabes Oases Using EO1/Hyperion Data . . . . . . . 1779
Jouda Ben Arfa, Rim Katlane, Jean-Claude Berges, Emilie Lavie, Gerard Beltrando,
Gilles Arnaud-Fassetta, and Fouad Zargouni
Satellite-Derived Land Surface Temperature and Landscape
Characterization of National Capital Region (NCR), India Using
Multispectral and Thermal Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1783
Hoang Thi Hang, Atiqur Rahman, and Javed Mallick
l Contents

Land Use Land Cover Mapping of Borj Touil (Northern Tunisia)

Irrigated District with Reclaimed Water Using Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2
Satellite Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1787
Asma Bettaibi, Makram Anane, and Karim Ergaieg
Volcanic SO2 Conversion to Sulfate Aerosols: Impact on Nadir
TIR Satellite Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1791
Henda Guermazi, Pasquale Sellitto, Mohamed Moncef Serbaji, Bernard Legras,
and Farhat Rekhiss
Estimation of Dinoflagellate and Diatoms Algae in Algiers Bay
from Landsat Satellite Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795
Larbi Boufeniza Redouane, Fouzia Bachari Houma, Mohammad Alsahli,
Islam el Bachari Nour, Nesrine Chekroun, Siham Boudjema,
and Ghania Benm’barek
Lake Nubia Sediment Capacity Estimation Based on Satellite Remotely
Sensed Detected Bathymetry (Southern Egypt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1797
Abdelazim M. Negm, Mohamed A. Elsahabi, and Omar Makboul
Use of Remote-Sensing to the Study of Landuse Change
in the Lower-Cheliff Plain (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1801
Djamel-Eddine Mokhtari, Abdelkader Douaoui, Ibrahim Yahiaoui,
and Hafidha Guerziz
Assessment of Soil Erosion by Water Using RUSLE, Remote Sensing
and GIS in Gabes Coast-Southern Tunisia: Study Case of Oued
El Sourrag Watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1805
Emna Medhioub, Moncef Bouaziz, and Samir Bouaziz
Evaporation Estimation Using Landsat 8 Data and Its Contribution
to Salts Dynamics in the Lower Cheliff Plain (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807
Ibrahim Yahiaoui, Abdelkader Douaoui, Abdelhamid Bradaï, Abdelkrim Khaldi,
and Fella Mokhtari
Investigating Satellite Based Navigation Approach in Soil Loss
Predication—Case Study of Soan Watershed, Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811
Sheikh Saeed Ahmad and Hafsa Bashir
Flood Water Management in Arid Regions, Case Studies: Wadi Al Jizzi,
Oman, Wadi Abu Nsheifah, Saudi Arabia, and Wadi Dhuleil, Jordan . . . . . . . . . . 1813
Eyad Abushandi
Essay of Lineaments and Mega-Fractures Identification and Their Role
in the Water Upwelling and the Formation of the Sebkhats in Ouargla
Basin-Algeria Sahara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1815
Mohammed Hadj Kouider and Imed Eddine Nezli
Change Detection and Spatial Dynamics of Land Cover Degradation
in the Southeast of Aurès (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1819
Hassen Benmessaoud and Abdelhafid Bouzekri

Part X Environmental Impacts of Geo/Natural Hazards

(Earthquakes, Landslides, Volcanic and Marine Hazards)
Empirical Fragility Curves for Masonry Buildings in Slow-Moving
Landslide-Affected Areas of Southern Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1825
Settimio Ferlisi, Gianfranco Nicodemo, and Dario Peduto
Contents li

Identification of Expansive Soils as Weathering Product of Volcanic Materials

in Jatinangor Area, West Java, Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1829
Riyan Rizki Fauzi, R. Irvan Sophian, Dicky Muslim, Hendarmawan,
and Iyan Haryanto
Geospatial Approach on Landslide Susceptibility Zonation and Geo-design
in Semi-arid Mountainous Watershed, Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1833
Javed Mallick, Hoang Thi Hang, Saiful Islam, and Roohul Abad Khan
Landslide Susceptibility Mapping Using Analytic Hierarchy Process Method
in BBA-Bouira Region, Case Study of East-West Highway, NE Algeria . . . . . . . . . 1837
Lamri Dahoua, Savenko Viatcheslav Yakovitch, Riheb Hadji, and Zahri Farid
Spatio-temporal Analysis of Ground Movement Susceptibility
in the Kef Area (North West Tunisia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1841
Radhia Mansour, Nouha Brachen, and Abdesselem ElGhali
Rehabilitation of a Centenary Viaduct Affected by Landslides
in the City of Constantine (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1845
Abdallah Saihia
Landslide Hazard Zonation Mapping Using Frequency Ratio and Fuzzy
Logic Approach, A Case Study National Road n°11 (Bizerte-Béja:
Northern Tunisia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
Adel Klai, Mohamed Khaled Bouzid, Romdhane Haddad,
and Mohamed Chedly Rabia
Using GIS and RS for Slope Movement Susceptibility Mapping: Comparing
AHP, LI and LR Methods for the Oued Mellah Basin, NE Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . 1853
Riheb Hadji, Yacine Achour, and Younes Hamed
Saturated Sandy Soils Mechanical Instability Under Vibration Effect . . . . . . . . . . 1857
Mohammed Bousmaha, Hanifi Missoum, Renaud Toussaint, and Karim Bendani
Landslide Assessment and Hazard Zonation in Ebantu District
of Oromia Regional State Western Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1861
Misgana Firomsa and Asmelash Abay
GIS-Based Statistical Model for the Assessement of Landslide Susceptibility.
(Case Study: Laalam, East Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865
Safia Mokadem
Impact of Landslides on Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1869
Ankit Singh, Tarun Singh, and R. Nagarajan
The Role of Local Authorities in Communicating Landslide Hazard
to the Orang Asli (Indigenous) Community in Cameron Highlands . . . . . . . . . . . . 1873
Jamilah Ahmad and Habibah Lateh
An Artificial Neural Network Model for Predicting Safety Factor
of a Homogenous Earth Dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1877
Messaoud Djeddou, Abdelatif Zeroual, and Ali Fourar
Seismic Stability Analysis and Stabilization of an Unstable Urbanized Slope . . . . . 1881
Mohamed Khemissa and Ahmed Seddiki
New Relationship Between Fundamental Site Frequency and Thickness
of Soft Sediments from Seismic Ambient Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1883
Abd el-aziz Khairy Abd el-aal
lii Contents

Estimation of Site Effect Using Microtremor Technique at 15th May City,

Helwan, Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1887
Mohammed Atef, Khalid Omar, Abdelbassit Abudeif, and Mohsen Attia
Improved Crustal Structure Models in Western Part of Romania:
A Step Forward to Assessment of the Seismic Risk in an Earthquake
Endangered Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1891
Andrei Bala, Dragos Tataru, and Bogdan Grecu
Crustal Deformation Modelling by GNSS Measurements: Southwestern
Anatolia, Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1895
İbrahim Tiryakioglu, Engin Gulal, Halil Ibrahim Solak, and Caglar Ozkaymak
Current Tectonic Movements Monitoring in Aksehir-Sultandagi Fault
Zone After the February 2002 (Mw: 6.2) Earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1899
İbrahim Tiryakioglu, Tamer Baybura, Caglar Ozkaymak, Mustafa Yılmaz,
Mehmet Ali Uğur, Cemal özer Yiğit, Ahmet Anıl Dindar, Fatih Poyraz,
Engin Gulal, Hasan Sözbilir, Murat Uysal, and Burak Akpınar
Meeting Paraseismic Knowledge Needs of Algerian Architects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1903
Mohammed Benabdelfattah, Youcef Kehila, and Abdelkrim Makhloufi
Extreme Flood Events Reconstruction Spanning the Last Century
in the El Bibane Lagoon (Southeast of Tunisia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907
Aida Affouri, Laurent Dezileau, and Nejib Kallel
Modeling and Quantification of Hydro-Sedimentary Flow of Risk Areas
in the Catchment of Wadi Chemorah, Wilaya of Batna, Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1911
Faiza Balla, Nabil Kabouche, and Kamel Khanchoul
Analysis of Hydrosedimentary Indicators for the Study of Coastal Erosion:
Case of Bejaia Coast (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1913
Mohamed Bouhmadouche, Yacine Hemdane, and Farid Atroune
Quick Urban Flood Risk Assessment in Arid Environment Using HECRAS
and Dam Break Theory: Case Study of Daghbag Dam in Jeddah,
Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1917
Amro Elfeki, Anis Al-Shabani, Jarbou Bahrawi, and Saeed Alzahrani
Tsunami Evacuation Planning: Application to an Extreme Event
in the Western Mediterranean Sea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1921
Ignacio Aguirre-Ayerbe, Íñigo Aniel-Quiroga, and Mauricio González
Environmental Impact Assessment of Dairut Power Plant Project,
El-Beheira Governorate, Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1923
Mohamed Said Abbas

Part XI Environmental Health Sciences (Natural and Social Impacts

on Human Health)
Human Fibrosarcoma Targetting Integrins with Cucurbitacin B Purified
from Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1929
Imen Touihri-Barakati, Olfa Kallech-Ziri, Wiem Ayadi, Karim Hosni, and José Luis
Helminths in the Digestive Tract of Chickens in the Region of Sidi
Aissa (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1931
Ahlem Guerzou, Ilham Sahki-Benabbes, Samiha Ouahabi, Samira Allali,
and Salaheddine Doumandji
Contents liii

Extended- Spectrum Beta-lactamases- Producing Enterobacteriaceae

Isolated from a River Water Receiving an Effluent Treatment Plant . . . . . . . . . . . 1933
Abdelbasset Mechai, Manel Debabza, Hafiza Sedira, Sabrina Fadeleddine,
and Abdelouaheb Mechai
In Vitro Activity of Antifungal Combinations Against Planktonic Cells
of C. albicans Isolated from Medical Devices at the University Hospital
Center of Tlemcen (Algeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1935
Hidaya Fatima Zohra Touil, Kebir Boucherit, Zahia Boucherit-Othmani,
and Feriel Benmansour
Phenotypic Characterization of Gram Negative Bacilli Strains Isolated
from Dry Sludge of a Wastewater Treatment Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1937
Manel Debabza, Abdelbasset Mechai, Meriem Difallah, Hadjer Halaimia,
and Abdelouaheb Mechai
Study of the Phytosanitary Products and Livestock Growth
Hormones Impact on Tunisian Consumer Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1939
Meriem Salah, Sonia Boudiche, Sameh Amara, and Salwa Bornaz
Evaluation of the Anti-bacterial Activity of Thyme (Thymus Vulgaris)
and Rosemary (Romarinus Officinalis) Essential Oils on Pseudomonas
Aeruginosa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1941
Souad Djeghboub, Mustapha Oumouna, and Noureddine Benyahia
The New Epidemiological Challenges of the Tunisian School:
Are We Ready? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1943
Foued Maaoui, Imen Moumni, and Lasaad Mouelhi
Epidemiological and Climate Impact on the Distribution of Leishmaniasis
in the Middle Eastern Part of Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1945
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The Impact of Pesticides on Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1957
Lambrini Kourkouta, Alexandros Monios, Christos Iliadis, Paraskevi Dalagkozi,
Petros Ouzounakis, and Ioanna Papathanasiou
Cognitive Approaches to Architectural Conception: An Aid Tool
for Therapy of People with Depression, Case of the Inhabitants
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Talantikite Soundouss Ismahane and Chaouche Salah
Breast Cancer: Hereditary, Dietary and Environmental Risk Factors . . . . . . . . . . 1965
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Air Pollution Effects on Health in Kenitra, Northern Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1971
Rachida El Morabet, Mohamed Aneflouss, and Said Mouak
liv Contents

Impact of Climate Parameters on Respiratory Syncytial Virus

Bronchiolitis in Children During a 13-Year Surveillance Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1975
Ines Brini, Naila Hannachi, Muhammad Ijaz, Manel Marzouk, Asma Ferjeni,
Jihene Bouguila, Sonia Nouri Merchaoui, Lamia Boughamoura, Hassen Sboui,
and Jalel Boukadida
Environmental Impacts and Cost of Degradation-Remediation of Air
Pollution and Noise Pollution of the Urban Community of Fez (Morocco) . . . . . . . 1979
Bassma Antouh and Mostafa El Qandil
Poisoning by Dangerous Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1981
Christos Iliadis, Alexandros Monios, Areti Tsaloglidou, Konstantinos Koukourikos,
Eikaterini Georgoudi, and Lambrini Kourkouta
The Effects of Exposure of Health Care Professionals to Volatile
Anesthetic Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1985
Paraskevi Dalagkozi, Ilias Bogiatzis, Christos Iliadis, Areti Tsaloglidou,
Fotini Balaura, and Lambrini Kourkouta
Allergy to Mites, Sensitivity to Tropical Species in Two Regions in Algeria . . . . . . 1987
Sadjia Lahiani and Moreno Galleni
Blood Cr and Ni in Bladder Cancer and Prostate Adenoma Patients . . . . . . . . . . . 1989
Molka Feki-Tounsi, Pablo Olmedo, Fernando Gil, Mohamed-Nabil Mhiri,
Ahmed Rebai, and Amel Hamza-Chaffai
Organochlorine Pesticides and Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Human Adipose
Tissue from Northern Tunisia: Current Extent of Contamination and
Contributions of Socio-demographic Characteristics and Dietary Habits . . . . . . . . 1993
Amani Achour, Abdelkader Derouiche, Mohsen Sakly, Khémais Ben Rhouma,
and Olfa Tebourbi
Speciation, Oral Bioaccessibility and Health Risk Assessments of Cd, Pb
and Zn in Agricultural Soils Contaminated by Mine Tailings
in a Mediterranean Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1997
Hbaieb Rania, Soubrand Marilyne, Joussein Emmanuel, and Medhioub Mounir
Determination of Mercury in Human Blood and Hair Samples
from the People Living Environment Adjacent to Petrochemical
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Adel A. S. Banana, Efaq Noman, Adel Al-Gheethi, Radin Mohamed,
Amir M. K. Hashim, and Yousef Aribi Hassairi
Assessment of Radiological Hazards Associated with Using Pumice
Samples as Building Materials in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2003
Şeref Turhan
Ecological Survey of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in Environmental
Media: An Insight into Public Health Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2005
Victor Eshu Okpashi, David Mbu Akpo, Juliet Nwamaka Ozioko,
and Chigoziri Akudo Osuji
Dapagliflozin Influence on the Clinical Course of Diabetes Mellitus
Type 2 and Essential Hypertension in Patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2007
Natalia Hrigorivna Virstyuk and Aloysius Obinna Ikwuka
Corticotropic and Fecondity Responses of Footshocked Pregnant
Female Rats Treated with Harmine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2009
Rima Benatoui, Djouini Amina, Bairi Abdelmadjid,
and Tahraoui Abdelkrim
Contents lv

Chemical Risk Assessment Approaches Regarding Human Health

and the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2011
Anahit V. Aleksandryan and Vahagn Kh. Khachatryan
Risk Assessment at Exposure to Persistent Organic Pollutants: Human
Health and the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2015
Anahit V. Aleksandryan and Artak V. Khachatryan
Qualitative Study on the Management of Chemicals at Research Laboratories
at Casablanca Medecine and Pharmacy Faculty (Morocco) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2019
Hajar Housni, Meriem Amri, Nadia Jouti Tahiri, and Mohamed Tahiri
Heavy Metals’ Assessment in Environments Adjacent to Petrochemical
Industry Zone in Libya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2021
Adel A. S. Banana, Efaq Noman, Adel Al-Gheethi, Radin Mohamed,
and Amir MK Hashim
About the Editors

Dr. Amjad Kallel holds a B.Eng. in Georesources and Environ-

ment (1998) from the University of Sfax (Tunisia) and an M.Sc.
degree and a Ph.D. degree in Georesources and Environment
(2004) from Hokkaido University (Japan). He joined Venture
Business Laboratory (VBL) at Akita University, Japan (2005–
2006) as a researcher focusing on refining and recycling tech-
nologies for the recovery of rare elements from natural and sec-
ondary sources. Back in Tunisia, he worked at the University of
Gabes from 2006 to 2011, where he contributed to the elaboration
of teaching programs at the Higher Institute of Water Sciences
and Technologies of Gabes. Since 2011, he has been lecturing at
the Sfax National School of Engineering (University of Sfax,
Tunisia). There, he has also been involved in various research
projects related to Environmental Geology and Environmental
Geotechnics. In 2017, he has gained his Habilitation (HDR) in
Environmental Sciences from the University of Sfax, Tunisia. Dr.
Kallel has organized many prestigious workshops, seminars, and
international conferences. In 2016, Dr. Kallel joined the Arabian
Journal of Geosciences (Springer) as an Assistant Editor sup-
porting the Editor-in-Chief. Currently, he is supporting the edi-
torial board of the Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental
Integration (Springer).

Dr. Mohamed Ksibi obtained his M.Sc. (1989) and Ph.D.

(1993) degrees in Applied Chemistry from the University of
Poitiers, France. He also gained the Habilitation (HDR) in
Chemistry from the University of Sfax, Tunisia (2003). After-
ward, he received a 1-year postdoctoral research fellowship at the
National Institute of Scientific and Technical Research (Tunisia,
1995) and then was appointed as an Adjunct Professor in
Chemistry (1996), Assistant Professor (1999), Associate Profes-
sor (2004), and as a full Professor of Chemistry (2009) at the
University of Sfax, Tunisia. In 2011, he became Director of the
High Institute of Biotechnology at the University of Sfax. His
research focuses on chemicals in the environment, water and
wastewater treatment and reuse. He developed new methods for
toxicity assessment of water containing various pollutants (dyes,
phenolic and pharmaceutical compounds, pulp and paper mills

lvii
lviii About the Editors

pollute water, domestic wastewater, etc.) after applying different

wastewater treatment techniques. He has copublished about 60
papers in indexed journals. He has been involved in establishing
several joint scientific projects with Moroccan, Portuguese, Ger-
man, and Japanese scientists aiming at studying the quantification
and risk assessment of emerging organic contaminants and heavy
metals in soil and surface waters in Tunisia. Most recently, he has
been participating in the NATO-SfP project “Remediation Pro-
cesses in Uranium and other Mining Explorations”.

Dr. Hamed Ben Dhia is currently Professor Emeritus in the Sfax

National School of Engineering (University of Sfax, Tunisia). He
trained in Tunisia and then in France where he graduated and
obtained his Ph.D. in Geothermal Energy and Aquifers Modeling
from the Faculty of Sciences, Bordeaux and the Mining School of
Paris. His working career started from Libya in the sector of water
research within the Saharan region (1973–1974), continued in
Morocco with the National Phosphate Company (1975–1978),
and ended in Tunisia as a lecturer/professor at the University of
Sfax (1979–2012). Dr. Ben Dhia has been active in several
research projects focusing on Hydrogeology, Geothermal Energy,
Environmental Sciences, and Engineering Geology. He has cop-
ublished more than 180 papers at national and international
journals. Furthermore, he supervised and successfully handled
about 50 master and 30 doctoral theses. Dr. Ben Dhia was also
appointed as Head of the Earth Science Department (1982–1986)
and Director (1993–1997) of the National School of Engineers of
Sfax, and President (Rector) of the University of Sfax (1997–
2011). This long career permitted him to acquire solid skills and
expertise in several fields such as Natural Resources, Green
Growth, University Management, and Entrepreneurship
Learning/Coaching.

Dr. Nabil Khélifi holds a B.Sc. in Natural Sciences (2001) and an

M.Sc. in Earth & Environmental Sciences (2004) from the
University of Sfax (Tunisia). He received fellowships from the
global change System for Analysis, Research and Training
(START) in 2005 and the German Academic Exchange Service
(DAAD) from 2006 to 2010 to continue with his Ph.D. studies in
Marine Geosciences (specialty: Paleo-oceanography and Paleo-
climatology) at the University of Kiel in Germany. After com-
pleting his Ph.D. in 2010, Dr. Khélifi received a postdoctoral
research grant from the German Science Foundation (DFG) to
pursue his self-designed research projects at the GEOMAR Ocean
Research Centre in Kiel, Germany, which involved reconstructing
past changes in oceanography and climate in the North Atlantic
and the Mediterranean Sea using marine sediment samples
retrieved by the International Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) and
applying foraminiferal and geochemical proxy methods. He
subsequently published his research findings in prominent
About the Editors lix

scientific journals. Dr. Khélifi also received funding from the

European Science Foundation (ESF) and some European uni-
versities to co-organize with colleagues from Kiel, Bordeaux, and
Bristol two workshops on Pliocene climate in Bordeaux, France
(2009) and Bristol, UK (2013). In early 2014, he received the
Swiss Government Excellence Scholarship (SGES) to continue
with his research projects at the ETH in Zurich, Switzerland.
Although his interest in scientific research remained strong, in
March 2014 he decided to pursue his career as a Senior Pub-
lishing Editor with Springer (a part of Springer Nature) in Hei-
delberg, Germany. He is mainly responsible for developing
Springer’s publishing program in the Middle East & North Africa
(MENA). The program currently consists of developing 18 aca-
demic journals from the Arab World and publishing numerous
scientific books each year. Dr. Khélifi also helps researchers in
MENA countries publish their work by delivering educational
seminars for authors, reviewers, and journal editors to help
improve their publication output and quality. He is also a visiting
lecturer at the University of Carthage, Tunisia and King Saud
University, KSA, where he offers M.Sc./Ph.D. courses on
geo-communication/presentations and techniques for publishing
papers, and career professional development workshops. Most
recently, Dr. Khélifi was awarded the 2016 Africa Green Future
Leadership Award in recognition of work contributing to sus-
tainable development by advancing science and promoting pub-
lications in Africa and the Middle East. In 2017, Dr. Khélifi
launched the first Springer conference dedicated to promoting the
Euro-Mediterranean integration process, stressing the vulnera-
bility and need for proactive remediation of the Euro-
Mediterranean environment.
 Part I
Keynote Lectures and Workshops
 New Pathways in the Synthesis
of 2-Dimensional Materials

Suela Kellici

Keywords
Continuous hydrothermal flow synthesis



2-dimensional Graphene
Quantum dots MXene Supercritical

The two-dimensional (2D) class of materials exhibit a
wealth of remarkable properties (high surface area, high
Young modulus, chemical stability, quantum confinement
fluorescence) assigned to their atomic thickness and lateral
dimensions. However, these materials standing alone do not
possess the diversity of properties that are required to allow
integration in a range of potential technological applications.
Owing to the flexible and robust nature of these 2D
nanosheets it is possible to design new 2D based functional
materials with superior/new, tuneable properties from their
parent 2D. This can be achieved via bottom–up (atom by
atom growth) or top-down approaches (exfoliation of the
corresponding 3D material reduced to give an atom thick
monolayer 2D sheet) and/or in combination with structural
functionalisation.
Our approach for making 2D based nanocomposites uses
a clean, rapid technology as well as optimized traditional
synthetic routes (Vaughn et al. 2017; Kellici et al. 2014,
2016, 2017; Saada et al. 2015; Middelkoop et al. 2014). It
potentially enables new advanced 2D inorganic nanocom-
posite functional materials designed and engineered in a
more unique way by using superheated water with unusual
properties. It utilises a green, rapid and Continuous
Hydrothermal Flow Synthesis (CHFS) route for synthesis
of 2D-inorganic nanocomposites with superior properties to
those currently available. CHFS is an environmentally
benign, single step process that involves mixing (in a special
reactor) a flow of superheated water with a flow of
water-soluble precursor(s) to give controlled, continuous and
rapid (within seconds) synthesis of nanomaterials (Fig. 1).
This system offers a variety of instant controls (temperature,
pressure, residence time, reactant concentration) that allows
a high degree of tailoring/functionalisation of the 2D mate-
rials (oxidation, composition, surface area, etc.) in their
design to be fit for purpose. Less than 1% of hydrothermal
methods reported in the literature employ CHFS as a route to
material synthesis. The process is advantageous; it does not
use a complex and lengthy process (is a continuous process),
nor is it potentially explosive (uses supercritical water) and
limits the use of harmful, toxic chemicals (uses metal salts or
biomass derivatives). This single step synthetic approach not
only enables control over oxidation state of materials (e.g.
graphene), but also offers an optimal route for homoge-
neously producing and depositing highly crystalline nanos-
tructures into 2D-materials.

S. Kellici (&)
Advanced Materials Research Centre, School of Engineering,
London South Bank University, 103 Borough Road,
London, SE1 0AA, UK
e-mail: kellicis@lsbu.ac.uk
URL: http://www.nano2d.co.uk

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 3

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_1
4 S. Kellici

Fig. 1 Electron microscopy (a) (b)

images of a MXene (inset Mxene
rods), b h-BN and inset
corresponding 3D printed
compound, c Ag-graphene, d 3D
printed graphene nanocomposites

(c) (d)

G layer

Acknowledgements SK would like to thank all the collaborators and
co-authors as stated in the references. She also gratefully acknowledge
the financial support provided by LSBU and all the corresponding
funders.
References
Kellici S, Acord J, Ball J, Reehal H, Morgan D, Saha B. RSC Adv.
2014;4:14858–61.
Kellici S, Acord J, Vaughn A, Power N, Morgan D, Heil T, Facq S,
Lampronti G. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2016;8(29):19038–46.
Kellici S, Acord J, Ball J, Power NP, Morgan D, Coppo P, Heil T,
Saha B. RSC Adv. 2017;7:14716–20.
Middelkoop V, Tighe C, Kellici S, Barnes P, Darr JA. J Supercrit
Fluids. 2014;87:118–28 (Editor’s-in-chief feature article).
Saada R, Kellici S, Morgan D, Heil T, Saha B. Appl Catal B.
2015;168–169:353–62.
Vaughn A, Ball J, Morgan D, Heil T, Lampronti G, Raston C, Power N,
Kellici S. Chem A Eur J. 2017;23(34):8128–33 (Frontispiece).
Author Biography
Dr. Suela Kellici is Senior Lecturer
and head of the Nano2D group at Lon-
don South Bank University (LSBU)
[www.nano2d.co.uk]. Dr. Kellici is an
expert in innovative green supercritical
fluid technologies and materials chem-
istry. She has a degree in Chemistry and
Ph.D. in Materials Chemistry (both
from Queen Mary University of Lon-
don). She then worked (3 years) on a
successful EPSRC funded project at
University College London, where she
made extensive scientific contributions
in combinatorial synthesis of nanoma-
terials. Dr. Kellici sits on the Editorial
Board for the Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration,
she is Postgraduate Research Director for her School, Fellow of the Higher
Education Academy and coordinator of outreach and Ph.D. students related
activities within LSBU and externally. Dr. Kellici has been awarded several
prizes for her work as well as recipient of financial awards from various
funding bodies. The research in her group is focused in designing and
discovering advanced functional nanomaterials (3D, 2D, 1D and 0D) using
a target-oriented approach and technologies that provide effective solutions
for energy, biomedical and environmental applications.
 Environmental Risk Assessment of Pesticides
in Soil: Does It Have to Be Different
in Different Regions?

Jörg Römbke

Keywords
European Union Mediterranean Regulations Agriculture

In the European Union (EU) the environmental risk of
chemicals is regulated in various ways. Probably the most
complex approach is in place for pesticides, mainly because
these chemicals differ from other chemical groups by three
reasons (European Community Council 2009):
– They are intended to harm organisms, i.e. those which
are considered to be impacting agriculture. However,
many of the pest species affected by pesticides belong to
the same taxonomic and ecological groups being
responsible for many soil functions and services.
– They are also directly distributed in the environment,
usually by spraying, but also in various other ways such
as a coating on seed material.
– Since their effects are only acting against the pests when
being applied regularly the amount of pesticides ending
up in the environment is high.
Due to the long experience with this very detailed
approach the results of the EU ERA for pesticides are often
taken over by other countries (e.g. in Africa), but is this
procedure reliable?
The focus of this contribution is on the compartment soil,
mainly because the whole environment (i.e. limnic as well as
marine surface waters and sediments, groundwater, air and
the soi) is too complex to be covered here.
The main questions of this paper are summarized as
follows:
– Can (and if yes: how) regional differences (e.g. regarding
ecological or agricultural factors) influence the perfor-
mance or the outcome of pesticide ERA?
J. Römbke (&)
ECT Oekotoxikologie GmbH, Flörsheim am Main, Germany
e-mail: j-roembke@ect.de
– How do ecological and agricultural differences influence
the pesticide ERA within the European Union?
Based on the answers to these questions it will be dis-
cussed whether and if yes, how, the ERA of pesticides has to
be modified in the Mediterranean regions (both inside and
outside the European Union).
This work is a theoretical discussion of data and experi-
ences available in the open literature, in particular regulatory
documents of the European Union. In addition, a literature
review has been made regarding the pecularities of the ERA
in the compartment soil in different regions. Finally, examples
from our own work both in Central and Southern Europe as
well as in the tropics have been taken into account.
The soil compartment has been defined as follows: It is
the uppermost layer of the earth crust consisting of three
media (bulk material, water and air) plus dead and living
organic matter (ISO 2015). In terrestrial ecotoxicology the
soil includes the mineral soil, the litter and the herb layer.
However, the focus of this contribution is on the soil
invertebrates, their biodiversity, functions and, finally, their
services (EFSA 2017).
The European Union can be regionally divided in various
ways, depending on the specific regulation and their aims.
Best known is the regulatory distinction between a Northern,
Central and Southern zone, which is done on the level of
individual countries. Other regionalisations focus on climatic
or ecological factors (see Annex 1 of EC 2009), including
the distribution of organisms (mainly plants) (e.g. Toschki
et al. 2015). However, with few exceptions the implemen-
tation of these regional differences in EU pesticide regula-
tions is clearly improvable.
From a scientific point of view it became clear from the
literature search that the ERA of pesticides in soil depends
(at least) on the following factors: soil properties (e.g. tex-
ture, pH) as well as climatic conditions (e.g. soil moisture)

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 5

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_2
6 J. Römbke
influence both the fate (and thus exposure) and the effects of
pesticides on soil (Römbke et al. 2005).
It is often overlooked that the biodiversity (and thus the
functions and services) of soil organisms also differs geo-
graphically, partly in reaction to soil and climatic factors
(EFSA 2017). Last but not least the respective agricultural
practices do affect this already very complex situation, either
directly by impacting organisms or indirectly by changing
soil properties. For example, Chelinho et al. (2011) deter-
mined the effects of different soil properties on the avoidance
behavior and the reproduction of an earthworm and an
enchytraeid species, trying to identify suitable reference soils
for a pesticide ERA in Mediterranean regions.
Without going into details it can be included that regional
differences in abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic factors can
affect the fate of pesticides in soil as well their effects on soil
organisms, meaning that these differences should be con-
sidered in pesticide ERA. Since details of this implementa-
tion are not yet clear, proposals will be made on how to
improve the ERA process but keep it at the same time
practical (e.g. by using a tiered approach). These ideas will
include the selection of representative reference soils and test
conditions for the Mediterranean regions. In addition it has
to be asked whether the range of standard test species used
so far is sufficient. In this context comparisons with current
developments in tropical soil ecotoxicology might be helpful
(Römbke et al. 2005; Jaabiri Kamoun et al. 2017).
References
Chelinho S, Domene X, Campana P, Natal-da-Luz T, Scheffczyk A,
Römbke J, Andrés P, Sousa JP. Improving ecological risk
assessment in the mediterranean area: selection of reference soils
and evaluating the influence of soil properties on avoidance and
reproduction of two oligochaete species. Envir Toxicol Chem.
2011;30:1050–8.
EC (European Community). Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009 of the
European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009
concerning the placing of plant protection products on the market
and repealing Council Directives 79/117/EEC and 91/414/EEC
(2009).
EFSA PPR (European Food and Safety Authority, Panel on Plant
Protection Products and their Residues). Scientific opinion address-
ing the state of the science on risk assessment of plant protection
products for in-soil organisms. EFSA J. 2017;15:4690,
225 pp. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4690.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization). Soil quality—
vocabulary. ISO 11074. Geneva, Switzerland; 2015.
Jaabiri Kamoun I, Jegede OO, Owojori OJ, Bouzid J, Gargouri-Bouzid
R, Römbke, J. Effects of deltamethrin, dimethoate and chlorpyrifos
on survival and reproduction of the Collembolan Folsomia candida
and predatory mite Hypoaspis aculeifer in African and European
soils. Integ Envir Assess Manag (IEAM). 2017 (in press).
Römbke J, Waichman AV, Garcia MVB. Risk assessment of pesticides
for soils of the central Amazon, Brazil: Comparing outcomes using
temperate and tropical data. Integ Envir Assess Manag (IEAM).
2005;4:94–104.
Toschki A, Jänsch S, Roß-Nickoll M, Römbke J, Züghart W.
Possibilities of using the German federal states’ permanent soil
monitoring program for the monitoring of GMO. Environ Sci Eur.
2015;26(27):1–13.
Author Biography
Dr. Römbke has a Ph.D. and a Diploma
in Biology from the University of
Frankfurt a.M.. In 1994, he co-founded
ECT Oekotoxikologie GmbH (located in
Flörsheim/Germany) as a private contract
research laboratory, where he is still one
of two Managing Directors. Dr. Römbke
is responsible for ecotoxicological effect
and fate tests as well as the environmental
risk assessment of chemicals (pesticides,
heavy metals, or pharmaceuticals) work-
ing both for chemical industry and for
national and international governmental
authorities. He has published about 150
papers in indexed journals. Dr. Römbke
is specialized in the taxonomy, biogeography and ecology of soil fauna, in
particular Oligochaeta such as earthworms and Enchytraeidae. He is
involved in several ecological and ecotoxicological field studies in Ger-
many, other European countries, Brazil (Amazonas, Parana) and North
Africa, most recently the EU-FP7 project EcoFINDERS. He is especially
interested in the development and standardization of ecotoxicological test
methods as well as in the international harmonization of methods for bio-
logical soil monitoring, serving e.g. as chair of ISO TC 190/SC4 (the
committee responsible for biological methods).
 New Challenges for the Ecological Risk
Assessment of Plant Protection Products
to Soil Organisms in the EU

José Paulo Sousa, Silvia Pieper, and Maria Arena

Ecological risk assessment of Plant Protection Products
(PPPs) in the EU faces new and interesting challenges, and
the soil compartment is no exception. Aiming to comply
with the general protection goals of the new EU PPP Reg-
ulation 1107/2009 (that replaced the Directive 91/414/EEC),
and to increase the ecological relevance of risk assessment
by incorporating recent scientific knowledge, a new ERA
scheme for the soil compartment must be developed and
implemented soon. The European Food Safety Authority,
via its Panel on Plant Protection Products and their Residues
(PPR Panel) and its Working Group on “Non Target
Arthropods and In-soil organisms” took the job in hand to
develop a Scientific Opinion addressing the state of the
science on risk assessment of PPPs for in-soil organisms
(Panel 2016). The Scientific Opinion will be the basis for the
future development of a practical Guidance, by EFSA, on
how to perform the assessment of the risk for soil organisms
exposed to PPPs, revising the Guidance document on ter-
restrial ecotoxicology currently in place (EC [European
Commission] 2002).
This contribution intends to present the process behind
the development of the Scientific Opinion and its major
outcome, focusing on the development of Specific protection
Goals (SPGs), research needs, and a proposal for a general
ERA framework on how the risk for in-soil organisms
should be addressed in an improved assessment strategy.
The first stage of this work was to develop Specific
Protection Goals for in-soil organisms. For executing the
task, the Working Group of the PPR Panel reviewed the
J. P. Sousa (&)
Centre for Functional Ecology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra,
Portugal
e-mail: jps@zoo.uc.pt
S. Pieper
Federal Environment Agency, UBA, Dessau-Roßlau, Germany
e-mail: silvia.pieper@uba.de
M. Arena
European Food Safety Authority, Parma, Italy
e-mail: Maria.ARENA@efsa.europa.eu
current environmental risk assessment, identified key drivers
that sustain important soil ecosystem services in agricultural
landscapes and developed proposals for SPG options for
in-field and off-field areas. This was done following the
procedure developed in the EFSA PPR Panel in 2010 (EFSA
PPR Panel [EFSA Panel on Plant Protection Products and
their Residues] 2010).
To identify data gaps and research needs, and to develop
a general ERA framework for in-soil organisms (including
microorganisms) the Working Group reviewed available
knowledge on ecology, ecotoxicology and exposure of
in-soil organisms in agricultural landscapes, focusing espe-
cially on species (group) traits determining the organisms’
vulnerability to PPPs.
Based on the overarching ecosystem services concept,
boosted in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), the
Working Group identified those ecosystem services that could
potentially be directly or indirectly (e.g. via trophic interac-
tions) affected by the normal agricultural use of PPPs. The
groups of in-soil organisms that are key drivers or service
providing units (SPUs) for those ecosystem services were then
identified. Specific protection goal (SPG) options were pro-
posed for each combination of a key driver and ecosystem
service. SPGs were identified for earthworms, enchytraeids,
micro and macroarthopods, slugs and snails, nematodes, fungi
including mycorrhizae and bacteria and archaea.
During the development of the opinion, several research
needs covering different aspects in the context of pesticides
risk assessment for in-soil organisms have been identified.
Some of those needs, such as standardisation of toxicity tests
with additional species to the standard ones (particular atten-
tion to microorganisms and invertebrate tests with isopods and
mites exploring different exposure routes), should be priori-
tised before the development of the guidance document.
The Working Group concluded that, for the time being,
different sources of uncertainties needed to be addressed
specifically in an amended risk assessment scheme. Having
highly diverse soil organisms communities, exposed in the
field to the intended PPP field rates, it is important to:

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 7

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_3
8 J.P. Sousa et al.
(i) tackle effects on a large number of species, displaying
different traits and linked to each other by complex inter-
actions and (ii) to address the long term exposure regime of
in-soil organisms species.
The proposed scheme has two components: (i) assessment
of effects in laboratory, field or semi-field studies; (ii) assess-
ment of long-term effects using population modelling. The
first component, which has the goal of assessing the effects of
(active substances in) PPP on in-soil organisms’ communities,
addresses possible direct and indirect effects of intended PPP
uses. The second component of the scheme addresses the
effect of year on year application of PPPs in a so-called ‘system
approach’ with appropriate population models. A parallel
assessment of long-term effects on soil organisms species is
needed, since it addresses uncertainties in the risk assessment
that have to be taken into account at lower tiers.
Moreover, it is noted that the risk posed by PPPs and their
active substances to in-soil organisms—soil fauna and
microorganisms—is currently assessed separately for each
‘group’ of the in-soil organisms’ community. Macrofauna
(earthworms), mesofauna (collembola and mites) and
microorganisms are considered independently in their own
risk-assessment schemes from lower to higher tiers,
depending on which group was indicated to be at risk at the
first assessment step. As a consequence, the interactions
between the components of the soil biocoenosis are not
addressed so far, and the detection of possible indirect effects
of PPPs use is not possible. It is recommended that higher
assessment tiers should address interactions between species
and indirect effects via food-web disruption.
Specific Protection Goal (SPG) options for in-soil
organisms living in-field and in off-field areas to be con-
sidered in the risk assessment of in-soil organisms exposed
to chemical PPPs have been proposed. Options are given
regarding the magnitudes of in-field effects that can be suf-
fered by key drivers without severely compromising the
ecosystem-service performance. Several research needs were
identified and should be prioritised before the development
of the ERA guidance document.
The PPR Panel and its Working Group on in-soil organisms
has proposed an amended risk assessment strategy for in-soil
organisms living in-field and in off-field areas and exposed to
(active substances in) PPP intended uses. Different compo-
nents of the risk assessment address different sources of
uncertainty in the extrapolation from measurement endpoints
to the proposed specific protection goals for in-soil organisms.
Available knowledge on the exposure of organisms in the soil
profile and litter layer has been reviewed and appropriate links
between exposure and effect assessment for different in-soil
organisms’ groups are identified.
References
EC (European Commission). Guidance document on terrestrial eco-
toxicology under Council Directive 91/414/EEC
(SANCO/10329/2002) revision 2, final, 2002;1–39.
EFSA PPR Panel. (Draft) Scientific opinion addressing the state of the
science on risk assessment of plant protection products for in-soil
organisms. EFSA J. 2016;277 pp. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/
default/files/consultation/160503.pdf.
EFSA PPR Panel (EFSA Panel on Plant Protection Products and their
Residues). Scientific opinion on the development of specific
protection goal options for environmental risk assessment of
pesticides, in particular in relation to the revision of the guidance
documents on aquatic and terrestrial ecotoxicology
(SANCO/3268/2001 and SANCO/10329/2002).
EFSA J. 2010;8:1821 [1855 pp].
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). Ecosystems and human
well-being: biodiversity synthesis. Ecological Management &
Restoration, vol 6. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC;
2005, pp. 1442–7001, 226–227.
Author Biography
José Paulo Sousa Professor at the
Department of Life Sciences—Univer-
sity of Coimbra (UC), and a senior
researcher at CFE-Centre for Functional
Ecology. With over 140 papers pub-
lished in indexed journals, he has been
developing research on soil ecology and
soil ecotoxicology. On soil ecology, his
activities are focused on studying chan-
ges on soil biodiversity patterns (using
soil invertebrates and trait based
approaches) to assess changes in soil
quality derived from changes in land-use
and landscape fragmentation in agricul-
tural and forest systems. More recently he has been interested in evaluating
effects of extreme climatic events on soil organisms and service provision in
agro-forest systems (in Mediterranean and sub-tropical systems). Regarding
soil ecotoxicology, he has been working mainly in the Mediterranean region
and the tropics (mainly Brazil) to assess effects of chemical substances
(mainly pesticides) and wastes and to integrate in ERA schemes of con-
taminated soils. Current interests include assessing landscape resilience
towards habitat change and pesticide use regarding biodiversity and service
provision, especially pollination and pest control in Mediterranean systems
and evaluating interaction between climate change and pesticide use on soil
communities and service provisioning. He is a member of several European
Workgroups responsible for the elaboration of test guidelines with soil
invertebrates, published by ISO and OECD. Since 2009 is an external expert
of the EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) attached to the Scientific
Panel for Pesticides, being involved in the elaboration of the new technical
guidance documents for pesticide registration in Europe. Since 2014 he has
been appointed head of the thematic panel for Pesticides and GMOs for the
Portuguese Food Safety Agency (ASAE). Besides doing active research, he
is also involved in consulting involving both prospective (for Portuguese
paper industry and Shell Thiogro) and retrospective risk assessment (for
PETROBRÁS) activities.
 Hydrogeochemical Assesment
of Groundwater Quality: A Case Study
of a Wetland System in Central Italy
Maurizio Barbieri



Keywords
Coastal wetland Central Italy
Speciation Seawater intrusion
Wetland environments are important ecological systems,
with high and ecotone characteristics. Moreover, many
wetlands are subjected to intense human transformations and
it is important to focus special attention on the long-term
effects of human activities (Barbieri et al. 2013). The Palo
Laziale wood, located in the coastal area near Rome (Italy),
represents one of the few remaining examples of Mediter-
ranean wetland. This area, supported by a water table located
near the surface is characterized by natural ponds and rep-
resents a good example of a coastal wetland system in
central Italy (Barbieri et al. 2013). On the basis of the good
conservation status, it was identified in 1995 as a site of
Community Importance (SCI) according to the European
Commission Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). In the last
years, the intense human transformations and activity with
artificial withdrawal of irrigation water has changed the
geochemical conditions of the aquifer of the Palo Laziale
wood. To preserve the biodiversity of the Palo Laziale area,
an integrated hydrogeochemical with an isotopic (87Sr/86Sr)
study was carried out in 2010 (Barbieri et al. 2013). The
geochemical and the strontium isotope ratio of the water
samples suggested that the aquifer is superficial and is
contained in the uppermost 25 m of the Quaternary deposits.
The Pliocene deposits occurring at a depth of 28 m function
as an aquiclude. Although the system shows no evidence of
contamination by seawater, the withdrawal of the water from
the wells could rapidly compromise the system and produce
conditions under which seawater intrusion would be irre-
versible. On the basis of the 2010 results, in 2016 was
selected three well (C8, C9 and C12) to work on the
M. Barbieri (&)
Department of Earth Sciences, Sapienza University, Piazzale Aldo
Moro 5, Rome, Italy
e-mail: maurizio.barbieri@uniroma1.it
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_4



Hydrogeochemistry Water quality
elements speciation to understand if there is some new ele-
ment that suggest evidence of contamination by seawater.
The water samples were collected in laboratory certified
clean bottles and labeled as to the well depth and location,
date and time of sample collection, analyses to be performed,
and field preservation performed, if any (APHA, 1995).
Each sample was filtered through 0.45 lm pore size mem-
brane filters and acidified with concentrated nitric acid
(Ultrapur, Merck, v/v) to pH < 2 and stored at 4 °C until
analyses by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrome-
ter. An ICP-MS (Thermo Scientific Instruments, X-Series II)
was used for the determination of major, minor and trace
elements in water sample (USEPA 2002; WHO 1996). The
chemical analyses were carried out in the laboratory of
Geochemistry of the “La Sapienza” University (Rome). For
this work, the software PHREEQC (Version 3, 1999) was
used to analyse the thermodynamic equilibrium of aquifer
with quantitative analysis of the speciation.
State speciation of the analyzed metal was extremely
variable. Many of the minor and trace elements speciation
have a nearly equal in all three wells considered, while for
others the situation changes. Increases, for example, in the
concentration of calcium bound to sulfates in the C9 well and
the same is true for copper, magnesium, strontium and zinc. In
the well C9 also increases the concentration of cadmium to the
chloride, copper bound to carbonates, metallic iron and zinc
bound to bicarbonate. In the well C12, however, iron is pre-
sent in oxyanion form, increases the concentration of man-
ganese and zinc bound to carbonates. Well C8 does not show
particular changes in speciation than the other two tested.
To verify the extent of a possible mixing between the
aquifer and the salt water PHREEQC inverse modeling was
used. The well C9 was chosen as end member relying on the
results from descriptive statistics of the selected trace ele-
ments (Table 1) and from some critical issues.
9
10 M. Barbieri

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the trace elements (Li, B and Sr) for the waters sampled
Mean Standard deviation Coefficient of variation Minimum 1st quartile (Q1) Median 3rd quartile (Q3) Maximum
C8 (9)
Li 11.7 1.5 0.1 10.1 10.9 11.5 12.1 15.1
B 110.7 24.3 0.2 85.7 107.2 108.4 110.5 169.7
Sr 678 238 0.4 439 557 614 764 1243
C9 (10)
Li 13.9 2.4 0.2 10.0 12.0 14.1 15.3 18.2
B 179.4 37.2 0.2 125.8 149.3 185.9 198.7 241.1
Sr 1545 593 0.4 760 1256 1474 1529 2995
C12 (8) 11.0
Li 8.3 1.5 0.2 6.2 7.5 7.8 9.4 188.0
B 148.1 24.6 0.2 108.5 136.3 145.5 162.4 188
Sr 515 218 0.4 265 403 455 580 977
In the first column, the number in brackets shows the total samples. All concentrations are in lg/l

In particular: PHREEQC (Version 3)–A computer program for speciation,

batch-reaction, one-dimensional transport, and inverse geochemical.
1999. https://wwwbrr.cr.usgs.gov/projects/GWC_coupled/phreeqc/.
• It is close to the coastline (300 m); USEPA. National primary drinking water standards, USEPA OPffice of
• It is 25 m deep; Water, US Environmental Protection Agency, EPA816-F-02; 2002.
• Undergoes a large quantity of levy during the summer WHO. Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Health criteria and other
(Barbieri et al. 2013). supporting information, 2nd edn. Geneva: WHO;1996.

It’s possible to say that the average between the sets

proposed by the program realistically reflect the trend of the
C9 parameters considered. So if the sea water was indeed
mixed with C9, it would give a contribution of 2.5%.
This study suggests that all wells are in the same super-
ficial aquifer separated from the deep aquifer from the blue
clays, marly clays and blue-gray marl of the Pliocene, which
act as aquitard between the deep aquifer and the surface
carbonate aquifer.
Depth, proximity to the coastline and pumping activities
are the three main factors that influence the chemical and
physical parameters of the wells analyzed. The wells cross
through the Holocene alluvial deposits and the sandy orga-
nogenic limestone facies but do not reach the deep aquifer or
salt water.
The comparison of the 2010 and 2016 results confirm that
the system appears without alterations in its function. The
contamination by seawater is very low. These results indi-
cate that geochemical approach is an important tool in water
resources assessment.
References
Barbieri M, Battistel M, Garone A. The geochemical evolution and
management of a coastal wetland system: a case study of the Palo
Laziale protected area. J Geochem Explor. 2013;126–127:67–77,
ISSN: 0375-6742. doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.12.014.
Author Biography
Dr. Barbieri holds a degree in Geolog-
ical Sciences (1994) and a Ph.D. degree in
Earth Sciences (1998) from Sapienza
University of Rome (Italy). He is currently
Associate Professor of Environmental
Geochemistry and Hydrogeochemistry at
Sapienza University of Rome (Italy). His
current research focuses on the application
of the geochemistry methodologies in the
characterization of environmental prob-
lems. In particular, he studied the distri-
bution of elements and isotopes in the
Earth systems with emphasis on the use
abundances and isotopic ratios in defining
the interaction between different reservoirs (mantle, crust, atmosphere ad
hydrosphere). He has also related interests in environmental geochemistry and
Health studying the role of toxic trace elements (e.g. As, B and Hg), deriving
from hydrogeochemical anomalies of natural origin, and on water quality. He
is an Environmental Advisor (Hydrogeochemistry) for the International Pro-
ject (2016–2019) SECOSUD II—Conservation and equitable use of biological
diversity in the SADC region. The project is financed by the Italian Agency
for Development Cooperation and implemented through Eduardo Mondlane
University, SouthAfrican National Park and Sapienza University of Rome. He
was a Scientific Coordinator (2014–2016) for the Geochemical model of the
Vico Lake (Central Italy), with particular regard to environmental arsenic
(Client: Regional Agency for Environmental Protection of Lazio), and a
Scientific coordinator for the Water Unit of the International Project (2012–
2014): Institutional Support to the management of Protected Areas in Albania
funding from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). In
2017 Dr. Barbieri joined the AJGS as an Associate Editor responsible for
evaluating submissions in the fields of Environmental Geochemistry and
Hydrogeochemistry/Water Quality.
 Novel Ozone Oxidation Process for Emerging
Contaminants Removal in Water
Chedly Tizaoui



Keywords
Emerging contaminants Estrone (E1) 17b-estradiol (E2) 17a-ethinylestradiol (EE2)
Liquid-liquid extraction Ozone Steroid hormones Wastewater
In recent years concerns have grown over the occurrence in
water bodies of micropollutants, also termed as emerging
contaminants (ECs), because of their adverse effects on the
environment and humans (Luo et al. 2014; Klatte et al. 2017;
Tijani et al. 2013). ECs encompass a vast and expanding list
of man-made and natural substances such as pharmaceuti-
cals, steroid hormones, personal care products, plasticizers,
pesticides and many other substances. They exist in water
bodies at very low concentrations ranging from sub-ng/L to
few lg/L. Exposure to these substances, despite their low
concentrations, resulted in effects such as intersex in fish
(Harries et al. 1997; Jobling et al. 2009), disruption of the
endocrine system, reduction in sperm count in males (Swan
et al. 1997; Uzumcu et al. 2004), cancers (http://www.who.
int/ceh/publications/endocrine/en/) and proliferation of
antimicrobial resistance genes (Malik et al. 2015). Of par-
ticular concerns are the natural and synthetic estrogens
which are extremely potent substances that disrupt the
endocrine system. Although scientists have raised their
concerns about exposure to pharmaceuticals via environ-
mental media as early as the 1950s, it is only at the begin-
ning of this century that the topic has gained significant
interest from the scientific community, water industry, and
regulatory bodies. This is largely due to the recent
advancement in analytical instrumentation which provided
the tools necessary to accurately analyze and identify these
substances, commonly found at extremely low concentra-
tions. The main source of ECs in the aquatic environment is
effluent discharge from wastewater treatment plants
(WWTPs). This is because conventional WWTPs were
designed to reduce mainly the BOD parameters and suspend
solids rather than remove specific substances such as ECs.
Development of new technologies to efficiently and eco-
nomically remove MPs from wastewater is hence very
C. Tizaoui (&)
College of Engineering, Systems and Process Engineering
Research Centre (SPEC), Swansea University,
Swansea, SA1 8EN, UK
e-mail: c.tizaoui@swansea.ac.uk
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_5






important to the wastewater industry since regulations aimed
at controlling the discharge of selected ECs have started to
emerge (WTM Audenaert et al. 2014; https://ec.europa.eu/
jrc/en/news/first-watch-list-emerging-water-pollutants). In
this study we will discuss an ozone-based novel technique to
degrade three potent estrogenic hormones including Estrone
(E1), 17b-estradiol (E2), and 17a-ethinylestradiol (EE2) in
real wastewater effluent.
High purity (>98%) powders of the three steroid hor-
mones E1, E2 and EE2 and deuterated estrone (internal
standard) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Dorset, UK).
All solvents used were HPLC grade (Sigma Aldrich, UK or
VWR, UK). Ultrapure deionised water (Resistivity 18 M
cm, Millipore Q system) was used for aqueous solution
preparations. Separate stock solutions at 1 g/L of each
steroid were prepared in methanol from which working
solutions were prepared by water dilution to a desired con-
centration. The stock solutions were stored at −18 °C. Real
effluent was sampled from Marley sewage treatment works,
Yorkshire, UK. Decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D5) solvent
was purchased from Dow Corning, UK. Ozone gas was
generated from pure oxygen with a Lab2B ozone generator
(Ozonia Triogen Ltd., UK) and an ultraviolet ozone analyser
(BMT 963, BMT Messtechnik, Germany) was used to
measure the ozone gas concentration. The degradation
experiments consisted of dissolving ozone gas into D5 and
the ozone-rich solution was reacted with the wastewater. The
indigo method was used to measure ozone concentrations
and an LC-MS-MS (Waters Alliance 2695, triple quadrupole
Quattro Ultima mass spectrometer, ESI mode by Waters,
Elstree, Hertfordshire, UK) was used to measure the con-
centrations of the estrogens (MRM assay). A C18 column
(Gemini NX, 3 lm, 150  2 mm, Phenomenex, Maccles-
field, UK) was used for the chromatographic analysis. The
mobile phase was 55%ACN:45%water, flow rate
0.2 mL/min and injection volume 10 lL. Pre-concentration
and purification of effluent samples before analysis were
made by solid phase extraction (Supelco Manifold, C8
11
12
Table 1 Effect of ozone dose Estrogen
and solvent ratio on estrogens
removal O3 dose (mg/L)
Solvent (%)
Initial concentration (ng/L)
Final concentration (ng/L)
cartridges). Calibration curves were determined for each
estrogen using the ratio of the signal area to the signal area
of the internal standard as function of concentration.
The MRM transitions and the retention times were (E2:
271 ! 143, 3.17 min; EE2: 295 ! 147, 3.51 min; DE1:
273 ! 147, 3.82 min; E1: 269 ! 143, 3.85 min). Solid
phase extraction recoveries were around 80% and were used
to accurately determine the concentrations of the estrogens.
The ozone solubility into the solvent was about ten times
higher than that in water and the distribution coefficients of
the estrogens were around 2. This indicates that the solvent
does not only exhibit high ozone solubility but is also effi-
cient at extracting the estrogens. The degradation of the
estrogens was studied using individual solutions and in
mixtures. The liquid/liquid-ozone (LLO) technique was used
and its performance was compared to gas phase ozonation
(liquid/gas-ozone LGO). The times to reach almost full
degradation of the three estrogens using LGO were 2.5, 0.8,
and 0.9 min for E1, E2 and EE2 respectively while the
degradation with LLO was extremely fast to the point that all
samples exhibited concentrations below the detection limit
within times less 0.3 min. The enhancement of removal rates
observed in the LLO system is a result of synergetic effect of
extraction and oxidation reactions in the ozone-rich solvent.
In fact, the estrogens are hydrophobic organic molecules and
have tendency to distribute to the solvent phase where the
ozone reactions take place. The experiments also show that a
contact time of about 0.5 min will be sufficient to fully
remove the estrogens using the LLO technique. Removal
tests of estrogens in secondary treated effluent collected from
the final point of the treatment process at Marley STW by
LLO were carried out. The results showed that using ozone
doses of 0.5, 0.7 and 1.8 mg/L, the three estrogens were
removed by over 95% and their final concentrations after
treatment were below the detection limits in most cases
(Table 1). The results also showed that a solvent ratio as low
as 0.8% was sufficient to remove the three estrogens. Based
on the results obtained in this study, an ozone dose of
1 mg/L and 1% solvent to water ratio were used to simulate
C. Tizaoui
E1 E2 EE2
0.5 0.7 1.8
0.8 1.7 3.3
10 7 2.5
<0.4 <0.2 <0.1
the LLO process to treat a 400 L/s wastewater with con-
centrations set at 100 ng/L of each estrogen. The solvent
flow rate was 240 L/min, which is recycled in the process,
and the contact time was 1 min. The simulation results
indicated that the operating cost of the LLO process was
around £0.11/ML (ML: million litres of wastewater), which
is significantly lower than a cost figure reported in the lit-
erature for pilot studies using a conventional ozone gas
process (£4/ML).
The occurrence of emerging contaminants, such as
pharmaceuticals and personal care products, in water is a
serious problem affecting the environment and human
health. It is only recently that the problem has been recog-
nized which led to the emergence of regulatory measures to
control the discharge of those substances in the environment.
Conventional wastewater treatment processes were not
designed to deal with ECs, hence it is required to upgrade
them with new treatment technologies. Ozone technology
has been proved as a cost-effective solution and with the use
of the LLO process, discussed in this research work, the
operating costs have been significantly reduced in compar-
ison to a conventional ozone gas process.
References
Harries JE, et al. Environ Toxicol Chem. 1997;16:534–42.
http://www.who.int/ceh/publications/endocrine/en/.
https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/news/first-watch-list-emerging-water-
pollutants.
Jobling S, et al. Environ Health Perspect. 2009;117:797–802.
Klatte S, et al. Sustain Chem Pharm. 2017;5:61–6.
Luo Y, et al. Sci Total Environ. 2014;473:619–41.
Malik A, et al. Asian J Water Environ Pollut. 2015;12:69–74.
Swan SH, et al. Environ Health Perspect. 1997;105:1228–32.
Tijani JO et al. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2013;224.
Uzumcu M, et al. Reprod Toxicol. 2004;18:765–74.
WTM Audenaert, et al. (Future) Regulation of trace organic compounds
in WWTP effluents as a driver of advanced wastewater treatment.
In: Ozone news, The Newsletter of the International Ozone
Association, 2014.
Novel Ozone Oxidation Process for Emerging …
Author Biography
Dr. Chedly Tizaoui CEng, FIChemE,
FHEA is an Associate Professor in
Chemical Engineering at the College of
Engineering, Swansea University, Uni-
ted Kingdom. Dr. Tizaoui obtained his
first degree in Chemical Engineering
(6-year path) from ENIG, Gabes Tunisia,
his MSc from INP Toulouse France and
his Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from
the University of Bradford UK. His
research interests include water and
wastewater treatment, advanced oxida-
tion processes (AOPs), ozonation, sepa-
ration technologies, and emerging
contaminants. He is currently leading
several research projects aiming to develop novel water and wastewater
treatment technologies using non-thermal plasma, hybrid ozone/membranes,
polymeric membranes impregnated with functionalised graphene, and novel
materials for passive sampling and environmental analysis of emerging
contaminants. Throughout his academic career, Dr. Tizaoui has devoted
13
himself to research and scholarly activities and has played a significant role
in contributing towards various collaborative research programmes in the
field of water and wastewater treatment processes. He has supervised sig-
nificant number of Ph.D. and Postdoc researchers to a successful completion
and has published extensively in peer reviewed journals and international
conferences as well as authoring technical reports for several organisations.
His research into water treatment technologies has been funded by major
funding bodies including the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research
Council, Royal Society, Royal Academy of Engineering and industry. He
has been the head of the Chemical and Environmental Engineering Portfolio
at Swansea University, a core member of the Heads of UK Chemical
Engineering, and core member of the UK Institution of Chemical Engi-
neering’s Research Committee. He is member of the International Ozone
Association and member of the EU Ph.D. School of Advanced Oxidation
Processes. Given his international expertise in ozone and water treatment
technologies, he has recently organised the 2016 EA3G international con-
ference on ozone and advanced oxidation for the water-energy-food-health
nexus. He sits on the editorial boards of a number of peer-reviewed scientific
journals and been a reviewer for many international funding bodies and has
recently edited a special issue for the international journal of Ozone: Science
and Engineering.
 Wastewater Treatment and Energy
Production Through Electro Membrane
Bioreactors
Vincenzo Naddeo, Laura Borea, and Vincenzo Belgiorno



Keywords
Electricity Fouling
Membrane bioreactors (MBRs) are a well established and
mature technology with many full-scale plants around the
world treating municipal and industrial wastewater (Krze-
minski et al. 2017). However, membrane fouling still rep-
resents a serious operational obstacle in the wider spread
application of the MBR technology. Therefore, considerable
research and development efforts are still underway in order
to control fouling and reduce the energy consumption.
Recent studies have proven that the application of electro-
chemical processes to membrane bioreactors represents a
promising technological approach for membrane fouling
control and the increase of treatment perfomance (Borea
et al. 2017; Ensano et al. 2016; Giwa et al. 2015). Different
electrochemical mechanisms occur, indeed, when a direct
current field is applied to a MBR such as electrocoagulation,
electrosmosis and electrophoresis which improve the treat-
ment performance and reduce membrane fouling. Since the
activated sludge flocs are negatively charged (Lee et al.
2003), when an electric field is applied to electrodes placed
inside a MBR, due to the electrophoresis mechanism, these
particles move away from the membrane module, reducing
their adhesion to the membrane surface. In addition, elec-
trocoagulation generated from electrolytic oxidation of alu-
minium or iron electrodes increases flocs diameter size
reducing membrane fouling. Moreover, the sludge filter-
ability is also improved due to electroosmosis mechanism.
V. Naddeo (&)
L. Borea
V. Belgiorno
Sanitary Environmental Engineering Division (SEED),
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Salerno, Via
Giovanni Paolo II, 84084 Fisciano, SA, Italy
e-mail: vnaddeo@unisa.it
L. Borea
e-mail: lborea@unisa.it
V. Belgiorno
e-mail: v.belgiorno@unisa.it
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_6


Hydrogen MBR
Although previous studies have shown the enhancement
of treatment efficiencies after the application of the electric
field, the possibility of hydrogen recovery from this com-
bined system, due to the hydrogen reduction at the cathode
side, has not been explored. Therefore, the present study
aimed to investigate the combination of electrochemical
processes with membrane bioreactors in terms of treatment
performance, membrane fouling formation and energy
production.
In order to achieve the set objectives, two perforated
cylindrical electrodes have been immersed in a MBR at a
laboratory scale (Fig. 1). The bioreactor was fed continu-
ously with synthetic solution simulating municipal wastew-
ater. Different air diffusers were located below and around
the membrane module for supplying the aeration required for
biological processes and membrane air scouring. A metering
pump withdrew the permeate from the membrane module at
a constant flow rate. The reactor operated as conventional
MBR in a first phase and, then, as an electro MBR con-
necting the electrodes to a digital external DC power supply
and applying an intermittent voltage gradient. Organic sub-
stances and nutrients were analysed in the influent, the
reactor and the effluent according to the Standard methods
(APAT and CNR-IRSA 2003). Membrane fouling precur-
sors were measured for evaluating fouling formation along
with the trans-membrane pressure (TMP) variation over time
through a pressure transducer (PX409-0-15VI, Omega). The
hydrogen production was meseaured through colorimetric
tubes closing the reactor and working at anoxic conditions.
The results obtained indicate that the electrochemical
processes applied to MBRs increase the treatment perfor-
mance with an enhancement of organic matter and nutrient
removal of both ammonia and phophate compounds. An
almost complete removal of ammonia compounds was,
indeed, observed due to the alternation of anoxic and aerobic
conditions in the bioreactor which allowed beyond the
15
16
Fig. 1 Experimental set up of the electro membrane bioreactor
nitrification of the influent wastewater also the denitrification
of the nitrate. Furthermore, the different electrochemical
mechanisms involved in the MBR were able to improve
membrane filtration performance. The filtration cycles were
extended with a reduction of the frequency of chemical
cleaning, membrane fouling rate and precursors. Closing the
reactor and working at anoxic conditions, hydrogen pro-
duction was detected in the electro MBR due to the reduc-
tion of protons and water at the cathode side.
The study shows that the advantages of the combination
of these processes are not limited to the improvement of the
treatment efficiencies and membrane filtration performance
but also involve the possibility of producing energy from
wastewater which could be used for lessening the input of
external energy in the combined system.
Acknowledgments The research activities were partially funded by
FARB projects of the University of Salerno (n. ORSA167105;
ORSA154525) and by the international project n. IN17GR09 between
the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation
and Indian Ministry of Science and Technology and are linked to the
international project n. EG16MO01.
References
APAT, IRSA-CNR. Metodi analitici per le acque. APAT, Rapporti
29/2003; 2003.
Borea L, Naddeo V, Belgiorno V. Application of electrochemical
processes to membrane bioreactors for improving nutrient removal
and fouling control. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2017;24:321–33.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7786-7.
V. Naddeo et al.
Ensano BMB, Borea L, Naddeo V, Belgiorno V, de Luna MDG,
Ballesteros FC. Combination of electrochemical processes with
membrane bioreactors for wastewater treatment and fouling control:
a review. Front Environ Sci. 2016;4. :https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.
2016.00057.
Giwa A, Ahmed I, Hasan SW. Enhanced sludge properties and
distribution study of sludge components in electrically-enhanced
membrane bioreactor. J Environ Manage. 2015;159:78–85. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.05.035.
Krzeminski P, Leverette L, Malamis S, Katsou E. Membrane biore-
actors—a review on recent developments in energy reduction,
fouling control, novel configurations, LCA and market prospects.
J Membr Sci. 2017;527:207–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.
2016.12.010.
Lee W, Kang S, Shin H. Sludge characteristics and their contribution to
microfiltration in submerged membrane bioreactors. J Membr Sci.
2003;216(1–2):217–27.
Author Biography
Dr. Naddeo is associate professor at
Department of Civil Engineering of the
University of Salerno (Italy) where he
drives research activities at the Sanitary
Environmental Engignerig Division
(SEED). He was visiting professor at
University of Washington (2009) and
Yamaguchi Uniersity (2016) as well as
visiting scientist at different foreign
research institutions where he collabo-
rated with high-ranking professors.
He is Associate Editor of the Euro-
Mediterranean Journal for Environmen-
tal Integration (Springer) and
co-founding Chair of the conference series WaterEnergyNEXUS. He
Wastewater Treatment and Energy Production …
presently serves on the editorial board of several ISI journals including
Scientific Reports (Nature Research), Heliyon (Elsvevier), Cogent Engi-
neering (Cogent OA by Taylor & Francis Group) and Water (MDPI) and he
is actively involved in a variety of scientific organizations, funding agencies,
and European networks.
His research focuses on water/wastetater treatment, characterization and
control of environmental odors and environmental impact assessment (EIA).
He developed advanced biological processes for wastewater treatment and
control of emerging contaminants, novel ultrasound-based technological
processes for the treatment of environmental matrices (solid, liquid and
gaseous) and biotechnologies for water re-use and simultaneous energy
savind and production.
In addition to the topics listed above, Dr. Naddeo has published works on
membrane bioreactors (MBRs), water/wastewater disinfection and disin-
fection by-products (DBPs), Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs), river
water quality characterization, remediation of contaminated soil and marine
17
sediments, management and treatment of the organic fraction of solid waste,
strategic environmental assessment (SEA) and recently on environmental
technologies for the sustainable development of smart cities.
At the Department of Civil Enginering Dr. Naddeo teach the followinf
coureses: “Environmental Impact Assessment”, “Energy and Environmental
Sustainability”, “Pollution phenomena and control of environmental qual-
ity” and “Wastewater treatment plants”.
He is the coordinator of international and national research projects,
supervisor of Ph.D. students and member in scientific boards of several
national and international conferences where often was invited as plenary or
keynote speaker. Dr. Naddeo has (co-)authored over 150 refereed publica-
tions in ISI journals, congress proceedings and book volumes. He is
co-editor of the book Odour Impact Assessment Handbook (John Wiley &
Sons) as well as editor of several italian books. He holds 4 patents on water
and wastewater treatments by sonolisys and 1 patent on novel electronic
nose (e.Nose).
 Implications of Sulphide on Trace Metal
Pollution Mobility in Sediment
Baghdad Ouddane, Mariam Hamzeh, and Mirna Daye
In aquatic systems, most trace elements are mainly bound to
particulate matter as they settle through the water column
and are incorporated rapidly into the sediments. The main
sources of these metals are soils erosion and also the
anthropogenic activities (Boughriet et al. 2007). They have
long terms effects on the environment and can pose toxi-
cological risks to fauna and flora. Scavenging of these metals
in the sediments can be reversible due to several perturba-
tions and the sediment can act as a source of pollutants for
the overlying water. Once trapped in sediments, trace metals
undertake transformations through complex biogeochemical
processes (Ouddane et al. 2001). One of the major factors
controlling the metals distribution in sediments is the pres-
ence of sulphides. Sulphates mainly present in flooding
water; are reduced to sulphides by Sulphate Reducing Bac-
teria (SBR) coupled to organic matter (OM) decomposition
in anoxic conditions. After sulphate transformation, sul-
phides ions can easily precipitate with numerous traces
metals present in the medium. Because of the low solubility
of metal sulphides minerals at these conditions, the
bioavailability of metals is minimized but not ultimate.
Metals are then buried in the sediment, unless oxidative
dissolution of the sulphide minerals phases occurs as a result
of a physical perturbation such as resuspension, dredging
operations and bioturbation process (Hamzeh et al. 2014).
Three aspects are considered to evaluate the contamination:
(1) the distribution of heavy metals concentrations in surface
sediment (2) the vertical distribution of the metals in sedi-
ment cores (3) the determination of contamination factor
based on the background values. The further aim was to
B. Ouddane (&)
M. Hamzeh
M. Daye
Équipe Physico-Chimie de L’Environnement,
Université de Lille, LASIR UMR CNRS 8516,
59655 Villeneuve d’Ascq Cedex, France
e-mail: baghdad.ouddane@univ-lille1.fr
M. Hamzeh
M. Daye
Faculty of Public Health III, Water & Environment Science
Laboratory, Lebanese University, Tripoli, Lebanon
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_7
evaluate the Reduced solid sulfur species (Acid Voltile
Sulfide (AVS) and SEM (Simultaneous Extracted Metals in
HCl 1 M) defined as the sum of Cadmium, Copper, Nickel,
Lead and Zinc levels in these sediments in order to provide
information on the bioavaibility and toxicity of heavy metals
on biota. Finally, an analysis of the pore water (anions,
metals) and solid phase in the sediment cores were also
carried out to provide further information about the chemical
processes controlling the metal distribution in contaminated
sediment with a special interest for the early diagenesis of
sulfur which play generally a key role in the behaviour of
trace metals (Vdovic et al. 2006; Billon et al. 2001). The
purpose of this study is to evaluate the mobility of trace
metals by different methods in sediments. Sediment freshly
deposit was sampled at different sites, characterized by high
pollution level, to conduct the remobilization experiment.
Natural events (tide, flood, storm) and anthropogenic pro-
cesses (water management actions, boat trafic) can cause a
disturbance of sediments and a subsequent remobilization of
pollutants to the water column, thereby posing a potential
threat for aquatic organisms.
The vertical distributions of metals in the sediment cores
collected from different sites in northern France are pre-
sented. The results are expressed as total concentration in the
fine fraction, major fraction of the sediment, and in face the
enrichment factors (EF) is calculated to estimate the pollu-
tion level in comparison to geological background. In the
Deûle River, the results indicating clearly a very strong
metal contamination in the sediment near former industrial
site: “Metaleurope” smelter. The values are relatively con-
stant on the first 25 cm and increase with the depth until
30 cm. This contamination, observed in surface sediment
around the factory, is confirmed in deep sediment attesting
of a heavy industrial past (the activity of the smelter factory
was stopped in 2003). The contamination of the sediments
by anthropogenic metals is quite evident. The dispersion of
heavy metals particles from the smelter trough the atmo-
sphere, the fall out of ores in the river during barge discharge
works in quay and also the transport by rain waters from
19
20
slag-heaps are likely to be the main sources of increasing
concentrations for the elements observed in sediment of the
Deûle river (Boughriet et al. 2007). These results permitted
to carry out metal contamination cartography along the
Deûle river, the most polluted zones are clearly localised
around the ex lead and zinc smelter Metaleurop. From these
results, it was necessary to investigate the metal contami-
nation in deep sediment in this polluted area. The vertical
distribution of metals in the two sediment cores collected in
front of the factory (core 1) and approximately 0.5 km
downstream (core 2). The results expressed in enrichment
factors (EF) indicate the values ranges from 100 to 1000 for
Pb, from 20 to 150 for Zn, 10 to −80 for Hg and from 20 to
500 for Cd indicating clearly like for the surface sediment a
very strong metal contamination in the sediment near
Metaleurop. The knowledge of the total concentration of
these toxic metals (Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Hg and Zn) in sediment
is insufficient to determine the potential environmental
effects of these sediments on living organisms. In parallel the
availability and the toxicity of this sediment need also to be
investigated by the use of the toxicity index (ratio
SEM/AVS). These two parameters (AVS and SEM) can also
provide information about the availability of metals. In fact,
many divalent metals with lower solubility product constant
of compounds (Ksp) than FeS and MnS such as Cd, Cu, Ni,
Pb, Hg and Zn, can displace Fe and Mn from their mono-
sulphides to form highly insoluble metals sulphides. The
sulphur concentration can be roughly estimated as AVS
content and Metals as SEM concentration. When the toxicity
index (TI) < 1, the Me2+ concentrations in pore water are
controlled by the Ksp of their sulphides, and there are very
low dissolved metal concentrations in the sediments. By
contrast, when TI > 1, the metal concentrations in pore
water may be high in the absence of other strong binding
phases. It is generally assumed that acute metal toxicity to
benthic animals cannot occur when there is sufficient AVS in
sediment to sequester all of the available metals i.e. TI < 1
(Fang et al. 2005). The spatial distribution of this TI ratio in
surface sediments shown values range from 0.2 to 5.3 with
the highest values found for the sites around the Metaleurop
smelter. In this area, the values are higher than 1 and indicate
a potential availability of these metals (Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Hg
and Zn), the AVS concentrations in the sediment are not
sufficient to scavenge all the available metals and this sedi-
ment presents a potential risk for living organisms. But this
result stay related to the presence of some phases such as
organic matter or clays and these binding forms should be
B. Ouddane et al.
considered to assess the bioavailability of metals. In other
hand, the toxicity should be also confirmed by some eco-
toxicological tests on living organisms. These studies were
conducted in other site comparable, the Seine estuary, one of
the most polluted estuaries in Europe due to very high
anthropogenic pressures and urban waste discharge. In this
area we have investigate the distribution of trace metals in
surface sediments in order to assess to the contamination
level, metal bioavailability and ecotoxicological status. Five
sites covering the salinity gradient of the estuary were cho-
sen; the results showed that trace metal concentration varied
seasonally and spatially. Subsequently to assess the actual
environmental toxicity of sediments, Microtox® Bioassay
using Vibrio fischeri was applied on aqueous extract of
sediment. Calculated enrichment factors (EF) revealed that
these sediments were highly polluted by Hg, Cd, Zn and Pb.
Most of pollution sources are localized upstream especially
in Poses and Oissel, and the contamination levels decreased
from Poses to north mudflat site. Positive values of toxicity
index (TI) were detected in the upstream sediments indi-
cating potential bioavailability of trace metals in the sedi-
ments. Sediment toxicity measured with the Microtox® test
was positively correlated with toxicity index demonstrating
the usefulness of the toxicity index for sediment quality
assessment and possible implication of metals in sediment
toxicity (Hamzeh et al. 2016).
References
Billon G, Ouddane B, Boughriet A. Artefacts in the speciation of
sulfides in anoxic sediments. Analyst. 2001;126:1805–9.
Boughriet A, Proix N, Billon G, Recourt P, Ouddane B. Environmental
impacts of heavy metals discharges from a smelter in Deule canal
sediments (Northern France): concentration levels and chemical
fractionation. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2007;180:83–95.
Fang T, Li X, Zhang G. Acid volatile sulphide and simultaneously
extracted metals in the sediment cores of the pearl river estuary,
South China. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2005;61:420–31.
Hamzeh M, Ouddane B, Daye M, Halwani J. Trace metal mobilization
from surficial sediments of the seine river estuary. Water Air Soil
Pollut. 2014;225:1878.
Hamzeh M, Ouddane B, Clérandeau C, Cachot J. Spatial distribution
and toxic potency of trace metals in surface sediments of the seine
estuary (France). Clean Soil Air Water. 2016;44:979–92.
Ouddane B, Boust D, Martin E, Fischer J-C, Wartel M. The
post-depositional reactivity of iron and manganese in the sediments
of a macrotidal estuarine system. Estuaries. 2001;24(6B):1015–28.
Vdovic N, Billon G, Gabelle C, Potdevin JL. Remobilization of metals
from slag and polluted sediments (case study: the canal of the Deûle
River, Northern France). Environ Pollut. 2006;141:359–69.
Implications of Sulphide on Trace Metal Pollution …
Author Biography
Baghdad Ouddane is Full Professor of
Environmental and Water Chemistry in
Lille University (France), he has obtained
his Ph.D. in 1990 and his HDR (Higher
Degree by Research) in 1997 at Lille
University. Lecturer (1992–2003) and Full
Professor at Lille1 University since 2003,
he was the team Leader of the group
Marine and Analytical Chemistry (UMR
8217 CNRS- Lille 1) consisting of 20
persons (10 permanent and 10 Ph.D. stu-
dents). He is the responsible of a Master
“Water Treatment” in Lille University.
Elected member of the National Universi-
ties Commission (CNU section 32), elec-
ted member in academic council of Lille1
21
University and an elected member of the Council of the Chemistry Depart-
ment. His research activity covers a broad spectrum of environmental studies
of the speciation of trace metals in natural waters and sediments, studies of
biogeochemical processes in aquatic environments (rivers, canals and coastal
areas), development of new analytical methods as a tool for monitoring
environmental processes. He has supervised more than 20 graduation courses
MASTER and 25 Ph.D. He has published 128 publication in international
journals and more than 170 communications in national and international
conferences, co-authors of four books chapter (two popular sciences)”. He is
Research project evaluator at the French Research Funding Agency (ANR),
participation in several thesis committees as examiner or president in French
and foreign universities. Occasional referee for several international journals
in the field of environment (Chemosphere, Environmental Science & Tech-
nology, Environmental Pollution, Biogeochemistry, Journal of Environ-
mental Monitoring, AAS Journal, Water Research, Separation Science and
Technology). He has organized several seminars and International Confer-
ence in the field of Water Chemistry and Water Treatment.
 Remediation of Selenium Contaminated
Wastewater
Eric D. van Hullebusch
Selenium (Se) is a naturally occurring, semi-metallic trace
element (Se; atomic number 34) that was discovered 200
years ago by the Swedish chemists Jöns Jakob Berzelius
(1779–1848) and Johan Gottlieb Gahn (1745–1818). Since
then, many studies have been published describing its
chemical properties as well as its biological importance.
Selenium, if present at trace concentration levels, is an
essential nutrient in the diets of all living organisms; in
excess (i.e., several micro grams per liter), however, it is
quite toxic (Frankenberger and Benson 1994; Winkel et al.
2012).
On the occasion of the 200th anniversary of the discovery
of selenium, this presentation is summarising the recent
advances in the field the treatment selenium laden wastew-
aters. Selenium has emerged as a water treatment contami-
nant deriving from global industrial activities (e.g. coal and
mineral mining, metal smelting, oil extraction and refining,
and agricultural irrigation). Selenium can bioaccumulate in
aquatic ecosystems and presents a source of toxicity for
many organisms, including humans (Winkel et al. 2012).
However, selenium represents an extremely difficult con-
taminant to remove from wastewater due to its range of
solubility and state of matter (e.g. chemical speciation, for-
mation of colloidal elemental selenium particles) over dif-
ferent chemical oxidation states mostly influenced by
microbial biotransformation reactions (Jain et al. 2017).
Due to increased enforcement of selenium regulations
and a better understanding of its health and environmental
effects, the need to efficiently remove selenium from con-
taminated effluents has taken on an increased importance.
Different treatment approaches may be applied for the
removal of selenium from wastewater. This presentation
aims at reporting the recent advances regarding different
treatment technologies that could be implemented ranging
E.D. van Hullebusch (&)
Department of Environmental Engineering and Water
Technology, IHE Delft Institue for Water Education,
P.O. Box 3015, 2601 DA Delft, The Netherlands
e-mail: e.vanHullebusch@un-ihe.org
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_8
from the biological approach (i.e. by using a pure bacterial
strain or by using microbial consortia) to the
physico-chemical approach that is largely applied at indus-
trial scale. These water treatment processes are aiming at
removing selenium from industrial contaminated effluents
(see overview in van Hullebusch 2017). In order to comply
with discharge limit of treated effluent it is highly important
to ensure that a final selenium concentration is within the
order of lg Se L−1 in the effleuent. For instance a stringent
selenium regulatory discharge limit of 5 lg Se L−1 for
selenium containing wastewaters has been set by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (Tan et al. 2016).
The treatment of selenium contaminated effluent aims first at
removing selenium in order to meet the discharge limits, but
additional challenges remain to be tackled when aiming at
reusing the recovered selenium for further applications (Mal
et al. 2016; Tan et al. 2016).
References
Frankenberger WT, Benson S (eds). Selenium in the Environment. New
York: M. Dekker; 1994.
Jain R, van Hullebusch ED, Lenz M, Farges F. Understanding selenium
biogeochemistry in engineered ecosystems: Transformation and
analytical methods. In: van Hullebusch ED, editor. Bioremediation
of selenium contaminated wastewaters. Springer book; 2017. p. 33–
56. http://www.springer.com/in/book/9783319578309.
Mal J, Nancharaiah YV, van Hullebusch ED, Lens PNL. Metal
chalcogenide quantum dots: biotechnological synthesis and appli-
cations. RSC Adv. 2016;6(47):41477–95.
Tan LC, Nancharaiah YV, van Hullebusch ED, Lens PNL. Selenium:
environmental significance, pollution, and biological treatment
technologies. Biotechnol Adv. 2016;34(5):886–907.
van Hullebusch ED. Bioremediation of Selenium contaminated
wastewater, 1st edn. Springer Book, 130 pp (2017, in press).
http://www.springer.com/in/book/9783319578309.
Winkel LH, Johnson CA, Lenz M, Grundl T, Leupin OX, Amini M,
Charlet L. Environmental selenium research: from microscopic
processes to global understanding. Environ Sci Technol. 2012;46
(2):571.
23
24 E.D. van Hullebusch

Author Biography Before joining IHE Delft, his research activities mainly focused on the
three following topics:
Eric D. van Hullebusch received his Study of metals and metalloids biogeochemistry in engineered ecosys-
Ph.D. (Aquatic Chemistry and Microbi- tems (e.g. bioreactors) mainly dedicated to wastewater treatment for pol-
ology) from Universite de Limoges lution control and resource recovery, Investigation of the role of living
(France) in 2002. His Ph.D. research organisms on the weathering of materials and minerals (concrete materials,
focused on the study of the fate, mobility metal sulfides and wastes such as metallurgical wastes for resource recovery,
and environmental impact of metals ….), Soil remediation (advanced oxidation processes, combination of soil
(copper and aluminium) used for the washing and bioremediation).
chemical treatment of eutrophic lakes. Eric van Hullebusch has been involved in several international projects.
From November 2002 until October From September 2010 until August 2014 he was coordinator of the IRSES
2004 he was a Marie Curie Postdoctoral FP7 EU project MINPOLLCONTROL (Mining wastes bio/weathering,
fellow at Wageningen University (the pollution control and monitoring) involving IHE Delft and two Brazilian
Netherlands) where his research focused partners.
on the optimization of anaerobic granular Also, he has been lately involved in the coordination of 2 joint Ph.D.
sludge reactors by studying the specia- programmes. The Erasmus Mundus Joint Doctorate ETeCoS3 (The Envi-
tion, bioavailability and dosing strategies of trace metals. In November 2004 ronmental Technologies for Contaminated Solids, Soils and Sediments) and
he became assistant professor at Université de Limoges (France) and in the Marie Sklodowska-Curie—ITN European Joint Doctorate ABWET
September 2005, he was appointed as associate professor in biogeochem- (Advanced Biological Waste-to-Energy Technologies).
istry of engineered ecosystems at Université Paris-Est (France). Eric van Hullebusch has published about 170 peer-reviewed papers since
In March 2012, Eric van Hullebusch obtained his Habilitation qualifica- 2002 (h-index 29 and about 2700 citations—Source Scopus).
tion in Environmental Sciences from Université Paris-Est. The title of his His main current research interests are focusing on developing ecotech-
Habilitation thesis is “Biofilms in the environment: from anaerobic nologies together with the members of his chair group:
wastewater treatment to material bioweathering”.
In September 2016, he joined IHE Delft as chair professor in Environ- 1. Natural systems for the treatment of, and resource recovery from,
mental Science and Technology. domestic waste water, with an emphasis on nutrient cycles and related
Eric van Hullebusch has a significant experience in teaching at MSc level biological processes;
mainly in environmental chemistry, biogeochemistry, environmental geo- 2. Solid organic waste management and resource recovery (bioenergy,
chemistry, environmental microbiology, biological wastewater treatment biochar, compost, gas treatment);
and biological organic waste treatment. 3. Solid hazardous waste management and resource recovery (critical
elements selective recovery).
 Services and Dysservices of Collective
Gardens in Urban Areas: A Soil Perspective

Gilles Colinet, Amandine Liénard, Dinneke Schram, Piet Otte,

Louisa Boukharaeva, and Marcel Marloie

Urban agriculture and green infrastructures have been
spreading worldwide in recent years due to a shift of the bal-
ance between urban and rural areas as living place for the
people. More than a half of the population now lives in cities
and this trend is to be reinforced in the future. Simultaneously
to the need to feed the urban people, there is a growing demand
for self production by the city dwellers, some for financial
reasons others for social or environmental purposes.
The access to land for crop production is often limited in
most cities and collective gardens are typically places that
allow people to practice agriculture. They are owned by
public authorities, private agencies or communities and can
take a variety of forms. The Urban Soil Project, financed
within the Snowman network, aimed at studying relation-
ships between socio-economical drivers of urban gardening,
agronomical practices, soil quality, ecosystemic services and
dysservices and human health in some collective gardens of
western Europe.
Four study cases were selected: Brussels, Paris, Manch-
ester and the Walloon region which includes two main
industrial cities (Liège and Charleroi) and some smaller
cities. Questionnaires were built in order to survey motiva-
tions, practices and feelings of gardeners about their activies
and the environmental issues of urban gardening.
The number of participants to the survey varies largely
according to the study case and the diversity of type of
collective gardens as well, due to practical feasibility: only
G. Colinet (&)
A. Liénard
Gembloux Agro Bio-Tech, BIOSE Research Unit,
Soil-Plant-Water Exchanges, Liege University, Liege, Belgium
e-mail: Gilles.Colinet@ulg.ac.be
D. Schram
P. Otte
National Institute for Public Helath and the Environment, RIVM,
Bilthoven, The Netherlands
e-mail: Piet.Otte@rivm.nl
L. Boukharaeva
M. Marloie
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Museum National
d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
e-mail: marcel.marloie@live.fr
family gardens were surveyed in Paris and Manchester.
Sixty-four, 16, 10 and 5 gardens were surveyed in Wallonia,
Brussels, Paris and Manchester, respectively and more than
370 plots were soil sampled.
Analysis covered soil fertility—pH in 0.1 N KCl, total
organic carbon (TOC in g.100 g−1), available Ca, Mg, K and
P (CH3COONH4 + EDTA at pH 4.65)- and soil contami-
nation—pseudototal (aquae regia) As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni,
Pb and Zn and available Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn
(CH3COONH4 + EDTA at pH 4.65).
The results of the survey are shown for wallonia and
Brussels as only family plots were investigated in Paris and
Manchester. Most of gardens are rather recent as 80% were
installed less than 10 years ago. They cover a surface smaller
than 5000 m2 and usually include less than 15–20 plots. The
social importance of the project is affirmed (Fig. 1). Finally,
a typology of urban gardeners in collective gardens has
being made available. It confirms that people are diverse but
dominantly from higher education, either active or retired,
male or female. Even if shared infrastructures exist, most
plots are managed only by one or two persons at a time. One
third of the gardeners do not till the soil. They use soil
mulching and cover crops in winter. Organic fertilizers are
widely used: composts, manure, natural organic conditioners
and green manure. Eighty percent of gardeners declare fol-
lowing the regulation for organic agriculture. Most of them
look for accessing food of better quality, social links, prac-
ticing physical activity and reducing stress.
Whatever the study case considered, the soil quality
reflects the intensive nature of fertility management by gar-
deners which produce crops on small surfaces. The soil
reaction is usually close to neutral, the organic matter is high
as well as the nutrient content. Moreover, the nutrient ratios
are imbalanced. Regarding contaminations, every garden
shows specificities due to localization and human activities.
Evidences of contamination appear in some gardens, and in
some cases, especially for Pb, further studies should be
performed in order to assess risks of food chain
contamination.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 25

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_9
26
Fig. 1 Social organisation of collective gardens
Fig. 2 Soil Pb content in the 4 study cases
Despite the potential dysservices of gardens to environ-
ment due to overfertilization and to human health due to soil
contaminations, the gardens fullfill a lot of ecosystemic
services which largely counterbalance these dysservices:
production of food, climate regulation, soil structure
improvement, health benefits of physical activity, social
links… which is confirmed by Boukharaeva and Marloie
(2015) and Schram-Bijkerk et al. (2015) (Fig. 2).
Our study focussed on collective gardens in urban envi-
ronment in Wallonia, Brussels, Paris and Manchester. Through
a questionnaire and soil survey, we got insights on the rela-
tionships between drivers of gardening, agronomical practices,
state of soils and perceptions. It is clear that an approach based
on a qualification of soils based on comparisons to environ-
mental threshold values is not sufficient as social and health
benefits are real even if they are difficult to quantify.
G. Colinet et al.
References
Boukharaeva L, Marloie M. «Agriculture urbaine et habitat humain».
Revue d’ethnoécologie [Online], 8; 2015, Online since 31 Dec
2015. URL: http://ethnoecologie.revues.org/2283.
Schram-Bijkerk D, Dirven-van Breemen L, Otte P. Healthy Urban
Gardening. RIVM Report 2015–0172, 70p; 2015.
Author Biography
Gilles Colinet (Belgian, born in 1967) is
assistant professor in Liege University
(Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech). He was
graduated as Engineer in agronomy, with
a specialisation in Soil Science, in 1991.
Its professional carrier begins with a
two-year cooperation work in Mali, a
few month of research in Liege Univer-
sity dedicated to modeling the global
carbon cycle and two years of technical
and administrative support on GIS and
databases to the Agriculture General
Direction of the European Commission.
In 1997, he comes back to Gembloux
Agro-Bio Tech as a research and teaching assistant under the supervision of
Professor Laurent Bock. The title of the Ph.D. (in french) was: «Metallic
trace elements in soils: Contribution to knowledge of the factors of their
spatial distribution in the belgian silt loess» (defense in 2003).
After studying the natural background, he focussed his researches about
trace elements on the relationships between soil, water and plants –the
bioavailability an mobility of elements- and mapping in contaminated
environments, among which the calaminary sites in Belgium and the copper
ecosystems in Katanga.
Simultaneously, Gilles Colinet developed research about (1) risks of
contaminations of the food chain in urban gardens, management and reha-
bilitation of brown fields and soil remediation, (2) monitoring of soil quality
in croplands and forests in relationship with the quality of hydrosphere
(nitrate, phosphorus, pesticides…) and (3) the integration of digital soil
maps and point databases to build soil reference systems in Southern Bel-
gium.
Gilles Colinet teaches applied soil science in the Liege University for
bioengineers, geologists and geographs, as well as in specialized master
degrees. He also coordinates a formation about the management of polluted
sites in continuing education.
Gilles Colinet has supervised numerous master thesis in Belgium and
overseas, seven Ph.D.—plus seven others at present time- and twenty or so
research projects in Belgium, Democratic republic of Congo, Morocco,
Burkina Faso, China, Philippines, and Bolivia.
 R&D for Clean Energy Production Through
Responsible Utilization of Various
Feedstocks Including Coal, Biomass,
and Hydrocarbons
Rachid B. Slimane



Keywords
Renewable energy Biomass Gasification Syngas cleaning and conditioning
Tars reforming Hot gas filtration Syngas conversion Biomass-to-liquids
Green gasoline
Coal, natural gas, and oil account for close to 90% of the
energy consumed globally. The significance of these crucial
feedstocks to key global economies cannot be overstated,
and despite growing concerns related to Climate Change,
reliance on these fuels is not going away any time soon.
Despite well-established conventional approaches to utiliz-
ing these feedstocks (e.g. coal combustion for power gen-
eration), an incredible amount of research has been
underway for decades to improve both the utilization effi-
ciency and environmental performance, leading to the
emergence of a number of promising technologies. Fur-
thermore, significant efforts have been devoted to utilize
renewable energy sources, such as CO2-neutral biomass,
despite their relative scarcity and other challenges associated
with their utilization.
The main objective of this talk was to share related
experiences with early-career scientists participating in this
initial conference. The author will briefly discuss the
dynamics in the energy sector, before presenting on specific
R&D areas from his own experience during over 19 years at
the Gas Technology Institute in pilot-scale projects aimed at
demonstration testing of several gasification-based tech-
nologies. GTI has state-of-the-art test platforms capable of
demonstrating coal and biomass gasification in bubbling
fluidized-bed gasifiers; syngas reforming (tars, methane, and
light hydrocarbons); cleaning (including ammonia destruc-
tion and hot syngas filtration via candle filters), and condi-
tioning; and enabling long-term operation of the various unit
operations in an integrated fashion. Consistent with the
R. B. Slimane (&)
Olefins & Aromatics, Technology Management, Petrochemicals,
SABIC Technology Center—Riyadh (STC-R), 2nd Industrial
Area, Kharj Hwy, Riyadh, 11551, Saudi Arabia
e-mail: slimaner@sabic.com
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_10






broad Topic 6 of the conference, particular emphasis will be
placed on a suite of processes, which were neatly integrated
to produce gasoline from woody biomass at up to 4.5 MWth
(input) scale. The various steps in this very promising
biomass-to-liquids (BTL) technology will be explained to
highlight the various R&D areas involved, and most
importantly to impress upon the early-career scientists how
fundamental principles play key roles in devising and inte-
grating the technology building blocks. The need to equip
the overall test facility with innovative sampling and ana-
lytical systems, will also be discussed, as a necessary mea-
sure to optimize the process.
Author Biography
Dr. Rachid Slimane is a Staff Scientist
in the Olefins and Aromatics Technology
Development department at the SABIC
Technology Center in Riyadh. He joined
SABIC two years ago, and has since
been focused on the scale-up of a pro-
prietary catalytic panel-reactor technol-
ogy for the selective production of
propylene through propane dehydro-
genation. Prior to joining SABIC, Dr.
Slimane had close to 20 years of broad
contract R&D experience at the Gas
Technology Institute (GTI in Des
Plaines, Illinois, USA), with strong focus
on thermochemical conversion (gasification), materials development, gas
cleaning & conditioning, and chemical processes R&D in general.
Dr. Slimane obtained Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Ph.D. degrees from
Colorado School of Mines, the University of Missouri-Rolla, and the
University of Minnesota. He holds four (4) patents and has contributed over
twenty-five (25) peer-reviewed journal articles and numerous technical
reports and conference papers and presentations.
27
 Can ICZM Help the Resilience
of Disappearing Beaches in the Face
of Climate Change?
Maria Snoussi, Otmane Khalfaoui, Latifa Flayou, Siham Kasmi,
and Otmane Raji



Keywords
Coastal risk Inundation
Sandy beaches are dynamic systems evolving constantly as a
result of the interaction between waves, wind and sea cur-
rents, and responding quickly to natural forcing by accreting
or retreating. However, a continued landward retreat is being
observed in many parts of the world due to multiple human
pressures exerted on coastlines. As a direct consequence,
coastal population and stakes are increasingly exposed to
flooding and erosion, especially with the accelerated sea
level rise and the likely increase in the frequency and
intensity of the climate change-related hazards (IPCC 2012).
In Morocco, more than two-thirds of the coastlines are
retreating, and the World Bank classified the Coastal GDP
within the Top 10 countries at risk, with the intensification of
storm surges (Dasgupta et al. 2009). In these conditions and
if climate change impacts are not addressed, any coastal
development could prove to be: not secure to live in; too
expensive to run and maintain; and unprofitable, in the
long-term, for investors. Therefore, preparing the coast for
the unavoidable impacts of climate change is imperative
(Snoussi et al. 2008).
The methodology used to assess the coastal lands at risk
of flooding with 1 m rise in sea level and its impacts on the
main socio-economic sectors of the coastline was based on a
simple overlaying of the digital elevation model, the land use
M. Snoussi (&)
O. Khalfaoui
L. Flayou
S. Kasmi
O. Raji
Faculty of Sciences, University Mohammed V, Rabat, Morocco
e-mail: ma.snoussi@gmail.com
O. Khalfaoui
e-mail: m.otmanekhalfaoui@gmail.com
L. Flayou
e-mail: latifa.flayou@gmail.com
S. Kasmi
e-mail: sihamkasmi02@gmail.com
O. Raji
e-mail: otmaneraji@gmail.com
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_11



Erosion Sea-level rise ICZM
map and 1 m inundation scenario using a GIS platform.
Even simplistic, this method provided a quantitative
assessment of areas at risk of flooding.
To estimate the impact of the projected SLR on sandy
beaches, we applied a set of five 1-D models in eight beaches
in Morocco. In spite of some limitations of the models and
the lack of sufficient data, this method allowed to have a
relatively rapid and cost-effective assessment.
The application of the Coastal Risk Index
(CRI) methodology to Tetouan consisted of defining the
coastal hazard zone, which results from the overlaying of the
erosion hazard zone and the flooding hazard zone. Nineteen
variables were chosen to describe the Hazards, Vulnerability
and Exposure factors. The scores corresponding to each
variable were calculated and the weights assigned through an
expert judgment.
– Risk of inundation (Example of Mohammedia coast,
Khouakhi et al. 2012): The low topography and the
absence of natural protection along the Mohammedia
coastline, on the one hand, and the density of major
industrial and urban infrastructures, on the other, make
this coast particularly vulnerable to flooding hazards. The
results showed that about 11% of the studied littoral
would present a high risk of flooding with 1 m SLR,
among which the industrial units would be the most
threatened, followed by the urbanized areas and the
adjacent wetland area.
– Risk of erosion (Example of the Atlantic beaches,
Khalfaoui et al. 2017: The comparison between the
current situation of the studied beaches and the models
simulation showed that SLR would have a significant
impact on some beaches, and especially on those with an
initial small width, for which the retreat can reach 70%
under 1.5 m SLR scenario. These results, even still
29
30
preliminary, are quite worrying for the Moroccan bea-
ches. Indeed, the projected retreats -or even loss- of the
beaches will not only jeopardize coastal tourism devel-
opment, but will increase the exposure of coastal popu-
lations and infrastructures to storm-surges flooding.
– Coastal risk index (Example of Tetouan coast (Satta et al.
2016): The assessment of coastal risk of Tetouan littoral
taken as an example and using the CRI and a GIS platform,
indicated that 10 and 27% of investigated littoral fall under
respectively very high and high vulnerability because of
combination of high erosion rates with high capital land
use. This method provided a set of maps that allow iden-
tifying areas within the coastal hazard zone with relative
higher risk from climate-related hazards, and can therefore
be used to support coastal planning and management
process in selecting the most suitable adaptation measures.
Most of the Moroccan coasts are in an advanced state of
erosion, due especially to the multiple anthropogenic pres-
sures, the lack of regulation and bad governance; which has
weakened them and reduced their resilience to any future
changes, including accelerated sea level rise. The coastline is
migrating landward and the beaches are insidiously shrink-
ing, posing a threat to their sustainability. If no measures to
combat erosion are undertaken, sandy beaches will inevitably
be lost, with cascading effects on the economy and the well
being of the local populations, particularly those dependent
on tourism. For instance, the economic valuation of beach
erosion in Tetouan (Flayou et al., submitted) showed that
erosion could have significant negative economic impacts to
the tourism sector to an estimated amount of 71.5 Million US
$ annually. Policymakers and coastal planners are therefore
increasingly faced with the complex task of balancing the
growing coastal development and management of coastal
risks related to CC, particularly flooding and erosion. In this
context, ICZM is a relevant and proactive process for the
adaptation of coastal zones to CC, and climate risk man-
agement is a key element of sustainable development, that
can help protect populations, naturel resources, ecosystem
services and thus promote the acheivement of development
objectives and economic security.
M. Snoussi et al.
References
Dasgupta S, Laplante B, Meisner C, Wheeler D, Yan J. The impact of
sea level rise on developing countries: a comparative analysis.
Climatic Change 2009;93(3):379–88.
Flayou L, Snoussi M, Raji O. Valuing the income shortfall for coastal
tourism from disappearing beaches. The case of Tetouan coast
(Morocco). Ecosyst Serv J. (submitted).
Khalfaoui O, Snoussi M, Raji O, Flayou L, Kasmi S. Estimation of
beach erosion due to future sea level rise in Morocco. In:
Proceedings of the 1st Euro-mediterranean conference for environ-
mental integration, Tunisia; (Accepted in 2017).
Khouakhi A, Snoussi M, Niazi S, Raji O. Le Système d’Information
Géographique (SIG): un outil pour l’évaluation des terres à risque
d’inondation côtière liée aux changements climatiques; cas du
littoral de Mohammedia. Travaux de l’Institut Scientifique, Rabat,
série Géologie & Géographie physique. 2012;23:1–8.
Satta A, Snoussi M, Puddu M, Flayou L, Hout R. An index-based
method to assess risks of climate-related hazards in coastal zones:
the case of Tetouan. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 2016;. doi:10.1016/j.
ecss.2016.03.021.
Snoussi M, Ouchani T, Niazi S. Vulnerability assessment of the impact of
sea-level rise and flooding on the Moroccan coast: the case of the
mediterranean eastern zone. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci. 2008;77(2):206–13.
Author Biography
Maria Snoussi is a Senior Professor at
Mohammed V University in Rabat
(Morocco). She is the first non-French
personality elected President of the Sci-
entific Council of the Research Institute
for Development (IRD). Prof. Snoussi is
also a member of the Steering Committee
of Mediterranean Experts on Environ-
mental and Climate Change (MedECC),
and Chair of the MedWet/STN Specialist
Group on Wetlands and Climate Change;
she was also, among others, member of
the Scientific Steering Committee of the
IOC/UNESCO Global Ocean Observing
System, Chair of the Coastal Systems Committee at CIESM, and member of
the IGCP/UNESCO Scientific Board. She is (has been) also a partner/leader
in several national, European and international projects and a consultant for
UNEP, IOC, IUCN and WWF.
 Assessment of the Impact of Dams on River
Regimes, Sediment Transports to the Sea,
and Coastal Changes

Gil Mahe, Oula Amrouni, Thouraya Ben Moussa, Laurent Dezileau,

Rajae El Aoula, Hamadi Habaieb, Abderraouf Hzami, Ilias Kacimi,
Abderrahmane Khedimallah, Fatma Kotti, Mohamed Meddi,
Nadia Mhammdi, and Saadi Abdeljaouad

Keywords
Rivers North Africa Dams Sediment transport Coastal morphological changes
Sands

A great number of rivers of North Africa are equipped with
many dams for multiple purposes, mainly potable water,
irrigation and energy production. In most of the countries—
Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, the storage capacity exceeds
the runoff capacity, which means that water is stored several
times in a row during its course to the sea. This leads to the
storage of massive amounts of sediments into the dams’
lakes, but nothing is known about how much sediment is
released from these dams. This topic is mainly unstudied by
the regional scientists due to lack of measurements of sedi-
ment transport, or poor access to observed data when
available. Thus there are no time series of sediment loads to
the sea from the North African rivers. One of the conse-
quences is that it is impossible to relate recently observed
coastal morphological changes to changes in the sediment
recharge from the continent. This study brings a synthesis of
recent works on this topic over the largest rivers of North
Africa in the three countries. In Morocco and Tunisia there
no continuous time series of sediment transport observa-
tions. There we sampled sediment cores in river meanders, to
draw the history of real sediment exportations to the sea, on
the basis of granulometry, geochemical and isotopic studies.
Only in Algeria are there observations of sediment transport
at main hydrological stations. The times series show many
lack of data which are reconstructed according to
runoff/concentrations correlations, taking seasonal factor

N. Mhammdi
G. Mahe e-mail: nmhammdif@yahoo.com
IRD, UMR HSM, Montpellier University, Montpellier, France
e-mail: gil.mahe@ird.fr H. Habaieb
INRGREF, Ariana, Tunisia
O. Amrouni
A. Hzami e-mail: habaieb.hamadi@yahoo.fr
INSTM, Salammbo, Tunisia
e-mail: oulabz@yahoo.fr I. Kacimi
Faculty of Sciences, University Mohammed V, Rabat, Morocco
A. Hzami e-mail: iliaskacimi@yahoo.fr
e-mail: abderraoufhzami@gmail.com
A. Khedimallah
M. Meddi
T. B. Moussa (&) ENSH, Blida, Algeria
FST /INSTM, Salammbo, Tunisia e-mail: a.khedimallah@ensh.dz
e-mail: benmoussa.thouraya87@gmail.com
M. Meddi
L. Dezileau e-mail: mmeddi@yahoo.fr
Geosciences Laboratory, University of Montpellier, Montpellier,
France F. Kotti
e-mail: dezileau@gm.univ-montp2.fr INAT, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: f.kotti@yahoo.fr
R. El Aoula
N. Mhammdi
Institut Scientifique, University Mohammed V, Rabat, Morocco S. Abdeljaouad
e-mail: elaoula.rajae@gmail.com Faculty of Sciences, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: saadi_abdeljaouad@yahoo.fr

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 31

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_12
32
into account. Methodologies and first results are shown in
this study. They reflect the huge decrease of the sediment
transport to the sea over time since several decades, and in
the case of the Medjerda river in Tunisia, the absence of
sands in the river sediments since 34 years and the con-
struction of the major dam on the main stream.
Author Biography
Dr. Gil Mahe Research Director at the
Institut de Recherche pour le
Développement (IRD). He is an hydro-
climatologist specialized on West and
Central Africa and Maghreb, Ph.D. of the
Faculty of Sciences of Paris XI, on the
topic of African discharges to the ocean
and links with climate and ocean vari-
ability, and HDR of the Montpellier
University on the topic of Relationships
between man, environment and water
resources in Africa and climate change.
He received the “Georges Hachette
Award” from the Société de Géographie
G. Mahe et al.
de Paris for his Ph.D. work published by ORSTOM. He is responsible for
the FRIEND program UNESCO. International Hydrological Program, and
coordinator of the MEDFRIEND program for the Mediterranean. He is the
President of the International Commission of Surface Water of the Inter-
national Association of Hydrological Sciences, and member of the Scientific
Commission of the International Sediment Initiative and of the Large River
Initiative (UNESCO). He is member of the pedagogical team of the
Master GOES of the University Mohammed V of Rabat, and associate
member of the Research Center on “Water, Natural Resources, Environment
and Sustainable Development” of the University of Rabat. He is responsible
for two research programs in Tunisia PHC/RYSCMED and in Morocco
PHC/CASBA. He also participates in two research programs in Algeria and
in Gabon/Congo. He has been elected member of the Specialists Commis-
sion no 36 at the University of Montpellier, and spent 13 years at IRD
Specialists or partnership Commissions. He has been for 5 years team leader
of the Water team of the IGCP/International Geological Program of
UNESCO, and he is member of the Scientific Commission of the program
“Abandonned Mines” of IGCP/Swedish funds. He has been member of the
UNESCO expert group on the impact of land cover changes on hydrological
regimes. He has been a 6-year Associated Editor of Hydrological Sciences
Journal, and he is currently Associate Editor of Ecohydrology and
Hydrobiology/Elsevier and of «Climatologie» AIC journal. He is respon-
sible for the conference cycle on the “hydrology of African Large river
basins” UNESCO/IAHS, started in 2015, and scientific editor of numerous
special issues of journals and books. He is teaching since several years in
Maghreb Universities and High Schools an initiation to bibliometry, to
master and doctorate students and researchers.
 Evolution of GSDs in the Coastal Zone, New
Insights
Jean-Paul Barusseau
Grain-size distribution (GSD) analysis aims at understanding
the conditions of sediment transport and deposition and can
be a useful tool in providing parameters and indices. GSD
description can reflect the local response of sediments to
hydrodynamic factors and provide information about the
sources. In spite of numerous studies of sampling methods,
grain-size techniques, methods of representation, analysis,
and interpretation, this question remains the subject of much
discussion. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to illus-
trate the fact that a thorough grain-size analysis is a pre-
requisite for a proper study of sediments here considered as
assemblages of grains, each responding more or less as a
grain-size individual.
Grain-size distributions in lower beach and near shore
sands of a segment of the coast of the Golfe du Lion (France)
were analyzed at two geographical scales. Samples were
taken from 57 cross-shore profiles evenly distributed
throughout the entire sandy coast, in the large scale study
(269 samples) and on 20 profiles on the reduced scale study
(96 samples). Five morphological zones were sampled: the
active berm, the collision zone, the crest of the inner bar, the
outer bar, the lower shore face, seaward limit of the near
shore zone corresponding to wave base. The sediment was
sieved by means of an AFNOR column with corrected mesh.
The plotting procedure aims at computing the Folk and
Ward parameters which supply a robust set of criteria for
routine comparison, notably for the calculation of sorting,
skewness and kurtosis. These parameters were calculated
using a MathCAD-based program enabling the plotting of
the curve and the determination of percentiles by cubic
spline interpolation. They measure the adjustment of the
grain-size curve to the Gaussian distribution and the devia-
tion between this model and sample properties. Moreover
J. P. Barusseau (&)
CEFREM—University via Domitia, Perpignan, France
e-mail: brs@univ-perp.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_13
GSD’s were analysed as mixtures of components, each of
them defined by its modal value and the proportion it
occupies within the mixture. Conceptually each GSD was
characterized by a modal formula giving each mode M (in
metric value) and the corresponding percentage P. When
working on a sufficient quantity of samples in the same
geographical area, modal values are most frequently grouped
in sets. Modal statistics complement the method, thus lead-
ing to the identification of a small number of sedimentary
types whose sedimentary history must then be reconstructed.
Simulations of mixtures by a MathCad-based program were
carried out in order to determine the impact of mixtures on
the substantial variability of the Folk and Ward parameters.
Another approach implemented during the reduced scale
study, used a deconvolution program (LNDoGS, LogNormal
Deconvolution of Grain Size, under PythonH) to automate
the analysis of real GSD’s. When applied to the samples, the
method reveals the composite character of apparently uni-
modal GSDs. This program defines the mode, standard
deviation, and proportion of each lognormal component in
the real sediment.
The results have been considered both in a spatial
framework delineating geographically distinct sedimentary
compartments and cells, and in a morphodynamic frame-
work separating the dynamic components of the shoreline
(berm, collision zone, inner bar, outer bar, lower shoreface).
Modal statistics indicate that a mixture of some dominant
components (end members) contributes to the grain-size
distribution (GSD) of the sediments. Quasi log-normal
one-component GSDs form a minority group. Mixtures
produce various apparently unimodal sands and bimodal
sediments and show the great sensitivity of parameters
(sorting, skewness, and kurtosis) to small changes in the
compositional formula of the mixture. The procedure fol-
lowed supplies a good preliminary tool enabling rapid
identification and localization of the main sand sources on a
regional scale.
33
34
At a more reduced scale, using a deconvolution program
(LogNormal Deconvolution of Grain Size) confirms the
existence of four sediment types revealed by grain-size
modal analysis. Grain-size skewness is related to a much
more persistent multimodality than graphic evidence can
show. Multimodality results from mixtures of generally three
STs and/or variants (the latter defining monotype grain-size
distributions). Monotype mixtures are unequally distributed
in morphodynamic zones, very abundant on the lower
shoreface, significantly present on the berm and inner bar,
but rare in the most dynamic zones (i.e., the collision zone
and outer bar). On the berm and lower shoreface, modal
values of the three sedimentary variants retain a close
grain-size relationship. On the berm, where only bedload is
present in the swash, monotype grain-size distribution trends
towards a lognormal model. This trend can also be observed
on the lower shoreface, where there are numerous monotype
grain-size distributions, possibly indicating a dominant
process. When compared with ST1-dominated grain-size
distributions of the outer bar zone, the distribution of the
derived ST2 on the lower shoreface has an added fine tail
derived from the coarse-skewed outer-bar sands. In addition,
positive skewness of the lower-shoreface sands could indi-
cate input of fine particles from deeper zones under the
influence of shoaling waves and upwelling.
The approach described in this work makes it possible to
provide a more detailed description of the spatial properties
of grain-size distributions. This could help explore possible
mechanisms underlying sediment sorting in the coastal zone
and, in particular, understand the modalities of displacement
of the offshore bars in the model of Net Offshore Migration
developed by the University of Perpignan team.
J. P. Barusseau
References
Barusseau JP. Influence of mixtures of grain-size populations on the
parametric and mode characteristics of the coastal sands (He´rault,
Mediterranean Sea, France). J Sediment Res. 2011;81:611–29.
Barusseau JP, Braud R. Grain-size components as markers of origin
and depositional processes in the coastal zone of the golfe du Lion
(Mediterranean Sea, France). J Sediment Res. 2014;84:626–44.
Folk RL, Ward WC. Brazos river bar: a study in the significance of
grain-size parameters. J Sediment Petrol. 1957;27:3–26.
Author Biography
Dr. Jean-Paul Barusseau is attached to
the center of education, training and
research on marine environments
(CEFREM). He is a geologist sedimen-
tologist, specialized in studies of the
coastal zone. His interest is directed
towards the history of these environ-
ments during the Late Quaternary, espe-
cially the second half of the Holocene,
and their dynamic evolution in the
Recent with a particular interest in the
issue of sandy coast erosion. His work
has been conducted in France (Bay of
Biscay, Gulf of Lions) and Africa, par-
ticularly in Senegal and Mauritania. In Senegal, his work has concerned the
Petite Côte, the post-dam evolution of Senegal River Valley and the Saloum
river delta; in 2007–2009 he participated in the revision of the geological
map, such as 1/200000 sheets of the river valley and 1/50000 sheets of the
Petite Côte (PASMI program). In Mauritania, he participated in the study of
the Banc d’Arguin area in order to present a land-sea continuum of the
coastal sedimentary unit evolution, from the coastal plain to the marine
basin during the Late Holocene (PACOBA program). He is member of the
Scientific Council of the PNBA. His work provided 156 publications. He
was the director of 12 Ph.D. theses.
 Geodata the Tool for Environmental
and Sustainable Spatial Planning
Barbara Koch
Geodata have flooded our life and they are used for all kinds
of applications with spatial characteristics. Especially used
for the protection of our environment and the sustainable
planning of the future economic and ecological develop-
ment, geodata have gained high relevance. If we think about
the planning of cities, the planning of resource use like food
production, mining or water, nature protection measures,
hazard mitigation measures, tourism planning or planning of
infrastructures like pipeline or roads or even for planning
business looking of the best site locations, geodata are
needed. To go for economical rational decisions in a sus-
tainable and ecological sensible way geodata are significant
to assess social and environmental impacts. The implemen-
tation of Google earth view and open street map give
noticeable expression to the importance of geodata.
If we talk about geodata we have to distinguish between
two areas: the area of data collection and the area of infor-
mation processing. For data collection we can perform tra-
ditional mapping in the field or use any kind of remote
sensing data. For information processing we use different
software often computer added design or geographic infor-
mation systems software. We use the software for spatial
modelling of the environmental status or processes as well as
for analyses and visualisation.
For data collection sensing technology in its widest sense
has gained extreme relevance. Sensor technology is
influencing our daily life already to a large extent e.g.
thinking about applications in medicine, for intelligent home
safe guards or for autonomous driving. This development in
sensor technology has also taken place in the field of remote
sensing for environmental applications. There are a suit of
sensors available in different sizes, with different weights
and on different platforms. A large number of satellite data
can be used with different characteristics. The spatial reso-
lution of satellite data today is even for civil applications in
B. Koch (&)
Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau,
Germany
e-mail: Barbara.koch@felis.uni-freiburg.de
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_14
the centimetre range. Besides the sensors on satellite plat-
forms active and passive sensors are mounted on airplanes
and more and more on unmanned aerial vehicles. The use of
small sensors mounted on unmanned aerial vehicles allows
new forms of data collection quality. Also in the field data
collection is increasingly based on sensor measurements.
The data sensors collect today from different platforms
provide the possibility to link information through different
scales for different applications. A major step forward was
the ability to get 3-D data from many sensors. This step
towards 3-D data was the basis for many new applications
and for the processing of virtual reality models.
This leads to the second area the availability of software
not only to map but to model the environment and the
process in the environment. Today technology provides the
possibility to work with large data volumes which is a
necessity to exploit the potentials the new senor data offer.
GIS or CAD software is offered as open source and in many
cases the data as well as the processing of the data needs not
anymore be hosted by local computer but is hosted external.
OGC standards, WMS, WFS and WPS services are gaining
more and more relevance. This development allows a high
flexibility for geodata processing
The presentation will give an overview on the latest
developments and show different examples using the new
data and the new tools their environmental applications. One
study will show the generation of 3D buildings using GIS
technique. The data basis is a laser point cloud but point
clouds retrieved from other sensors could also be used. The
3D city model results can be used to assists the processes of
city planning, environment application (i.e. flooding, fire, air
flow, and noise propagation), disaster management, tourism,
defense and security, navigation and telecommunication.
Another example will focuse on renewable energy studies.
Geodata are not only used to find the best locations due to
incident solar radiation, existing power supply networks or
customer structures but also to quantify and categorize
effects of stress factors on the performance degradation and
on the service life of components for solar energy
35
36 B. Koch

applications. The stress classification system can serve as a
decision support tool for customers from the industry
(manufacturers, investors, lenders and project developers)
and help to improve knowledge and services that can pro-
vide higher confidence to solar power systems.
Author Biography
sensing and geodata modelling for various applications. She became the first
dean of the Faculty of Environment and Natural Resources. Besides her
engagement in a number of university boards she is today Dean of Studies at
the Faculty and member of the Senate of the University. In addition she is
head of the Steinbeis FeLis a unit in the Steinbeis company to bring research
into applications. As director of the Centre of Renewable Energies and
leader of the “Sustainability and Transformation Platform”, she gained deep
insight of societal and professional requirements. Over the past years, she
became more and more engaged in strategic science management respon-
sible for the development of research and education programmes.

Barbara Koch started her academic

career with the university degree
(Diplom) in Forest Sciences in 1982 at
the research institute for Landscape
Planning and Nature Conservation at the
Ludwigs-Maximilians University in
Munich (Germany). She worked as
researcher at the
Albert-Ludwigs-University and Techni-
cal University of Munich in close
co-operation with the German Space
Research Center in Oberpfaffenhofen. In
1994 she became full professor at the
Albert-Ludwig University of Freiburg
for Remote Sensing and Landscape Information Systems. Her research was
always multi-disciplinary and international oriented and focused on remote
 Earthquake Faulting and Their Implications
for the Seismic Hazard Assessment Along
the Plate Boundary in North Africa

Mustapha Meghraoui

Keywords
Active tectonics Earthquake fault Seismotectonics Seismic hazards
North Africa

The seismotectonics of North Africa suggest a kinematic
model with transpression and block rotation for the NW
regions and with rifting in the NE regions that illustrate the
mechanics of the Africa–Eurasia convergence. Neotectonic
structures and significant seismicity (Mw > 4.5) form the
transpression system and indicate that coeval east-west
trending right-lateral faulting and NE–SW to E–W
thrust-related folding result from the oblique convergence
along the plate boundary in North Africa (Meghraoui and
Pondrelli 2012). In the NW, The convergence between Africa
and Eurasia is absorbed along the Atlas Mountains, at the
upper crustal level, by means of thrusting above decollement
systems, controlled by subdued transcurrent faults. The
NNW–SSE to NW–SE trending convergence between the
tectonic plates reaches 4–5 mm/yr and where 2–3 mm/yr are
accommodated across the Tell Atlas of Algeria and Tunisia.
In the NE, most of the active deformation is absorbed by
means of normal faulting tectonics with rift formation.
1 Neotectonic Characteristics of the Rif
and Tell Atlas Mountains
The East–West striking plate boundary is marked by a sig-
nificant seismicity and Quaternary active faults. Mainly
structured during the Alpine orogeny, the East–West trend-
ing coastal Atlas mountains of North Africa can be subdi-
vided into five distinct zones (from west to east, Figs. 1 and
2): (1) the Rif overthrusts structures, with south and SW
M. Meghraoui (&)
IPG (CNRS UMR 7516), Strasbourg, France
e-mail: m.meghraoui@unistra.fr
vergence, characterized by the two main NE–SW trending
left lateral strike-slip faults (Jebha and N’Kor faults) and
related overthrust structures, also visible along the Alboran
ridge anticlines which are limited to the north by the E–W
trending right-lateral Yussuf fault. These two structures
provide striking elements of recent tectonic activity as with
regard to the late Quaternary deformation visible on seismic
profiles across the Alboran sea (i.e., folded and faulted
Pleistocene and Holocene deposits along the ridge, and
faulted young deposits with proeminent topographic offset
across the Yussuf pull-apart basin; Meghraoui et al. 1996);
(2) the Cheliff west is the region where the marine Yussuf
fault extends to the east into a large continental Neogene and
Quaternary basin affected by right-lateral en-echelon active
folds. Tha fact that the anticline axes are deformed in a S
shape suggest a clockwise rotation during their growth;
(3) the Cheliff east that presents intermontane sedimentary
basins including the Mitidja, shows an average 1000 m of
topographic offset with strongly folded late Quaternary
deposits, and was the site of the last two large earthquakes
with thrust mechanisms (Ms 7.3 of 10.10.1980 at El Asnam,
and Ms 6.1 of 10.29.1989 at Tipaza); (4) in the Kabylies,
high mountains with thrusts and nappes showing southern
vergence involving outcrops of basement rocks, extend
eastward across Algeria and Tunisia. Active NE–SW
left-lateral and East–West striking right-lateral faults with
reverse component constitute the main tectonic framework.
The right-lateral pull-apart Neogene and Quaternary basin of
Guelma and left-lateral NE–SW faults with the associated
historical earthquakes (see also the 10.27.1985 Ms 5.9
earthquake at Constantine), reflect the importance of tectonic
movements in this region; and (5) the Sicily-Tunisia zone
with to the north, E–W and NE–SW trending active thrusts,

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 37

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_15
38
Fig. 1 Seismotectonic map of the Maghreb region (Meghraoui et al. 2016)
and to the south NW–SE striking active Quaternary graben
structures.
2 Seismotectonic and Stress Transfer
The seismotectonics and stress transfer study in north central
Algeria shows a predominantly northeastward migrating
sequence from the 1891 to 2003 earthquakes. The DCFF
modelling shows that the seismic sequence is apparently
controlled by thrust fault interaction in the Tell Atlas (Fig. 2;
Kariche et al. 2017). Using P wave arrivals reported in the
International Seismological Bulletin and zones of maximum
damage distribution, the uncertainty of the 1910, 1922 and
1934 earthquake locations cannot exceed 5 km (Benouar
1994). The macroseismic intensity distribution and related
surface faulting and uplifted coastal region suggest 5–10 km
error range for the 1891 earthquake epicenter.
Local and regional seismotectonic studies in North Africa
suggest that contractional tectonics are accompanied by
right-lateral en-echelon fold axes, basal décollements and
dip-slip geometries with imbricate structures in the upper
crust (Meghraoui et al. 1996). The correlation between the
right-lateral Yussuf fault (Alboran sea), and right stepping en
echelon folds in the Cheliff basin (Fig. 1) implies that the
crustal deformation is decoupled and therefore the E–W
M. Meghraoui
right-lateral faults are subdued beneath overthrust structures
in western Algeria. In the eastern Tell Atlas, E–W striking
right-lateral strike slip faults (e.g., Kabylies fault) with
thrusting component juxtaposes basement rocks and Qua-
ternary sedimentary basins (e.g., the Guelma pull-apart
basin, see also Fig. 1). Although the present-day tectonics is
mainly expressed on NE–SW to east-west active
thrust-related folding, the Quaternary and active deformation
indicates that contractional structures and dextral strike-slip
faults are coeval.
Earthquake ruptures in the Atlas Mountains can be driven
by the stress transfer and interaction between faults which
typically result in the occurrence of earthquake sequences.
These sequences include the following damaging instru-
mental earthquakes in 1910 Aumale-Sour El Ghozlane (Mw
7.0); in 1954 Orleansville (Mw 6.7) in 1960 Agadir (Mw
6.0); in 2003 Zemmouri (Mw 6.8) and in 2004 El Hoceima
(Mw 6.4).
3 Seismic Hazard Implications
Previous works show that the maximum values obtained for the
Design Ground Acceleration range between 0.15 and 0.42 g
and are located mainly in northern Morocco, northern Algeria
and Eastern Tunisia (Mourabit et al. 2016). The highest values
Earthquake Faulting and Their Implications …
Fig. 2 Coulomb failure stress change and transfer calculated from
modelled ruptures of major earthquakes between 1891 and 2003 in
north central Algeria (Kariche et al. 2017). The modelling indicates
are assigned to Algiers city reaching 0.42 g that can be related
with local large seismic events. In Morocco, maximum values
ranging between 0.04 and 0.15 g are obtained for Agadir and
Alhoceima regions. Similar range of values is computed for
other regions as Oran and Biskra in Algeria and throughout the
eastern Tell Atlas in Algeria and Tunisia.
The predominant factors for a realistic seismic hazard
assessment appear to be the quality of geological-tectonic
(faulting) and geodetic data, the seismicity catalogue and the
physical parameters of the crustal deformation.
A simplified map of Fig. 1 shows that the plate boundary
has not a linear shape, but a rather irregular line with three
main bends, in the Alboran sea, the Cheliff basin, and the
Sicily-Tunisia domain. The two latter main bends
correspond to zones of maximum compression to transcur-
rence ratio (43 and 50% respectively, Meghraoui et al.
1996), which are in agreement with the eastward rotation
39
increased stresses (0.1–0.4 bar) on the Sahel faulted fold, and an
increased seismic hazard in Algiers region
from 120° N to 170° N of convergence directions implying
that the compression to transcurrence ratio increases east-
ward progressively. Taking into account P axes directions of
significant earthquakes along the Gibraltar-Sicily plate
boundary, and shortening directions from tectonic data as
compared with the global convergence directions, a good
correlation exists when thrust structures and focal mecha-
nisms only are involved. However, the strike-slip mecha-
nisms provided by seismic and geologic data do not comply
with a typical convergent model of plate boundary. Thus, the
angular difference between shortening directions and con-
vergence is significant where the plate boundary is oblique
to the convergent motion (i.e., the discrepancy between
shortening and convergence is more evident along the
western section of the plate boundary, Fig. 3). The regional
strain partitioning in North Africa is suggested by the rela-
tionships between folds and strike-slip faults into a
40
deforming zone. In that case, the shortening component is
refracted from the slip vectors at the plate boundary and
cannot be considered as coaxial with the convergence
direction.
References
Benouar D. Material for the investigation of the seismicity of Algeria
and adjacent regions during the twentieth century. Ann Geofis.
1994;37:356.
Kariche J, Meghraoui M, Ayadi A, Boughacha MS. Stress change and
fault interaction from a two century-long earthquake sequence in the
central Tell Atlas (Algeria). Amer: Bull Seism Soc; 2017 in press.
Meghraoui M, Morel JL, Andrieux J, et Dahmani M. Neotectonique de
la chaîne Tello-Rifaine et de la Mer d’Alboran: une zone complexe
de convergence continent-continent. Bull Soc Géol. France,
1996;167:143–159.
Meghraoui M, Pondrelli S. Active faulting and transpression tectonics
along the plate boundary in North Africa, annals of geophysics. Ann
Geophys. 2012;55:5. https://doi.org/10.4401/ag-4970.
Meghraoui M, Amponsah P, Ayadi A, Ayele A, Ateba B, Bensule-
man A, Delvaux D, El Gabry M, Fernandes R-M, Midzi V, Roos M,
Timoulali Y. The seismotectonic map of Africa. Episodes. 2016;39
(1). https://doi.org/10.18814/epiiugs/2016/v39i1/89232.
Morel JL, Meghraoui M. The Goringe-Alboran-Tell (Galtel) tectonic
zone: a transpression system along the Africa-Eurasia plate
boundary. Geology. 1996;24:755–8.
Mourabit T, and 22 co-authors. Neo-deterministic seismic hazard
assessment in North Africa. Special Issue: Seismotectonics and
Seismic hazards in North Africa, Guest Editors: Meghraoui M,
Harbi A, Hussein HM. J Seismol. 2014;18(2):301–318. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10950-014-9424-5.
M. Meghraoui
Author Biography
Dr. Meghraoui completed his Ph.D.
(1988) at the University of Paris
XI-Orsay (France) on the Seismotecton-
ics and Paleoseismology of the Tell Atlas
in Algeria. He is a senior scientist at the
“Institut de Physique du Globe” at the
University of Strasbourg (France). His
working group has achieved major
strides, releasing pioneering studies on
the identification of active faults in
intraplate Europe and interplate major
continental active faults. They have
developed paleoseismic studies in
regions with fast active deformation and
large earthquakes, and in regions with low-level seismicity in Europe. In
particular, and for nearly 20 years now, the combination of
micro-topography, shallow geophysics and trenching in active faulting
studies has led to the group producing numerous peer-reviewed publications
and internationally recognized research papers (ca. 90 articles in ISI-JCR
journals, 2500 citations). These contributions focus on the development of
paleoseismic and archeoseismic studies and earthquake geology in different
tectonic domains (North African Atlas, North and East Anatolian fault, and
Dead Sea fault), and on the comparison between regions with slow active
deformation and regions with fast seismic slip release. Furthermore, their
research focuses on the development of a conceptual framework to deepen
our understanding of long-term faulting behavior in earthquake-prone
regions, and on studies of faults in regions with the potential for large or
moderate earthquakes and related physical characteristics. Dr. Meghraoui
has contributed to many international scientific projects, supervised 12 Ph.
D. theses and coordinated several European and international (UNESCO)
projects. He has served as an editorial board member for the Annals of
Geophysics and Natural Hazards journals. He is currently an Associate
Editor of the Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration
(Springer). In 2016 Dr. Meghraoui joined the AJGS as an Associate Editor
responsible for evaluating submissions in the fields of Earthquake Geology,
Paleoseismology, Archeoseismology, Seismotectonics and Neotectonics.
 Cryptosporidium: Waterborne
and Foodborne Transmission and Worldwide
Outbreaks
Panagiotis Karanis



Keywords
Cryptosporidium Water
Cryptosporidium is now recognized as an important human
pathogen and it counts second leading cause of death in
children under 5 years of age. There is increasingly growing
evidence that demonstrates a high global burden of cryp-
tosporidiosis among populations worldwide. Epidemiologi-
cal studies demonstrated a wide heterogeneity in prevalence
in humans, animals and environment. Water and food con-
taminated by the oocysts of Cryptosporidium species seems
to be the main routes of transmission and infections. Every
year, diarrhea causes the deaths of about one million chil-
dren under five. Cryptosporidium has emerged as significant
cause of diarrhoeal diseases and the young, malnourished
children are mostly affected (Ahmed and Karanis 2017;
Aldeyarbi et al. 2016; Efstratiou et al. 2017b; Karanis 2011).
The collection of data was based upon available global
literature sources. Literature search used the MEDLINE/
PubMed and Scopus databases, as well as available electronic
data from surveillance systems all over the globe, including
the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the
European Center of Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC).
The collection of data entailing this present review of
waterborne parasitic protozoan outbreaks was also based on
the use of online information from, Euro Surveillance
P. Karanis (&)
State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai
University, 1# Weier Road, Qinghai Biological Scientific Estate
Garden, Xining, 810016, Qinghai, People’s Republic of China
e-mail: panagiotis.karanis@uk-koeln.de
http://www.mdpi.com/journal/environments/
special_issues/Parasitology
http://giardiacrypto2017.sld.cu/index.php/giardiacrypto/2017
http://jwh.iwaponline.com/content/editorial-board-0
P. Karanis
Medical School, University of Cologne, Kerpenerstr 62, 50937
Cologne, Germany
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_16


Food Outbreaks
(published by ECDC), Canada Communicable Disease
Report (CCDR by PHAC), Morbidity and Mortality Weekly
Report (MMWR by CDC) and Public Health England’s
electronic gastrointestinal outbreak surveillance system
(eFOSS) (Baldursson and Karanis 2011; Efstratiou et al.
2017a, b; Karanis et al. 2007; Mahmoudi et al. 2017; Rosado
Garcia et al. 2017).
Cryptosporidium poses the biggest threat to the water
industry as, initially, many outbreaks were caused by this
little known parasite which penetrated multi-barrier water
treatment systems that were thought to be effective in pro-
viding safe drinking water. Although cryptosporidiosis is a
significant cause of diarrheal disease in both developing and
industrialized countries, epidemiological studies have shown
that Cryptosporidium is more common in developing
countries (5 to >10%) than in developed countries (<1–3%).
In developing countries, this protozoan is one of the agents
causing diarrhea in children under 5 years of age that is
thought to be responsible for 30–50% of childhood mortal-
ity. Infections that cause diarrhea caused by Cryptosporid-
ium parvum and C. hominis are responsible for nearly a
million deaths worldwide every year, mostly among children
in low-income countries as well as immuno-deficient
patients. In Europe and in almost all the Mediterranean
countries the burden of the diseases has been difficult to
measure as a result of the lack of appropriate, standardized
surveillance and monitoring systems. Health systems, sani-
tation and water access have certain limitations in nations
around the world. Water is often contaminated and therefore
unhealthy for the consumers and users. Information on
prevalence and detection of waterborne parasitic protozoa
are limited or not available in many countries (Efstratiou
et al. 2017a, b; Karanis 2011; Karanis et al. 1996, 1998,
41
42
2001, 2002, 2006; Plutzer et. 2017; Spanakos et al. 2015).
Cryptosporidiosis is recognized as one of the leading causes
of childhood diarrhea in African countries (Aldeyarbi et al.
2016). It has dramatic adverse effects on child growth and
development and causes increased mortality on a continent
where HIV, poverty, and lack of sanitation and infrastructure
increase the risk of cryptosporidial waterborne infection. No
outbreaks have been reported in Africa to date, raising
numerous questions and hypotheses including water sanita-
tion and Cryptosporidium outbreaks (Aldeyarbi et al. 2016).
Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis increasing
research in Asia highlights the current situation of Cryp-
tosporidium epidemiology, genetic diversity and distribu-
tion, and transmission throughout Asia (Mahmoudi et al.
2017). Summarized data describes a picture of Cryp-
tosporidium and cryptosporidiosis in Asia that differs only in
detail from that reported in other regions of the globe.
Cryptosporidium oocysts have been detected in surface
water throughout Asia. The commonness of fecal wastes
from human and non-human hosts suggests that many
environments, particularly water and soil, act as vehicles for
the spreading of the disease and other studies have also
confirmed oocysts presence in samples of different vegeta-
bles e.g., water spinach and in water used for splashing
vegetable. However, the number of the reported outbreaks in
Asian countries is very low Mahmoudi et al. 2017.
Only few reports have documented in this field during the
last forty years and Brazil leads the list, including countries
in South America and Mexico within Central America
region and Caribbean islands. From 1979 to 2015, 16 out-
breaks of waterborne-protozoa, were reported in Latin
American countries. T. gondii and C. cayetanensis were the
protozoa, which caused most outbreaks but Giardia spp. and
Cryptosporidium spp. were the most frequently found pro-
tozoa in water samples (Rosado Garcia et al. 2017; Karanis
2011).
At least 325 water-associated outbreaks of parasitic pro-
tozoan disease have been reported in the period between the
years 1900–2004. North American and European outbreaks
accounted for 93% of all reports and nearly two-thirds of
outbreaks occurred in North America. Over 30% of all
outbreaks were documented from Europe, with the UK
accounting for 24% of outbreaks, worldwide. C. parvum
accounts for the majority of outbreaks (165; 50.8%) (Karanis
et al. 2007). Worldwide waterborne parasitic protozoan
outbreaks occurred globally between January 2004 and
December 2010 (Baldursson and Karanis 2011). At least one
hundred and ninety-nine outbreaks of human diseases due to
the waterborne transmission of parasitic protozoa occurred
and were reported during the time period from 2004 to 2010.
P. Karanis
46.7% of the documented outbreaks occurred on the Aus-
tralian continent, 30.6% in North America and 16.5% in
Europe. Cryptosporidium spp. was the etiological agent in
60.3% (120) of the outbreaks (Baldursson and Karanis
2011). An update of worldwide waterborne parasitic proto-
zoan outbreaks largely between January 2011 and December
2016 has been published in 2017 (Efstratiou et al. 2017b). At
least 381 outbreaks attributed to waterborne transmission of
parasitic protozoa were documented during this time period.
The nearly half (49%) of the reports occurred in New
Zealand, 41% of the outbreaks in North America, and 9% in
Europe. The most common etiological agent was Cryp-
tosporidium spp., reported in 63% (239). The distribution of
reported outbreaks does not correspond to more broadly
available epidemiological data or general knowledge of
water and environmental conditions in the reporting coun-
tries. Noticeably, developing countries that are probably
most affected by such waterborne disease outbreaks still lack
reliable surveillance systems, and an international stan-
dardization of surveillance and reporting systems has yet to
be established (Efstratiou et al. 2017a, b).
Cryptosporidium spp. is considered one of the most
important foodborne parasite which serves as a responsible
for not only several well documented waterborne outbreaks
but also for foodborne outbreaks (Ahmed and Karanis
2017). Cold pressed non-alcoholic apple cider, ozonated
apple cider, milk, béarnaise sauce, raw meat and raw liver,
chicken salad, pre-cut mixed salad leaves (bagged salad),
and frisée salad are all reported as main causes of foodborne
Cryptosporidium outbreaks. Infection usually associated
with food service and catering industries. Clearing that fresh
produce when it is consumed with minimal preparation, are
highly expected of being vehicles for transmission of
Cryptosporidium infection. Other food matrices (specifically
fruit juice, molluscs and sprouted seeds) have also been
reported as vehicles to this protozoan parasite. In respect of
these reasons, Cryptosporidium took the main focus of
methods development. Foodborne illness, costs global
economies billions of dollars each year. Cryptosporidium is
particularly suited to foodborne transmission and is
responsible for million cases of foodborne illness annually.
Same as waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis food-
borne outbreaks have been increasingly reported, most
foodborne outbreaks are never recognised, they are fre-
quently poorly investigated or unreported. 26 foodborne
outbreaks have been described in the last 30 years most of
them have been reported from North European countries,
USA and UK (Ahmed and Karanis 2017).
A review on the evolution of monitoring methodology for
Cryptosporidium and Giardia in water since the 1970s
Cryptosporidium: Waterborne and Foodborne Transmission …
provided an extensive knowledge and details on the applied
methodologies. Methods in current use for Cryptosporidium
in water are highlighted, though attention is given to all
available published methods by country and continent. The
review was intended to stimulate research leading to future
improvements and further developments in monitoring
methodology for Cryptosporidium and other waterborne
protozoan parasites in water (Efstratiou et al. 2017a).
Cryptosporidium oocysts have been detected in surface
and drinking waters of different countries in Europe (north
and south, west and east Europe). Limited data are available
regarding the occurrence and distribution of Cryptosporid-
ium in water of Balkan, southern and eastern European
countries (Plutzer et al. 2017). In several European countries
Cryptosporidium was detected in surface water reservoirs,
swimming pools and drinking water samples. Swimming is a
major recreational and tourist activity in Europe and
Mediterranean countries. There is significant growing use of
swimming pools and spas and a considerable scope for
improving knowledge of health risks and harmonizing
public health protection policy in Europe and Mediterranean
countries. Although new innovative technologies used to
remove pathogens from water, there is still a continuous
number of outbreaks happening around Europe and
Mediterranean countries due to Cryptosporidium and other
pathogens (Karanis et al. 2001, 2002, 2006; Plutzer et al.
2017; Spanakos et al. 2015).
The presence of Cryptosporidium in aquatic ecosystems
makes it imperative to develop prevention strategies for
water and food safety. Human incidence and
prevalence-based studies provide baseline data against
which risk factors associated with waterborne and foodborne
transmission can be identified. Standardized methods are
required to maximize public health surveillance, while
reporting lessons learned from outbreaks will provide better
insight into the public health impact of waterborne and
foodborne Cryptosporidium outbreaks. In those countries
that are likely affected most a lack of surveillance systems is
noticeable. However, countries that established surveillance
systems did not establish an international standardization of
reporting systems. It would be important to coordinate all
surveillance systems in between all countries for early
detection and measures against waterborne-Cryptosporidium
outbreaks and to establish effective and suitable diagnosis
tools according to the country’s economic strength and
particular needs. This effort will facilitate future research
approaches and further developments in the understanding
of Cryptosporidium epidemiology in Europe and Mediter-
ranean countries create and open new fields for research and
technology applications and to contribute to improvement in
protection measures for mitigating the burden associated
with this illness in the future.
43
References
Ahmed SA, Karanis P. Food material analysis for the detection of
Cryptosporidium oocysts. Parasitol Res. 2017 (submitted, under
review).
Aldeyarbi HM, Abu El-Ezz NM, Karanis P. Cryptosporidium and
cryptosporidiosis: the African perspective. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int.
2016;23(14):13811–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6746-6.
Baldursson S, Karanis P. Waterborne transmission of protozoan
parasites: review of worldwide outbreaks—an update 2004–2010.
Water Res. 2011 Dec 15;45(20):6603-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
watres.2011.10.013. Epub 2011 Oct 20. Review.
Efstratiou A, Ongerth J, Karanis P. Evolution of monitoring for Giardia
and Cryptosporidium in water. Water Res. 2017a;123:96–112.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.06.042. Epub 18 Jun 2017.
Review.
Efstratiou A, Ongerth JE, Karanis P. Waterborne transmission of
protozoan parasites: review of worldwide outbreaks—an update
2011–2016. Water Res. 2017b;114:14–22.
Karanis P. Giardia and Cryptosporidium: Occurrence in water supplies.
In: Nriagu JO, editor. Encyclopedia of environmental health, vol. 2,
pp. 946–954. Burlington: Elsevier Science Inc; 2011.
Karanis P, Papadopoulou C, Kimura A, Economou E, Kourenti C,
Sakkas H. Why Cryptosporidium research for large water supplies:
investigations in the lake Mornos, the big water reservoir of greater
Athens. Cryptosporidium: From Molecules to Dis. 2001;7–12
October 2001, Fremantle, Western Australia.
Karanis P, Schoenen D, Seitz HM. Giardia and Cryptosporidium in
backwash water from rapid sand filters used for drinking water
production. Int J Hyg Environ Health (former Zentralblatt für
Bakteriologie). 1996;284:107–14.
Karanis P, Schoenen D, Seitz HM. Distribution and removal of Giardia
and Cryptosporidium in water supplies in Germany. Water Sci
Technol. 1998;37:9–18.
Karanis P, Papadopoulou C, Kimura A, Economou E, Kourenti C,
Sakkas H. Cryptosporidium and Giardia in natural, drinking and
recreational waters of Northwestern Greece. Acta Hydrochim
Hydrobiol. 2002;30:49–58.
Karanis P, Sotiriadou I, Kartashev V, Kourenti C, Tsvetkova N,
Stojanova K. Occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in water
supplies of Russia and Bulgaria. Environ Res. 2006;. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.envres.2006.05.005.
Karanis P, Kourenti C, Smith H. Waterborne transmission of protozoan
parasites: a worldwide review of outbreaks and lessons learnt.
J Water Health. 2007 Mar;5(1):1–38. Review.
Plutzer J, Lassen B, Jokelainen P, Djurkovic-Djakovic O, Kucsera I,
Dorbek-Kolin E, Šoba Šparl B, Sreter T, Imre K, Omeragic J, Nikolic A,
Bobic B, Živicnjak T, Lucinger S, Lazaric Stefanovic L, Kucinar J,
Sroka J, Deksne G, Keidane D, Kvac M, Zuzana H, Karanis P. Cryp-
tosporidium spp. and Giardia intestinalis in Eastern Europe. Euro-
surveillance;2017. [EMID: 4582f89bbe937e6d] (in press).
Mahmoudi MR, Ongerth R, Karanis P. Cryptosporidium and cryp-
tosporidiosis: the Asian perspective. Int J Hyg Environ Health
2017;220:1098–1109. Review. PMID: 28760503.
Rosado Garcia FM, Guerrero Florez M, Karanis G, del Carmen
Hinojosa MDC, Karanis P. Water-borne protozoa parasites: the
Latin American perspective. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2017;220
(5):783–798. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.03.008. Epub
19 Mar 2017. Review.
Spanakos G, Biba A, Mavridou A, Karanis P. Occurrence of
Cryptosporidium and Giardia in recycled waters used for irrigation
and first description of Cryptosporidium parvum and C. muris in
Greece. Parasitol Res. 2015;114(5):1803–10. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s00436-015-4366-6.
44
Author Biography
Panagiotis Karanis obtained his Ph.D.
in Parasitology from Bonn University.
Following post-doctoral research activi-
ties in Germany, Greece, Australia,
Japan, Canada, Thailand and China he
has been working in the field of medical,
epidemiological and molecular Para-
sitology, in particular waterborne para-
sitic diseases taken into account both the
pathogen and the disease. He completed
his habilitation at Bonn Medical School
in Germany and got professorships in
Japan (Obihiro University, National
Research Center for Protozoan Dis-
eases), Germany (Cologne Medical
School) and China (Qinghai University). He has an outstanding academic
background, excellent publication record with 110 original articles in
journals related to Parasitology and Tropical Diseases. He has significant
teaching experiences in the fields of Medical Parasitology, Tropical Dis-
eases, human Macro-Anatomy, Neuroanatomy, Histology. He has authored
a couple of book chapters in the “Lexikon der Infektionskrankheiten” (in
German), in “The Encyclopedia of Environmental Health” and he is Editor
of two international peer review Journals (Journal of Water and Health,
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health).
P. Karanis
• His worldwide research activities focused on the diagnosis and control
of waterborne, foodborne and vectorborne parasitic diseases including
the development of diagnostic assays useful for basic and clinical
platforms in the field of biomedicine. He was the main speaker for the
Nobel-Days-Lecture during the Nobel-Days-Festivities at the Örebro
University in Sweden in December 10th, 2012, focused on Malaria
vaccine development.
• Professor Karanis is an influential and most prominent Greek Para-
sitologist, having had fundamental role in triggering the interest of the
German, Greek, Japanese, and Chinese governments for research
contributions on parasitic diseases and their control in many countries.
He founded the German-Greek Academy for Biomedicine in 2000 and
he is looking forward to make the best use of existing skills and
experiences and to provide worldwide opportunities for further
responsibility and professional development on diagnostic assays for
next generation biosensors and bio-detection techniques to control
pathogens and most important infectious diseases.
• He was invited in 2014 to work for the Chinese Government as an
invited Expert in the Platform of ‘The One Thousand Talents Program’
established by the Government of China to recruit highly skilled
university professors and researchers to China. In the following report
we summarized research activities, facts and trends for the period
16.06.2014–17.06.2017.
 Springer Workshop on How to Get Published
in a Scientific Journal: Tips from Springer
Editors
Nabil Khélifi and Abdullah Al-Amri



Keywords



Research paper Writing Structure
comments Editors Publication
Publication must be seen as an important, if not the most
important, part of the research process. However, writing
research papers for academic journals is not easy and is also
very competitive. After producing data and generating ideas
from your research, the remaining questions that need to be
answered are: how to write a clear and concise paper that
attracts the attention of journal editors? How to prepare a
cover letter? How to respond to reviewer reports? A Senior
Publishing Editor from Springer Nature in Heidelberg,
Germany shares his advice on how to effectively write and
structure your paper, prepare a cover page and respond to
reviewers’ comments. Also, an Editor-in-Chief of a
Springer journal talks about one of the most frequent routes
followed on the journey through the world of scientific
publishing—from journal reader to author, reviewer and
editor. He shares his experience and his strategy for devel-
oping his journal, and how he shapes the connection
between the journal and its community. He also provides a
clear statement of the journal’s policy and how he estab-
lishes a workflow for effective and rapid peer review. Lastly,
he explains why reviewing has an important role to play, and
offers his top tips on breaking into the world of journals: an
opportunity to understand what editors like—and what they
do not!
N. Khélifi (&)
Springer, Heidelberg, Germany
e-mail: nabil.khelifi@springer.com
A. Al-Amri
KSU, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_17




Academic journals Cover letter Reviewers’
Author Biography
Dr. Nabil Khélifi holds a B.Sc. in Natural
Sciences (2001) and an M.Sc. in Earth &
Environmental Sciences (2004) from the
University of Sfax (Tunisia). He received
fellowships from the global change System
for Analysis, Research and Training
(START) in 2005 and the German Aca-
demic Exchange Service (DAAD) from
2006 to 2010 to continue with his Ph.D.
studies in Marine Geosciences (Specialty:
Paleo-oceanography and Paleoclimatology)
at the University of Kiel in Germany. After
completing his Ph.D. in 2010, Dr. Khélifi
received a postdoctoral research grant from
the German Science Foundation (DFG) to pursue his self-designed research
projects at the GEOMAR Ocean Research Centre in Kiel, Germany, which
involved reconstructing past changes in oceanography and climate in the North
Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea using marine sediment samples retrieved by
the International Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) and applying foraminiferal
and geochemical proxy methods. He subsequently published his research
findings in prominent scientific journals. Dr. Khélifi also received funding from
the European Science Foundation (ESF) and some European universities to
co-organize with colleagues from Kiel, Bordeaux and Bristol two Workshops
on Pliocene climate in Bordeaux, France (2009) and Bristol, UK (2013). In early
2014 he received the Swiss Government Excellence Scholarship (SGES) to
continue with his research projects at the ETH in Zurich, Switzerland. Although
his interest in scientific research remained strong, in March 2014 he decided to
pursue his career as a Senior Publishing Editor with Springer (a part of Springer
Nature) in Heidelberg, Germany. He is mainly responsible for developing
Springer’s publishing program in the Middle East & North Africa (MENA). The
program currently consists of developing 18 academic journals from the Arab
World and publishing numerous scientific books each year. Dr. Khélifi also
helps researchers in MENA countries publish their work by delivering educa-
tional seminars for authors, reviewers, and journal editors to help improve their
publication output and quality. He is also a Visiting Lecturer at the University of
Carthage, Tunisia and King Saud University, KSA, where he offers M.Sc./Ph.D.
courses on geo-communication/presentations and techniques for publishing
papers, and career professional development workshops. Most recently, Dr.
Khélifi was awarded the 2016 Africa Green Future Leadership Award in
recognition of work contributing to sustainable development by advancing
science and promoting publications in Africa and the Middle East. In 2017 Dr.
Khélifi launched the first Springer conference dedicated to promoting the
Euro-Mediterranean integration process, stressing the vulnerability and need for
proactive remediation of the Euro-Mediterranean environment.
45
 Editing a Paper from Submission to
Publication
Amjad Kallel



Keywords
Scientific paper Editing process
The research/data curried out by scientists and submitted for
publication requires fastidious tasks through a long pathway
until the day of its publication. The Editors are the hub of the
process and have to handle the pressure of the authors—who
want to see their work published in the shortest time-
meanwhile without sacrificing quality and integrity of the
journal. In addition to his concern about the scientific con-
tent in a paper (quality), the editor still has to carefully
check and ensure the respect of publication ethics.
Submission/Editing systems such as the Editorial Manager
system (EM) is one of the tools used nowadays by journals
helping them to handle several hundreds of submissions
each year.
How to efficiently use and manipulate the different fea-
tures of EM from initial submission until rendering the
final decision (technical check and similarity report,
targeting/inviting relevant reviewers, responding to authors
queries, following up with Associate Editors and reviewers,
etc.)?
On the other hand, the increase of the Impact Factor is the
goal to achieve for the journal team, meanwhile it is the
catalyst of the journal success and plays a key role to attract
and gain interest of authors in term of number as well as
quality. Nevertheless, for a newly launched journal, several
approaches and actions have to be followed by the editorial
board to promote the journal and increase its impacts among
the scientific community and competitive journals.
A. Kallel (&)
Sfax National School of Engineering (ENIS),
University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: amjad.kallel@enis.tn
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_18


Editorial Manager system (EM) Impact Factor
This workshop intends to present/discuss the main steps
for a successful editing process: What should be done and
how it is done?
Author Biography
Dr. Amjad Kallel holds a B. Eng. in
Georesources and Environment (1998)
from the University of Sfax (Tunisia),
an M.Sc. degree and a Ph.D. degree in
Georesources and Environment (2004)
from Hokkaido University (Japan). He
joined Venture Business Laboratory
(VBL) at Akita University, Japan
(2005–2006) as a researcher focusing
on refining and recycling technologies
for the recovery of rare elements from
natural and secondary sources. Back in
Tunisia, he worked at the University of
Gabes from 2006 to 2011 where he
contributed to the elaboration of teach-
ing programs at the Higher Institute of
Water Sciences and Technologies of Gabes. Since 2011, he has been lec-
turing at the Sfax National School of Engineering (University of Sfax,
Tunisia). There, he has also been involved in various research projects
related to Environmental Geology and Environmental Geotechnics. In
addition, Dr. Kallel is involved as a consultant in urban and environmental
projects for the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development in
Tunisia. Dr. Kallel has organized many prestigious workshops, seminars and
international conferences. Currently, he is supporting the editorial board of
the Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration (Springer). In
2016 Dr. Kallel joined the AJGS as an Assistant Editor supporting the
Editor-in-Chief.
47
 3rd Workshop of the Euro-Mediterranean
Consortium of Higher Education
and Industrial Institutions: Freshwater
and Climate Change

Abriak Nor-Edine, Ahmed Addou, Hentati Olfa, J. Cisneros-Aguirre,

Khaldi Abdelkrim, Kherbeche Abdelhak, Mohamed Ksibi,
Zouhaier Ksibi, Legube Bernard, Hakima Nassali, Ouddane Baghdad,
Rives Alain, and Sehili Tahar

The Euro-Mediterranean Consortium of Institutes of Higher
Education and Industry (C3ESI) is made up of universities
and colleges of engineering. Its mission is to develop the
Environmental Science and Technology and establish links
with other scientific associations and organizations around
the Mediterranean. It contributes to the field of sustainable
development and human development and counts in its
directory a number of actions at the Euro-Mediterranean
level. Since its inception, the C3ESI has set itself a number
of objectives, including:
– Coordination of efforts to develop scientific research,
particularly in the field of the environment “Water, Air,
Soil”.
A. Nor-Edine
Ecole des Mines de Douai, Douai, France
A. Addou
Université de Mostaghanem, Mostaganem, Algeria
H. Olfa
M. Ksibi (&)
Université de Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: mdh.ksibi@gmail.com
J. Cisneros-Aguirre
Consorzio Venezia Nuova, Venice, Italy
K. Abdelkrim
USTO, Oran, Algerie
K. Abdelhak
EST Fès, Fes, Morocco
Z. Ksibi
Université de Tunis al Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
L. Bernard
Université de Poitiers, Poitiers, France
H. Nassali
FS Kenitra, Kenitra, Morocco
O. Baghdad
R. Alain
Université de Lille 1, Villeneuve-d’Ascq, France
S. Tahar
Université de Constantine, Constantine, Algéria
– The regular organization of meetings “International
Symposiums, National and International Conferences,
Workshops, Seminars, Awareness Days …” on Envi-
ronment and Sustainable Development.
– The promotion and assistance to the establishment of
means of disseminating environmental sciences, the
establishment of privileged relations with the
Euro-Mediterranean scientific bodies.
Aware of its social and scientific role, C3ESI has created
a space for exchange at the international level. This is an
asset for the success of his approach to excellence. The
consortium and all of its members are making progress in
this process on a day-to-day basis and have already begun a
real improvement in their practices, which we are trying to
share with the citizen, which is why we are participating in
EMCEI 2017.
More than ever, we are convinced that we must act for the
preservation of natural resources. We have inherited an
environmental space that is land and we have to ensure it is
preserved for future generations under viable conditions.
The C3ESI consortium is participating in the 2017 EMCEI
through a School of Excellence entitled “Freshwater and
Climate Change”. The purpose of this event, which has been
labeled by the COP22 Committee, is to generate recom-
mendations on possible forms of adaptation to climate
change in order to preserve and increase freshwater resour-
ces in countries around the Mediterranean and other coun-
tries on the African continent. This school is also a
laboratory of ideas and optimizations of innovative projects
carried out by young researchers, projects selected before-
hand according to their quality and their ability to lead to the
creation of activity.
In the program of the courses in several sessions pre-
senting the state of progress of the research in these subjects
and the state of the art in the field of research on water,
environment and climate change. Courses with a scientific

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 49

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_19
50 A. Nor-Edine et al.

vocation will create opportunities for meetings and collab-
orations between the various industrial and university
clusters.
The Organizing Committee hopes that this international
meeting will reflect a favorable and attractive image of the
countries participating in the EMCDC 2017.
Author Biography
University of Sfax. His research focuses on chemicals in the environment,
water and wastewater treatment and reuse. He developed new methods for
toxicity assessment of water containing various pollutants (dyes, phenolic and
pharmaceutical compounds, pulp and paper mills pollute water, domestic
wastewater, …etc.) after applying different wastewater treatment techniques.
He has co-published about 60 papers in indexed journals. He has been
involved in establishing several joint scientific projects with Moroccan, Por-
tuguese, German and Japanese scientists aiming at studying the quantification
and risk assessment of emerging organic contaminants and heavy metals in
soil and surface waters in Tunisia. Most recently, he has been participating at
the NATO-SfP project ‘Remediation Processes in Uranium and other Mining
Explorations’.

Dr. Mohamed Ksibi obtained his

M.Sc (1989) and Ph.D. (1993) degrees in
Applied Chemistry from the University of
Poitiers, France. He also gained the
Habilitation (HDR) in Chemistry from the
University of Sfax, Tunisia (2003).
Afterwards, he received a one-year post-
doctoral research fellowship at the
National Institute of Scientific and Tech-
nical Research (Tunisia, 1995) and then
was appointed as an Adjunct Professor in
Chemistry (1996), Assistant Professor
(1999), Associate Professor (2004) and as
a full Professor of Chemistry (2009) at the University of Sfax, Tunisia. In
2011, he became Director of the High Institute of Biotechnology at the
 An Integrated Environmental Approach—
City of Sfax, Tunisia
Hamed Ben Dhia
The city of Sfax (southeastern Tunisia) has lived, for more
than 60 years, a very special environmental situation. The
second largest city in the country is distinguished for its
economic dynamism, its culture of entrepreneurial initiative
and the competitive spirit of its inhabitants, but above all
because of its privileged location strategically convenient for
accessing the center and southern part of the country and, in
addition, its direct access to the Mediterranean Sea, allowing
for intense trade activities. However, this strategic location
also has its shady side.
Because of Sfax being close to the phosphate resources in
southwestern Tunisia, a political and economic decision has
been taken, after Tunisian independence from France in
1956, to industrialize the city by processing and exporting
phosphates through its port. This decision has caused and is
still causing dramatic effects on the environment of Sfax. It
has deprived the city of its marine front by reserving it to all
sorts of industrial polluting activities. It has transformed the
littoral into a place of diverse industrial and domestic dis-
charges, and therefore deprived inhabitants of any activity at
the seaside. Also, this decision has negatively impacted the
H. B. Dhia (&)
University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: bendhia.hamed1@gmail.com
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_20
development plans and thus jeopardized many future
strategies for a proper modernization of the city. Lastly, it
has made Sfax a city whose atmosphere, water table and sea
are exposed to strong pollution, aggravated by an unprece-
dented accumulation of industrial and domestic waste
affecting the quality of life and raising citizen dissatisfaction.
Few projects have emerged, only lastly, to partially
remedy the situation, such as the flood protection belt, the
closure of the NPK plant, expansion of the wastewater col-
lection network, increasing the treatment capacity using new
wastewater treatment plants, the new Taparura project aim-
ing to restore the beaches and create hundreds of hectares of
land following the clean-up of the northern coast of the city,
the motorway linking the city with northern and southern
parts of the country, some new advanced industrial zones,
more or less developed landfill sites, a university with a
strong environmental component and numerous other
large-scale development projects delegated to international
experts.
It is obvious, that there is an urgent need for an integrated
approach based on reliable data and not biased by stake-
51
52
holders interests. The University of Sfax and its academic
experts have acquired and accumulated essential knowledge,
expertise and skills in the field of environmental sciences
and their applications in Sfax and the surrounding regions.
Therefore, they can act as a wise and constructive interme-
diary to bring positions closer together in order to under-
stand each other’s needs and to generate a consensual
solutions satisfactory to all parties.
It is thus the objective of this workshop to discuss the
environmental issue of Sfax, its specificities and the possible
solutions. It is also an opportunity to discuss the major
outcomes from gathering most of the multidisciplinary work
carried out by the various research team members working
on this initiative to decipher the factors, measures and
activities affecting or likely to affect the environment of Sfax
with all its regional components. The aim is to discuss these
major outcomes in order to generate a “reference document”
on the state of the environment in Sfax. A road-map with
concrete proposals has to be created by involving an over-
arching network in order to endow Sfax with nature-friendly
development and remediation plans for complete restoration
and recovery toward a true green economy shift.
H. B. Dhia
Author Biography
Dr. Ben Dhia is currently a Professor
Emeritus in the Sfax National School of
Engineering (University of Sfax, Tuni-
sia). He trained in Tunisia and then in
France where he graduated and obtained
his Ph.D. in Geothermal Energy &
Aquifers Modeling from the Faculty of
Sciences, Bordeaux and the Mining
School of Paris. His working career
started from Libya in the sector of water
research within the Saharan region
(1973–1974), to Morocco with the
National Phosphate Company (1975–
1978), and ended in Tunisia as a
lecturer/professor at the University of
Sfax (1979–2012), active in several research projects focusing on Hydro-
geology, Geothermal Energy, Environmental Sciences and Engineering
Geology. He has co-published more than 180 papers at national and inter-
national journals. Furthermore, he supervised and successfully handled
about 50 master and 30 doctoral theses. Dr. Ben Dhia was also appointed as
Head of the Earth Science Department (1982–1986) and Director (1993–
1997) of the National School of Engineers of Sfax, and President (Rector) of
the University of Sfax (1997–2011). This long career permitted him to
acquire solid skills and expertise in several fields such as Natural Resources,
Green Growth, University Management and Entrepreneurship
Learning/Coaching.
 Groundwater Exploration in the Solar
System: “the Restless Hunt for Life”

Essam Heggy

Water on Mars, on Jupiter Icy Moons, on Asteroids and
perhaps even more water on more bodies of our solar system
—Are water and life unique to Earth? The last decade of
planetary exploration suggests that the liquid water, uniquely
characterizing, our blue planet is potentially a transitional
phase that other bodies of our solar system may have gone
through or will be transiting to during their evolution. On
Earth, as well as other bodies of the solar system, the geo-
logical evidences of water and climatic evolutions are often
found in the first few kilometers of the subsurface. Today,
planetary radar sounding and imaging techniques have pro-
vided new insights into understanding the unseen subsurface
geology of the Earth, Moon, Venus, Mercury, comets and
Mars—as well as numerous other bodies in our solar system
hunting traces of water and ice and exploring new habit-
able environments. The returned data reveals the similarities
and discrepancies between our planets and the other bodies
of the solar system. In this seminar dedicated to the general
science audience, Dr. Heggy will present how low-frequency
radar sounding methods are being used to explore evidences
of buried Martian geological features, including possible
deep subsurface aquifers and ice deposits. He will also dis-
cuss the exploration of ice and organic materials on comets
from the ROSETTA mission and provide an insight to both
NASA’s and ESA’s future plans to probe subsurface water
on Mars and Jupiter’s icy moons. He will also discuss the
similarities between the Earth deserts and several plane-
tary environments in term of groundwater evolution.

E. Heggy (&)
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, University of Southern
California, Los Angeles, USA
e-mail: heggy@caltech.edu

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 53

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_21
54
Author Biography
Essam Heggy is a Planetary Scientist at
the Viterbi School of Engineering in the
University of Southern California and a
ROSETTA Co-Investigator at the NASA
Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Heggy
obtained both Master and Ph.D. in
Astronomy and Astrophysics with a
major in Space and Planetary sciences
respectively in 1999 and 2002 with dis-
tinguished honours from the
Sorbonne-UPMC Paris University in
France. His research interests in space
and planetary geophysics aims to
understand water and ice distributions in
Earth arid regions, Mars, the Moon, Icy satellites and Near Earth Objects.
E. Heggy
His research involves probing structural, hydrological and volcanic elements
in terrestrial and planetary environments using different types of radar
imaging and sounding techniques as well as measuring the electromagnetic
properties of rocks in the radar frequency range. He is currently a member of
the science team of the MARSIS instrument aboard the Mars Express
Orbiter, the Mini-SAR experiment aboard Chandrayaan-1, the Mini-RF
experiment on board the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter and the CONSERT
radar experiment on board the Rosetta mission. He is also a contributing
scientist to several proposed planetary and terrestrial radar imaging and
soundings experiments and participated in several NASA radar mission
concept design. Before Joining USC, Heggy was a Research Scientist in the
Radar Science Group at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Visiting
Associate in Geology at the California Institute of Technology, Tenure
Associated Professor of Geophysics at the Institute of Earth Physics in Paris,
France (Institut de Physique de Globe de Paris) and a visiting scientist at the
NASA Johnson Space Center and the Lunar and Planetary Institute in
Houston, Texas.
 Part II
Innovative Approaches and Methods
for Environmental Sustainability
 Photocatalytic Membrane Reactor
for Sustainable Environmental Remediation

Sudip Chakraborty, Jaya Sikder, Debolina Mukherjee, Stefano Curcio,

and Vincenza Calabro

Keywords

Photocatalysis TiO2 Membrane reactor Environmental remediation Pharmaceuticle
waste Nanocatalyst

1 Introduction The degradation by heterogeneous photocatalysis using

The photo mineralization of organics by semiconductor
photocatalysts is an area of intensive research, ideally the
end products of these processes should be carbon dioxide,
water, and inorganic mineral salts, which have a minimum
environmental impact. Waste discharge from pharmaceutical
industries is a major source of water pollution and is
increasing day by day (Giraldo et al. 2010). Due to stringent
environmental regulations it is necessary to remove the
active component from the waste discharge before throwing
it into the environment. In addition and to avoid the con-
tamination of natural water bodies by residual pharmaceu-
tical waste compounds, pretreatment to degrade these
compounds in municipal and industrial effluents is needed
before their release into the environment described by chen
and chu (2012) and also Elmolla and Chaudhuri (2010). In
this work, the degradation of aqueous solution of
chlorhexidine digluconate (CHD), an antibiotic drug, by
heterogeneous photocatalysis was studied using supported
TiO2 nanoparticle. The major concern of this study is to
bring down the limitations of suspension mode heteroge-
neous photocatalysis by the implementation of immobilized
TiO2 with the help of porous membrane which was briefly
mentioned by Dasgupta et al. (2015), Sarkar et al. (2015).
TiO2 nanoparticles immobilized on membranes surface was
thoroughly studied previously by Dasgupta et al. (2015),
Laera et al. (2011) as well as by Zhang et al. (2010). Poly-
meric hollow fiber membranes were functionalized and
modified at room temperature with the aim of degrading
pharmaceutical model contminant CHD under UV irredia-
tion mentioned by Achilleos et al. (2010), Das (2014). The
progress of the reaction was monitored by absorbing and
measuring the reduction in COD and TOC throughout the
experiment. The adsorption study has shown good confir-
mation with Langmuir isotherm and during the reaction at
initial stage, it followed pseudo-first-order reaction. In this
study, the photocatalytic treatment of the pharmaceutical
CHD was carried out at a higher concentration level
(  1500 mg
L−1) using the photocatalyst TiO2 in the pres-
ence of UV irradiation. Finally, the present study confirmed
that there is a significant effect of adsorption on photocat-
alytic degradation. The membranes used degradad signifi-
cant amount of Chlorhexidine digluconate, showcasing the
potential of membranes for purification of pharmaceutical
wastewater.
2 Materials and Methods

Two catalyst systems of titanium dioxide photocatalyst

S. Chakraborty (&)
D. Mukherjee
S. Curcio
V. Calabro
Laboratory of Transport Phenomena and Biotechnology,
University of Calabria, Via- P. Bucci, Cubo 42/A, 87036 Rende,
CS, Italy
e-mail: sudip.chakraborty@unical.it; zsudip.c@gmail.com
J. Sikder
Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of
Technology Durgapur, Durgapur, West Bengal 713209, India
nanopowder (pure anatase, 637254) of particle size <25 nm and
specific surface area 45–55 m2
g−1(Cat1) and AeroxideP25
(mixture of rutile and anatase, 718467) of particle size 21 nm
with surface area (BET) 35–65 m
g−1(Cat2) from
Sigma-Aldrich, were used. Chlorhexidine digluconate solution
(20% w/v, from Sigma-Aldrich) was used to prepare the simu-
lated solutions to standardize the analytical process. A batch

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 57

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_22
58 S. Chakraborty et al.

photoreactor was used for the treatment of synthetic wastewater.

The reactor comprises a chamber (17 cm  17 cm  17 cm)
with UVA lamp (10 W) from the top of the reactor and a
magnetic stirrer to ascertain the proper mixing of the reaction
solution and even distribution of UV irradiation to the catalyst
system. The distance of sample solution (upper surface) to the
radiation source maintained during the photodegradation pro-
cess was 7 cm, and the reaction solution thickness was 3 cm.
The UV light intensity was controlled with an external con-
troller, and the inside intensity was measured using a solar UVA
meter (TM 208, Tenmars, Taiwan).

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Adsorption Behavior of CHD

on to the Catalyst System
Fig. 1 Effect of contaminating substrate to catalyst ratio (S/C) and
solution pH on percent removal of CHD
The extent of the adsorption for substrate molecules on to
the catalyst surface controls the rate of the photo degradation
process. Adsorption behavior changes with the nature of the also was reported to invariably determine the overall sub-
catalyst system, respective surface properties, and avail- strate conversion and degradation efficiency. The effect of
ability of the substrate on to catalyst surface. Results show UV intensity on the CHD removal percentage has been
about 6.8% more adsorption of CHD for AeroxideP25 (Cat2) highlighted in Fig. 2 under constant S/C value and medium
as compared to pure anatase (Cat1). This is probably due to pH. In this study, CHD removal efficiency was found to
the contribution of higher negative charges of the rutile increase with increasing intensity from 50 to 80 lW
cm−2
phase compared to pure anatase in AeroxideP25. In the which is likely because of enhanced formation of an electron
mentioned range of experimental process conditions for hole, facilitating the photocatalytic degradation. Under such
photo-degradation, maximum adsorption of CHD was a condition, electron hole recombination is insignificant.
observed, about 29.8% for AeroxideP25(Cat2) and 27.8% Thus, the initial increase in degradation probably results
for pure anatase (Cat1) at pH 10.5. Figure 1 illustrates the from the generation of more electron hole pairs, which
effect of the substrate to catalyst ratio (S/C value) on the ultimately produce the reactive species. The decreasing
degradation behavior of the CHD for the Cat1 system. The value of the CHD removal at 125 lW
cm−2 could probably
figure shows the removal percent of CHD at different
medium pH under UV irradiation of 50 lW
cm−2. A de-
creasing trend of the removal efficiency with increasing S/C
value could be observed from the figure. A regression
analysis was done to correlate the percent removal of CHD
with the substrate to catalyst ratio (S/C value) which helps
theoretically to predict the percent removal of CHD under an
optimized set of reaction parameters for a chosen S/C value.
In the pH range under investigation, the removal percent of
CHD followed a second-order fitting with R2 values ranging
from 0.95 to 0.98.

3.2 Effect of UV Intensity

At a given wavelength, UV intensity determines the extent

of radiation absorbed by the semiconductor catalyst. The rate
of initiation of photocatalysis, the electron hole formation in
the photochemical reaction is strongly dependent on the UV Fig. 2 Effect of UV intensity on the removal efficiency of CHD at
intensity. The light intensity distribution within the reactor fixed pH and S/C value
Photocatalytic Membrane Reactor for Sustainable …
be explained on the basis of an increased rate of hole elec-
tron recombination rate under high UV-radiant flux.
4 Conclusion
This study highlights the feasible application of a TiO2
photocatalyst-based process for the treatment of a phar-
maceutical compound CHD, in pharmaceutical wastewater
in a batch slurry photoreactor. The monitoring of the
degradation profiles for CHD concentrations revealed that
the proposed system is capable of treating CHD and can
reduce the toxicity level of the treated wastewater being
disposed. Under optimum reaction conditions, about
68.2% removal of CHD was achieved after 1 h reaction
time. The antimicrobial susceptibility test was also per-
formed to assess the final toxicity level of the reaction
products, which gave negative a response suggesting a safe
eco friendly discharge to the atmosphere. The outcomes
from this study indicated that the TiO2 based system has a
high potential to be utilized as a sustainable treatment
system for pharmaceutical wastewater containing CHD.
References
Achilleos A, Hapeshi E, Xekoukoulotakis NP, Mantzavinos D,
Fatta-Kassinos D. Factors affecting diclofenac decomposition in
water by UV-A/TiO2 photocatalysis. Chem Eng J. 2010;161:53.
59
Chen M, Chu W. Degradation of antibiotic norfloxacin in aqueous
solution by visible-light-mediated C-TiO2 photocatalysis. J Hazard
Mater. 2012;183:219–220.
Das R, Sarkar S, Chakraborty S, Choi H, Bhattacharjee C. Remediation
of antiseptic components in wastewater by photocatalysis using
TiO2 nanoparticles. Ind Eng Chem Res. 2014;26:3012–20.
Dasgupta J, Singh M, Sikder J, Padarthi V, Chakraborty S, Curcio S.
Response surface-optimized removal of Reactive Red 120 dye from
its aqueous solutions using polyethyleneimine enhanced ultrafiltra-
tion. Ecotox Environ Safe. 2015;121:271–278.
Elmolla ES, Chaudhuri M. Photocatalytic degradation of amoxicillin,
ampicillin, and cloxacillin antibiotics in aqueous solution using
UV/TiO2 and UV/H2O2/TiO2 photocatalysis. Desalination.
2010;252:46.
Giraldo AL, Penuela GA, Torres-Palma RA, Pino NJ, Palominos RA,
Mansilla HD. Degradation of the antibiotic oxolinic acid by
photocatalysis with TiO2 in suspension. Water Res. 2010;44:5158.
Laera G, Chong MN, Jin B, Lopez A. An integrated MBR—TiO2
photocatalysis process for the removal of Carbamazepine from
simulated pharmaceutical industrial effluent. Bioresour Technol.
2011;102:7012.
Sarkar S, Chakraborty S, Bhattacharjee C. Photocatalytic degradation
of pharmaceutical wastes by alginate supported TiO2 nanoparticles
in packed bed photo reactor (PBPR). Ecotox Environ Safe.
2015;263–270:121.
Zhang J, Fu D, Xu Y, Cuiyun Liu C. Optimization of parameters on
photocatalytic degradation of chloramphenicol using TiO2 as
photocatalyst by response surface methodology. J Environ Sci.
2010;22(8):1281.
 REAGRITECH: A Relevant Model
of Sustainable Water Management

Marwa Ben Saad, Lorena Aguilar, Angel Gallegos, Beatriz Missagia,

Raquel Rubio, Myriam Ben Said, Carlos Alberto Arias, Ahmed Ghrabi,
and Jordi Morato

Keywords
Constructed wetlands Sustainable management Water treatment Nitrate pollution

1 Introduction irrigation. The concept of sustainable development chal-

lenges the scientific community to reflect in a different way
During the post 1950 period, the farms yields increased polluted water treatment issues (Morató et al. 2011) and
dramatically. In order to sustain the increasing yields and sustainable agriculture.
productivity, farmers used large quantities of chemical The purpose of this paper was to present a case study of
fertilizers and pesticides (Novotny 1999). Besides, according water management approach from an agricultural area
to FAO (2011), 70% of renewable water resources, were polluted by nitrates in Catalonia, Spain. The project
withdrawn from rivers and aquifers, for human uses and REAGRITECH (LIFE 11 ENV/ES/579), implemented by the
UNESCO Chair on Sustainability at the Polytechnic Univer-
M. B. Saad (&)
M. B. Said
A. Ghrabi sity of Catalonia-Barcelona Tech (UPC), Grupo TYPSA and
Water Researches and Technologies Center Borj-Cedria LEITAT Technological center, is developed in the framework
Technopark, 8020 Soliman, Tunisia
of the EU LIFE + Program, applied in three locations in the
e-mail: marwabensaad@gmail.com
Lleida plain: Sudanell, Bellvis and Vilanova (Caro et al.
M. B. Said
2013).
e-mail: myriam_rebia@yahoo.fr
The design and implementation of the project had been
A. Ghrabi
developed in close collaboration with all the stakeholders.
e-mail: a.ghrabi@yahoo.fr
This project aims to demonstrate a method for recycling
L. Aguilar
A. Gallegos
R. Rubio
J. Morato
water resources at parcel scale, in order to optimize this
UNESCO Chair on Sustainability, Polytechnic University of
Catalunya-BarcelonaTech, C/Colom 1 Terrassa, resource for its best use in the ecosystem and therefore
08222 Barcelona, Spain achieve a sustainable and integrated river basin management,
e-mail: lorena.aguilar@outlook.com improving the chemical characteristics of the reused water
A. Gallegos and, therefore, improve the natural environment surrounding
e-mail: angel.gallegos@upc.edu them.
R. Rubio
e-mail: raquelrubiopalma@gmail.com
J. Morato 2 Materials and Methods
e-mail: jordi.morato@upc.edu
B. Missagia The demonstrative pilot system is a combination of two
Federal Centre of Technological Education of Minas appropriate natural technologies for polluted water treat-
Gerais—CEFET/MG, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
ment: wetlands treatment and buffer strips. The polluted
e-mail: beatrizmissagia@gmail.com
groundwater was treated in the wetland; a part was reused to
C. A. Arias
agricultural and buffer strip irrigation and the rest to recharge
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Aarhus,
Ole Worms Allé, Building 135, 8000 Arhus C, Denmark the aquifer. The agricultural runoff was treated in the buffer
e-mail: carlos.arias@bios.au.dk strip (Fig. 1).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 61

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_23
62
Fig. 1 General layout of the
demonstrative pilot system
REAGRITECH to treat
groundwater and agricultural
runoff polluted by nitrates
The treatment wetlands, or constructed wetlands, were
filled with different granular media: cork (Ø 16 mm) at the
Bellvis prototype and gravel (Ø 16 mm) at the Vilanova
prototype, both were planted with Phragmites australis (4
plants m−2). The constructed wetland was designed and
constructed using a hybrid subsurface system, constituted by
a Vertical Flow Treatment Wetland (VF) and a Horizontal
Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetland (HSSF) (Fig. 2). The
combination of constructed wetlands was designed to opti-
mize the removal of diffuse pollution, and especially for
nitrates removal (Gallegos et al. 2014). The analyses were
carried out following standard methods (2012).
Fig. 2 The treatment wetland
pilot plants were built inside 20 ft
shipping containers
M. B. Saad et al.
Groundwater
Runoff
3 Results and Discussion
The results showed the feasibility of the system to remove
nitrates (Table 1). In Bellvis, where cork was used as a
granular medium of constructed wetlands, the obtained
nitrate reduction ranged from 62 to 98%, with a flow average
of 618 L d−1. In Vilanova with gravel as a filter medium, the
nitrate reduction was about 4 and 46%, with a flow average
of 557 L d−1. The removal of nitrates obtained with the cork
system was significantly greater than that of gravel (Aguilar
et al. 2017). Therefore, this system can be used for the
specific elimination of nitrates in agricultural waters.
REAGRITECH: A Relevant Model of Sustainable Water Management 63

Table 1 Nitrates removal in two NO−3 —Pilot Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec NO−3 oulet (Average—mg
agricultural sites during the system % % % % % % L−1)
validation period (2016)
Bellvis—Cork 92 98 87 98 97 62 2.1
Villanova 9 20 22 24 4 46 44.65
(Gravel)

Table 2 pH monitoring during pH—Pilot system Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
the validation period of the
Bellvis and Vilanova prototypes Bellvis—Cork Inlet 7.58 7.97 7.54 7.24 7.91 7.69
(2016) Outlet 8.38 7.65 7.18 7.33 7.37 7.58
Difference +0.80 −0.32 −0.36 +0.10 −0.54 −0.11
Villanova (Gravel) Inlet 7.36 8.09 nr 7.57 7.89 7.69
Outlet 7.97 8.24 nr 7.63 7.73 7.78
Difference +0.61 +0.15 – +0.06 +0.16 +0.09
*The parameter was not reported

The treated wastewater was used to irrigate the vegetation
of the buffer strips, which were used as a complementary
system for the control and improvement of groundwater. The
configuration of the hybrid system, horizontal and vertical,
the type of the filter medium used (gravel or cork) and the
nitrates load were the most important parameters that
affected the performance of the systems as well as the water
quality.
In the Bellvis and Vilanova prototype, the pH was
monitored at the inlet and outlet of the treatment wetland
(Table 2) During the validation period, the pH values ranged
from 7.2 to 8.4 in Bellvis and Vilanova with a slight dif-
ference between the inlet and the outlet.
4 Conclusion
The innovative prototype REAGRITECH constructed
wetlands had been developed as an innovative com-
pact, modular and mobile treatment system. The
achieved results showed the efficiency of the system to
remove nitrates and improve the quality of the reused
water.
Acknowledgements The REAGRITECH project (LIFE + 11 ENV/
ES/579) was developed by the UNESCO Chair on Sustainability at the
UPC (http://www.unescosost.org) in collaboration with TYPSA group
and LEITAT, and funded by the European Commission within the
framework of LIFE programme.
References
Aguilar L, Gallegos A, Pérez C, Caro P, Sahuquillo S, Arias CA,
Morató J. Final report. REAGRITECH LIFE 11 ENV/ES/579,
Deliverable C.1;2017. Monitoring plan and Results April 2017.
Caro P, Sahuquillo S, Morató J. Final locations of pilot plants report.
REAGRITECH LIFE 11 ENV/ES/579, Deliverable A. 2;Dec 2013.
FAO. The state of the world’s land and water resources for food and
agriculture (SOLAW)—Managing systems at risk. London: Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome and
Earthscan;2011. p. 26.
Gallegos A, Aguilar L, Arias CA, Morató J. Prototypes’ layout and user
guide report. REAGRITECH LIFE 11 ENV/ES/579, Deliverable B.
1;Dec 2014.
Morató J, Carneiro A, Ortiz A, Gallegos A. Sustainable technologies
for water treatment. In: What is sustainable technology? Greenleaf
Publishing;2011. pp. 190–212.
Novotny V. Diffuse pollution from agriculture: a worldwide outlook.
Water Sci Technol. 1999;39(3):1.
 Zero-Liquid Discharge Desalination
of Hypersaline Shale Gas Wastewater:
Challenges and Future Directions

Viviani C. Onishi, Juan A. Reyes-Labarta, and José A. Caballero

Keywords
Zero-liquid discharge (ZLD) Shale gas wastewater Thermal and membrane desalination
Water reuse and recycling

1 Introduction 2 ZLD Desalination for Wastewater

Unconventional natural gas extraction from tight shale
reservoirs, or “shale gas”, has recently emerged as an
attractive energy resource to face the rising worldwide
demand. Over the past decade, advanced technologies of
horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”) have
allowed the economic viability of shale gas exploration from
previously unattainable deposits. Despite optimistic growth
projections from the U.S. Energy Information Administra-
tion (EIA 2016a, b), shale gas production is also responsible
for worrying environmental and social implications, mostly
associated with elevated freshwater consumption and haz-
ardous wastewater generation (Thomas et al. 2017).
Within this framework, the application of effective
desalination processes is mandatory to treat the large
amounts of polluting hypersaline wastewater, alleviating
environmental and public health impacts and enhancing
overall sustainability of shale gas process (Onishi et al.
2017a, b). Hence, the ability of zero-liquid discharge
(ZLD) desalination to promote water reuse and/or water
recycling (i.e., water reuse opportunities not related to hor-
izontal drilling and fracking operations) could be critical for
further development of the shale gas industry. The present
work is designed to outline the main challenges and future
directions for ZLD desalination of hypersaline shale gas
wastewater.
V. C. Onishi (&)
J. A. Reyes-Labarta
J. A. Caballero
Institute of Chemical Process Engineering, University of Alicante,
Ap. Correos 99, 03080 Alicante, Spain
e-mail: viviani.onishi@ua.es
Management: Emerging Zero-Emission
Technologies
ZLD desalination, as a strategy for shale gas wastewater
management, has received increased interest over the past few
years. This is mainly due to its capability to comply with the
severe regulations on water quality—especially required for
allowing water recycling or safe disposal—by enhancing
freshwater recovery efficiency, while reducing brine dis-
charges (Tong and Elimelech 2016). Emerging technologies
for the ZLD desalination of shale gas wastewater include
thermal and membrane-based processes. Thermal-based
alternatives comprise multistage flash distillation (MSF),
and single/multiple-effect evaporation systems combined with
mechanical/thermal vapor compression (SEE/MEE -
MVC/TVC) (Onishi et al. 2017c). On the other hand,mem-
brane distillation(MD), forward osmosis(FO), reverse osmo-
sis(RO), and electrodialysis(ED), are promisingmembrane-
basedprocesses. Clearly, theselection of the mostappropriate
desalinationalternative is greatlydependent on thewastewa-
terphysicochemicalcomposition (Lester et al. 2015).
Apart from the possibility of being operated with
low-grade energy sources, membrane-based schemes gen-
erally present high water recovery efficiency, simple
scale-up and modular features, along with elevated perme-
ability and selectivity for critical components (Drioli et al.
2016). However, thermal evaporation systems can be more
advantageous than membrane ones for the zero-emission
desalination of shale gas wastewater, as a result of their need
for less intensive pretreatment and lower susceptibility to
fouling and rusting problems that can be caused by the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 65

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_24
66
presence of greases, oil and scale-forming ions (Shaffer et al.
2013).
3 Challenges of ZLD Desalination
of Hypersaline Shale Gas Wastewater
Generated by hydraulically-fractured wells, shale gas
wastewater can present chemical and physical properties
varying according to different factors, including geographic
location and formation geology, hydrofracturing fluid com-
position, as well as its contact time with shale deposits
(Lester et al. 2015; Shaffer et al. 2013). Besides, the con-
centration of chemicals in shale gas wastewater may also
change over the well lifetime (*20–40 years) (Shaffer et al.
2013). In addition to the chemical additives used within
fracking fluids, shale gas wastewater generally contains
formation-based constituents, comprising salt and other
minerals—such as the scale-forming divalent ions: Ca2+, Ba2
+
and Mg2+—, organic matter and naturally occurring
radioactive materials (NORM) (Rahm and Riha 2012; Zhang
et al. 2014).
Among all pollutants, removal of the elevated salt con-
tents from shale gas wastewater (average val-
ues > 100 k ppm TDS—Total Dissolved Solids) is notably
challenging because of the energy-intensive consumption
required to achieve the ZLD brine conditions. In Onishi et al.
(2017b), thermal technologies for (near-) ZLD desalination
(brine discharge at 300 g kg−1) have presented energy
consumption ranging from 28.12 to 50.47 kWh m−3, with
specific operational costs estimated to range between 2.73–
4.90 US$ m−3 for 77% conversion ratio. Additionally,
another complicating factor is related to the significant
composition variations observed in wastewater from differ-
ent shale basins, and even in distinct wellbores from the
same well pad (Thiel and Lienhard 2014).
The elevated consumption of high-grade electrical energy
is also responsible for significant greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions. In addition to the prohibitive costs related
to the raised energy consumption, high salt concentrations in
the shale gas wastewater pose particular desalination chal-
lenges, mostly associated with operational problems caused
by fouling, scaling and corrosion (Kaplan et al. 2017). Due
to changes in process temperature conditions, fouling and
scaling can reduce heat transfer in thermal systems and mass
transfer rate in membrane-based technologies. Lastly,
appropriate management of the generated solid brine should
also be addressed to avoid potential environmental impacts.
V. C. Onishi et al.
4 Future Directions
Despite of the increasing worldwide interest on the imple-
mentation of ZLD desalination systems, their intensive
energy consumption and high related operating costs remain
as obstacles for their further adoption. Future advances on
ZLD applications will ultimately be achieved by the devel-
opment of more energy efficient and sustainable desalination
processes, as well as by incrementing regulatory incentives
to compensate for eventual economic shortcomings. Even-
tually, stricter regulations on water quality and brine dis-
charges will play a key role towards the implementation of
cleaner ZLD desalination systems in shale gas industry.
Acknowledgements This project has received funding from
the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Pro-
gramme, under grant agreement No. 640979.
References
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ton, DC: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2016a.
Drioli E, Ali A, Lee YM, Al-Sharif SF, Al-Beirutty M, Macedonio F.
Membrane operations for produced water treatment. Desalin Water
Treat. 2016;57:14317–35. doi:10.1080/19443994.2015.1072585.
EIA. International energy outlook 2016. Washington, DC: U.S. Energy
Information Administration, 2016b.
Kaplan R, Mamrosh D, Salih HH, Dastgheib SA. Assessment of
desalination technologies for treatment of a highly saline brine from
a potential CO2 storage site. Desalination. 2017;404:87–101.
doi:10.1016/j.desal.2016.11.018.
Lester Y, Ferrer I, Thurman EM, Sitterley KA, Korak JA, Aiken G,
Linden KG. Characterization of hydraulic fracturing flowback water
in Colorado: Implications for water treatment. Sci Total Environ.
2015;512–513:637–44. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.01.043.
Onishi VC, Carrero-Parreño A, Reyes-Labarta JA, Fraga ES,
Caballero JA. Desalination of shale gas produced water: A rigorous
design approach for zero-liquid discharge evaporation systems.
J Clean Prod. 2017a;140:1399–414. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.
012.
Onishi VC, Carrero-Parreño A, Reyes-Labarta JA, Ruiz-Femenia R,
Salcedo-Díaz R, Fraga ES, Caballero JA. Shale gas flowback water
desalination: Single vs multiple-effect evaporation with vapor
recompression cycle and thermal integration. Desalination.
2017b;404:230–48. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2016.11.003.
Onishi VC, Ruiz-Femenia R, Salcedo-Díaz R, Carrero-Parreño A,
Reyes-Labarta JA, Fraga ES, Caballero JA. Process optimization for
zero-liquid discharge desalination of shale gas flowback water
under uncertainty. J Clean Prod. 2017c;164:1219–38. doi:10.1016/j.
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Rahm BG, Riha SJ. Toward strategic management of shale gas
development: regional, collective impacts on water resources. Environ
Sci Policy. 2012;17:12–23. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2011.12.004.
Zero-Liquid Discharge Desalination of Hypersaline Shale …
Shaffer DL, Arias Chavez LH, Ben-Sasson M, Romero-Vargas
Castrillón S, Yip NY, Elimelech M. Desalination and reuse of
high-salinity shale gas produced water: drivers, technologies, and
future directions. Environ Sci Technol. 2013;47:9569–83. doi:10.
1021/es401966e.
Thiel GP, Lienhard JH. Treating produced water from hydraulic
fracturing: composition effects on scale formation and desalination
system selection. Desalination. 2014;346:54–69. doi:10.1016/j.
desal.2014.05.001.
Thomas M, Partridge T, Harthorn BH, Pidgeon N. Deliberating the
perceived risks, benefits, and societal implications of shale gas and
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Energy. 2017;2:17054. doi:10.1038/nenergy.2017.54.
Tong T, Elimelech M. The global rise of zero liquid discharge for
wastewater management: drivers, technologies, and future direc-
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6b01000.
Zhang T, Gregory K, Hammack RW, Vidic RD. Co-precipitation of
Radium with Barium and Strontium sulfate and its impact on the
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doi:10.1021/es405168b.
 Integrating Future Climate Change, CO2
Increase and Technology Progress on Wheat
Production in Northern Tunisia
Mohamed Annabi, Haithem Bahri, and Hatem Cheick M’hamed



Keywords
Climate change Progress
1 Introduction
Wheat stands as the major source of food for most of the
Tunisian population (Ammar et al. 2013). Hence, accurate
potential estimation of wheat yield change in future seems
essential for any possible revision of management strategies.
Noteworthy, however, most of climate change (CC) projec-
tions for Tunisia generally reveal increased temperature and
decreased precipitation trends. This is particularly relevant
considering that water scarcity is already quite remarkable in
most areas in Tunisia. Consequently, lower yields sound to
be well expected due to shorter growing seasons, increased
heat and water stress. Identifying adaptation measures likely
to help reduce the climate change (CC) associated potential
negative impacts on crops seems paramountly crucial for the
country’s food security to be maintained. Potential adapta-
tion measures include improved yielding germplasm with
tolerance to drought and heat stress and improved soil and
water management.
The present study is focused on quantifying durum wheat
(DW) production change with respect to Tunisia’s northern
governorates under future climate change conditions, along
with CO2 increase and technology progress.
M. Annabi (&)
H. C. M’hamed
Laboratoire des Sciences et Techniques Agronomiques, INRAT,
2046 Ariana, Tunisia
e-mail: mannabi@gmail.com
H. Bahri
Laboratoire des Sciences et Techniques Agronomiques,
INRGREF, 2046 Ariana, Tunisia
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_25



Tunisia Wheat Yield
2 Materials and Methods
The study area included six governorates sited in northern
Tunisia, where 80% of wheat cultivation was sown, namely:
Bizerta, Beja, Jandouba, El Kef, Siliana and Zagouhan. In
this respect, one hundred years (1980–2080) of site-specific
daily weather (maximum and minimum temperatures, pre-
cipitations and solar radiation), relevant to these locations,
were generated by the LARS-WG (Semenov and Stratono-
vitch 2010).
To this end, projected future climate under two
IPCC SRES emission scenarios, A2 and B1, as drawn from
the third version of the Hadley Centre Coupled Model
(HadCM3), were implemented. The DW yield’s sensitivity
to CC was assessed in terms of three future climate periods:
2010–2030; 2040–2060; 2070–2090, in respect of a simu-
lated historical climate relevant to the period 1980–2005.
The relative change in productivity, as affected by climate
change, was calculated via the estimated yield to historical
yield ratio.
As for the calculation of the CO2 effect on yield, it rests
on estimating the future CO2 concentration via Nakicenovic
and Swart (2000). The relative yield change per unit increase
in CO2 concentration was set to 0.04% ppm−1. The relative
yield change in future conditions relevant to the baseline, as
affected by CO2 concentration, was also computed.
Regarding the technological development effect, it was
calculated by fitting a regression equation between the
observed wheat yields against historical years (1978 to
2013), considering yield potential increase and yield gap
reduction as technology development (Ewert et al. 2005).
Accurate estimation of potential DW yield change has to
integrate the entirety of these factors’ relating effects (cli-
mate change, CO2 and technology development). Hence, the
69
70
integrated effects were calculated in conformity with Ewert
et al. (2005).
3 Results and Discussion
– Effect of climate change: with respect to the governorates
of Bizerta, Beja, Jendouba and Kef, the CC, based on
changing precipitation and temperature patterns in A2
and B1 SRES scenario, proved to lead to an increase in
future DW yield in respect of the baseline data. This
increase appears to be rather pronounced in regard of the
long-term future (+23%) than regarding immediate future
(+10%). Besides, this increase seems rather important
concerning the governorates of Bizerta and Jendouba
(+20 to +25%) than the governorates of Beja and Kef (+6
to +10%). Regarding the remaining two governorates of
Siliana and Zagouhan, characterized with a typical
semi-arid weather, the potential climate variable change
would result in a decrease (by −10 to −33%) of DW
yield in respect of the baseline. Difference between the
SRES related scenarios were relatively small. The highest
yield reduction (−33%) was recorded for the governorate
of Zagouhan, while the highest yield increase (+43%)
was registered for Bizerte, both under the long-term
future associated scenario A2. Difference among the set
scenarios were relatively small regarding the immediate
future, but even more pronounced with time, indicating
higher productivity change associated uncertainty esti-
mates over the more distant futures.
– Effect of CO2 increase: as change in CO2 concentration
proves to be a global phenomenon, the relative yield
change associated with the effect of higher CO2 con-
centration appeared to differ between time slice and
SRES scenarios, but not among locations. The relative
change of DW yield due to CO2 increase seemed to range
from 3 to 18%, with a time trend increase. The yield
increases were the smallest for the immediate future and
for the B1 scenario compared to A2 due to a lower
increase in CO2 concentration under scenario B1.
– Effect of technology development: relative DW yield
change as affected by supposed technology progress
differed among governorates, SRES scenarios and time
slice considered. The positive impact of technology
progress is more pronounced with regard to
medium-term future (2046–2065) than of the two other
time intervals. Concerning the long-term future, the effect
of technology progress turned out to be the lowest (+9%)
for A2 (0 to +2%) for B1. Yield change under scenario
A2 was higher than B1 owing mainly to a higher level of
yield potential increase, and yield gap reduction under
A2 scenario.
M. Annabi et al.
– Factors sum effects: The additional effect of all consid-
ered factors together on change of DW yield allows
weighting the suspect impact of major factor on future
DW yield. Estimated yield relative change as affected by
the tri-factor showed negative and positive impacts
compared to the baseline year and yield ranged from
−8% (Zagouhan, B1, long-term future) to 70% (Bizerte,
A2, long-term future) with respect to the entirety of sites.
The findings reached proved to reveal that DW yield
increase, in respect of the baseline, was highest for Bizerte
and Jandouba. Compared to the set baseline, this yield
increase proved to range from +12 to +70%. With respect to
Zagouhan, the projection demonstrated lower change in
yield than the other locations ranging from +17% with A2
for medium-term future, to −8% with B1 scenario for
long-term future.
4 Conclusion
The main objective of this study was to evaluate the
effects of climate change, CO2 concentration, technology
development and their integrated effects on wheat pro-
duction under future climate change. The reached find-
ings proved to illustrate that CC and technology
development appeared to provide the highest impact on
wheat yield shift. Highest wheat yield increase across the
entirety of cited sites and time periods was achieved via
the A2 scenario. Among the locations, subject of study,
Bizerta appeared to score the highest positive change in
wheat yield, while Kef registered the highest negative
relative yield change. In respect of the benchmark
baseline, the DW yield change seemed to range from −8
to 54% once all-factor integration was considered
across all locations. It seems that achieving a potentially
higher wheat yield may be expected in northern
Tunisia, assuming stable improvements in production
technology.
References
Ammar K, Gharbi MS, Deghaies M. Wheat in Tunisia. In the world
wheat book. A history of wheat breeding, 2013;2:443–465.
Ewert F, Rounsevell MDA, Reginster I, Metzger MJ, Leemans R.
Future scenarios of European agricultural land use I. Estimating
changes in crop productivity. Agric Ecosyst Environ.
2005;107:101–16.
Nakicenovic N, Swart R. Emissions scenarios. Special Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University
Press; 2000.
Semenov MK, Stratonovitch A. Use of multi-model ensembles from
global climate models for assessment of climate change impacts.
Clim Res. 2010;41:1–14.
 Terrace Gardens Sustainable Carbon Sinks
in Modern Urban Dynamics

Roohul Abad Khan, Amadur Rahman Khan, Abdullah M. Al Fatais,

and Abdulsalam Ahmed Ayed Alqarni

Keywords
Urban dynamics Terrace gardens Carbon sequestration Sustainable Carbon sink

1 Introduction The study explores an older option, terrace gardens, with

The rapid global development is only adding to the
ever-increasing world’s energy needs resulting in more
consumption of fossil fuels. This has led to the serious cli-
matic changes caused by global warming and greenhouse
effect. Even though “renewable energies” is becoming a
familiar term it is still far from being common place
worldwide. Urban greenery may mitigate this as they can
remove carbon dioxide by storing carbon in substrates and
vegetation. In modern Urban society parks and gardens form
the largest proportion of public green spaces and also serve
as the CO2 sequestration basin. The increasing built density
of cities, may result in lesser availability of land for such
parks or gardens especially in economies where basic
amenities are also difficult to be met provided. Even though
in developed economies there is enough room for green
spaces in urban areas, when it comes to serve the purpose of
carbon sequestration it fails miserably at most of the places.
R. A. Khan (&)
Department of Civil Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha,
Saudi Arabia
e-mail: rakhan@kku.edu.sa
A. R. Khan
Faculty of Architecture, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
e-mail: amadarch@gmail.com
A. M. Al Fatais
A. A. A. Alqarni
Department of Industrial Engineering, King Khalid University,
Abha, Saudi Arabia
e-mail: alftas@kku.edu.sa
A. A. A. Alqarni
e-mail: aalqarni@kku.edu.sa
a modern outlook to analyze its feasibility of rendering
modern day urban spaces green. Terrace gardens, though a
familiar term but not common in urban households in gen-
eral, can be a potent carbon sink if managed properly and
efficiently. Terrace gardens can absorb carbon dioxide the
same way trees do, but on a smaller proportion: e.g. grass
captures carbon from the atmosphere and uses it to build
more plant matter, when grass dies or trees are cut down,
that carbon is released back into the atmosphere. But grass
plants also release carbon out of their root tips to fungi in the
soil, when these roots or fungi die, they are eaten by some
microbes or worms and a portion of that carbon gets stabi-
lized. It gets stuck onto a clay mineral and stays into the soil.
The King Khalid University is situated in a close prox-
imity to the city of Abha, Saudi Arabia. Abha is termed as
top tourist destination in not only the Kingdom but also in
Middle East region as it is blessed with one of the highest
mountains in the Gulf, Al Sooda and ample amount of
rainfall which not only results in nice weather, in contrast
with the harsh desert climate in most of the Kingdom, but
also is the basis for thriving flora and fauna. The climatic
conditions prevailing in King Khalid University are the same
as those prevailing in Al Sooda, Abha and all the Hill station
situated along the mountain range till the City of Taif which
is about 500 km. Hence the King Khalid University case
study can technically satisfies all the requirements to repre-
sent it successfully in larger urbanized areas.
1.1 Some Key Concept in Carbon Sequestration
Through Vegetative Growth
• All plants Absorb carbon dioxide, but trees are best
• Plant the right tree in the right location

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 71

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_26
72
• Choose low-maintenance trees to maximize carbon
Absorption
• Plant any tree appropriate for the region and climate to
Offset global warming.
Trees process significantly more than smaller plants due
to their large size and extensive root structures. Even though
smaller plants will absorb smaller amounts than trees they
need much less space than trees and a number of plants can
even be grown on the same space required by one tree for
growth. Moreover, the vegetation growth depends on loca-
tion, climate and soil, coniferous and evergreen vegetation
require high altitudes with colder climatic condition, while
deciduous plantation needs hotter climatic conditions. The
same thing can be said about the soil, the plantation it can
support depends on its particular type. In order to promote
carbon capture through plantation it is more than necessary
to come up with vegetation choices which require low
maintenance or the high maintenance of vegetation will put
in a negative impact for the masses to support plantation and
hinder carbon capture. Last but not the least, as far as the
vegetation is concerned no matter how small it is it should be
there rather not having any plantation irrespective of size
shape or origin. It is always better to have something than
nothing.
2 Materials and Methods
To calculate the amount of carbon capture through terrace
gardens the King Khalid University buildings were taken as
the area of the terrace garden. The terrace was designed not
just the lawn but also aesthetic and productive properties
were also included to analyze the final amount of carbon to
be captured. To reduce the resources required for main-
taining the terrace garden modern innovative methods and
techniques were used. The water required for the garden was
sought in form of rainwater harvesting. The subsurface
irrigation system was analyzed to calculate the amount of
water requirement reduction.
2.1 Spacing and Plantation
If the plant is a bush type, an equidistant is desirable but if
the plant is going to grow a few meters of stem, the overall
density of the plant which will vary according to the fertility
of the soil and the particular variety is more important. For a
bush plant in a bed of up to 1 m wide one row in the middle
is appropriate, allowing 90 cm between plants, this space
R. A. Khan et al.
can be used to grow catch crop along the edge like, radishes,
lettuce and spring onion.
2.2 Calculation of the Weight of Carbon Dioxide
Sequestered
CO2 consists of one molecule of Carbon and 2 molecules of
Oxygen
The atomic weight of Carbon is 2.001115
The atomic weight of Oxygen is 15.9994
The weight of CO2 is C +2* O = 43.999915
The ratio of CO2 to C is = 43.999915/12.001115 = 3.663
Therefore, to determine the weight of carbon dioxide
sequestered in plants, vegetables etc. multiply the weight of
carbon by 3.6663.
The weight of Carbon ¼ ½green weight - dry weight ðincluding roots)]
 carbon content
3 Results and Discussion
The carbon sequestration also depends on the land fertility.
Fertile grasslands absorb 20% more carbon per acre than arid
grasslands. An acre of nondegraded rangeland can sequester
0.12 ton of carbon a year and an acre of improved rangeland
can sequester 0.28-ton credits on the Chicago climate
exchange. (Ahearn 2008) the CO2 absorption weight for
arbors, bushes and grass area were 900, 300 and 20 kg/m2.
(Chung and Chung 2011) the total covered area for terrace
garden in form of building roof was approximately
90,000 m2. Currently this area is totally unused and only
contains the installed water tanks.
The carbon capture potential in form of grass is
1,800,000 kg/m2 (1800 CO2e); in form of bushes it is
27,000,000 (27,000 CO2e) and 81,000,000 (81,000 CO2e).
The water required for maintaining the garden can be har-
vested in the form of rainfall runoff easily. The campus
receives ample amount of rainfall annually to render the
topography green for most of the time of the year. The water
requirement for vegetation was reduced by switching to sub
surface irrigation system for arbors and bushes while
watering of grass can be achieved by using drip irrigation
adsorption based system. The major turf grasses water
requirement varies between 300–500 mm. However, it is
reduced to 120–200 mm with drip irrigation or adsorption
system. reducing the water requirement by more than 50%.
(Fu et al. 2004). The shrubs, bushes and small plants need
Terrace Gardens Sustainable Carbon Sinks in Modern Urban Dynamics
81.6 to 864 L of water per sq. (approx.) annually depending
on the weather and climatic condition. The sub surface
irrigation system can reduce this water requirement by 80%
(Star Nursery 2009).
4 Conclusion
Terrace garden are not new but an old concept not widely
used for carbon sequestration as the water requirements
and other maintenance needs made it release the carbon
dioxide back to atmosphere once its blooming period was
over. Although the study found that using the modern
techniques available and employing advanced
self-supporting systems for supporting the terrace gardens
can reverse the traditional thoughts. The terrace gardens
can not only serve as a potential carbon sink in urban
landscapes but will also render Urban concrete jungles
really green both in scientific and aesthetic terms. With
the advent of sub surface system and adsorption irrigation
system the water requirement can be reduced by more
than 50% making it more feasible to maintain the terrace
gardens. The utilization of compost soil will reduce the
unit weight of soil over conventional soil thus reducing
the extra design load on the building. The terrace gardens
are a potent urban carbon sink which needs more prac-
tical research to achieve its full potential.
The additional obstacles incurred will be terrace gar-
dens on private properties, but the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia has a unique administration where people and
administrations walk along step by step. The funding is
not a major concern because of three reasons: First the
terrace gardens are not conventional but are smart ones so
will need very little maintenance in terms of operation
cost. Second, Saudi Nationals are highly fond of natural
environment and climate, it is just a matter of time to let
them understand that they can grow their own terrace
73
garden without the need for an expert. And third, gov-
ernment provides enough funds for the Saudi nationals to
build their homes in the form of bank loans. These
advantages make it not only easy but wishful for the
masses to start their own terrace gardens and convert it
into their food heaven. Since the smart system takes out
the major maintenance requirements and is
self-sustainable even children and women at home can
take care of it without major concerns. Hence the concept
of smart terrace gardens is more feasible and user friendly
than the previous conventional ones. The government
buildings can skip vegetable beds and replace it with
ornamental and flower beds, making it a more aesthetical
based than productive system. On commercial buildings
and hospitals vegetable gardens will be more interesting
than aesthetical ones and when it comes to residential
buildings a combination of aesthetics and productive
garden will be the optimum choices. The last choice will
be with the owner of the building who can decide what he
would like his terrace to be used for.
References
Ahearn A. “Carbon-offset cowboys let their grass grow,” sustainability.
Sci American. 1 Dec 2008. Available Online at: https://www.
scientificamerican.com/article/carbon-cowboys/.
Chung CY, Chung PL. Assessment of carbon dioxide reduction
efficiency using the regional carbon neutral model—A case study in
university campus, Taiwan. Low Carbon Econ. 2011;2:159–64.
Fu J, Fry J, Huang B. Minimum water requirements of four turfgrasses
in the transition zone. HortScience. 2004;39(7):1740–44. Available
Online at: http://hortsci.ashspublications.org/content/39/7/1740.full.
pdf.
Star Nursery. How much should you water your shrubs and trees.
Starnote 900A. June 2009. Available Online at: https://www.
starnursery.com/StarNotes/SN900A_How-Much-Water.pdf.
 Urban Morphology for a Better Sustainable
Urban Strategy: City of Tunis as a Case Study

Safa Achour Younsi and Fakher Kharrat

Keywords

Outdoor thermal comfort Urban morphology Urban microclimate Thermal comfort
index Numerical simulations

1 Introduction Indeed, by regulating the outdoor microclimate, designers

In view of the current environmental challenges, the ques-
tion of sustainability has been addressed for several decades
in many areas. Globally, the building sector accounts for
32% of the final energy consumption and contributes to
about one third of the CO2 emissions, (Missaoui and
Mourtada 2010). It is therefore a major leverage for energy
saving, especially in a Mediterranean country like Tunisia,
which according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) would be subject to a rise in temperatures of
2–3 °C by 2050.
This increase in temperature, especially in urban areas,
will increase the phenomenon of the urban heat island,
which is the difference between the temperature between a
city and the neighboring rural areas. First, there is discomfort
among city dwellers and then, it will increase the energy
consumption dedicated to air conditioning.
It is therefore essential to take into account the environ-
mental quality of urban areas. To this end, we proposed in
this study, the subject of a doctoral thesis in architecture, to
study the impact of urban morphology on the conditions of
outdoor thermal comfort, especially during the summer.
S. A. Younsi (&)
Institute of Multimedia Arts of Manouba, University of Manouba,
Manouba, Tunisia
e-mail: safa.achour@gmail.com
F. Kharrat
School of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of
Carthage, Carthage, Tunisia
e-mail: fakherkharrat.enau@gmail.com
S. A. Younsi
F. Kharrat
Unity Research PAE3C, Sidi Bousaid, Tunisia
can thus help reduce the effect of the urban heat island and
therefore use less energy to regulate indoor environments.
The main objective of this study was to identify the most
influential typo-morphological indicators on outdoor thermal
comfort in order to help a sustainable urban design.
2 Materials and Methods
We took as a corpus of study the city of Tunis, Tunisia. The
climate is classified as a subtropical Mediterranean climate.
This kind of climate is characterized by two large highly
contrasted seasons: a cool, mild winter and a hot, dry sum-
mer. We chose three morphologically different urban fabrics:
The Medina of Tunis characterized by a dense neighborhood
with narrow, deep, sinuous streets, and a system of resi-
dential patios assembled in clusters, the European district,
characterized by buildings located in an orthogonal frame-
work and finally a residential area governed by the laws of
urban planning with a standardization of streets widths,
withdrawals or occupation on the ground..
First, we tried to compare the typo-morphological indi-
cators of the three fabrics. The selected indicators for this
study are based on a study of the impact of urban mor-
phology on the urban microclimate (Ait-Ameur 2002) and
are classified on two levels. First, urban morphology is
studied at the neighborhood scale by the calculation of built
density, urban roughness, plant density and urban porosity.
In a second step, the morphology is studied at the level of the
street and this through the evaluation of the ratio H/W
(height-to-width of the street), the SVF (Sky View Factor)
and the albedo.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 75

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_27
76
Then a microclimatic data measurement campaign was
conducted to assess the outdoor thermal comfort, namely air
temperature (°C), wind speed (m/s), relative humidity (%)
and mean radiant temperature (°C). The measurements were
taken during a typical summer day, in August 2014. Sub-
sequently, a numerical simulation of the urban microclimate
was performed using the Envi-Met model (version 4.0). This
simulation was validated by comparing the measured and
simulated data. In addition, a statistical validation was also
carried out. Thus, we were able to evaluate the physical
aspect of outdoor thermal comfort using the PMV (Predicted
Mean Vote) and UTCI (Universal Thermal Climate Index)
indices. For the psycho-physiological aspect of comfort, we
used observation and a questionnaire administered to 90
users of the studied space.
3 Results and Discussion
This protocol allowed us to classify tissues from the most
comfortable to the least comfortable. Thus, it appears that
the fabric of the Medina proves to be the most comfortable,
followed by the residential district and finally the European
one. By crossing the data, we were able to identify the
typo-morphological indicators corresponding to the greatest
degree of comfort.
In order to consolidate the first results concerning the
influence degree of each indicator, we used additional sim-
ulations in which we changed one indicator at a time. By
calculating comfort in the same way, we were able to know
if the modified indicator improved or on the contrary dete-
riorated the comfort level.
The results thus obtained made the classification of the
typomorphological indicators possible by highlighting the
most influential in terms of outdoor thermal comfort. Thus, it
appears that at the neighborhood scale, built and plant
density are the two most important factors. Indeed, the
denser the fabric, the more comfort is improved. This is due
to the small area of public spaces exposed to solar radiation
S. A. Younsi and F. Kharrat
and therefore to overheating. Then, the vegetation has
well-known virtues as to the effect of shading on the one
hand and evapotranspiration on the other. As for the street
scale, the most important factor is probably the H/W ratio
which, the larger it is, the more it improves comfort. Grad-
ually as the ratio H/W decreases, the temperatures tend to
increase substantially. Inversely, the smaller the SVF is, the
better the comfort is, and, this is due to the strong correlation
existing between the H/W ratio and the SVF. This is due, on
the one hand, to the effect of the shading resulting from the
buildings facing each other, and on the other hand it prevents
the phenomenon of radiative trapping which is the main
cause of the overheating of the ambiant air.
4 Conclusion
In conclusion, the results show that for a subtropical
Mediterranean climate like that of Tunisia, where the
main problems of energy consumption mainly concern
the summer period, it is preferable to abandon urban
sprawl in favor of a more dense development with a
relatively high H/W ratio. Moreover, in addition to its
aesthetic dimension, vegetation appears to be a primor-
dial element, first by the effect of shade offered, then, for
the refreshing obtained by evapotranspiration. It should
be noted that for a minimum amount of sunshine satis-
factory during the winter period, it is recommended to opt
for deciduous trees.
References
Ait-Ameur K. Characterization of the microclimate in urban public
spaces through the validation of a “morpho-climatic” indicator
system. In: Proceedings of PLEA 2002—the 19th Conference on
Passive and Low Energy Architecture, Toulouse, 2002.
Missaoui R, Mourtada A. Case studies: instruments and financial
mechanisms of energy efficiency measures in building sector.
London/Paris, Conseil Mondial de l’énergie/ Agence de l’environ-
nement et de la maîtrise d’énergie, Aout 2010.
 Water Quality Modeling in the Mediterranean
River Basins

Anna Malagò and Faycal Bouraoui

Keywords
Mediterranean GREEN-Rgrid model Nutrients Loads Source apportionement

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

The Mediterranean is a semi-closed Sea connected with the
open ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar. Due to the cir-
culation pattern and the long residence time, the Mediter-
ranean Sea has become a sensitive environment to
eutrophication and it is put at risk from direct and indirect
impacts of human activities. In this study, a modified version
of the model GREEN, originally developed for estimating
nutrient loads from diffuse and point sources in Europe, was
used based on a grid cell discretization (GREEN-Rgrid). The
spatial resolution is 5 arc-minute resolution (9.2 km at the
equator) and the model inputs consist of the latest and best
available global data. The nitrate (N–NO3), total nitrogen
(TN), orthophosphate (P–PO4) and total phosphorus
(TP) loads were successfully calibrated for the period 2003–
2007 (baseline). The nutrient source apportionment and
retention in basins, rivers and lakes were also assessed. The
baseline was then compared with two different scenarios: S1,
a scenario of agricultural sources reduction that consists in
reducing the nitrogen and phosphorus surplus by 50%; and
S2, a scenario that consists in upgrading all wastewater
treatment plants efficiency to tertiary treatment. The S1
scenario gave more effective results than S2 in reducing TN
loads in the Mediterranean, whereas the most efficient
scenario for reducing TP was S2.
A. Malagò (&)
F. Bouraoui
European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Ispra, VA,
Italy
e-mail: anna.malago@ec.europa.eu
GREEN-Rgrid is an updated R version of the model GREEN
(Grizzetti et al. 2012), originally developed in Fortran
(Aguzzi et al. 1987) for estimating annual nutrient loads
from diffuse and points sources in Europe. The
GREEN-Rgrid code integrates a landscape routing model to
simulate nutrient fluxes of nitrate-nitrogen, total nitrogen,
total phosphorus and orthophosphate across discretized
routing units. The grid-based approach was adopted to adapt
to the readily available global raster data that can be easily
incorporated as model inputs providing a more homoge-
neous nutrient assessment between different areas of the
world. With respect to the original GREEN model, the dif-
fuse sources DS were calculated as a function of the gross
nutrient balance on agricultural land computed as the dif-
ference between the inputs (for nitrogen: fertilizer applica-
tion, fixation, and atmospheric deposition; for phosphorus:
fertilizer application) and the output (crop nutrient uptake).
Other pollution sources included nutrients from scattered
dwellings and point sources (such as discharges from sew-
ers, wastewater treatment plants and industries), release of P
by weathering, nutrients transported via sediments and
wash-off from built-up areas. Basin, stream and lake reten-
tion coefficients were defined using analytical expressions
that consider the main factors controlling the retention
mechanism. A Latin hypercube approach in combination
with a robust model selection tool including visualization
techniques were used to perform the sensitivity analysis and
model calibration. A source apportionment analysis was also
conducted to quantify the contribution of the different
sources to the total input to the river network.
We applied the GREEN-Rgrid model in all basins
draining into the Mediterranean Sea (about 5∙106 km2) using

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 77

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_28
78
a grid cell size of 5 arc-minute resolution (9.2 km at the
equator). A global input dataset for all nutrient sources and
export (crop uptake) was developed using the best readily
available data. The model was calibrated for the period
2003–2007 for nitrate-nitrogen (1673 data entries), total
nitrogen (1092 data entries), orthophosphate (1381 data
entries), and total phosphorus loads (1085 data entries). The
model was then used to investigate the impact of alternative
management practices on nutrient emissions. Two scenarios
were investigated and compared with the baseline (BSL):
nutrient surplus reduction by 50% (S1); and improvement of
WWTP treatment efficiency (S2) assuming that all treated
wastewater underwent tertiary treatment.
Fig. 1. Measured and estimated loads of N-NO3 a, P-PO4 b, TN c and TP d in the period 2003–2007 (in logarithmic scale)
A. Malagò and F. Bouraoui
3 Results and Discussion
Figure 1 shows the predicted versus the measured annual
nutrient loads obtained after calibration. The Nash-Sutcliffe
efficiency (Nash and Sutcliffe 1970) of the model simula-
tions is very good: 0.93 for N–NO3, 0.9 for TN, 0.84 for P–
PO4 and 0.78 for TP. The lowest likely TP efficiency reflects
the uncertainty related to the point sources that are the main
contribution to the in-stream TP load (49%), followed by the
soil erosion (23%).
The model predicted an average annual load of nitrogen
into the Mediterranean Sea around 1400 kton/yr and 88 kton
of phosphorus (excluding the Nile River Basin) for the
Water Quality Modeling in the Mediterranean River Basins
Fig. 2. Simulated annual N–NO3 loads in the period 2003–2007
period 2003–2007. This is comparable with other model
predictions reported in literature (i.e. Ludwig et al. 2010;
Strobl et al. 2009). Figure 2 shows the spatial distribution of
N-NO3 loads in the Mediterranean basins highlighting which
basins contributed most to the pollution of the Sea.
The S1 scenario that consists in the reduction of surplus
by 50% was revealed as the most effective option for
reducing the nitrogen loads in the Mediterranean area and it
is coherent with a similar scenario detailed in Thieu et al.
(2012). About 25% of TN loads was reduced in S1 and only
5% in S2 (increase of efficiency of treatment of WWTPs).
Conversely, S2 was more efficient for TP reduction than S1
albeit in basins where the treatment efficiencies are
advanced, the reduction between the two scenarios results
was very similar (i.e. in the Po and Rhone river basins).
However, these results suggested a deeper investigation
79
related to the cost-efficiency of the various scenarios (Udias
et al. 2016).
4 Conclusion
In this study a new version of GREEN model
(GREEN-Rgrid) was applied to simulate nutrient loads
entering the Mediterranean Sea using a grid based
approach at high spatial resolution of 5-arc-minutes.
The calibration results showed that the model was able
to predict efficiently nutrient loads in the Mediterranean
area. The S1 and S2 scenarios resulted in the most
effective options for reducing TN and TP loads, respec-
tively. In conclusion, the GREEN-Rgrid model is a
powerful tool for the prediction of nutrient loads at grid
cell level making it a valuable tool for assessing different
80
options (cost benefits and tradeoff analysis) for nutrient
reduction from point and diffuse sources in the Mediter-
ranean region.
References
Aguzzi G, Gasparo MG, Macconi M. FORTRAN 77 uno strumento per
il calcolo scientifico. In: Pitagora, editor; 1987.
Grizzetti B, Bouraoui F, Aloe A. Changes of nitrogen and phosphorus
loads to European seas. Global Change Biol. 2012;18(2):769–82.
Ludwig W, Bouwman AF, Dumont E, Lespinas F. Water and nutrient
fluxes from major Mediterranean and Black Sea rivers: Past and
A. Malagò and F. Bouraoui
future trends and their implications for the basin-scale budgets.
Global Biogeochem Cycles. 2010;24(4).
Nash JE, Sutcliffe JV. River flow forecasting through conceptual
models. J Hydrol Amsterdam. 1970;10:282–90. doi:10.1016/0022-
1694(70)90255-6.
Strobl RO, Somma F, Evans, BM, Zaldívar J. Fluxes of water and
nutrients from river runoff to the Mediterranean Sea using GIS and a
watershed model. J Geophys Res: Biogeosciences. 2009;114(3).
Thieu V, Bouraoui F, Aloe A, Bidoglio G. Scenario analysis of
pollutants loads to European regional seas for the year 2020: I.
Policy options and alternative measures to mitigate land based
emission of nutrients. EC-JRC Report (Luxembourg);2012, 83.
Udias A, Malagó A, Pastori M, Vigiak O, Reynaud A, Javier Elorza F,
Bouraoui F. Identifying efficient nitrate reduction strategies in the
upper danube. Water. 2016;8(9):371. doi:10.3390/w8090371.
 Characterization of Glauber Hydrate Salt,
Recoverable from the Disposal of Lead
Batteries, When Used for Thermal Energy
Storage

Maria Gabriela De Paola, Marilena De Simone, Natale Arcuri,

and Vincenza Calabrò

Keywords

Glauber salt Phase change materials PCM Thermal energy storage TES
Multiple light scattering Lead batteries recovery Dispersions

1 Introduction with different percentages of recovered Glauber salt,

Disposal process of lead batteries allows recovering not only
lead but also sodium sulphate that could be used for the
production of a very interesting material: Glauber salt, lar-
gely used as phase change material for thermal energy
storage. The recovery is carried out by crystallization of
sulphate, which also allows the elimination of traces of
heavy metals, toxic to the environment and damaging to
health (Atanasova et al. 2008).
In particular in the phase of the pastel desulfurization in
which the lead sulfate is treated using carbonate or
hydroxide of sodium two reactions take place giving both
sodium sulphate as by-product. This latter could be used in
its decahydrate form as PCM. Due to its thermal properties,
the Glauber salt has been one of the first salts hydrates to be
considered suitable for applications in the building sector for
the thermoregulation (Telkes 1976).
However, it shows problems of stability and, as a con-
sequence, difficulties in the long-run performances from
thermal and structural point of view. Consequently, additives
need to be added in order to achieve an effective product.
The study presented in this paper was based on the texture
characterization and the thermal analysis of compositions
M. G. De Paola
M. De Simone
N. Arcuri
Department of Mechanical, Energy and Management Engineering
(DIMEG), University of Calabria, P. Bucci 46/C, 87036 Rende,
Italy
V. Calabrò (&)
Department of Informatics, Modelling, Electronics and System
Engineering (DIMES), University of Calabria, P. Bucci 39/C,
87036 Rende, Italy
e-mail: vincenza.calabro@unical.it
obtained using bentonite as a thickener and borax as a
nucleating agent. T-history method and light scattering
based analysis have been carried out in order to calculate
respectively thermal properties and long term stability of
such materials.
2 Materials and Methods
Samples of Glauber salt were prepared by sonication,
changing time and modality of additives addition, in order to
the wide range of materials to study. The analysis of thermal
properties and stability was carried out using samples made
of a mixture of sodium sulfate/bentonite/borax and water in
excess compared to the stoichiometric value required for the
formation of Glauber salt to limit the formation of the
anhydrous salt. Bentonite was preferred to other thickeners
owing to the good price-performance ratio while the borax
was chosen as a nucleating agent because of the results
obtained in different studies (De Paola et al. 2016). Each
sample was prepared by sonication in order to reduce the
diameter of powder particles in water.
Thermal analysis has been carried out by means of
T-history method, achieved by changing the original method
of Yinping and Yi (1999), with the introduction of a new
controlled heating and cooling chamber. The method is
based on the continuos collection of temperature data during
phase change of the material, reference substance and
environment where the analysis was carried out. Heating and
cooling cycles were repeated in order to test the materials
thermal stability. The thermal analysis was carried out in the
range of temperature from 10 to 40 °C, in order to simulate

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 81

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_29
82
the operating conditions of thermoregulation in the building
sector. A refrigerated thermostat was utilized in order to
obtain an adequate control of the environmental conditions.
Data were then rearranged with the aim to produce the
T-history curve that was elaborated in the
enthalpy-temperature curve and, consequently the enthalpy
variations that occur during the heating and cooling cycles
(Marín et al. 2003). Consequently latent heat of solidifica-
tion, specific heat capacity for liquids and solids could be
calculated too for each sample.
Stability analysis has been carried out by means of
multiple light scattering method based on the Turbiscan
technique, generally used for the dispersions characterization
(Mengual et al. 1999). The operating principle is based on
the multiple light scattering: the instrument scans samples
with a volume of about 25 ml and draws transmission and
backscattering profiles along all the height of the test cell.
The scan can be repeated for long times, at fixed selected
temperature, and at fixed intervals of time. The more the
profiles are distinguished from the initial one the more the
dispersion is unstable (De Paola et al. 2017). Destabilization
kinetics could be estimated by means of Turbiscan Stability
Index (TSI) that is calculated on the raw data of Transmis-
sion and BackScattering signals. It sums up all the variations
in the sample, following the Eq. 1, comparing every scan of
a measurement (scani(h)) to the previous one (scani−1(h)), on
the selected height, and dividing the result by the total
selected height (H). TSI does not depend on the product
quantity in the measuring cell. The higher the TSI is, the
stronger the destabilization is in the sample.
X P jscani ðhÞ  scani1 ðhÞj
h than 880 nm in sample I and smaller than 880 nm in sample
TSI ¼ ð1Þ
i
H II; consequently sonication has been less efficient for sample
Coupling the two methods it is possible to identify ther-
mal and structural parameters able to describe long term
performances of different samples of recovered salts.
3 Results and Discussion
Two different compositions were investigated, as reported in
Table 1.
Table 1 Composition of the two Sodium sulfate
samples of Glauber salts with (g)
additives
Sample I 34
Sample 25
II
M. G. De Paola et al.
Sonication was performed at the wave amplitude 80%. To
avoid the sample overheating, sonication was not continu-
ous, but for 0.5 s pulses with 0.5 s intervals between pulses.
It was performed first on the mixture water-bentonite for
10 min, and then on the mixture where salts were added for
30 min.
Thanks to the T-history method, thermal properties like
melting temperature range, heat of fusion and solidification,
as well as specific heats for both the solid and liquid phases
for each analysed sample have been calculated. Comparison
in terms of thermal performances have been carried out to
identify composition and method of preparation able to
guarantee optimal PCM behaviour. Four heating-cooling
cycles have been carried out for each samples.
In Table 2 the thermal parameters are reported, in terms
of initial Tin and final Tf solidification temperature, enthalpy
of solidification Dh, specific heat for liquid cpl and solid cps
phase.
The stability analysis was carried out by multiple light
scattering method. Turbiscan results, expressed in terms of
backscattering permitted identifying the destabilization
phenomena that occurred in the samples.
In both samples, the backscattering is variable throughout
the cell, where flocculation took place. The analysis of
particle diameter was carried out according to Mie’s theory
(1976): the backscattering flux increased with the particle
mean diameter when the initial particles sizes were smaller
than the incident wavelength (in such case equal to 880 nm),
and it decreased with the mean diameter for initial particles
sizes larger than the incident wavelength.
The results show that particle diameter could be larger
I and Glauber’s salt thermal efficiency was lower.
The destabilization kinetics based on the computation of
the TSI (Turbiscan Stability Index) in different time steps
was calculated with the aim to identify the most stable
sample, Fig. 1. Stability is strictly related to the composition
as well as to the methodology of preparation of the Glauber
salt based PCMs. Visually, both samples appeared as
homogeneous and stable dispersions, but the optical analysis
by Turbiscan highlighted the instability phenomena at long
times (TSI close to 0,7). Sample II with higher content of salt
Water Bentonite Borax Glauber salt composition
(g) (g) (g) (%)
60 4 2 77.3
68 5 2 56.8
Characterization of Glauber Hydrate Salt …
Table 2 Thermal analysis of the Tin (°C)
two samples of Glauber salts
Sample I 31.39
Sample II 30.12
Fig. 1 Destabilization kinetics of samples I and II in terms of TSI
and higher initial viscosity was characterized by a stronger
destabilization kinetics during the first period. Nevertheless,
sample I tended to stabilize the TSI value at long time
periods.
4 Conclusion
Sodium sulphate recovered from the disposal process of
lead batterie could be efficiently used for the production
of PCMs based on Glauber salt but it is necessary to
optimize the preparation method. While defining the
optimal composition of Glauber salt and additives, the
results underlined that the thermal performances and the
stability of a dispersion cannot be defined by considering
the composition percentages only. The final properties
also depend on the preparation method.
83
Tin (°C) Dh (kJ/kg) cpl (kJ/kg) cps (kJ/kg)
23.63 110.60 2.86 3.25
19.69 122.01 2.97 3.82
Acknowledgements This publication is part of a project that has
received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research
and innovation program under grant agreement No. 657466 (INPATH-
TES). The authors are also very grateful to the Italian Ministry of
Education, Universities and Research that financed the Project
PON01_01366.
References
Atanasova D, Lyakov N, Vassilev V, Angelov G, Haralampiev G.
Desulphurization of lead cake by sodium carbonate and sodium
hydroxide. J Univ Chem Technol Metall. 2008;43(2):267–72.
De Paola MG, Arcuri N, Calabro’ V, De Simone M. Thermal and
stability investigation of phase change material dispersions for
thermal energy storage by T-history and optical methods. Energies.
2017;10. doi: 0.3390/en10030354.
De Paola MG, De Simone M, Arcuri N, Calabrò V. Crossed analysis by
T-history and Turbiscan for the characterization of PCM with
Glauber salt. In: INNOSTORAGE Conference, Ben-Gurion Univer-
sity of the Negev; 2016 16–18 Feb.
Marín JM, Zalba B, Cabeza LF, Mehling H. Determination of enthalpy
—temperature curves of phase change materials with the
temperature-history method: improvement to temperature depen-
dent properties. Meas Sci Technol. 2003;14:184–9.
Mengual O, Meunier G, Cayre I, Puech K, Snabre P. Characterisation
of instability of concentrated dispersions by a new optical
analyser: the TURBISCAN MA 1000. Colloids Surf, A. 1999;152:
111–23.
Mie G. Contributions to the optics of turbid media, particularly of
colloidal metal solutions. Transl into English from Ann Phys
(Leipzig). 1976;25(3) 1908:377–445.
Telkes M. Thixotropic mixture and method of making same; 1976.
Patent US 3986969 A.
Yinping Z, Yi J. A simple method, the T–history method, of
determining the heat of fusion, specific heat and thermal conduc-
tivity of phase-change materials. Meas Sci Technol. 1999;10:
201–5.
 Can Conservation Agriculture Sequester Soil
Carbon in Northern Tunisia in the Long Run?

Haithem Bahri, Mohamed Annabi, Abir Saoueb,

Hatem Cheikh M’Hamed, Amir Souissi, Roukaya Chibani,
and Bochra Amina Bahri

Keywords
Conservation agriculture Soil carbon sequestration Soil organic carbon Longterm
experimentation in tunisia

1 Introduction soil structure, and water retention capacity of soils. Hence,

The soil organic matter (SOM) appears to play a remarkable
role in sustaining four major ecosystem services: resistance
to soil erosion, soil water retention, soil fertility for plants,
and soil biodiversity. Primarily composed of carbon, SOM
supports heterotrophic activity and a chemical mechanism
for creating physical structure in soils. Soil organic carbon
content is a function of land use, climate (temperature and
precipitation), and soil hydrology. It draws its importance
from the fact that even small shifts in the soil carbon pool
would have tremendous effects on both agricultural pro-
ductivity as well as on the global greenhouse gas cycle.
Regarding the Tunisian context, restoring and improving
degraded agricultural lands through increased SOM should
stand as a critically important undertaking, remarkably
useful for addressing the soil threats.
Conservation agriculture, based on no-tillage or reduced
tillage, with permanent soil cover and crop rotation, helps in
minimizing the soil degradation risk through increasing
SOM stock, thus improving biological activity, soil fertility,
H. Bahri (&)
Laboratoire des Sciences et Techniques Agronomiques,
INRGREF, 2046 Ariana, Tunisia
e-mail: haithem.bahri@gmail.com
M. Annabi
A. Saoueb
H. C. M’Hamed
A. Souissi
Laboratoire des Sciences et Techniques Agronomiques, INRAT,
2046 Ariana, Tunisia
R. Chibani
Laboratoire d’écologie pastorale, IRA, 4119 Medenine, Tunisia
B. A. Bahri
Laboratoire Bioagresseur et Protection Intergree en Agriculture,
INAT, Tunis, Tunisia
soil erosion and nutrient runoff would decrease, while water
quality and soil resistance to compaction would certainly
improve. In addition, significant labour and fuel consump-
tion cost savings would follow. Since 1999, conservation
agriculture (CA) has been introduced as an alternative for
maintaining sustainable agricultural systems in Tunisia.
Indeed, CA areas recorded an increase from 52 ha in 1999 to
14,000 ha in 2015.
In this context, the present study’s major goal lies in
evaluating the longterm impact of conservation agriculture
on soil organic carbon sequestration in northern Tunisia.
2 Materials and Methods
The experimental site is located at a farm in the Krib region
(Siliana governorate) in northern Tunisia. This farm field is
composed of five different treatments (rotation type and til-
lage). Three rotation types were conducted: Triticale/Faba
bean (T/Fb), Faba bean/Oaot (Fb/O), Durum wheat/Faba
bean (W/Fb) and two tillage treatments: conventional tillage
(CT) and conservation agriculture (CA). This experimental
site was established in 1999, and it is considered as the
oldest site associated with conservation agriculture (CA) in
Tunisia. The soil is clay-loamy and the climate is semi-arid
(400–500 mm average annual rainfall). Soil samples were
collected in February 2017 at different horizons (0–20, 20–
40, 40–60 cm). Soil organic carbon (TOC) was determined
via the Walkley-Black procedure on 2 g-ground soil. Soil
mineralization is followed up under laboratory conditions at
28 °C during 77 days. Carbon mineralization relating data

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 85

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_30
86
Fig. 1 Cumulative soil respiration CO2 (% SOC) for different tillage treatments (left) and for different rotation types (right)
are simulated using a two-pool first-order kinetic equation, at
date t: C–CO2 (t) = C0 (1−e−kt) + bt.
With: C0: potentially labile SOC (% SOC), k: mineral-
ization constant of labile SOC (day−1) and b: mineralization
rate of resistant SOC (% SOC. day−1).
3 Results and Discussion
Compared to conventionnal tillage, conservation agriculture
did not appear to significatively affect (p = 0.5602) the SOC
after 17 years of establishment. However, a significant effect
(p = 0.0463) of rotation type was observed on SOC. Under
Fb/O rotation, SOC content was about 1.03%, while under
T/Fb and W/Fb SOC content was about 0.94%. These SOC
levels remained low, even though SOC is considered as a
‘universal keystone indicator’ in soil fertility management
(Loveland and Webb 2003). Greenland et al. (1975)
observed that soils with <2% organic carbon were prone to
structural deterioration. The low SOC content is due to a low
crop residue restitution to soil after harvest, which consti-
tutes a major impediment for CA success in Tunisia. To
study the SOC biodegradability, cumulative soil respiration
was followed up under laboratory conditions (Fig. 1).
The cumulative SOC mineralisation after 77 incubation
days was significantly higher (p = 0.004) under CT (14%)
than under CA (10%). A high significant effect (p < 0.0001)
of rotation type was noted on cumulative SOC mineraliza-
tion (Fig. 1). Besides, the interaction effect of tillage x
rotation proved to significantly affect the cumulative CO2
(p < 0.0001) released after 77 days. These kinetics appeared
to reveal two SOC compartiments, one labile, mineralized
during the first week, and another resistant one mineralized
between 7 and 77 incubation days. Using the two-pool
first-order kinetic equation, the labile SOC (C0) was
H. Bahri et al.
determined. C0 to be higher on CT (7.1%) than on CA
(3.2%) due to low SOC input level in CA. Yet, the miner-
alization constant of this pool was higher in CT (0.60 day−1)
than under CA (0.23 day−1), denoting that degradation turns
out to be rather important under CT than under CA due to
tillage effect. Concerning, resistant SOC, the mineralization
rate was similar under CT and CA (0.09% SOC.day−1),
indicating that CA did not seem to noticeably affect resistant
SOC, considered as stabilized SOC. In this regard, West and
Post (2002) recorded, in a meta analysis, an average of
0.57 ± 0.14 Mg C ha−1 yr−1 that was sequestered following
the shift from conventional tillage to no-till, except in
wheat-fallow rotations, where no change was discovered to
persist. Concerning the rotation’s effect, the labile SOC (C0)
proved to be higher in W/Fb (9%) than in T/Fb (4%) and in
Fb/O (2%). However, a reverse trend of the mineralization
rate of resistant SOC (k) was observed, which was of a rate
of about 0.07% SOC day−1 in Fb/O and 0.11% SOC day−1
in W/Fb rotation. Such a finding suggests well that T/Fb
appears to display a lower C0 but contributes highly to the
stabilization of SOC than the remaining rotations. In this
respect, West and Post (2002) noted a significant impact of
rotation types on SOC sequestration.
4 Conclusion
This study proved to reveal well the limitations associated
with adopting CA to the Tunisian context. For instance,
this SOC content or resistant SOC associated hindrance,
turns out to be mainly related to (1) the low level of SOC
input through low crop residue input (2) the absence of
soil cover using some crops which can resist to water
stress during summer season as african alfalfa. It is
actually in terms of CA success that crop rotation could
be effectively managed.
Can Conservation Agriculture Sequester Soil Carbon …
References
Greenland DJ, Rimmer D, Payne D. Determination of the structural
stability class of English and Welsh soils, using a water coherence
test. J Soil Sci. 1975;26(3):294–303.
87
Loveland P, Webb J. Is there a critical level of organic mat er in the
agricultural soils of temperate regions? A review. Soil Tillage Res.
2003;70:1–18.
West TO, Post WM. Soil organic carbon sequestration rates by tillage
and crop rotation: a global data analysis. Soil Sci Soc
Am J. 2002;66:1930–46.
 Climate Change and Water Resources
Management in Arab Countries
Attia El Gayar and Younes Hamed



Keywords
Climate change Water resources
1 Introduction
Climate change has a multitude of immediate and long-term
impacts on water resources in Arab countries. These include
flooding, drought, sea-level rise in estuaries, drying up of
rivers, poor water quality in surface and groundwater sys-
tems, precipitation and water vapor pattern distortions, and
snow and land ice bad distribution. These effects, when
compounded together, have devastating impacts on ecosys-
tems and communities, ranging from economic and social
impacts to health and food insecurity, all of which threaten
the existence of many regions in Arab countries.
Egypt, as a case study, is an arid country that relies on the
Nile River as its main and almost exclusive resource of fresh
water to meet the increasing demands of agricultural,
industrial, and domestic sectors. Despite being at the bottom
end of the river, Egypt is the largest user of Nile waters at
present. Several studies showed that the Nile is very sensi-
tive to temperature and precipitation changes mainly because
of its low runoff/rainfall ratio (4%) (IPCC 1998). The pro-
longed 1979–1987 drought forced Egypt to reduce its water
use despite the inter-annual storage in Lake Nasser behind
the High Aswan Dam (HAD), which clearly shows the
vulnerability of Egypt to changes in river flows that climate
change may produce. Being the most downstream country
on the Nile, Egypt is affected by climate change impacts, not
A. E. Gayar (&)
Agriculture Research Centre, Soils, Water & Environment
Research Institute, MINAGRI, Giza, 12619, Egypt
e-mail: attiaelgayar@yahoo.com
Y. Hamed
Faculty Sciences of Gafsa-Tunisia, Unit Research of 3G, Gabès,
Tunisia
e-mail: hamed_younes@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_31


Evapo—transpiration The arab region
only within its borders, but also within the whole basin,
which it shares with eleven other countries. Economic
developments in upstream countries and measures they
might take to adapt to climate change are likely to put more
pressure on water resources in Egypt. Therefore, it is of
prime importance for Egypt, amongst other Nile countries, to
assess the hydrological impacts of climate change on the
Nile River.
2 Expected Impacts of Climate Change
on Egypt
Over the 20th century, a warming of the African continent at
a rate of 0.5 °C/decade has been observed, with the most
drastic warming occurring since 1970 (Falkenmark 1989;
Hulme et al. 2001). Climate models agree on predicting a
continuation of this trend. Expected temperature increases in
Egypt range from 1.5 to 4 °C by 2050, with a slightly higher
rate of warming in summer than in winter (Agrawala et al.
2004; Elshamy et al. 2009a).Trends for precipitation are less
clear. For Egypt, Agrawala et al. (2004) predict declines in
annual mean precipitation, though those are not statistically
significant. Since rainfall contributes little to Egypt’s avail-
able freshwater, changes in the headwater regions of the Nile
—the Ethiopian highlands and the equatorial lakes region—
are more important for Egypt’s water supply due to their
influence on the flow of the Nile. The river flow is highly
sensitive to precipitation changes, which is attributed to the
combination of low discharge of the river and high evapo-
ration rates (de Wit and Stankiewicz 2006). An example of
this sensitivity is the change of inflow into Lake Nasser
between the periods 1993–2000 and 1980–1987. While total
rainfall over the basin increased by only 10%, river flow
89
90
increased by 40% (Kwadijk 2010). For the Blue Nile and the
equatorial lakes region climate models predict precipitation
changes by 2070 between −34 and +24% and between −32
and +31%, respectively (Beyene et al. 2010). This large
uncertainty is mirrored in other studies and reflects the dif-
ficulty of downscaling from global models to regional levels,
but also indicates a lack of understanding of phenomena like
ENSO, which are important for the Eastern African climate.
In order to derive predictions for Nile River flow under
climate change, the interaction of temperature, precipitation
and evaporation has to be taken into account. For the upper
Blue Nile the means of Kim and Kaluarachchi (2009),
Elshamy et al. (2009a) are +4% and −15% respectively, with
spreads between −60 and +80%. It is certain, that natural
variability of rainfall will increase, which means an increase
in frequency and strength of floods and droughts, and
potential shifts in rainfall seasons (McSweeney et al. 2010).
A prediction of the flow of the Main Nile has to consider
changes in the flow of both the Blue and the White Nile and
varies wildly in the literature (for example Gasser and
Abdou 1989; Abou-Ali 2003; Ibrahim and Ibrahim 2006;
Elshamy et al. (2009b; Al-Youm 2010): −62 to +43% with a
general mean of +1%, Beyene et al. (2010): −29 to +26% by
2040–2069). From this uncertainty it is clear that any dis-
cussion of climate change impacts on conflict has to take
into account three scenarios: lower flow of the Nile River,
higher flow, and unchanged overall flow with higher vari-
ability. Climate change induced sea level rise also poses a
large risk for Egypt since the Nile delta is highly populated,
with the country’s industrial centers located here, and agri-
culturally important due to high fertility of the land.
The IPCC expects a global sea level rise between 0.19 and
0.58 m relative to 1980–1999 by 2100, while the actual
change at a given location depends on regional variations
in oceanic level, geological uplift/subsidence and
human-induced subsidence and can differ significantly from
the global mean trends, especially in deltas and for coastal
cities (Nicholls et al. 2007). According to Dasgupta et al.
(2009), Egypt is among the top ten most impacted countries
(among developing countries) in a 1-m sea-level rise sce-
nario in terms of impacts on population, GDP, wetlands and
especially agricultural land. For a 0.5 m sea level rise in the
Alexandria Governorate alone more than 1.5 million people
would be displaced and almost 200,000 jobs would be lost
(WHO 2001; FAO 2003, 2010; Agrawala et al. 2004; Cury
and Shannon 2004; World Bank 2007; Bates et al. 2008;
Cascao 2009; Eid et al. 2010).
3 Conclusion
Climate change in Arab countries can affect the avail-
ability and quality of water resources adversely and the
evidence suggests that the causes of climate change are
A. E. Gayar and Y. Hamed
complex, involving both natural forces and anthropogenic
activities. Human activities are rated to have significant
effects and while Arab countries have contributed little to
the magnitude of the global problem they stand to bear
some of the serious consequences. Climate change con-
sequences on water resources manifested themselves in
such events as flooding, drought, sea-level rise, drying up
of rivers, poor water quality, changes in surface and
groundwater systems, changes in precipitation and water
vapour, and changes in snow and land ice. These alter-
ations are already having serious impacts on the economy
of several Arab countries, on food security throughout the
continent, as well as on social welfare and the health status
of many disadvantaged people. Although no conclusive
evidence is yet available to prove the cause and effect
relationships between climate change and water resources
as shown above, the impacts on Arab countries are likely
to be the greatest, especially when they co-occur with a
range of other stress factors such as population growth,
unequal access to resources, food insecurity, poor health
systems and poverty. These conditions will increase the
vulnerabilities of many people in Arab countries. Further,
Arab countries’ low capacity in science, technology and
innovation will further deepen the vulnerability and
impacts of climate change on water resources.
The Case of Egypt clearly shows that an indirect link can
be drawn from the primary effects of climate change on
temperature, precipitation, and sea level rise via secondary
effects on the Nile River flow and agriculture to the
occurrence of intra- and interstate conflicts. Egypt, with its
specific challenges of high population density, water
scarcity and small areas of fertile and usable land, is espe-
cially vulnerable to these effects of climate change and to
some adaptation measures. Integration of climate change
into all planning strategies and development measures is of
primary importance for the country. At the same time, the
incentives for Egypt to cooperate with its neighbors will
strongly increase through climate change. A basin-wide
agreement is likely to be beneficial for Egypt and possible
concessions with respect to water allocations will be alle-
viated, among other things, through higher stability and a
better position to meet the challenges of climate change.
Such an agreement, however, has to take the possible
effects of climate change into account by being flexible
enough to address changing flows and conditions while
ensuring enforceability. Otherwise its stability cannot be
guaranteed in an insecure future.
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Climate Change and Water Resources Management …
Agrawala S, Moehner A, El Raey M, Conway D, van Aalst M,
Hagenstad M, Smith J. Development and climate change in Egypt:
focus on coastal resources and the Nile. Paris, France: OECD; 2004.
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http://www.almasryalyoum.com/en/news/minister-egypt-imports-40-
its-food. Last Accessed 10 Oct 2010.
Bates BC, Kundzewicz ZW, Wu S, Palutikof JP. Climate change and
water. Technical paper of the intergovernmental panel on climate
change. Geneva: IPCC Secretariat; 2008. p. 210.
Beyene T, Lettenmaier DP, Kabat P. Hydrologic impacts of climate
change on the Nile river basin: implications of the 2007 IPCC
scenarios. Clim Change. 2010;100:433–61.
Cascao AE. Changing power relations in the Nile river basin:
unilateralism vs. cooperation? Water Altern. 2009;2(2):245–68.
Cury P, Shannon L. Regime shifts in upwelling ecosystems: observed
changes and possible mechanisms in Northern and Southern
Bengalese. Prog Oceanogr. 2004;60:223–43.
Dasgupta S, Laplante B, Meisner C, Wheeler D, Yan J. The impact of
sea level rise on developing countries: a comparative analysis. Clim
Change. 2009;93(379):388.
De Wit M, Stankiewicz J. Changes in surface water supply across
Africa with predicted climate change. Science. 2006;311:1917–21.
Eid HM, El-Marsafawy SM, Ouda SA. Assessing the economic impacts
of climate change on agriculture in Egypt: a Ricardian approach.
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the Nile flows at Dongola using statistical downscaled GCM
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 Impact of Agricultural Policies
on the Technical and Economic Parameters
of the Olive Value Chain in the Djelfa Region
(Algeria)

Leila Attallaoui, Salah Eddine Benziouche, and Komi Apédo Atchemdi

Keywords
Value chain Olive Agricultural policy Biodiversity Djelfa Technical and
economic parameters

1 Introduction three classes (small, average and large farms), depending on

Like the other agricultural sectors in Algeria, the olive value
chain has undergone a profound change over the last two
decades, thanks to the various agricultural policies put in
place by the State. Through this practical study in the Djelfa
region, we tried to identify the socio-economic and technical
benefits of the National Agricultural Development Plan
(PNDA) in the olive value chain, and to understand its
evolutionary dynamics (Djelfa DSA 2015).
2 Materials and Methods
criticisms according to: (1) The zone of study, (2) The
number of olive trees and (3) Seniorities of the exploitations.
On the other hand, our study is based on the evaluation and
analysis of certain technical and economic parameters in the
different segments of the olive value chain: (area, produc-
tion, yields, performance, etc.) and also of certain variables
used by the OECD (Moreddu 2011) is SPM, ESP… (Sup-
port of the Market prices, Estimate of the Support for the
Producers). In the third phase, we treated our results using
statistical tools (the software SPSS 2015, version 23) to back
our analysis.

In order to answer this question, several hypotheses have
been formulated on the basis of the knowledge gained from
the old and recent bibliographies, which we obtained during
our bibliographical research, and on the basis of interviews
with resource persons having relations with the study subject
(Belkhiri et al. 2015, Djelfa DSA 2015, Benziouche 2008,
Benziouche 2007, Trigui 1996). In the second phase, a
survey was carried out on a sample N = 100 of producers
from the Djelfa region (Belkhiri et al. 2015), divided into
L. Attallaoui (&)
S. E. Benziouche
Department of Agronomy, Biskra University, Biskra, Algeria
e-mail: leila.attallaoui@hotmail.com
S. E. Benziouche
e-mail: sbenziouche@yahoo.fr
K. A. Atchemdi
Department of Life and Natural Sciences/Agronomy, Agricultural
Economics/ Agribusiness Management, BP 3117, University of
Djelfa, 17007 Djelfa, Algeria
e-mail: sankaridja@yahoo.fr
3 Results and Discussion
The analysis of the results obtained show the importance of
support actions on the development of agriculture in arid and
semi-arid regions (Benziouche 2007) such as the olive sector
in the Djelfa region of Algeria, where the impact of these
policies is very positive, although it is still far from the
desired objectives (Belkhiri et al. 2015, Moreddu 2011).
Indeed, a large increase was recorded in the deferent seg-
ments of the upstream and downstream channels. As a result,
there has been an improvement in the main technical and
economic parameters taken into account, namely the area of
olive cultivation in the region, which has largely exceeded
that recorded since the country’s independence (Djelfa DSA
2015, FAOSTAT 2009). It has made a tremendous leap from
2000 to 2010, from 150 to more than 7300 ha, of which
4300 ha came into production, with an increase in total
production of 1.5 million liters of oil was recorded in 2013.
This support policy has enabled beneficiaries to improve the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 93

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_32
94
technical itinerary followed in this crop insofar as there is
widespread use of plant protection products and fertilizers
and the introduction of irrigation techniques, water. This has
resulted in improved productivity of olive farms, income,
and the standard of living of farmers. Also, this policy has
had many socio-economic impacts (Benziouche 2008).
Many job opportunities created direct and indirect channels;
following the increasing involvement of the beneficiaries of
the more seasonal workforce. On the other hand, the support
policy has encouraged some beneficiaries to make induced
investments (extension of area, construction of oil mill and
packaging units).
Environmentally, agriculture in this region has changed
dramatically (Djelfa DSA 2015). The production system has
undergone profound changes (Belkhiri et al. 2015, Ben-
ziouche 2008). On the other hand, an innovation in the
diversity of cultivars planted in orchards has been noted;
protection and enhancement of the general biodiversity in
the region. The emergence of a new category of olive
growers and real professionals able to meet the challenges of
the sector. Many producers have seen a great improvement
in their incomes as a result of the improvement of the added
value generated by the olive sector and consequently have
improved their economic performance.
The measurement variables (SPM, ESP, PESP, CNS and
CNP) from the study on the cultivation of the olive tree in
the djelfa region reinforced the idea that this crop grows
under conditions that favor planters. However, the subsidies
granted to arboriculturists in the region (Djelfa) remained
very low in terms of volume and relative to the agricultural
gross domestic product compared to that in OECD countries.
4 Conclusion
There has been renewed interest in olive growing in the
study area over the past two decades, thanks to state
support programs. Indeed, there is a revival that is
expressed not only through the extension of
olive-growing areas but also by the development of
several technical-economic parameters, notably the
L. Attallaoui et al.
improvement of the technical itineraries and income of
the producers. Nevertheless, these results remain insuffi-
cient; the means put in place and for the objectives set
remain limited (Belkhiri et al. 2015, Moreddu 2011). This
is undoubtedly explained by several technical, sociolog-
ical and economic constraints (Belkhiri et al. 2015,
Mansouri et al. 2015, Karray & Kanoun 2013). On the
other hand, in terms of correlation coefficients,
socio-demographic factors had no influence on the
granting of agricultural support.
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 A New Method to Estimate the Instantaneous
Pollutants Emissions from Line Sources

Hicham Gourgue, Ahmed Ihlal, and Ahmed Aharoune

Keywords
Road transport Emissions Air pollution Emission factors Line sources
Developing countries

1 Introduction of atmospheric diffusion equation for the dispersion of a

The road traffic is the main pollution source in the urban
areas (Molina and Molina 2002; Moussiopoulos 2003;
Vivanco and Andrade 2006; Metcalfea et al. 2002). Over the
last years, a number of air quality models have been
developed to predict air pollution and set emission reduction
strategies Metcalfea et al. 2002; Martilli et al. 2003. The
results quality depends on the emission inventories. Vehicle
emissions are usually estimated using two approaches:
Bottom-up or top-down. It is not always necessary, some-
times even impossible, to work with the most detailed
model. Using a simple model in a complex environment can
easily lead to false conclusions (Sturm et al. 1999). Many
authors have recommended a combination of both approa-
ches to the estimates of urban emissions (Vivanco and
Andrade 2006; Friedrich and Reis 2004; Parrish 2006;
Belalcazar et al. 2009).
In the covered areas, the Gaussian dispersion models are
the most commonly used (Levitin et al. 2005; Berger et al.
2009; Venkatram et al. 2009; Chen et al. 2009; Gourgue
et al. 2016; Csanady et al. 2008; Yamartino 2008). Although
the Gaussian dispersion formula provides an exact solution
H. Gourgue (&)
Sustainable Innovation and Applied Research Laboratory,
Universiapolis, Agadir, Morocco
e-mail: gourgue@e-polytechnique.ma
A. Ihlal
Laboratoire de Matériaux et Energies Renouvelables (LMER),
FSA Agadir, Agadir, Morocco
A. Aharoune
Laboratoire de Thermodynamique et Energétique (LTE), FSA
Agadir, Agadir, Morocco
pollutant emitted by a point source with some assumptions
about the stationarity and homogeneity (Cimorelli et al.
2004), it also provides a correct solution for emissions of a
pollutant from a line source, but only in the case where the
wind is perpendicular to the emitting line source (EPA
2005). It is therefore necessary to develop approximations
for modeling atmospheric emission dispersion from a line
source with a Gaussian formula. Several solutions have been
used by Gaussian models through literature.
Our contribution, was an extension and improvement of
the previous equations which further minimized the error
due to Gaussian formulation for one or several line sources,
of one or more pollutants, without significantly increasing
the computing requirements.
2 Materials and Methods
a. Emissions methodology
In both top-down and bottom-up approaches, the calcu-
lation of emissions is based on the emission factors that
depend on types of pollutant sources. The methods are
consistent if the calculation of the total emission gives the
same result. In the bottom-up approach, the emissions E(ip,
ie.) (in g.veh−1.h−1), of pollutants ip (NOx, CO, PM, etc.) and
emitters ie. (are sources of pollutants like a given vehicle on
any given street) are calculated using the parameters dis-
tributed in time and space:

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 95

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_33
96 H. Gourgue et al.

Eip;ie ðx; y; tÞ ¼ eip;ie ðx; y; tÞAie ðx; y; tÞ ð1Þ its behavior near origin (Venkatram and Horst 2006). The
effective distance deff is used to calculate rz, and a distance
Where x and y are the position of the cell in the field;t is d from each end i of the line source section in the wind
the time (in hours); Aie is the activity of emitters i.e. (can be direction, to calculate ry.
the total of fuel burned, the number of kilometers traveled by
the vehicle (in Km.veh.h−1)).eip;ie are the emission factors (g. !
Q z2
km−1.veh−1) depending on the types of emitters and pollu- Cðx; y; zÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi   exp  2  
tants (Eggleston et al. 1993). The total emissions can be 2 2pu cos h rz deff 2rz deff
" !
calculated by integrating Eq. 1. ðy  y1 Þ cos h  x sin h
ZZ  erf pffiffiffi
2ry ðd1 Þ
Eip;ie ¼ eip;ie ðx; y; tÞAie ðx; y; tÞdsdt ð2Þ !#
ðy  y2 Þ cos h  x sin h
erf pffiffiffi
where s is the surface of the emitter field. In the top-down, 2 ry ð d 2 Þ
total emissions are calculated using Eq. 3: ð4Þ

Eip;ie ¼ eip;ie Aie ð3Þ 3 Application of the Model: Case Study

Gaussian models are based on the general equation
advection-diffusion of particles or gases. It is assumed that
the dispersion is stationary and that the Gaussian distribution
is typical of a stochastic process (Gourgue et al. 2015a, b).
The approach of Horst-Venkatram (HV) is to evaluate the
integral with an approximation on integrating coupled with
of FANTASIA Area
The application of the model in a real case requires a sim-
plification of the site to be studied. The chosen site for the
application of the model is the industrial site of FANTASIA
Dcheira Jihadia in Agadir, Morocco (Fig. 1).

(a) (b)

Fig. 1. a Location of point sources (red circle), line sources (black lines and circle), and blue lines present buildings obstacles (free Google Earth),
b Adapted geometry for the Model, where the point sources, the line sources (with ID) and the obstacles are presented
A New Method to Estimate the Instantaneous …
Fig. 2. a Concentrations of SO2 at 3 pm, calculated by the model in mgm−3 in the ground level. b of SO2 Concentrations at 3 pm, calculated by
the model in mgm−3 in the ground level
4 Results and Discussion
The SO2 emissions generated by each of the four chimneys
and line sources of the site, are dispersed in the surrounding
area up to 3  3 Km2. The effect of the obstacles is visible.
Mean SO2 concentrations at 3 pm in 2 m are shown in
Fig. 2a. The effect of obstacles can be seen in places pro-
tected by buildings. Mean concentrations at 15:00, from PM
to 2 m are shown (Fig. 2a).
Figure 2b shows the evolution of the observed and sim-
ulated concentrations of SO2, throughout the studied day
(May, 19th 2012). This comparison shows that after taking
into account the emissions from road traffic, the error
between the measurements and the model was markedly
reduced, throughout the day. Indeed, the relative error
between the model and measures (err ¼ CDISCC mes
mes
) is in the
range of 0% at 1 am and 13% at 8 pm. The average error for
the entire day is only 6% instead of the recorded 91% taking
into account the point sources emissions only.
5 Conclusion
We presented our model of road traffic emissions (line
sources) and dispersion of these emissions. In its emis-
sion part. It was designed to generate emission invento-
ries from reduced input information and adapted to the
conditions in developing countries. In its dispersion part
an improved model of line source has been developed,
and tested. It provided some improvement in terms of
accuracy over previous formulas of classical model,
without being too demanding in computing resources.
The line sources are important sources of air pollution.
Indeed, the mean relative error of the day between the
numerical results and measures is 6% for SO2. It is also
worth noting also that the error was reduced significantly
97
between the first (without line sources) and the second
(with the line sources) attempt.
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 From Phyto to Agromining: Past, Present,
and Future Scope

Luís A. B. Novo, Paula M. L. Castro, Paula Alvarenga,

and Eduardo Ferreira da Silva

Keywords

Phytomining Agromining Phytotechnologies Phytoremediation Hyperaccumulation
Nanoparticles

1983). Still, over a decade passed until phytomining, the use

1 Overview
of plants to recover valuable metals from mine wastes and
mineralized soils, was pursued (Brooks et al. 1998). The late
The accumulation of valuable metals in plants has fascinated
1990s and early 2000s witnessed the conduction of a wealth
scientists ever since the 1700s (Chaptal 1790; Malte-Brun
of promising studies about gold, silver, thallium and nickel
1824). However, it was not uintil the very beginning of the
phytomining (Anderson et al. 1999, 2005). Some of these
20th century that a study dealing with the use of plant tissue
attempts were focused on the in vivo synthesis of metallic
analysis for gold bioindication sparked global interest for the
nanoparticles, enhancing the potential significance of phy-
topic (Lungwitz 1900). In the subsequent decades, several
tomining (Haverkamp et al. 2007).
researchers reported the occurence of gold in numerous
Most phytomining efforts to date have focused on gold
species from different locations (Warren and Delavault 1950;
and nickel (Table 1), more particularly on the latter, due to
Sheoran et al. 2013). These investigations triggered bio-
the large number of hyperaccumulators and abundance of
geochemical exploration, underlining the importance of
ultramafic soils worldwide (Novo et al. 2017). In this
plants for prospecting gold, silver, and other less valued
context, a variant of phytomining, dubbed agromining, has
elements (Dunn 2007).
been proposed as an agricultural strategy that would allow
In the 1970s, Jaffré and colleagues discovered various
local communities to farm nickel, providing them an
plants originating from New Caledonia and Australia, con-
taining at least 0.1% of nickel (dry weight basis), and coined
the term hyperaccumulator for the first time (Jaffré et al. Table 1 Examples of gold and nickel phytomining attempts
1976). Later, in 1983, Chaney proposed the use of hyper- Plant Chelant Metal in Profit References
accumulators for the alleviation of metal-polluted lands, shoot (US$
paving the way for the birth of phytoremediation (Chaney (mg kg−1) ha−1)
Au Daucus (NH4S2)2S2O3 89 7‚550 Msuya et al.
carota (2000)
L.A.B. Novo (&)
E.F. da Silva
Brassica KCN 39 20,000 Anderson et al.
GeoBioTec Research Center, Department of Geosciences,
juncea (2005)
University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
e-mail: novo@ua.pt Kalanchoe (NH4S2)2S2O3 10 15,098 Wilson-Corral
serrata et al. (2011)
L.A.B. Novo
P.M.L. Castro
Centre of Biotechnology and Fine Chemistry—Associated Ni Berkheya – 7‚880 774 Robinson et al.
Laboratory, Faculty of Biotechnology, Catholic University of coddii (1997)
Portugal, Porto, Portugal Alyssum – 22,000 1‚749 Li et al. (2003)
P. Alvarenga murale
LEAF, Department of Sciences and Engineering of Biosystems, Alyssum – 11,500 1‚055 Bani et al.
Instituto Superior de Agronomia, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, murale (2015)
Portugal

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 99

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_34
100 L.A.B. Novo et al.

Fig. 1 A timeline of the main phytomining-related breakthroughs

From Phyto to Agromining: Past, Present, and Future Scope
economic profit (Van der Ent et al. 2015). Figure 1 sum-
marizes the timeline of relevant phytomining related
breakthroughs.
2 Future Scope
Phytomining remains an infant technology with plenty of
room for improvement. Environmental concerns about gold
phytomining, associated with the need for chelating agents
to increase metal bioavailability, can be tackled by the use of
less-persistent ligands. Likewise, a large-scale demonstration
is critical to verify the feasibility of nickel phytomining, the
element that has so far unequivocally generated the most
auspicious results. In the upcoming years, phytomining
could also benefit from advanced gene-editing techniques
(e.g. CRISPR), to enhance traits such as hyperaccumulation,
biomass yield, or metaltolerance. Lastly, the advantages of
plant-mediated nanoparticles on in vivo biomedical appli-
cations should constitute a further additional stimulus for the
development of phytomining.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge financial
support from the ERDF Interreg Sudoe Program
(PhytoSUDOE-SOE1/P5/E0189) and the Portuguese Foundation for
Science and Technology (FCT) (SFRH/BPD/103,476/2014).
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(80):579–80. doi:10.1126/science.193.4253.579.
Li Y, Chaney R, Brewer E, et al. Development of a technology for
commercial phytoextraction of nickel: economic and technical
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Lungwitz EE. The lixiviation of gold deposits by vegetation and its
geological importance. Eng Min J. 1900;69:500–2.
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Msuya FA, Brooks RR, Anderson CWN. Chemically-induced uptake
of gold by root crops: Its significance for phytomining. Gold Bull.
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Phytoremediation—management of environmental contaminants,
vol. 5. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. p. 469–86.
Robinson BH, Brooks RR, Howes AW, et al. The potential of the
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 Fernand Pouillon’s Architecture:
A Sustainable Model in Algeria
Kersenna Soumaya and Chaouche Salah



Keywords


Fernand pouillon Vernacular architecture
identity Constructive system
1 Introduction
Nowadays, architectural creation is in a state of degradation.
In fact forms and architectural styles show a lack of envi-
ronmental aspiration. The studies in this area have revealed
that the problem is directly related to the lack of coordination
between architecture and the environment.
The problem of correlation surged to the surface shortly
after independence when our country chose to orient its
development towards industrialization without worrying for
environmental aspects, regional wealth, cultural diversity
and local identity, which created standardization for the built
environment, resulting in a rupture from ancestral traditions,
thus aggravating the relationship between man and his
environment.
In opposition to the adherents of the modern movement,
the mediterranean architect Fernand Pouillon has mastered
the adaptation of all project design processes in accordance
with the environment. Formerly, the architect has often
opted for the insertion of the project in its context, the use of
local materials and the return to the traditional architecture
inherited by ancestral mores. His ideas have often been
inspired by the beauty and richness of traditional Algerian
vernacular architecture in particular that of the Algiers
Casbah and the M’Zab valley. Pouillon was very interested
in interpreting some principles of these architectures in
achieving modern projects such as: El Mountazah Hotel in
K. Soumaya (&)
C. Salah
University of Constantine 3, Constantine, Algeria
e-mail: kersennasoumaya@yahoo.com
C. Salah
e-mail: Salahchaouche@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_35



Sustainable development M’zab The local
Annaba. All these abilities gave him the motivation to invent
new constructive systems that mingle between the gestures
of the past and those that developed in his days, with the
main purpose to promote a healthy and sustainable
environment.
Indeed, it has been noticed that the architect Pouillon was
the subject of a reference for architects and researchers due
to his admired achievements scattered throughout the terri-
tory. It is therefore necessary to reflect on his models in
order to pull beneficial and applicable lessons that can par-
ticipate in innovating new economic approaches and meth-
ods in order to ensure a sustainable environment for future
generations.
2 Materials and Methods
In this study we tried to explain the techniques and the
environmental approach assiduous by the architect in the
construction of the El Mountazah hotel in Annaba. For this
reason, our study was based on a descriptive analysis
method which was mainly oriented to the understanding of
the principle adapted by the architect for a better insertion of
the project in its context, architectural composition, materials
and constructions systems invented by the architect in order
to ensure coherence between the project and its environment.
This work has been nourished by exits on the ground, grip of
photos, the consultation of the archived graphic documents,
interviews and inquiries with the region inhabitants and
tourists.
103
104
3 Results and Discussion
The study has highlighted an architectural style that was
merged with the appearance of the new techniques and the
modern building materials. Nevertheless, despite the archi-
tect’s belonging to the modern time, he preferred to rely on
the local traditions for his inspiration in designing the El
Mountazah hotel in Annaba, therefore creating an architec-
tural style which establishes a hyphen between tradition and
modernity.
The observations, interviews carried out within several
departments but also with the hotel staff, so inquiries made
on ground, stated that the El Mountazah hotel is mostly
frequented in all seasons of the year by the inhabitants of the
city or the tourists because of its location, its architecture
which was inspired totally by the traditional architecture of
the Mozabite society, and the solutions adapted by the
architect to ensure a good cohesion between the project and
its environmental context.
Through this study, we came to concretize our primary
idea which was limited mainly in the determination of the
reasons that generated the success of Fernand Pouillon’s
architecture. These lessons will later help us to project them
into the development of new approaches and methods in
order to ensure a good future for Algerian sustainable ver-
nacular architecture while favoring a sustainable
environment.
4 Conclusion
This study allows us to understand that the choice of the
architect was not a matter of chance but conceptualized
from the start to ensure a good coherence between the
final product and the environment that would host it.
As many architects who have supported Fernand
Pouillon’s architectural style have examined his princi-
ples as very interesting models that can participate in the
progress of sustainable development approaches and
methods, they are able to face the challenges of archi-
tecture today. So it is time to emphasize the lessons we
can draw from his architecture in order to participate in
developing an environmentally friendly architecture that
K. Soumaya and C. Salah
takes into account the traditions to respond to the needs of
current events.
References
Amer AJ, Wassim J. Towards a ‘Contemporary vernacular’ high-rise
residential development in the Middle-East and North-Africa:
learning from the socio-spatial qualities of the vernacular model.
p. 12.
Benyoucef B. Le M’Zab les pratiques de l’espace. Edition: Entreprise
national du livre. Alger; 1986. p. 144.
Bonillo JL. Fernand Pouillon (architecte méditerranéenne). Edition:
Imbernon à Marseille; 2001. p. 256.
Elham H, Gurupiah M, Raja N, Bahram S. Malay vernacular
architecture: mirror of the past, lessons for the future. In: The
Proceedings of 8th SEATUC symposium 4–5 Mar 2014. OSO3:
Architecture, Urban Planning and Design; 2014. p. 6.
Hatem GAI. Regeneration of sustainability in contemporary architec-
ture: approach based on native function and activities to strengthen
identity. Elsevier; 2016. p. 10.
Kaitilla S. The role of primitive art on vernacular architecture: its
relevance on contemporary architecture in Papua New Guinea.
Elsevier; 1997. p. 11.
Lamraoui S, Boussoualim A. Les ambiances vécues dans les espaces
publics de Fernand Pouillon: une référence ambiante. Revue
d’anthropologie et de sciences sociales; 2012. p. 5.
Mayouf K, Djekidel N, Zerara R. Analyse typologique de l’habitat du
M’Zab, Travail des étudiants de l’Epau; 2009/2010.
Moniteur E. Fernand Pouillon, Edition du seuil; 1986. p. 144.
Myriam Maachi M. L’architecture de Fernand Pouillon en Algérie.
Insaniyat, revue d’anthropologie et de sciences sociales; 2008.
p. 14.
Naser H, Hossein S. How traditional ottoman houses affect contem-
porary architecture in Turkey. Sci J NAZAR Res Cent (Nrc) Art,
Archit Urbanism. 2015;12(36):14. Dec/Jan 2016.
Pouillon F. Les pierres Sauvages. Maison d’édition: Aux Editions du
Seuil, France; 1964. p. 313.
Pouillon F. Mémoire d’un Architecte. Maison d’édition: Imprimé en
France par Brodard et Taupin 6.place d’Alleray. Paris: Paris 22
avenue Pierre 1er de Serbie; 1968. p. 624.
Sayen C. L’Architecture par Fernand Pouillon. Edition: Aux Edition
Transversales-France; 2014. p. 200.
Soleymanpour R, Parsaee N, Banaei M. Climate comfort comparison of
vernacular and contemporary houses of Iran. In: Asian conference
on environment-behaviour studies, AcE-Bs2015, 20–22 Feb 2015.
Tehran, Iran: Elsevier; 2015. p. 13.
Yousef AH. Contemporary attitudes to vernacular elements in kuwait’s
domestic architecture: a mixed method study. In: A thesis submitted
to the University of Sheffield in partial fulfilment of the require-
ments for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy; 2015. p. 441.
 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Bio-drying:
An Experimental Prototype Conception

Mohamed Ali Saihi, Rami Hkiri, Mohamed Damak, Zaineb Braiek,

Mourad Ayadi, Emna Ammar, and Nabil Kechaou

Keywords
Municipal solid waste Biodrying Waste composition Solid fuel recycling (CSR)
Heating value

1 Introduction humidity, with the lowest bioconversion of organic carbon to

The MSW is the most worrying pollution source that must
be managed by innovative treatment and recycling tech-
nologies. Its valorisation is required because of environ-
mental legislation to limt its nuisance and preserve natural
resources. According to the National Agency for Waste
Management (ANGed and SWEEPNET 2014), the typology
of the municipal solid waste showed that the population
waste is an organic type with 68% of organic matter
(ANGed and SWEEPNET 2014; Elnaas et al. 2014). More
than 90% of this waste is dumped in the landfill and the
plastic is collected by informal collectors. Furthermore, the
primary energy demand is increasing rapidly, which creates
challenges to ensure the needed quantity to meet the coun-
try’s energy needs and provide a global vision of a country’s
dependence on different sources of energy.
The objective of this work was to conceive a laboratory
prototype for the treatment and recovery of the organic
fraction from MSW by an innovative bio-drying process, in
order to produce a solid fuel recycling (CSR). In this new
bio-drying technology, the exothermic reactions were recy-
cled for the evaporation of the highest part of the waste
M. A. Saihi
R. Hkiri
M. Damak
Université de Gabès—Ecole Nationale D’Ingénieurs de Gabès,
Gabès, Tunisie
Z. Braiek
E. Ammar
N. Kechaou (&)
Université de Sfax—Ecole Nationale D’Ingénieurs de Sfax,
B.P. 1173, 3038 Sfax, Tunisie
e-mail: nabil.kechaou@enis.tn
M. Ayadi
Réseau Des Ingénieurs Tunisiens—Maison de L’Ingénieur- Route
El Ain Km, 1-3000 Sfax, Tunisie
produce a dry high-calorific fraction. This is usually shred-
ded and can be used either in densified or bulk form as fuel
in industrial boilers or in furnaces such as those of cement
plants.
2 Materials and Methods
The studied waste was collected from the municipality of
Agareb (region situated at 20 km in the West of Sfax city
(Tunisia), characterized by high organic fraction and mois-
ture contents.
The conceived prototype (Fig. 1) is a bed plexiglass
reactor of internal dimensions (1 m  0.5 m  0.6 m) with
a support made of a stainless steel grid to support a capacity
of about 60 kg of solid waste.
The drying air is blown by a centrifugal fan of 0.75 kW
power, controlled by a timer allowing the automatic opera-
tion function and shutdown of the system in order to
maintain a defined air flow rate. The air flow crosses upward
the waste from the bottom, activating the biological reactions
and goes out of the biological reactor from the upper side.
Finally, the process-air is discharged into the atmosphere
after progressing through the bed. The experimental study
evaluated and compared different tests according to the air
flow rate and the stirring frequency, in order to choose the
best working conditions.
Each trial lasted approximately 10 days. After adequate
waste mixing, the reactor was fed by 45 kg of the selected
and homogenized MSW organic matter fraction, having a
density of 450 kg/m3. The airflow was set at 0.7 m3 per kg
of wet waste per hour for the first test and 0.4 m3 per kg of

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 105

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_36
106
Fig. 1 The prototype of bio-drying
Table 1 Composition of Fraction Organic Plastics
municipal solid waste from
Agareb Percentage 48 17
wet waste per hour for the second and third trials (Sugni
et al. 2005). The temperature was measured by thermometers
set inside the bed reactor, at 5 points scanning all the bed.
The ventilation was set on a working mode at a frequency
ventilation of 10 min on/20 min off. The waste was manu-
ally agitated every 2 days for the first 2 tests (tests 1 and 2)
and then every 4 days for the last test (test 3). The waste was
sampled every 2 days. The humidity rate and the organic
matter degradation were determined gravimetrically after
drying at 105 °C.
3 Results and Discussion
The MSW composition is presented in Table 1.
During the biodrying process, the temperature evolution
showed an increase in the second and third trials, and
reached 51.0 and 55.5 °C respectively in these experiments,
because of the fermentation held. Consequently, the water
content was reduced from 70 to 9.0% and 9.1 to 21.4%
(respectively for the three trials. A significant decrease in
water was noticed during the first 2 days; the water evapo-
ration rate begins to decrease from the third day and with the
low agitation frequency. The final product ‘CSR’ has the
best water content compared to that of higher agitation
(Tambone et al. 2011). The assessed calorific value of the
three trials were 17.1, 19.66 and 19, 16 MJ/kg, respectively
for the three experimented air-flow rates and agitation
frequencies.
M. A. Saihi et al.
Paper and cardboard Metal Glass Textiles Others
18 3 4 6 4
4 Conclusion
The main objective of this experimental study was to
design and to construct a pilot unit to dry and stabilize the
organic fraction of the MSW of the Agareb region, in
order to produce a solid fuel recycling (CSR) with a high
calorific value, used in boilers and industrial furnaces.
Then, a complete methodology based on the raw material
characterization, the bio-drying process technology con-
trol by monitoring the influence of the operating param-
eters and finally the evaluation of the product quality was
achieved.
References
ANGed and SWEEPNET, Rapport sur la gestion des déchets en
Tunisie, editor. GIZ; 2014. 56 p.
Elnaas A, Nassour A, Nelles M. Waste generation and disposal
methods in emerging countries. In: Thomè-Kozmiensky editors.
Book for the international recycling and recovery—CONGRESS;
2014 p. 111–120, ISBN 978-944310-15-2, 8. and 9. September
2014 in Vienna.
Sugni M, Calcaterra E, Adani F. Biostabilization-biodrying of munic-
ipal solid waste by inverting air-flow. Biores Technol. 2005;96
(12):1331–7.
Tambone F, Scaglia B, Scotti S, Adani F. Effects of biodrying process
on municipal solid waste properties. Biores Technol. 2011;102
(16):7443–50.
 Evaluation of the Inhibiting Effect of Organic
Compounds on the Adsorption of Iodine
Compounds in Cation-Exchanged Zeolites:
A DFT Study
Etienne Hessou, Hicham Jabraoui, Mouheb Chebbi, Siwar Chibani,
Laurent Cantrel, and Michael Badawi



Keywords
Adsorption DFT Zeolite
1 Introduction
During a severe accident in a Nuclear Power Plant, fission
products are released from the degraded fuel and might reach
the environment by some nuclear containment building
leakages. Volatile radioactive iodine species such as CH3I
and I2 are high radiocontaminants at short-run (Xerri et al.
2012). The main objective is to trap iodine species under
severe accident conditions, T around 100 °C and in presence
of excess of water and some gaseous contaminants: CO, NO,
Cl2, CH3Cl, benzene, 1,3-dimethylbenzene, cyclohexane,
ethanol, 2-propanol and 2-propanone (Chebbi et al. 2017;
Chibani et al. 2017). These organic compounds mainly come
from the thermal degradation of paintings and cables, fuel
fission and radiolytic reactions. Among possibilities, zeolites
are obvious candidates to be used as filtering devices thanks
to their high sorption capacities, high specific areas and
radiation/heat resistance (Chebbi et al. 2017; Chibani et al.
2017; Chibani et al. 2016). In this study, the potential use of
some cation-exchanged faujasite (H+, alkaline cations, Cu+,
Ag+,…) as selective adsorbent for iodine species in relevant
conditions of nuclear severe accident was investigated with
E. Hessou
H. Jabraoui
M. Chebbi
S. Chibani
M. Badawi (&)
Laboratoire de Chimie et Physique: Approche Multi-échelle Des
Milieux Complexes (LCP-A2MC) Institut Jean Barriol FR2843
CNRS, Université de Lorraine, 57500 Saint-Avold, France
e-mail: michael.badawi@univ-lorraine.fr
E. Hessou
Laboratoire de Chimie Théorique et de Spectroscopie Moléculaire
(LACTHESMO), Université D’Abomey-Calavi, Abomey-Calavi,
Bénin
L. Cantrel
Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire (IRSN),
PSN-RES, 13115 Saint-Paul Lez Durance, France
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_37





Inhibiting effect I2 ICH3 Dispersion forces
dispersion-corrected Density Functional Theory (DFT) for
faujasite (FAU) structure.
2 Materials and Methods
All calculations have been performed with the Vienna Ab
initio Simulation Package (VASP) based on the
density-functional theory (DFT) (Kresse et al. 1999). The
Projector-Augmented Wave approximation (PAW) Perdew
et al. (1996) was used to describe electron–ion interactions.
The exchange-correlation energy was determined using the
Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof (PBE) functional Bučko et al.
(2013). The calculations were performed at the C-point with
a cut-off energy of 450 eV. Van der Waals (vdW) interac-
tions, which are not treated by the PBE functional, have been
taken into account using the Tkatchenko-Scheffler scheme
with iterative Hirshfeld partitioning TS/HI as implemented
in VASP by Bučko et al. (2013). This method has been
shown to accurately describe interactions between small
molecules with zeolites Chebbi et al. (2017), Chibani et al.
(2017, 2016).
In the present study, a primitive rhomboedral cell of
faujasite has been used to minimize the artifacts due to
undesired interactions between periodically repeated images
of adsorbent molecules (Fig. 1). Following previous works
Chebbi et al. (2017), our supercell contains 144 atoms
(48 T atoms (Si or Al) and 96 O) and is defined by the lattice
parameters: a = b = c = 17,3432 Å and a = b = c = 60°. In
this work, we considered all the structures created upon a
single Si substitution by Al (i.e. the Si/Al ratio is set to 47).
For this ratio, only site II located at the opening of the
sodalite cage towards the supercage was occupied by
extra-framework cations.
107
108 E. Hessou et al.

The results of the theoretical screening concerning the

Fig. 1 Adsorption of I2 onto Ag-FAU
The adsorption complexes were obtained by geometry
optimization leading to an estimate of the internal energy of
adsorption. Adsorption energies of X molecules over
cation-exchanged FAU have been calculated using the fol-
lowing formula:
DEads ¼ EZEOX EZEO  EX
– EZEO: the energy of the clean zeolite;
– EX: the energy of the isolated molecule in gaseous phase;
– EZEO-X: the energy of zeolite with adsorbed molecules.
3 Results and Discussion
Our computed adsorption energies do agree with the
experimental data available in the literature Cicmanec et al.
(2013), Nachtigall et al. (2012), Whiting et al. (2013) as
shown in Table 1, validating our methological approach.
interaction of the molecules under consideration with the
faujasites exchanged with the monovalent cations are
reported in Fig. 2. Except CO and NO which have specific
interactions (retrodonation of p orbitals), the results are
compatible with the HSAB theory (Hard Soft Acid Base):
the hard cations (H+, Li+, Na+) interact strongly with the
hard compounds (water) while the soft cations (Cs+, Cu+,
Ag+) have a high affinity with iodine compounds which are
soft. Thus, the H+, Li+, Na+, K+ cations are not relevant for
the intended application because of favorable adsorption of
water to the detriment of the iodine species (I2 and CH3I).
For the most bulky cations of the alkaline series, namely Rb+
and Cs+, the iodine species are more strongly adsorbed than
water (Fig. 2). This inversion of order in the adsorption
energies with respect to the other cations of the series (H+,
Li+, Na+ and K+) can be explained by a gradual decrease in
the cation hardness from H+ to Cs+. Thus, Rb+ and Cs+
cations could be interesting because they have similar
adsorption energies for iodine species and water. Moreover,
these two cations present the lowest adsorption energies for
CO and NO among all the cations considered in the present
study. However, their strong affinities for Cl2 constitute a
major drawback. Moreover, the adsorption energies of the
iodine compounds obtained for these cations are rather low
ð1Þ (around −50 kJ/mol), which seems to be below the perfor-
mances required to ensure a durable and stable trapping with
respect to this nuclear safety application.
Over the Cu+ and Ag+ metal cations, iodine species
(showing a similar behavior) are more strongly adsorbed
than water with a significant difference of 40–50 kJ/mol
(Fig. 2). This better selectivity towards iodine molecules can
be explained by the strongly soft character of the silver and
copper cations. These cations are also selective for CH3Cl
and Cl2. On the other hand, the CO and NO molecules are
strongly adsorbed, which was not the case for the alkalines.
In the case of Cu-FAU, the adsorption energies of CO and
NO are much higher than those of the iodine compounds,
which eliminates this cation for the application.

Table 1 Comparison of some adsorption energies calculated by DFT to few adsorption enthalpies determined by experimental methods over
faujasite
Cation/molecule DE at 0 K (kJ/mol) DrHads litterature (kJ/mol) Operating conditions method References
Li/CO −27.4 −27.5 Calorimetry T = 173 K, Si/Al = 2.6 Cicmanec et al. (2013)
Na/CO −31.1 −27 VTIR, T = 207-264 K, Si/Al = 2.4 Nachtigall et al. (2012)
Na/H2O −62.0 −67 Calorimetry, T = 293 K Si/Al = 2.5 Whiting et al. (2013)
Evaluation of the Inhibiting Effect of Organic …
Fig. 2. Calculated adsorption energies of CH3I, I2, H2O, CO, NO and Cl2 on cation (H+, Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, Cu+, Ag+)-exchanged faujasite
zeolites
4 Conclusion
To conclude, the incorporation of Ag+ cations in zeolites
with faujasite is the most likely to limit the potential
inhibitory effects of the molecules present in the con-
finement atmosphere on the adsorption of iodine species.
However, CO has an adsorption energy similar to those
of iodine compounds over Ag-FAU. Decreasing the Si/Al
ratio in silver exchanged mordenite drastically limits the
potential inhibiting effect of H2O and CO on the
adsorption of I2 and CH3I, and allows a spontaneous
dissociation of I2 leading to the formation of AgI com-
plexes Chibani et al. (2016). The influence of other
organic compounds (benzene and various alcohols) is
currently under investigation.
Acknowledgements This work has been supported by the French
State under the program “Investissements d’Avenir MiRE” managed by
the ANR under grant agreement ANR-11-RSNR-0013-01. We thank
the GENCI-CCRT/CINES (Grants No. 2017-085106 and
No. 2017-A0010810169) for providing us with the HPC resources.
109
References
Bučko T, Lebègue S, Hafner J, Ángyán JG. J Chem Theory Comput.
2013;9:4293.
Chebbi M, Chibani S, Paul J-F, Cantrel L, Badawi M. Micro Mesopor
Mater. 2017;239:111.
Chibani S, Chebbi M, Lebègue S, Bučko T, Badawi M. J Chem Phys.
2016a;144:244705.
Chibani S, Chebbi M, Lebègue S, Cantrel L, Badawi M, Phys Chem
Chem Phys. 2016;18:25574–81.
Chibani S, Medlej I, Lebègue S, Ángyán JG, Cantrel L, Badawi M.
ChemPhysChem. 2017;18:1642–52.
Cicmanec P, Bulanek P, Frydova E. Adsorption. 2013;19:381–9.
Kresse G, Joubert J. Phys Rev B. 1999;59:1758.
Nachtigall P, Delgado MR, Nachtigallova D, Arean CO. Phys Chem
Chem Phys. 2012;14:1552–69.
Perdew JP, Burke K, Ernzerhof M. Phys Rev Lett. 1996;77:3865.
Whiting G, Grondin D, Bennici S, Auroux A. Sol Energy Mater Sol
Cells. 2013;112:112–9.
Xerri B, Canneaux S, Louis F, Trincal J, Cousin F, Badawi M,
Cantrel L. Comput Theor Chem. 2012;990:194.
 A Laboratory Investigation of the Hydraulic
Performance of String-Wound Filters

Giacomo Viccione and Stefania Evangelista

Keywords
Water filtration String wound filter Hydraulic performance Laboratory investigation

1 Introduction means of piezometric gauges, in different sections of the

This work focused on the effects, in terms of head losses, of
the introduction in hydraulic systems of cylindrical
string-wound filter cartridges Kanade et al. (2016). When
filters are installed in domestic water networks characterized
by low hydraulic heads, the resulting pressure levels can fall
below the recommended minimum limit to ensure the proper
functioning of water supplied domestic appliances.
Common water filtration and purification systems, bought
by consumers and used in the domestic context, can be
grouped in two main categories: based on mechanical fil-
tration, i.e. used to separate liquids from suspended particles;
based on liquid treatment, adopted for biological, chemical
and/or physical treatment, e.g. filters made of activated
carbon. Filters are defined on the basis of porosity, i.e. the
percentage of voids per unit volume of material, distribution
and size of pores, nominal and absolute retaining ratings,
pressure drop curve DP(Q) as function of liquid features and
flow rate. Different procedures to test the hydraulic perfor-
mance of filters, i.e. the definition of DP(Q), are available in
literature (see e.g. ASTM 1988).
In this work a laboratory investigation, carried out in a
hydraulic circuit located at the Environmental and Maritime
Hydraulics Laboratory (LIDAM) of University of Salerno,
Italy, was presented. The pressures were measured, by
G. Viccione (&)
Dipartimento Di Ingegneria Civile, Università Degli Studi Di
Salerno, Fisciano, Italy
e-mail: gviccion@unisa.it
S. Evangelista
Dipartimento Di Ingegneria Civile E Meccanica, Università Di
Cassino E Del Lazio Meridionale, Cassino, Italy
e-mail: s.evangelista@unicas.it
network. Three different flow rates were considered and also
artificially dirty conditions of the filters were analysed.
2 Materials and Methods
String-wound filter cartridges are intended for mechanical
filtration. Removal of impurities is achieved by particle
deposition in the matrix. Made of textile fabric string of inert
polypropylene, polyester or absorbent cotton wound up over
a support core on non-toxic material Omar (2001), they are
capable of removing particles in the range 0.2–350 lm. In
the present investigation, polypropylene filters with the fol-
lowing properties were used: 149 g of weight, 250 mm of
height (H), 61 mm of external diameter (D), 28 mm of
internal diameter, able to filter particles up to 50 lm of size.
The hydraulic circuit described in Viccione and Evan-
gelista (2017) was adopted in the present investigation.
Basically it consists of a polyethylene tank with a
300 l-storage volume, a pump, model 40–70/130, made by
Evosta, with a flow rate ranging between 0.4 and 3.3 m3/h, a
water meter made by B Meters S.r.l., a housing element with
interchangeable filter cartridges, a galvanized steel pipe with
diameter u¾”, a pipe in multi-layer material with diameter
u16, a pipe in multi-layer material with diameter u20. The
last two pipes are linked in parallel and used one at a time to
simulate a typical domestic water network. The pressure
drop over the filter is measured by the differential pressure
gauge made by the Digitron Engineering B.V., model
2082P.
Filters cartridges are made artificially dirty by laying sand
and gravels over the filter surface, as next specified.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 111

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_38
112
Fig. 1 Pressure drop trends Dp obtained by clogging filters by a fine gravels, b fine sand
3 Results and Discussion
The pressure drop trend Dp as function of the flow rate and
clogging degree of the filters was here presented. Two
clogging configurations were considered, made by fine
gravels and by fine sand, respectively.
– Clogging by fine gravels.
Pseudo-spherical gravels with size of 8 mm were con-
sidered, as they best fit the empty spaces among adjacent
strings. Single particles were placed manually by pushing
them up to a stable position. The clogging rate was, then,
defined as:
Rg
l¼ ½%ð\100%Þ;
Rtot
where Rg is the total surface of gravels evaluated perpen-
dicularly to the flow direction and Rtot = p D H = 0.048 m2
is the total area available to the flux. The pressure drop was
then correlated to l as sketched in Fig. 1a.
– Clogging by fine sand.
Fine sand with size of 0.2 mm was glued to the filter
surface using common honey. The filter was made artifi-
cially dirty by laying a uniform layer of sand with weight ps,
hence reproducing a severe clogging. Once a sample was
prepared, it was put in the filter housing, then a flow rate was
recirculated to make the filter clean. The honey was found
completely dissolved in water after running the system for
about 10 min. Most of the sand held in position thank to the
water pressure acting on the filter surface with percentages
of deposition to the filter bottom comprises between 0 and
G. Viccione and S. Evangelista
25%. After carefully removing the filter, the weight of the
residual layer of sand pr,s was finally measured and used in
correlation with the pressure drop Dp as sketched in Fig. 1b.
In both cases, pressure drop Dp increased with the degree
of abstraction, as expected. In the case of clogging made by
fine gravels, related trends are convex downward for mini-
mum and intermediate flow rates. The less than linear trend
is due to the capacity of the filter to adapt as the liquid keeps
flowing through available empty spaces without any sub-
stantial increase of energy loss. In the case of clogging made
by fine sand, instead, related trends are convex upward. In
this case, the more than linear trend is due to a uniform
thickness of permeable material which leaves no space for
preferential pathflows.
Final Remarks
A laboratory investigation was carried out to assess the
hydraulic performance of string-wound filters, artificially
clogged by laying fine gravels or fine sand over the per-
meable surface interested to the flux. Pressure drops were
measured and discussed in terms of obstruction degree.
References
ASTM F 795–88. Standard practice for determining the performance of
a filter medium employing a single-pass, constant rate, liquid test;
1988.
Kanade PS, Bhattacharya SS, A guide to filtration with string wound
cartridges. 1st ed. ISBN: 9780128048474; 2016.
Omar H, Advances in string-wound sediment filter cartridges. Water
Cond Purific 2001; 34–36.
Viccione G, Evangelista S. Head losses induced by filtration cartridges
in drinking water networks. In: 15th International Conference on
Environmental Science and Technology (CEST), Rhodes, Greece,
paper ID: CEST2017_00576; 2017.
 Soil Thermal Properties: Effects of Density,
Moisture, Salt Concentration and Organic
Matter

Abdeen Omer

Keywords
Renewable energy technology Ground source heat pump Built environment
Sustainable development Environment

intermediate temperature (<150 °C) for direct-use applica-

1 Introduction
Passive measures, particularly natural or hybrid ventilation
rather than air-conditioning, can dramatically reduce primary
energy consumption. Therefore, promoting innovative
renewable energy applications, including the ground source
energy, may contribute to the preservation of the ecosystem
by reducing emissions at local and global levels. This will
also contribute to the amelioration of environmental condi-
tions by replacing conventional fuels with renewable ener-
gies that produce no air pollution or the greenhouse gases
(GHGs). An approach is needed to integrate renewable
energies in a way to achieve high building performance
standards. However, because renewable energy sources are
stochastic and geographically diffuse, their ability to match
demand is determined by the adoption of one of the fol-
lowing two approaches: the utilisation of a capture area
greater than that occupied by the community to be supplied,
or the reduction of the community’s energy demands to a
level which is commensurate with the locally available
renewable resources. Ground source heat pump (GSHP)
systems (also referred to as geothermal heat pump systems,
earth-energy systems and GeoExchange systems) have
received considerable attention in recent decades as an
alternative energy source for residential and commercial
space heating and cooling applications. The GSHP appli-
cations are one of three categories of geothermal energy
resources as defined by ASHRAE and include
high-temperature (>150 °C) for electric power production,
A. Omer (&)
Energy Research Institute (ERI), Nottingham, UK
e-mail: abdeenomer2@yahoo.co.uk
tions and GSHP applications (generally (<32 °C) Cote and
Konrad (2005). The GSHP applications are distinguished
from the others by the fact that they operate at relatively low
temperatures.
2 Materials and Methods
This study is an introduction to the energy problem and the
possible saving that can be achieved through improving
building performance and the use of ground energy sources.
The relevance and importance of the study is discussed in
the communication, which also highlights the objectives of
the study and the scope of the theme.
3 Results and Discussion
Efficiencies of the GSHP systems are much greater than
conventional air-source heat pump systems. A higher COP
(coefficient of performance) can be achieved by a GSHP
because the source/sink earth temperature is relatively con-
stant compared to air temperatures. Additionally, heat is
absorbed and rejected through water, which is a more
desirable heat transfer medium because of its relatively high
heat capacity. The GSHP systems rely on the fact that, under
normal geothermal gradients of about 0.5 °F/100 ft
(30 °C/km), the earth temperature is roughly constant in a
zone extending from about 20 ft (6.1 m) deep to about 150 ft
(45.7 m) deep. This constant temperature interval within the
earth is the result of a complex interaction of heat fluxes from
above (the sun and the atmosphere) and from below (the
earth interior). As a result, the temperature of this interval

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 113

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_39
114
within the earth is approximately equal to the average annual
air temperature Omer (2008). Above this zone (less than
about 20 ft (6.1 m) deep), the earth temperature is a damped
version of the air temperature at the earth’s surface Chehaba
and Moore (2010). Below this zone [greater than about
150 ft (45.7 m) deep], the earth temperature begins to rise
according to the natural geothermal gradient.
The temperature difference between the ground and the
fluid in the ground heat exchanger drives the heat transfer; so
it is important to determine the ground temperature. At
depths of less than 2 m, the ground temperature will show (1) The thermal conductivity of sand-bentonite mixtures
marked seasonal variation above and below the annual
average air temperature. As the depth increases, the seasonal
swing in temperature is reduced and the maximum and
minimum soil temperatures begin to lag the temperature at
the surface. At a depth of about 1.5 m, the time lag is
approximately one month. Below 10 m the ground temper-
ature remains effectively constant at approximately the
annual average air temperature (i.e., between 10 and 14 °C
in the UK depending on local geology and soil conditions).
The annual variation in ground temperatures at a depth of
1.7 m compared to the daily average air temperature mea- (2) For the BHE with an optimal sand-bentonite backfill
sured at the site. It also shows the ground temperature at a
depth of 75 m Qi et al. (2010).
In order to determine the length of heat exchanger needed
to meet a given load the thermal properties of the ground
will be needed. The most important difference is between
soil and rock as rocks have significantly higher values for
thermal conductivity. The moisture content of the soil also
has a significant effect as dry loose soil traps air and has a
lower thermal conductivity than moist packed soil. References
Low-conductivity soil may require as much as 50% more
collector loop than highly conductive soil. Water movement Chehaba G, Moore D. Parametric study examining the short and long
across a particular site will also have a significant impact on
heat transfer through the ground and can result in a smaller
ground heat exchanger.
4 Conclusion
In the present work, the effects of sand-bentonite backfill
materials on the thermal performance of the BHEs were
analysed quantitatively. Laboratory thermal probe tests
A. Omer
were conducted to measure the thermal conductivity of
sand-bentonite mixtures under different mixed ratios. The
mechanism of bentonite affecting heat conduction
between the sand grains was revealed from the point of
view of microscopic observations. Further, field tests
were carried out to compare the thermal performance of
two double U-shaped BHEs with different backfill
materials. From the experimental results discussed above,
the following conclusions can be obtained:
first increases with increasing percentage of bentonite by
dry mass, then reaches a peak at the range from 10 to
12%, beyond which the thermal conductivity decreases
quickly. That is to say, for sand-bentonite mixtures used
as a backfill material of geothermal boreholes, there
exists an optimal percentage of bentonite by dry mass,
i.e., 10–12%. If the requirements on the thermal per-
formance of the BHEs are not very strict, an extended
range of 8-12% is also acceptable. This extends the
results recommended by ASHRAE.
material, the heat injection and heat extraction rate can
be enhanced on average by 31.1 and 22.2%, respec-
tively, compared with the case with a common sand-clay
material. The present results can provide helpful guides
for the design of the GSHP systems.
term response of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipes when
installed by horizontal directional drilling. Tunn Undergr Space
Technol. 2010;25(6):782–94.
Cote J, Konrad J. A generalized thermal conductivity model for soils
and construction materials. Can Geotech J. 2005;42(2):443–58.
Omer A. ground source heat pump systems and applications. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev. 2008;12(2):344–71.
Qi C, Wang H, Wang E. experimental comparison on the performance
of geothermal heat exchangers under different backfilled materials.
J Heating Vent Air Conditioning. 2010;40(3):79–82.
 Decolourization of Real Textile Wastewater
by the Combination of Photocatalytic
and Biological Oxidation Processes

Teklit Gebregiorgis, Eric D. van Hullebusch, and Kiros Hagos

Keywords

Photocatalytic degradation Wastewater treatment Ultra violet light Textile industry
Titanium dioxide Hydrogen peroxide

Chemical-Biological oxidation reaction in order to evaluate

1 Introduction the feasibility of this process at industrial scale.

The removal of colour from wastewater is often more

important than the removal of the soluble colourless organic
substances, which usually contribute to the major fraction of
the biochemical oxygen demand (Khan et al. 2016). To
reduce the release of dyes into rivers, these have to be
removed from wastewaters in order to maintain the river
ecosystem healthy. For this purpose, many researchers used
different physico-chemical and biological methods like
coagulation, flocculation, biodegradation, adsorption,
ion-exchange and advanced oxidations which are among the
most commonly used techniques (Byrappa et al. 2006).
Hence the main objective of this study was to apply a
combined chemical and biological treatment of real
wastewater from the Ethiopian textile industry. COD:
Chemical Oxygen Demand, BOD: Biological Oxygen
Demand, TSS: Total Suspended Solid, TDS: Total Dis-
solved Substance, Colour and pH analyses were carried out
on the real textile wastewater before and after
2 Materials and Methods
For the present study, we used a batch reactor of 200 ml
capacity made-up of borosilicate glass having 8.5 cm
5.5 cm (height  diameter) dimensions with ports at the
top for sampling. The UV energy lamp selected for this
study was 5.0 cm long with a UV output of 11 W. 5 g of
analytical grade titanium dioxide powder (Degussa) and
2.6 ml of 30% Aqueous Solution of Hydrogen peroxide
were used. After AOP treatment, wastewater samples were
biodegraded by incubating bacterial cultures of Providencia
rettgeri HSL1 in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask containing
100 ml of nutrient broth having composition (g/l) of sodium
chloride 5.0, and 1.5, yeast extract (10% (v/v) aliquots for
24 h to remove biodegradable COD (Fig. 1; Table 1).
3 Results and Discussion

The decolourization of real textile industry wastewater using

T. Gebregiorgis (&)
E. D. van Hullebusch
IHE Delft Institute for Water Education, P.O. Box 3015,
2601 DA Delft, The Netherlands
e-mail: amaby1@un-ihe.org
T. Gebregiorgis
Department of Chemistry, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia
K. Hagos
Mizan-Tepi University, Mizan-Aman 260, Tepi, Ethiopia
AOP-biological treatment decreases the COD effluent of
90.4%. The result indicated that treated wastewater firstly
using AOP tends to completely mineralized Azo Dye for
COD removal, and generates biodegradable COD. This
result is in agreement with Devassy et al. (2009) who stated
that AOP is a powerful treatment for toxic pollutants such as
the azo dyes in textile wastewater. The addition of hydrogen
peroxide accelerates the decomposition of pollutants and
enhances the production of hydroxyl radicals to oxidize a
large spectrum of contaminants in wastewater.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 115

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_40
116 T. Gebregiorgis et al.

Fig. 1 Decolourization process

Table 1 Characteristics of real textile effluent before and after its treatment
Parameters Real effluent After treated with AOP & Biological National Environmental Quality
characteristics method Standarads (NEQS) of Textile
Effluent
pH 8.1 ± 0.1 7.1 ± 0.2 7
COD(mg/l) 1250.52 ± 0.05 120.37 ± 0.05 150
BOD(mg/l) 250.45 ± 0.05 70.32 ± 0.05 80
Total Suspended Solids 1150.5 ± 0.2 114.97 ± 0.03 150
(mg/l)
TDS (mg/l) 3000.21 ± 0.02 2900.21 ± 0.02 3500
Colour (PCU) 75.00 ± 0.03 5.00 ± 0.05 7

Fig. 2 Overall mechanism of the

photocatalytic degradation of
organic dye compounds using
TiO2-based nanomaterial
(Adapted from Lai, C. W., et al.
2014)

The principle behind the Photocatalysis involves the The overall mechanism of enhanced photo Decolorization
photoexcitation of the titanium oxides with light energy of real textile industrial wastewater using catalysis H2 O2
(Fig. 2).
TiO2 þ hv ðenergy [ 3:2evÞ ! e þ h þ ð4Þ

TiO2 þ UV ! TiO2 ðe þ h þ Þ ð1Þ e þ O2 ðadsÞ ! O

2 ðadsÞ ð5Þ

TiO2 ðe Þ þ H2 O2 ! TiO2 þ OH  þ OH ð2Þ h þ þ OHðsÞ ! OHðsÞ ð6Þ

TiO2 ðh þ Þ þ OH ! TiO2 þ OH ð3Þ OH  þ dye ! degradation ð7Þ

Decolourization of Real Textile Wastewater …
Based upon the coupling method, it is concluded that the
wastewater from real textile industry resulted in the break-
down of double bond such as C = C and N = N from
non-biodegradable azo dye into readily biodegradable
by-products.
4 Conclusion
In this study, the characteristic of COD and colour
removal of azo dye by AOP and biological treatment was
evaluated. The results indicated that the combination of
photocatalytic and biological approach showed a
promising potential for the removal of colour from real
textile industrial wastewater.
5 Future Directions
Sequential chemical and biological treatment for dye
degradation products and evaluation of the efficiency of this
combinatorial approach over chemical and biological
methods should be performed independently.
117
Identification of intermediate compounds obtained in the
above-explained processes using various instrumental ana-
lyzers and determination of the mechanistic pathway of
degradation should be considered.
References
Anuradha S, Karunya A, Ananth PB, Swetha S, Valli Nachiyar C.
Kinetics of Acid Black 24 Biodegradation. J Pure Appl Microbiol.
2014;8(3), 2409–15.
Byrappa K, Ubramani AK, Ananda S, Lokanatha RK, Dinesh R,
Yoshimura M. Photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine B dye
using hydrothermally synthesized ZnO. Springer Bulletin Mater
Sci. 2006;29(5):433–8.
Devassy B, Goyal D, Khanna S. Decolorization of textile azo dyes by
aerobic bacterial consortium. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation.
2009;63(4):462–9.
Khan W, Najeeb I, Ishtiaque S. Photocatalytic Degradation of a Real
Textile Wastewater using Titanium Dioxide, Zinc Oxide and
Hydrogen Peroxide. Int J Eng Sci. 2016;5(7):61–70.
Lai CW, Juan JC, Ko WB, Bee S, Hamid A. An overview recent
development of titanium oxide nanotubes as photocatalyst for dye
degradation. Int J Photoenergy. 2014;14:1–14.
 Efficient Removal of Methylene Blue
from Aqueous Solutions Using Olive Stone
and Rye Straw as Abundant Adsorbents

Sana Dardouri, Asma Jedidi, and Jalila Sghaier

Keywords
Methylene blue Adsorption Olive stone Rye straw Modelling

surfaces cells and penetrate in the cells (Zhou et al. 2014).

1 Introduction
Many adsorbents have been used for MB removal from
aqueous solutions such as activated carbon (Ghaedi et al.
The discharged wastewater of textile industry, which con-
2014), Clay (Cottet et al. 2014), zeolite (Li et al. 2015),
tains persistent organic dyes, is one of the main causes of
sludge (Zaini et al. 2013), almond gum (Bouaziz et al. 2015),
water contamination. During dying and printing in textile
Cashew nut shell (Subramaniam and Ponnusamy 2015),
industry, a major fraction of dye disappears in water which
olive pomace (Banat et al. 2007), almond peel (Benaissa
makes the discharge colored. The main environmental
2010), sawdust (Ahmad et al. 2009). Olive stones, agricul-
problem in the textile industry is the treatment of liquid
tural solid waste of the oleic industry are abundant in large
waste and their chemical loads. These dyes rejected by the
quantities in olive oil producing countries like Tunisia,
industry represent a threat to the environment because of its
where there are more than 60 million olive trees (Hannachi
low biodegradation and its high resistivity to classic purifi-
et al. 2007). Also, the rye straw (RS) is an agricultural waste
cation treatment (Ramade 2000). The methylene blue
material which represents an abundant forestry residue and a
(MB) is one of the most popular dyes used in textile
low cost adsorbent. It can be used for removing pollutants
industries and in coloring of paper, wools, cotton, silk, etc.
from wastewater. In this work, adsorption/desorption of MB
(Kumar et al. 2005). It was also found in medical applica-
on olive stone (OS) and rye straw (RS) in a fixed bed column
tions. It has an antiseptic propriety against bacterial infection
were investigated with the objective to (i) evaluate the
and is used as an antidote for cyanide poisoning (Manoj
adsorption capacity of adsorbents,(ii) predict breakthrough
Kumar Reddy 2013). Beyond its medical applications, the
curves models and (iii) evaluate the removal efficiency of
presence of MB in water threatens human health in various
both adsorbents.
ways. Because of its high water solubility, this dye can move
through rivers and affect the quality of water. MB as a
cationic dye can readily interact with negatively charged
2 Materials and Methods

As low adsorbents, both materials have been used in the

removal of MB from aqueous solutions: olive stone and rye
straw. These wastes were collected from the region of
S. Dardouri (&)
A. Jedidi
J. Sghaier
Unité de Recherche Thermique et Thermodynamique de Procédés Sousse, Tunisia. They were used directly for adsorption
Industriels, Ecole Nationale D’ingénieurs Monastir, 5019 experiments without any treatment; they were just dried in
Monastir, Tunisie air and crushed to a fine powder.
e-mail: sanadardouri_en@yahoo.fr
The methylene blue used as adsorbate (basic blue 9, CI
A. Jedidi 52015) is a cationic dye with a molecular formula
e-mail: jed-asma@hotmail.fr
C16H18CIN3S.3H2O and a molar mass of 373.9 gmol−1.
J. Sghaier The wavelength of maximum absorbance for MB is 663 nm.
e-mail: jalila.sghaier@enim.rnu.tn

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 119

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_41
120 S. Dardouri et al.

The adsorption experiments were conducted using a glass data. The analysis of breakthrough curves was performed
column with an internal diameter of 3.25 cm and a height of using both of these modes, viz., Thomas and modified-dose
25 cm. The column was packed with the materials—bed response models.
length of 5 cm. The MB solution with inlet concentration of
100 mgL−1 was pumped at the top of the column using • Thomas model:
peristaltic pump (ROTH CYCLO I) at constant volumetric
flow rate of 4 ml/min. Samples were collected and were Ct 1
¼

analyzed by spectrophotometer UV-visible (HACH LANGE C0 1 þ exp ðq0 m  C0 #tÞ k#th
DR3900).

Where kth is Thomas rate constant (mL min-1 mg−1), q0 is

3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Breakthrough Curves and Mass Transfer
Zone Analysis
As shown in the obtained breakthrough curves (Fig. 1), the
breakthrough time increases in order RS < OS. It was
observed that the breakthrough time of MB in OS was
108 min. However, compared with that in RS, the break-
through time was 33 min. These results proved that the
adsorption capacity of MB in OS was significantly important
and indicated that the mass transfer coefficient decreased
from OS to RS.
3.2 The Breakthrough Curves Modeling
To better describe the fixed bed column and predict the MB
breakthrough many models were used to fit the experimental
equilibrium adsorption capacity (mgg−1), m is the mass of the
adsorbent, C0 and Ct are the MB concentration in the influent
and at time t (mgL−1) and t is the flow rate (mL min−1).
• Modified-dose response model:
Ct 1
¼1
C0 1 þ ðtt=bÞa
Where a and b are both the constant of the modified—
dose response model.
The modified dose-response model was also used to fit
the experimental data and the parameters of this model are
also shown in Table 1. The values of R2 from modified
dose-response were larger than those of Thomas model.
Comparing the fitted curves (Fig. 2) and those used models
under similar conditions, the fitted curves from the modified
dose-response model are closer to experimental curves.

Table 1 Predicted parameters for Thomas and Modified-dose

response models for MB adsorption on os and RS materials
Models Adsorbents
OS RS
Thomas
Kth * 104(Lmin−1mg−1) 0.358 0.742
q0 (mgg−1) 140.55 218.73
R2 0.944 0.879
Modified dose response
a 1.46 0.86
b 61.98 15.41
R 2
0.975 0.972

Fig. 1 Breakthrough curves representing MB adsorption onto rye

straw and olive stone
Efficient Removal of Methylene Blue from Aqueous Solutions …
Fig. 2 Experimental and predicted breakthrough curves for MB removal based on a Thomas model and b Modified-dose response model
4 Conclusion
Adsorption of MB in both adsorbents, OS and RS were
studied in this work in continuous fixed bed column, and
the breakthrough curves and the adsorption parameters
were determined. The adsorption capacity was at the
order RS < OS. Also, the RS has the largest mass transfer
efficiency due to its high permeability and faster infil-
tration kinetic. The modified dose-response and Thomas
models were used to predict the breakthrough curves
obtained from the experimental data. Both used models
can be applied in the first part of the breakthrough curves,
but Modified dose-response is a more suitable model.
References
Ahmad A, Rafatullah M, Sulaiman O, Ibrahim MH, Hashim R.
Scavenging behaviour of meranti sawdust in the removal of
methylene blue from aqueous solution. J Hazard Mater. 2009;170
(1):357–65.
Banat F, Al-Asheh S, Al-Ahmad R, Bni-Khalid F. Bench-scale and
packed bed sorption of methylene blue using treated olive pomace
and charcoal. Biores Technol. 2007;98(16):3017–25.
Benaissa H. Influence of ionic strength on Methylene Blue removal by
sorption from synthetic aqueous solution using almond peel as a
sorbent material: experimental and modelling studies. J Taibah Univ
Sci. 2010;4:31–8.
Bouaziz F, Koubaa M, Kallel F, Chaari F, Driss D, Ghorbel RE,
Chaabouni SE. Efficiency of almond gum as a low-cost adsorbent
for methylene blue dye removal from aqueous solutions. Ind Crops
Prod. 2015;74:903–11.
121
Cottet L, Almeida CAP, Naidek N, Viante MF, Lopes MC,
Debacher NA. Adsorption characteristics of montmorillonite clay
modified with iron oxide with respect to methylene blue in aqueous
media. Appl Clay Sci. 2014;95:25–31.
Ghaedi M, Nasab AG, Khodadoust S, Rajabi M, Azizian S. Application
of activated carbon as adsorbents for efficient removal of methylene
blue: kinetics and equilibrium study. J Ind Eng Chem. 2014;20
(4):2317–24.
Hannachi H, Msallem M, Elhadj SB, El Gazzah M. Influence du site
géographique sur les potentialités agronomiques et technologiques
de l’olivier (Olea europaea L.) en Tunisie. Comptes Rendus
Biologies. 2007;330(2):135–42.
Kumar KV, Ramamurthi V, Sivanesan S. Modeling the mechanism
involved during the sorption of methylene blue onto fly ash.
J Colloid Interface Sci. 2005;284(1):14–21.
Li C, Zhong H, Wang S, Xue J, Zhang Z. Removal of basic dye (methylene
blue) from aqueous solution using zeolite synthesized from electrolytic
manganese residue. J Ind Eng Chem. 2015;23:344–52.
Manoj Kumar Reddy P, Mahammadunnisa S, Ramaraju B, Sreedhar B,
Subrahmanyam C. Low-cost adsorbents from bio-waste for the
removal of dyes from aqueous solution. Environ Sci Pol Res.
2013;20:4111–24.
Ramade F. Dictionnaire encyclopédique des popullations: les polluants:
de l’environnement à l’homme. Ediscience international. 2000
Subramaniam R, Ponnusamy SK. Novel adsorbent from agricultural
waste (cashew NUT shell) for methylene blue dye removal:
optimization by response surface methodology. Water Resour Ind.
2015;11:64–70.
Zaini MAA, Zakaria M, Setapar SM, Che-Yunus MA.
Sludge-adsorbents from palm oil mill effluent for methylene blue
removal. J Environ Chem Eng. 2013;1(4):1091–8.
Zhou C, Wu Q, Lei T, Negulescu II. Adsorption kinetic and
equilibrium studies for methylene blue dye by partially hydrolyzed
polyacrylamide/cellulose nanocrystal nanocomposite hydrogels.
Chem Eng J. 2014;251:17–24.
 Thermomechanical Properties of Plastic
Films Based on Cassava Starch Reinforced
with Kaolin and Metakaolin

Namory Meite, Léon Koffi Konan, Drissa Bamba,

Bi Irié Hervé Goure-Doubi, and Samuel Oyetola

Keywords
Kaolin Metakaolin Bioplastics Biodegradable Young’s modulus

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

The production and use of petrochemical plastics was always
followed by negative environmental impacts because plastic
wastes are non-biodegradable. The emergence of concepts
such as sustainable development and green chemistry has led
to the development of biodegradable polymers. The intro-
duction of mineral fillers made it possible to improve the
mechanical properties without interfering with the
biodegradability of the composites (Chen 2005). The aim of
this work was to improve thermomechanical properties of
plastic films based on cassava starch reinforced with kaolin
and metakaolin obtained after heat treatment of kaolin at
700 °C for 1 h.
2.1 Materials
The cassava starch used was extracted from the cassava
variety Boucou 2 from a cultivar of Yamoussoukro. (Ivory
Coast center).
The mineral filler was a kaolin purchased from the
company DAMREC (France) its chemical and mineralogical
compositions are given in Table 1. Metakaolin was obtained
after heat treatment at 700 °C of this kaolin, for one hour
with a rising rate of 5 °C/min in a programmable furnace of
the NABERTHERM model.

2.2 Method

The procedure for the plastic films production is similar to

N. Meite (&)
L. K. Konan
S. Oyetola
Laboratoire de Chimie Des Matériaux Inorganiques (LCMI), UFR
SSMT, Université Félix Houphouët Boigny de Cocody-Abidjan,
22 BP 582 Abidjan 22, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
e-mail: namorymeite2986@gmail.com
L. K. Konan
e-mail: leonkonan2000@yahoo.fr
D. Bamba
Laboratoire de Chimie Des Eaux (LCE), Ecole Normale
Supérieure D’Abidjan (ENS), 08 BP10 Abidjan 08, Abidjan,
Côte d’Ivoire
e-mail: bambdrissa@yahoo.fr
B. I. H. Goure-Doubi
Laboratoire de Sciences Biologiques, Université Péléforo Gon
Coulibaly de Korhogo, BP 1328 Korhogo, Korhogo, Côte d’Ivoire
e-mail: goure_herve2610@yahoo.fr
the ones commonly described in the literature (Gardolinski
2000). A sample starch (2.5 g) is mixed with 2 ml of glyc-
erol (50% volume) in the presence of 3 ml of 0.1 M
hydrochloric acid. The mineral filler (0.5 g) is added to the
mixture. The whole is homogenized and then heated to 100 °
C on a heating plate equipped with a magnetic stirrer for
10 min. The suspension is then neutralized by the addition
of 2 ml of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution. Finally, the
resulting viscous suspension is poured into petri dishes and
then dried at room temperature for 72 h. The non-reinforced
bioplastic is named BP. The bioplastic reinforced with
kaolin is named BPK and that reinforced with the meta-
kaolin is named BPMK. Tensile tests were carried out using
a tensile dynamometer KERN CH Version 2.7. The device
was provided with a fixing clip. The force is exerted verti-
cally and the velocity is assumed to be constant (about

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 123

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_42
124 N. Meite et al.

Table 1 Chemical and Composition SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 K2O TiO2 Na2O CaO MgO P.F.
mineralogical composition of 1000 °C
kaolin (% by mass)
Chemical 51.6 34.7 0.7 0.3 0.1 0.1 – 0.1 12.7
Mineralogical Kaolinite = 83; Illite = 6; Quartz = 10; Anatase = trace

6
deformation zone, stress weakening as a function of the
deformation due to the occurrence of the intermolecular
5 bond breakdown of hydrogen type is observed. The behavior
(c) of the treated samples when heated was studied at different
4 temperatures in a programmable oven. All plastic films
Stress σ (MPa)

remain thermally stable up to 60 °C at 90 °C, the

(a)
non-reinforced plastic film is highly softened while the other
3
two remain slightly affected by heat up to 120 °C. At
(b) 150 °C, all the plastic films are totally softened. The heat
2 effect is later felt when the plastic films are reinforced with
kaolin and metakaolin (Averous 2004).
1

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Strain Ԑ (%)
Fig. 1 Evolution of the stress as a function of the stretching of the
a non-reinforced bioplastic, b reinforced with kaolin and c reinforced
with metakaolin
1 mm/min). The applied force is read on the screen of the
device and the elongation on the scale incorporated in the
device.
3 Results and Discussion
The uniaxial tensile testing was carried out on samples of
thickness e = 0.05 mm and of rectangular Sec-
tion (0.05 mm  1.8 mm). Figure 1 shows the evolution of
the applied stress (r) as a function of the deformation of the
test sample (e). All the curves have a linear phase corre-
sponding to an elastic deformation of the plastic films.
According to Oudet (1987), the elastic deformation is
probably due to the deformation of the valence angle
superimposed on the movements of some chains of the
amorphous domain. After this phase, a loss of linearity due
to a decrease in the cross section of the composites is
observed. In this zone, which is referred to as a plastic
4 Conclusion
60 The study of the improved starch-kaolinite plastic films
revealed that the kaolinite does not interact with the
polymer matrix resulting in poor thermomechanical
properties of the composite. Metakaolin, an amorphous
material of disordered structure, is more favorable to
surface dissolution and to a good dispersion of the layers
in the matrix of the polymer. This contributes to
strengthening the mechanical and thermal properties of
plastic films based on metakaolin-reinforced cassava
starch. The Young’s modulus increases to 25 MPa and
the thermal resistance to above 120 °C against 90 °C for
the non-reinforced bioplastic. Therefore cassava starch
reinforced with metakaolin, seems to be a very attractive
alternative to replace plastics made from petroleum
products.
References
Averous L. Biodegradable multiphase systems based on plasticized
starch. J Macromol Sci. 2004;C44(3):231–74.
Chen B, Evans JRG. Thermoplastic starch–clay nanocomposites and
their characteristics. Carbohyd Polym. 2005;61:455–63.
Gardolinski JE, Carrera LCM, Wypych F. Layered polymer-kaolinite
nanocomposites. J Mater Sci. 2000;35:3113–9.
Oudet C, Bunsell AR. Effects of structure on the tensile, creep and
fatigue properties of polyester fibres. J Mater Sci 22. 1987;4292–8.
 Electrocoagulation Process for Simultaneous
Nitrate and Phosphate Removal Using
Parallel Iron Plates in the Presence
of Organic Pollutant: Optimization, Kinetic
Study and Energy Consumption Evaluation

Mouna Ghazouani, Hanene Akrout, Salah Jellali, François Lapicque,

and Latifa Bousselmi

Keywords
Electrocoagulation Nitrate Phosphate Kinetic Tetracycline Energy consumption

0.5 g/L and Na2SO4 of 7.1 g/L (as supporting electrolyte)

1 Introduction
Phosphorus and nitrogen are important mineral elements for
organisms’ growth, but their presence in water at high levels
can cause serious environmental problems, such as
eutrophication (Tamme et al. 2010; Darwish et al. 2011;
Ashley et al 2011). This phenomenon is caused by excessive
growth of algae and other plants, which can seriously affect
the water quality and induce irreversible damage on plants
and animals. The main aims of this study were: (i) to study
the efficiency of electrocoagulation (EC) processes in
simultaneously removing nitrate and phosphate from syn-
thetic wastewater using parallel iron electrodes, and (ii) to
assess the effect of the presence of an antibiotic (tetracycline,
HCl) on the treatment efficiency.
were prepared using analytical reagents athat were used
throughout this study. Furthermore, synthetic solutions of
Agri-food industry (slaughter house) containing 100 mg/L
of tetracycline (TC) were tested for the optimal treated
conditions obtained above. Nitrate, nitrite and phosphate
concentrations progress were monitored by an ion chro-
matography apparatus (Methrom). Ammonium/ammonia
generation was measured by UV-Vis at 420 nm (Rodier
et al. 2009). The TC degradation test was monitored by
UV-Vis on 365 nm, and chemical oxygen demand
(COD) which was performed using closed reflux and titri-
metric method (Rodier et al. 2009). UV–Vis absorption
spectra of TC were also performed, with measurements
between 200 and 600 nm, using a Perkin Elmer spec-
trophotometer. All the samples were filtred in 0.45 lm.

2 Materials and Methods

Electrocoagulation (EC) experiments were carried out in a
batch reactor using four iron electrodes on parallel config-
uration with a total active surface of anode and cathode of
400 cm2. Synthetic solutions consisting of 350 mg/L of N
NO3 and 50 mg/L of P PO34 (as pollutants), NaCl of
M. Ghazouani (&)
H. Akrout
S. Jellali
L. Bousselmi
Wastewater and Environment Laboratory, Water Researches and
Technologies Centre (CERTE), Technopark of Borj Cedria, PB
273, 8020 Soliman, Tunisia
e-mail: mouna-ghazouani@hotmail.com
F. Lapicque
Laboratoire Des Sciences Du Génie Chimique, CNRS-ENSIC,
Nancy, France
3 Results and Discussion
The effects of current density, initial pH and inter-electrode
distance on nitrate and phosphate removal versus time were
studied. The experimental results showed that the current
density is the most important parameter in the EC process
efficiency (Figs. 1 and 2). A simultaneous phosphate and
nitrate removal was recorded with a generation of important
amount of ammonium/ammonia (that increased from 14 to
89% with the increase of the current density from 1 to
40 mA/cm2 relative to the initial nitrate concentration) due
to the cathodic reduction of nitrate ion on iron cathode.
Indeed, the increase of the current density from 1 to
40 mA/cm2 led to the increase of phosphate removal from
about 51 to 99%, and nitrate removal from 37 to 99%.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 125

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_43
126 M. Ghazouani et al.

However, in the absence of nitrate, the phosphate removal
increased from 54 to 87%. This is due to the blockage of
reactive sites on the surface of iron by specific adsorption of
the inner sphere complex forming ligands with phosphate
and iron, which increases the removal rate (Aarfane et al.
2014). On the other hand, the initial pH and inter-electrode
distance did not significantly affect the removal efficiency,
Fig. 1 Effect of current density on NO3 removal
Fig. 2 Effect of current density on PO34 removal, d = 3 mm, pH = 7,
N NO3 = 350 mg/L, P PO34 = 50 mg/L of P PO34 , NaCl =
0.5 g/L and Na2SO4 = 7.1 g/L
but the overall studied parameters showed a considerable
effect on energy consumption. For example, this consumed
energy increased from about 0.32 to 106 kWh/m3 with the
increase of the current density from 1 to 40 mA/cm2 and
from about 0.37 to 0.52 kWh/m3 with the increase of
inter-electrode distance from 3 to 9 mm. However, it
decreased from 1.2 to 0.9 kWh/m3 with the increase of pH
from 5 to 10.
For all the experiments, a rapid increase of pH of the
treated solution to alkaline values was recorded due to the
reduction of water on iron cathode. Knowing that at alkaline
pH, the dominant species are Fe(OH)3 (for pH near 8.3) and
Fe(OH)4 (for pH near 10.6) (İrdemez et al. 2006). Iron
hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) is a solid compound and an adsorbent
which promotes, in this case of study, the adsorption of
pollutants and the formation of flocs.
The kinetic modeling (Table 1) shows that phosphate
adsorption data were sufficiently fitted with the
pseudo-second order model (R2 = 0.99). This result sug-
gests that the process includes mainly a binding reaction of
pollutants on the adsorbent (Aarfane et al. 2014). Nitrate
adsorption, however, has a little agreement with the two
kinetic models due to the simultaneous adsorption and
reduction reactions.
According to the literature (Jeong et al. 2012; Majlesi
et al. 2016), in alkaline or neutral mediua, the by-products of
electrochemical nitrate reduction on iron cathode are nitrite
and ammonia. In our study case, the pH of the treated
solution increases rapidly due to the hydroxyle ion pro-
duction and the obtained results proved that ammonia was
the main by-product. The kinetic modelling using Matlab
software (results not shown) shows that nitrate reduction on
iron cathode to ammonia is a pseudo first order with
regression coefficients R2 higher than 0.9.
The TC removal was around 100% (in the case of TC
alone) and 63% (in the case of coexistence) after 2 h of
treatment (for j = 5 mA/cm2, d = 3 mm and initial pH = 7).
In the case of the coexistence of TC, phosphate and nitrate,
around 60 mg/L of the amount of TC initially introduced was
eliminated after 30 min of treatment. Moreover, the
remaining quantity of TC was stable with a slight fluctuation
average to 39 ± 3 mg L−1 until the end of electrolysis.
Therefore, the saturation was achieved by forming a mono-
layer TC coverage on the surface of the adsorbent (Fe(HO)3).

Table 1 Kinetic parameters Parameter PO34 NO3

according to the pseudo-first and
second order for PO34 and NO3− First order Second order First order Second order
adsorption for j = 5 mA/cm2 qe (mg/g)exp 13.65 13.65 102.17 102.17
qe (mg/g)theorique 7.43 14.64 135.67 133.33
−1 −1 −1
k1 (min )/k2 (mg g min ) 0.023 0.0068 0.033 0.00015
R2 0.81 0.99 0.86 0.86
Electrocoagulation Process for Simultaneous Nitrate …
Phosphate removal has also decreased from 70 to 54%. This
result can be explained by the fact that we had the same
quantity of dissolved metal in the treated solution which
adsorbs TC, phosphate and nitrate, simultaneously. However,
nitrate removal yield was not affected because it was removed
by two processes (adsorption and cathodic reduction).
The kinetic modeling (results not shown) shows that
phosphate and TC adsorption data were sufficiently fitted
with the pseudo-second order model.
4 Conclusion
This study investigated the efficiency of EC in a simul-
taneous nitrate and phosphate removal on parallel iron
electrodes. The presence of nitrate contributed to a net
decrease of phosphate removal efficiency and the gener-
ation of ammonium/ammonia by-products. The kinetic
phosphate adsorption data were sufficiently fitted with the
pseudo second order kinetic model contrary to nitrate,
which was removed by both electrocoagulation and
cathodic reduction. Adding TC led to the decrease of the
phosphate removal rate, which was due to the adsorption
competition between coexisting molecules.
127
References
Aarfane A, Salhi A, El Krati M, Tahiri S, Monkade M, Lhadi EK,
Bensitel M. Kinetic and thermodynamic study of the adsorption of
Red195 and methylene blue dyes on fly ash and bottom ash in
aqueous medium. J Mater Environ Sci. 2014;5(6):1927–39.
Ashley K, Cordell D, Mavinic D. A brief history of phosphorus: from
the philosopher’s stone to nutrient recovery and reuse. Chemo-
sphere. 2011;84:737–46.
Darwish T, Atallah T, Francis R, Saab C, Jomaa I, Shaaban A,
Sakka H, Zdruli P. Observations on soil and groundwater contam-
ination with nitrate: a case study from Lebanon-East Mediterranean.
Agric Water Manag. 2011;99:74–84.
İrdemez Ş, Demircioǧlu N, Yildiz YŞ. The effects of pH on phosphate
removal from wastewater by electrocoagulation with iron plate
electrodes. J Hazar Mater B. 2006;137:1231–5.
Jeong JY, Kim HK, Kim JH, Park JY. Electrochemical removal of
nitrate using ZVI packed bed bipolar electrolytic cell. Chemosphere.
2012;89:172–8.
Majlesi M, Mohseny SM, Sardar M, Golmohammadi S, Sheikhmo-
hammadi A. Improvement of aqueous nitrate removal by using
continuous electrocoagulation/electroflotation unit with vertical
monopolar electrodes. Sustainable Environ Res. 2016;26:287e290.
Rodier J, Legube B, Merlet N. Analysis of water. 9th ed. Paris: Dunod;
2009.
Tamme T, Reinik M, Roasto M. Nitrates and nitrites in vegetables:
occurrence and health risks, bioactive foods in promoting health.
2010. P. 307–321.
 Fenton-like Catalytic Degradations
of Neutral Red in Water Using Cerium Oxide
Polishing Powder

Elaziouti Abdelkader, Laouedj Nadjia, Benhadria Naceur,

Bouhadjar Boukoussa, and Adnane Mohamed

Keywords

CeO2 polishing powder (CP-2) Neutral red Fenton-like oxidation Degradation
efficiency Synergy

removal and luminescent materials for violet/blue fluores-

1 Introduction
cence. These applications take benefit of cerium high ther-
modynamic affinity for oxygen and sulfur. It has a large
Cerium (IV) oxide, CeO2, is one of the most reactive
oxygen storage capacity depending on Ce4+/Ce3+ redox
rare-earth oxide, which has been attracting great interest in
cycles, which in turn depends on the oxygen vacancies and
the past decade owing to its widespread variety of envi-
Ce3+ defects present in CeO2−x. The electronic potential
ronment and energy-related applications including
position in the CB and VB of this material seriously limit its
solid-state electrolytes for electrochemical devices (Mogen-
further application as a photocatalyst utilizing solar energy.
sen et al. 2000), catalysts for three-way automobile exhaust
Herein, in this study, we explored the heterogeneous
systems (TWC) (Nikolaou 1999), polishing agents for
Fenton-like process using CeO2 polishing agent, as potential
chemical–mechanical planarization (Feng et al. 2006), sun-
catalyst for the degradation of Neutral red (NR) dye, as a
screens for ultraviolet absorbents (Imanaka et al. 2003), the
target pollutant together with H2O2. The CeO2 polishing
adsorption and reaction of formaldehyde (Zhou and Mullins
powder (labeled as CP-2) was characterized by XRD, SEM
2006), oxygen storage capacity, hybrid solar cells, H2S
and UV–Vis-DRS techniques. Operating parameters were
E. Abdelkader (&)
B. Boukoussa optimized by varying the initial pH, H2O2 concentration,
Laboratoire de Microscope Electronique et Science Des Matériaux catalyst dosage, NR dye concentrations and temperature on
L.M.E.S.M, Université Des Sciences et de La Technologie D’Oran the NR heterogeneous oxidation. The degradation reactions
Mohammed Boudiaf (USTO M.B), BP 1505 El M’naouar, 31000
Oran, Algérie
were correlated with the pseudo-first-order kinetic model. In
e-mail: abdelkader.elaziouti@univ-usto.dz; addition, a comparison of a heterogeneous Fenton-like pro-
elaziouti_a@yahoo.com cess with the support CP-2 catalyst only and H2O2 only was
B. Boukoussa performed. A feasible Fenton-like oxidation pathway for NR
e-mail: bbouhdjer@yahoo.fr in the presence of the CeO2 polishing catalyst was proposed.
L. Nadjia
B. Naceur
Laboratoire Des Matériaux Inorganiques et Application L.M.I.A,
Université Des Sciences et de La Technologie D’Oran 2 Materials and Methods
Mohammed Boudiaf (USTO M.B), BP 1505 El M’naouar, 31000
Oran, Algérie
e-mail: nadjia.laouedj@univ-usto.dz 2.1 Materials
B. Naceur
e-mail: naceur.benhadia@univ-usto.dz CeO2 polishing agents for chemical–mechanical planariza-
A. Mohamed
tion process (CP-2 WHITE COLOR POWDER,
Laboratoire de Chimie Des Matériaux L.C.M, Université´ FENZI-1402) were all obtained from Fenazi group. Basic
D’Oran1 Ahmed Ben Bella, El-Mnaouer, BP 1524, 31000 Oran, red 5 a phenazin group cation, Neutral red (NR) dye
Algérie (3-Amino-7-dimethylamino-2-methylphenazine
e-mail: mohame_adnane@yahoo.fr

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 129

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_44
130
hydrochloride), NR (MW = 288.8 g.mol−1, k max = 520
nm, e = 25,000 cm−1 mol−1dm3 and pKa = 7.1).
2.2 Characterization
The XRD analysis was recorded by X-ray powder diffrac-
tometer (Bruker D8 Advance). The average crystalline size
(dXRD) calculation using the Scherrer (Aza` roff, 1968 72)
equation. Images were taken with a S4800 Field Emis-
sion SEM (FESEM, Hitachi, Japan). The optical band gap of
CP-2 powder was determined through recording of UV–
Vis DRS in the wavelength range 200–900 nm by UV–vis
spectrophotometer (Perckin Elmer Lambda 650).
2.3 Method
All experiments were carried out in 200 mL glass beaker
containing 100 ml of an aqueous solution of 10 mg/L NR
dye with an agitation for 15 min. Predetermined amounts of
impregnated catalyst (0.1 g/L, 10 mg) were then added to
the beaker. The pH of the mixture was previously adjusted to
2 to reach adsorption/desorption equilibrium in dark for
60 min. After that a concentration of H2O2 (5 mM, 1 mL)
was added into the beaker this was recorded as the beginning
time of the reaction. At given intervals, 5 ml aliquots were
collected and filtered. The filtrates were finally monitored
using a UV–vis spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV
mini-1240) at the maximum absorption wavelength of NR
(520 nm). The data obtained from the photocatalytic
degradation of NR experiments were then used to calculate
the efficiency of the catalyst η’ (%) of the substrate Eq. (1):
 
0 ðCi  Cf Þ
g ð%Þ ¼ 100 ð1Þ
Ci
where Ci: dye initial concentration (mg
L−1) and Cf : dye
residual concentration after certain intervals (mgL−1).
The photocatalytic degradation efficiency of catalyst for
the degradation NR was quantified by measurement of dye
apparent first order rate constants Eq. (2): under operating
parameters.
C0
ln  K1 K2 t ¼ Kapp t ð2Þ
C in the visible region in Fe- or RE-doped CeO2 sample. The
where kapp is the apparent pseudo-first order rate constant, C
and C0 are the concentration at time ‘t’ and ‘t = 0’,
respectively. The plot of ln C0/C against t should give
straight lines, whose slope is equal to Kapp.
E. Abdelkader et al.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Characterization
The XRD pattern of CP-2 catalyst showed a cubic fluorite
structure CeO2 (space group: Fm-3 m) with lattice constant
a = 5.418 Å, which is in good agreement with the JCPDS
file no. 34-0394 for CeO2 (Elaziouti et al. 2015) The
diffraction peaks are very sharp indicating well crystalline
nature of the material. Moreover, the sample depicts extra
peaks corresponding to (012) et (104) crystal planes posi-
tioned at 2h values of 24.1° and 32° can be attributed to
hematite-a (a-Fe2O3) with rhombohedra structure (JCPDS
no. 33-0664). The additional peak at 2h value of 27.8° can
be assigned to rare earth oxides content, in perfect agreement
with the TREO content. The crystallite size of CP-2 sample
was found to be 37.1582 nm. Assuming that the particles
have spherical—shape and uniform size, the specific surface
area of the CP-2 sample was found to be 146.792 m2/g. The
morphological features of the CP-2 sample were observed by
SEM. According to the high resolution, SEM image presents
an assembly of groups of ultrafine particles with size up to
715 nm tend to cohere into bigger particles displaying a
dimension in the range of 2.11–4.52 lm, which is in good
agreement with the three classes of the cumulative particle
size distribution (D10 = 610 nm, D50 = 1.35 lm and
D90 = 6.21 lm) of the polishing powder; CP-2; provided by
the supplier. The UV–vis DRS absorption spectrum of the
CP-2 NPs exhibit two well-defined absorbance bands around
225 and 300 nm in the UV-visible region, attributed to the
charge-transfer transition between the O 2p (full) and Ce 4f
(empty) states in O2− and Ce4+, respectively. The CP-2
sample has an absorption onset at 412 nm corresponding to
band gap of 3.00 eV, which was red shifted compared to that
of the bulk material (3.19 eV) (Ozer 2001). This highlights
the formation of Fe- or RE-doped CeO2 based on the sub-
stitution or doping of CeO2 with Fe or RE ions could have a
positive impact towards shifting the absorbance edge. Gen-
erally, doping process generates metastable energy levels
within the band gap. These localized levels (oxygen
vacancies) in the photocatalyst allow the excitation of elec-
trons from the VB to CB with the absorption of relatively
low energy photons. Then, the presence of energy levels
sufficiently deep in the “gap” enhances the optical absorption
value of Eg for CP-2 sample was found to be approximately
3.00 eV. This is in good agreement with values reported by
other authors (Xu and Schoonen 2000). The isoelectric point
of CP-2 was found to be 6.6., which explains the propensity
to aggregate in medium solution.
Fenton-like Catalytic Degradations of Neutral Red in Water …
3.2 Heterogeneous Fenton-like Process
The effect of the operating parameters on the heterogeneous
Fenton-like oxidation of NR, as a probe pollutant, was
investigated. The results reveal that the optimum pH solution
was found to be 2 in which the reaction rate was the fastest,
and the maximum conversion of 85.91% was achieved within
60 min. Obviously, the heterogeneous Fenton-like reaction is
relatively sensitive to the H2O2 concentration. It has been
observed that degradation efficiency gradually decreased
from 67.36 to 62.99% with the increase in the H2O2 con-
centration from 2.5 to 10 mM, at a reaction time of 60 min.
However, the dye degradation efficiency was scarily reduced
beyond H2O2 concentration of 10 mM, achieving an effi-
ciency of 24.60% at 25 mM of H2O2. At low concentrations
(i.e. H2O2 = 2.5–10 mM), the decomposition of dissolved
H2O2 on the catalyst surface of CP-2 was rather low, pro-
ducing less hydroxyl radicals (•OH), which reduced the rate
of oxidation and slightly decreased the degradation efficiency
(Zhang et al. 2016). The degradation efficiency slightly
declined from 88.63 to 85.90% as the initial NR concentra-
tions was increased from 10 to 20 mg/L and then consider-
ably decreased to 23.08% for 60 mg/L. The slight decline in
the degradation efficiency may be caused by the
self-scavenging effect of •OH by excess Fe2+ in the CP-2
matrix. The NR degradation was significantly affected by the
catalyst dosage. With the increase in the catalyst dosage from
0.25 to 0.5 g/L, the catalytic performance greatly increased,
exhibiting degradation efficiencies of 10.16 and 85.91%,
respectively. The optimum dosage was observed at 0.5 g/L of
catalyst dose with 85.91% degradation efficiency. It is should
be noted that that a higher temperature enhances the rate of
formation of the •OH radicals according to the Arrhenius law,
but also favors the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into
oxygen and water, which reduces the efficiency of the
heterogeneous Fenton process. Indeed, once the temperature
was increased from 25 to 60 °C, the adsorption rate of NR
onto CP-2 catalyst increased from 19.12 to 59.72%, sug-
gesting the endothermic nature of the adsorption reaction,
while the heterogeneous oxidation of NR by CP-2/H2O2
process drastically declined from 85.90 to 15.91%. In order to
investigate the degradation efficiency of NR in various cat-
alytic processes, three preliminary experiments were con-
ducted according to the optimum condition with H2O2 alone,
CP-2 catalyst alone, and CP-2/H2O2 process. Consequently,
less than 12.58% of NR was degraded after 60 min via the
homogeneous Fenton process (H2O2 system), while, in the
presence of CP-2 catalyst only (CP-2 system), we achieved
67.36% NR degradation. However, a maximum degradation
efficiency of 85.90% was achieved for heterogeneous
131
Fenton-like process using iron-based catalyst (CP-2/H2O2
system), which was attributed to synergetic effect of
iron-based catalyst, which resulted in increased production of
hydroxyl radicals and direct oxidation of NR species
4 Conclusion
In summary, cerium oxide polishing powder (is denoted
as CP-2) was used as a heterogeneous catalyst in the
presence of H2O2. The characterization such as XRD,
SEM and UV–Vis DRS techniques indicated that CP-2
catalyst possesses typical CeO2 cubic fluorite structure,
and contains the hematite (a-Fe2O3) and the rare earth
oxides (REO) as secondary phases. The lattice constants
and crystallite sizes of CP-2 catalyst were found to be
a = 5.418 Å and 37.16 nm respectively. The pH IEP and
band gap energy of the CP-2 catalyst were found to be 6.7
and 3 eV, respectively. CP-2 catalyst substantially
exhibited an excellent performance for NR degradation
through heterogeneous Fenton-like process, as a result of
85.90% NR oxidation was achieved within 60 min under
optimal conditions: 25 °C, pH = 2, NR dye concentration
of 10 mg/L, CP-2/dye mass ratio of 0.5 g/L and H2O2
concentration of 5 mM. Pseudo-first-order kinetic model
gave the best fit. The remarkable catalytic performances
of CP-2 catalyst could be assigned to the generation of
˙OH radicals as the primary oxidative species responsible
for the degradation of the RN dye via heterogeneous
Fenton-like oxidation route and the synergistic effect
between CP-2 and H2O2.
References
Azàroff LV. Elements of x-ray crystallography. New-York:
McGraw-Hill; 1968.
Elaziouti A, Laouedj N, Bekka A, Vannier RN. Preparation and
characterization of p–n heterojunction CuBi2O4/CeO2 and its
photocatalytic activities under UVA light and irradiation. J King
Saud Univ–Sci. 2015;27:120–35.
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Zhang J, Quan W, Li L, Shen J. Characterization and photodegradation
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 The Promising Keratin-Biodegradation
and Hide-Dehairing Activities
of the Keratinase KERUS from Brevibacillus
Brevis Strain US575

Nadia Zaraî Jaouadi, Hatem Rekik, Abdelmalek Badis, Sahar Trabelsi,

Mouna Belhoul, Chiraz Gorgi Hila, Ahlem Irmani, Haifa Khemir,
Abdessatar Toumi, Samir Bejar, and Bassem Jaouadi

Keywords
Leather industry Keratinase Brevibacillus Keratin-biodegradation, Hide-dehairing
activities MALDI-TOF/MS

have often been proposed as viable alternatives. In fact,

1 Introduction
Leather making is an important socio-economic activity for
several countries throughout the world. This industry is,
however, associated with severe health and ecological
problems owing to the use of various chemicals and release
of hazardous effluents in the environment. Leather process-
ing involves a complex set of steps, from skin to finished
product, including soaking, dehairing, bating, and tanning.
These operations involve the application of materials that are
capable of degrading proteinaceous matter present in the
hides and skins. The conventional methods of leather pro-
cessing involve the application of various hazardous chem-
icals, notably sodium sulfide, which generates several
environmental and waste disposal problems. In order to
overcome the hazards caused by these effluents, enzymes
N. Z. Jaouadi (&)
H. Rekik
S. Trabelsi
M. Belhoul
S. Bejar
B. Jaouadi
Laboratory of Microbial Biotechnology and Engineering Enzymes
(LMBEE), Centre of Biotechnology of Sfax (CBS), University of
Sfax, Road of Sidi Mansour Km 6, PO Box 1177, 3018 Sfax,
Tunisia
e-mail: nedia.zarai@yahoo.fr
A. Badis
Laboratory of Natural Products Chemistry and Biomolecules
(LNPCBio), University of Blida 1, Road of Soumaâ, PO Box 270,
09000 Blida, Algeria
A. Badis
National Centre for Research and Development of Fisheries and
Aquaculture (CNRDPA), 11 Bd Amirouche, PO Box 67
Bou Ismaïl 42415 Tipaza, Algeria
C. G. Hila
A. Irmani
H. Khemir
A. Toumi
National Center of Leather and Shoes (CNCC), 17, Road of
Leather. Z.I. Sidi Rezig, 2033 Mégrine, Ben Arous, Tunisia
enzymes have long been used as alternatives to chemicals to
improve the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of a wide range
of industrial systems and processes (Gupta et al. 2002).
Proteases have particularly been reported to constitute a
resourceful class of enzymes with promising industrial
applications. Of special interest, keratinases are a group of
metallo or serine proteinases that can degrade the insoluble
structure forming keratin substrates. Keratins are a class of
fibrous, insoluble and abundant structural proteins that
constitute the major components of structures growing from
the skin of vertebrates, such as hair, wool, nails, hooves,
horns and feather quills. Due to their high degree of
cross-linking to disulphide bonds, hydrogen bonds, and
hydrophobic interactions, these proteins show high stability
and resistance to proteolytic enzymes, including trypsin,
pepsin, and papain (Coulombe and Omary 2002). In enzy-
matic catalysis, the disulfide bonds of keratin are reduced by
disulfide reductase followed by the action of keratinases,
which simultaneously degrade the keratin into oligo- and
monomeric products (Gupta and Ramnani 2006).
The purpose of soaking is to swell the hide, and this step
was traditionally performed using alkali. Currently, micro-
bial alkaline proteases are used to ensure a faster absorption
of water and reduce the time required for soaking. The use of
nonionic and, to some extent, anionic surfactants is com-
patible with the use of enzymes. The conventional method of
dehairing and dewooling involves the development of an
extremely alkaline condition followed by treatment with
sulfide to solubilize the protein matter at the hair base. The
fundamental aims of dehairing are the detachment of hair
skin and opening up of collagen fibrous structure. The
methods currently employed for dehairing are based on the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 133

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_45
134
application of alkaline proteases, hydrated lime, and sodium
chloride, which have contributed enormously to the reduc-
tion of the amounts of wastewater generated (Pillai and
Archana 2012). The conventional lime-sulfide process is,
however, known to generate large amounts of sulfide, which
poses serious health and waste disposal problems. It also
leads to the destruction of the hair, thus causing high COD,
BOD, and TSS loads in the effluent. The search for cleaner
technologies that can help overcome the serious problems
associated with the conventional dehairing methods has,
therefore, become a necessity in the leather industry (Pan-
deeti et al. 2011). Despite the large flow of data on kerati-
nases, and to the authors’ knowledge, no previous work has
so far been performed to investigate the keratinase producing
potential of the Br. brevis keratinase family. In fact, the use
of Bacillus enzymes for large-scale applications is still very
limited by their relatively low stabilities and catalytic
activities under the operational conditions required for the
dehairing process, namely moderate temperature and
neutral/alkali pH values as well as the presence of denaturing
agents. The isolation and screening of new keratinolytically
active Bacillus strains from natural habitats or
neutral/alkaline wastewater could, therefore, open new
opportunities for the discovery and use of novel keratinases
for application in poultry and leather processing industries.
2 Materials and Methods
All substrates, chemicals, and reagents were of the analytical
grade or highest available purity, and were purchased from
Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO/USA). NUE 12MG, a
commercial proteolytic/elastolytic enzyme formulation sup-
plied by Novozymes A/S (Bagsvaerd, Denmark), is a pro-
tease produced by the submerged fermentation of a
genetically modified Bacillus for leather dehairing. KOR-
OPON®EG, a commercial proteolytic enzyme formulation
supplied by KOROPON/MK-Brazil, is a protease of pan-
creatic origin with deliming salts produced by the submerged
fermentation of a genetically modified Bacillus for leather
bating. The biochemical and biochemical characterization of
the pure keratinases were investigated though
physico-chemical determination as well as spectroscopy
analysis.
3 Results and Discussion
The current paper reports on the purification of an extracel-
lular keratinase (KERUS) newly isolated from Br. brevis
strain US575. MALDI-TOF/MS analysis revealed that the
purified enzyme was a monomer with a molecular mass of
29,121.11 Da. The sequence of the 27 N-terminal residues of
N. Z. Jaouadi et al.
KERUS showed high homology with those of Bacillus ker-
atinases. Optimal activity was achieved at pH 8 and 40 °C. Its
thermoactivity and thermostability were upgraded in the
presence of 5 mM Ca2+. The enzyme was completely
inhibited by PMSF and DFP, which suggests that it belongs
to the serine protease family. KERUS displayed higher levels
of hydrolysis, substrate specificity, and catalytic efficiency
than NUE 12 MG and KOROPON® MK EG keratinases. The
enzyme also exhibited powerful keratinolytic activity that
made it able to accomplish the entire feather-biodegradation
process on its own (Fig. 1).
Furthermore, the maximum protein release rates obtained
for the Br. brevis strain US575 were in the feather-meal
medium, followed by chicken feather. Feather-meal and
chicken feather also gave the best KERUS production yields
of 7500 and 6300 U.ml−1 respectively, whereas sheep wool
supported very low keratinolytic activity (1875 U.ml−1)
(Table 1). The levels of proteins and sulfhdryl groups were
noted to increase concurrently with the increase of
keratin-biodegradation (Table 1).
Because of the interesting properties, the kerUS gene
encoding KERUS was cloned, sequenced, and expressed in
Escherichia coli. The biochemical properties of the
Fig. 1 Keratin(feather)-biodegradation by Br. brevis US575 and
hide-dehairing function of KERUS. a Feathers were incubated for
28 h at 37 °C under shake culture condition with 3.5  107 cells.ml−1
as an initial inoculum density for the US575 strain (right flask,
t = 28 h) and with autoclaved inoculum as control (left flask, t = 0 h).
b KERUS was incubated for 10 h at 37 °C with feather, C = control.
c KERUS was incubated for 10 h at 37 °C with rabbit hair (R0: rabbit
hair as control, t = 0 h; R10: rabbit hair treated, t = 10 h), (G0: goat hair
as control, t = 0 h; G10: goat hair treated, t = 10 h), (B0: bovine hair as
control, t = 0 h; B10: bovine hair treated, t = 10 h), (S0: sheep wool as
control, t = 0 h; S10: sheep wool treated, t = 10 h)
The Promising Keratin-Biodegradation and Hide-Dehairing … 135

Table 1 Effect of keratinacious Keratinacious Soluble protein Keratinolytic SH group Keratin-biodegradation

substrates on the keratinase substrates (mg.ml−1) activity (U/ml−1) (µM) (%)
KERUS of Br. brevis strain
US575 after 28 h of incubation. Feather-meal 6.11 7500 7.20 100
Chicken feather 5.40 6300 6.52 93
Rabbit hair 4.80 5500 5.16 86
Goat hair 4.01 3135 4.01 77
Bovine hair 2.95 2150 3.10 66
Sheep wool 1.54 1875 1.13 12
Values represent the means of three replicates

extracellular purified recombinant enzyme (rKERUS) were
similar to those of native KERUS. Overall, the findings pro-
vide strong support for the potential candidacy of this enzyme
as an effective and eco-friendly alternative to the conventional
chemicals used for the dehairing of rabbit, goat, sheep and
bovine hides in the leather processing industry.
4 Conclusion
The extracellular keratinase from Br. brevis US575 was
purified and biochemically characterized. The nucleotide
sequence of the kerUS gene and its flanking regions were
determined and expressed in E. coli. The results revealed
that KERUS has powerful abilities for the biodegradation of
chicken feather-meal and the dehairing of various skins with
minimal damage to collagen. The enzyme also showed a
number of properties that are highly valued in the poultry
and leather processing industries. Overall, the findings
indicated that KERUS could be considered a potential
promising candidate for application in the dehairing of skins
and hides in the leather processing industry as a substitute to
the currently employed toxic chemicals. Accordingly, fur-
ther studies, some of which are currently underway in our
laboratories, are needed to explore the structure-function
relationships of the enzyme using site-directed mutagenesis
and 3-D structure modeling.
Acknowledgements This work was financed by the Ministry of
Higher Education and Scientific Research “Contrats Programmes
LMB-CBS, grant no. LR10CBS04_2010-2013 and LMBEE-CBS,
grant no. LR15CBS06_2015-2018”, the “National Programme for the
Promotion of Technological Innovation, grants no. PNRI-ENZYME
2012–2016 and PNRI Dégraissage-Reverdissage 2017–2019”, and The
Algerian Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research and the
Tunisian Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research (Project
Tuniso-Algerian JAOUADI/BADIS grant no. TA/04/2012_TNDZ-
MicrooZymes_2012-2017).
References
Coulombe PA, Omary MB. ‘Hard’ and ‘soft’ principles defining the
structure, function and regulation of keratin intermediate filaments.
Curr Opin Cell Biol. 2002;14(1):110–22.
Gupta R, Ramnani P. Microbial keratinase and their prospective
applications: an overview. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2006;70:
21–33.
Gupta R, Beg QK, Lorenz P. Bacterial alkaline proteases: molecular
approaches and industrial applications. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol.
2002;59(1):15–32.
Pandeeti EV, Pitchika GK, Jotshi J, Nilegaonkar SS, Kanekar PP,
Siddavattam D. Enzymatic depilation of animal hide: identification
of elastase (LasB) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa MCM B-327 as a
depilating protease. PLoS ONE. 2011;6(2):e16742.
Pillai P, Archana G. A novel process for biodegradation and effective
utilization of chrome shavings, a solid waste generated in tanneries,
using chromium resistant Bacillus subtilis P13. Process Biochem-
istry 2012;47(12): 2116-2122.
 The Attractive Proprieties of the Keratinase
KERQ7 from Bacillus Tequilensis Strain Q7
with Promising Potential for the Leather
Bating Process

Nadia Zaraî Jaouadi, Hatem Rekik, Mouna Belhoul, Chiraz Gorgi Hila,
Ahlem Irmani, Haifa Khemir, Abdelmalek Badis, Abdessatar Toumi,
Samir Bejar, and Bassem Jaouadi

Keywords
Leather processing Bating process Keratinase Bacillus Keratin-biodegradation
Purification

1 Introduction on leather manufacturers, who have continuously strived to

The leather industry is one of the oldest and fast-growing
industries in the world and plays a significant role today’s
economic global economy. Leather is a versatile, flexible,
and sustainable by-product of the meat industry used in the
manufacture of a wide range of products. Despite its sig-
nificant contributions to income generation and foreign
exchanges, leather manufacturing has often been ranked as
one of the most polluting industrial activities worldwide.
This industry involves the applications of chemical intensive
processes and hazardous materials that pose serious effects
on human and the environment. In fact, increasingly strin-
gent environmental regulations have placed strong pressure
N. Z. Jaouadi (&)
H. Rekik
M. Belhoul
S. Bejar

B. Jaouadi (&)
Laboratory of Microbial Biotechnology and Engineering Enzymes
(LMBEE), Centre of Biotechnology of Sfax (CBS), University of
Sfax, Road of Sidi Mansour Km 6, PO Box 1177, 3018 Sfax,
Tunisia
e-mail: nedia.zarai@yahoo.fr
B. Jaouadi
e-mail: bassem.jaouadi@cbs.rnrt.tn
C. G. Hila
A. Irmani
H. Khemir
A. Toumi
National Center of Leather and Shoes (CNCC), 17, Road of
Leather. Z.I. Sidi Rezig, 2033 Mégrine, Ben Arous, Tunisia
A. Badis
National Centre for Research and Development of Fisheries and
Aquaculture (CNRDPA), 11 Bd Amirouche, PO Box 67, 42415
Bou Ismaïl, Tipaza, Algeria
A. Badis
Laboratory of Natural Products Chemistry and Biomolecules
(LNPC-BioM), Faculty of Sciences, University of Blida 1, Road
of Soumaâ, PO Box 270, 09000 Blida, Algeria
meet growing demands while complying with international
standards. Accordingly, the search for more efficient, safe
and eco-friendly strategies for raw hide preservation and
leather processing has always been a major challenge in the
leather industry and an area of continued research in the
scientific community (Mignini et al. 2009). The leather
making process involves three major phases,
namely pre-tanning, tanning, and finishing. Tanning and
leather finishing facilities generally convert raw hides and/or
skins into leather, which is then finished and used to man-
ufacture a wide range of products. Tanning refers to the
process of converting raw animal hides and skins into a
stable non-putrescible leather (Krishnamoorthy et al. 2012).
Bating is one of the important procedures used for removing
unwanted proteins from animal hide or skin and has a
decisive effect on leather quality. This operation, which has
been performed in different ways over the centuries, requires
enzymatic treatment to make the grain surface of the finished
leather clean, smooth and fine (Hameed et al. 1996). Tra-
ditional bating methods employed animal wastes, including
dog feces and pigeon droppings. Though producing good
softening effects, those methods were slow and associated
with unpleasant odor. Later bio-technical advances revealed
that the softening effects brought by early bating methods
were due to excreted pancreatic proteases, and since then
several industrial enzymes have been made available for the
tanner. Conventional methods of bating also involve the use
of a wide array of organic solvents and chromes, which pose
serious problems to human health and the environment.
Although enzymes have increasingly been introduced to
reduce the pollution load from the bating process, no full
enzyme-operated technology has yet been developed to

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 137

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_46
138 N. Z. Jaouadi et al.

eliminate the use of chrome and other chemical inputs
(Thanikaivelan et al. 2004). Accordingly, researchers have
continuously been interested in the search for cleaner tech-
nologies that can help overcome the serious problems
associated with the conventional bating methods. Microbial
keratinolytic proteases have particularly been reported to
constitute a resourceful class of enzymes with promising
industrial applications (Gupta et al. 2013). Of special inter-
est, keratinases are a group of metallo or serine proteinases
that can degrade the insoluble structure forming keratin
substrates. Keratinases have found application in various
steps of leather processing, e.g., neutral keratinase in soak-
ing, alkaline keratinase in dehairing, and alkaline keratinase
in bating. Dehairing enzymes from Bacillus sp. have also
been reported in the literature. Furthermore, a recent patent
proposed a concrete mixture of dehairing enzymes from B.
subtilis and B. cereus with sodium carbonate, caustic soda,
and thioglycolic acid.
2 Materials and Methods
All substrates, chemicals, and reagents were of the analytical
3 Results and Discussion
The present paper reports on the purification and character-
ization of an extracellular keratinase (KERQ7) newly puri-
fied from Bacillus tequilensis Q7. Pure protein was obtained
after ammonium sulfate fractionation (30–60%), followed by
Mono S Sepharose cation-exchange chromatography.
MALDI-TOF/MS analysis revealed that the purified enzyme
was a monomer with a molecular mass of 28,355.07-Da. The
sequence of the 21 N-terminal residues of KERQ7 showed
high homology with those of Bacillus keratinases. Optimal
activity was achieved at pH 7 and 30 °C. KERQ7 was
completely inhibited by PMSF and DFP, which suggests that
it belongs to the serine keratinase family. KERQ7 displayed
higher levels of hydrolysis and catalytic efficiency than
Basozym® CS10, Koropon® SC5 K, and Pyrase®
250MP. Additionally, the maximum protein release rates
obtained for the B. tequilensis strain Q7 were obtained in the
feather-meal medium, followed by chicken feather.
Feather-meal and chicken feather also gave the best KERQ7
production yields of 17,000 and 10,520 U/ml, respectively,
whereas sheep wool supported very low keratinolytic
activity (163 U/ml) (Table 3). Simultaneously to the AQ1

grade or highest available purity, and were purchased from
Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO/USA). Basozym® CS
10, a special keratinolytic enzyme preparation for opening
up small skins in acid media, was supplied by BASF SE, the
chemical company (Ludwigshafen, Germany). Koropon®
SC 5 K, a commercial proteolytic enzyme product repre-
senting a keratinase of pancreatic origin with deliming salts
produced by the submerged fermentation of a genetically
modified Bacillus for leather bating, was supplied by
KOROPON MK (MK Michael Kors leathers, Brazil). Pyr-
ase® 250 MP, a commercial proteolytic/elastolytic enzyme
formulation consisting of a keratinase produced by the
submerged fermentation of a genetically modified Bacillus
for neutral and alkaline bating of hides and skins, was
supplied by Novozymes A/S (Bagsvaerd, Denmark). The
biochemical and biochemical characterization of the pure
keratinases were investigated though physico-chemical
determination as well as spectroscopy analysis.
keratin-degradation an increase of protein level and sulfhdryl
groups were correlated (Table 1). Higher
keratin-degradation resulted in high sulfhydryl group for-
mation. Thus, these results suggested that KERQ7 had the
disulfide-bond reducing ability.
In addition, the kerQ7 gene encoding KERQ7 was
cloned, sequenced, and expressed in Escherichia coli BL21
(DE3)pLysS. The biochemical properties of the extracellular
purified recombinant enzyme (rKERQ7) were similar to
those of native KERQ7. The deduced amino acid sequence
showed strong homology with other Bacillus keratinases.
The highest sequence identity value (97%) was obtained
with KERUS from Brevibacillus brevis US575, with only 7
aa of difference. Although no crystal structure has been yet
obtained for KERQ7, the significantly strong sequence
identity of 72.26% suggests that its three-dimensional
structure is likely to be similar to that of subtilisin E from
B. subtilis (PDB code: 1SCJ). The 3D structure of the

Table 1 The Keratinacious Soluble Keratinolytic Specific SH Keratin-biodegradation

keratin-biodegradation capacity substrates protein activity activity group (%)
of B. tequilensis strain Q7 after (mg/ml) (U/ml) (U/mg of (µM)
22 h of incubation at 45 °C and protein)
200 rpm using various
keratinacious substrates in Feather-meal 13.43 ± 7 17,000 ± 425 1266 ± 211 9.15 100
correlation with the disulfide Chicken 9.68 ± 5 10,520 ± 311 1087 ± 198 7.64 85
bond-reducing activity of the feather
keratinase KERQ7
Rabbit hair 6.16 ± 4 5932 ± 98 963 ± 56 5.16 76
Goat hair 5.35 ± 3 4334 ± 79 810 ± 42 4.23 64
Bovine hair 2.01 ± 2 1094 ± 17 544 ± 28 2.98 43
Sheep wool 1.16 ± 1 163 ± 10 140 ± 12 0.91 11
Values represent the means of three replicates, and ± standard errors are reported
The Attractive Proprieties of the Keratinase KERQ7 …
Q249
Ca1
C-terminal
D13
E9
Q8
S221
Y104 H64
Ca2
D32
Q66 N-terminal
A51
Pro-peptide Mature keratinase KERQ7
Fig. 1 Structure modeling of KERQ7. Homology model generated
with SWISS MODEL based on the 3D-structure of subtilisin E (PDB
code: 1SCJ). Peptide chain is represented by a ribbon model. The
catalytic triad in the active site (D32, H64 and S221) and the seven
residues (Q8I, E9P, D13E, A51 K, Q66T, Y104D, and Q249R)
different with the keratinase KERUS are located as indicated herein by
sticks in magenta and red, respectively. The pro-peptide is indicated in
yellow orange and mature keratinase KERQ7 in shown in blue slate.
The two calcium sites (Ca1 and Ca2) are shown as green spheres in the
figure. This figure was prepared using PyMol program
subtilisin E-pro-peptide was used as a template to build the
model of KERQ7 (Fig. 1). Both enzymes shared very sim-
ilar overall folding, and the root mean square deviation
(RMSD) estimated after the superposition of their Ca atoms
was approximately 0.5 Å.
These properties make KERQ7 a potential promising and
eco-friendly alternative to the conventional chemicals used
for animal hide bating in the leather processing industry.
4 Conclusion
The extracellular keratinase (KERQ7) from B. tequilensis
strain Q7 was purified and biochemically characterized.
The results revealed that the enzyme was highly stable
and active at moderate temperature and neutral pH. The
results indicated that KERQ7 displayed higher levels of
hydrolytic and catalytic efficiency than Basozym® CS 10,
Koropon® SC 5 K, and Pyrase® 250 MP, the major
139
keratinases currently commercialized for bating. The
nucleotide sequence of the kerQ7 gene and its flanking
regions were determined and expressed in E. coli.
Overall, the findings indicated that KERQ7 is endowed
with a number of attractive properties that might open
new promising opportunities for the development of
efficient, cost-effective, and eco-friendly substitutes to the
highly toxic chemicals currently employed for the bating
of animal skins and/or hides in the leather processing
industry. Accordingly, further studies, some of which are
currently underway in our laboratories, are needed to
investigate the structure-function relationships of the
enzyme using site-directed mutagenesis and 3-D structure
modeling.
Acknowledgements This work was financed by the Ministry of
Higher Education and Scientific Research “Contrats Programmes
LMB-CBS, grant no. LR10CBS04_2010-2013”, the “National Pro-
gramme for the Promotion of Technological Innovation, grants no.
PNRI-ENZYME 2012–2016 and PNRI KER-LIP 2017-2019”, and The
Algerian Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research and
Technology and the Tunisian Ministry of Higher Education and Sci-
entific Research (Project Tuniso-Algerian JAOUADI/BADIS grant no.
TA/04/2012_TNDZ-MicrooZymes_2012-2017).
AQ2
References
Gupta R, Rajput R, Sharma R, Gupta N. Biotechnological applications
and prospective market of microbial keratinases. Appl Microbiol
Biotechnol. 2013;97(23):9931–40.
Hameed A, Natt MA, Evans CS. Production of alkaline protease by a
new Bacillus subtilis isolate for use as a bating enzyme in leather
treatment. World J Microbiol Biotechnol. 1996;12(3):289–91.
Krishnamoorthy G, Sadulla S, Sehgal PK, Mandal AB. Green
chemistry approaches to leather tanning process for making
chrome-free leather by unnatural amino acids. J Hazard Mater.
2012;215–216:173–82.
Mignini F, Tomassoni D, Traini E, Vitali M, Scuri S, Baldoni E,
Grappasonni I, Cocchioni M. Immunological pattern alteration in
shoe, hide, and leather industry workers exposed to hexavalent
chromium. Environ Toxicol. 2009;24(6):594–602.
Thanikaivelan P, Rao JR, Nair BU, Ramasami T. Progress and recent
trends in biotechnological methods for leather processing. Trends
Biotechnol. 2004;22(4):181–8.
 Spinel Ni0.6Zn0.4Fe2O4 Nano-Catalyst:
Synthesis, Characterization
and Heterogeneous Fenton-like Degradation
of Congo Red Azo-Dye
Laouedj Nadjia, Elaziouti Abdelkader, Benhadria Naceur,
Bouhadjar Boukoussa, and Bekka Ahmed



Keywords
Ni0.6zn0.4fe2o4 Congo red
1 Introduction
Nickel–Zinc ferrites are considered as among the most ver-
satile soft ferromagnetic materials because of their high
resistance, high saturation magnetization and low eddy
current losses (Rashad et al. 2005). Mixed Ni–Zn ferrite has
attracted a great interest, due to its potential applications in
microelectronics, magneto-optics, as microwave device
components, catalysts, photo-catalysts, gas sensors, absor-
bent materials, information storage and electronic devices
and photoelectrochemical water splitting and biomedical
applications (Satyanarayana et al. 2003; Gubin et al. 2005;
Frei et al. 1968; Majeed et al. 2013; García-Jimeno et al.
E. Abdelkader (&)
B. Ahmed
Laboratoire de Microscope Electronique et Science Des Matériaux
L.M.E.S.M, Université Des Sciences et de La Technologie D’Oran
Mohammed Boudiaf (USTO M.B), BP 1505 El M’naouar, 31000
Oran, Algérie
e-mail: abdelkader.elaziouti@univ-usto.dz;
elaziouti_a@yahoo.com
B. Ahmed
e-mail: bekka_ahmed@hotmail.com
L. Nadjia
B. Naceur
B. Ahmed
Laboratoire Des Matériaux Inorganiques et Application L.M.I.a,
Université Des Sciences et de La Technologie D’Oran
Mohammed Boudiaf (USTO M.B), BP 1505 El M’naouar, 31000
Oran, Algérie
e-mail: nadjia.laouedj@univ-usto.dz
B. Naceur
e-mail: naceur.benhadia@univ-usto.dz
B. Boukoussa
Laboratoire de Chimie Des Matériaux L.C.M, Université´
D’Oran1 Ahmed Ben Bella, El-Mnaouer, BP 1524, 31000 Oran,
Algérie
e-mail: bbouhdjer@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_47



Fenton-like oxidation Degradation efficiency Synergy
2012; Landi et al. 2013). The general formula of Ni-Zn
3+
ferrite is [Fe1−x Zn2+
x ]
tet
[Ni2+ 3+ oct
1−xFe1+x] O4 in which the
tetrahedral (A) sites of the lattice structure are occupied by
3+
[Fe1−x Zn2+
x ] ions and the octahedral sites (B) are occupied by
2+
[Ni1−x Fe3+
1+x] ions in the spinel formula AB2O4. Many
methods have been used to prepare the NixZn1−xFe2O4
nanoparticles, such as solvothermal, coprecipitation,
hydrothermal, citrate precursor, sol–gel, self-propagating
high-temperature method and microwave combustion
method (Manikandan et al. 2014). However, the above
methods have some disadvantages such as, high-energy
consumption, requirement of complicated equipment, need
for a strong base, higher processing temperature and also r
rather long reaction time caused by the multiple steps to
complete the crystallization of ZnFe2O4. Herein, in this
study, the Nickel–Zinc ferrites Ni0.6Zn0.4Fe2O4 (NZF) were
used as a catalyst in the heterogeneous Fenton-like reaction
to remove Congo red azo-dye (CR), as a target contaminant,
from aqueous solution along with H2O2. The NZF catalyst
was synthesized by a citrate gel method and characterized by
XRD, FTIR, SEM and UV-vis. DRS technique. The
heterogeneous Fenton-like activity of NZF was investigated
at various operational parameters such as initial pH, catalyst
dosage, H2O2/H2O volume ratio, initial dye concentration,
ionic strength and system temperature. The degradation
reactions were correlated with the pseudo-first-order kinetic
model. A possible mechanism for degradation of CR dye in
the NZF/H2O2 process was elucidated in details.
141
142
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Materials
FeSO4 7H2O (99.99%, Sigma Aldrich), Zn(COO)2 6H2O
(99.99%, Sigma Aldrich), NiCl2 6 H2O(99.99, Sigma
Aldrich),) and Citric acid (99.99%,) were all obtained from
Aldrich chemical company ltd. Congo red; 1-naphthalene
sulfonic acid, 3, 30-(4,40-biphenylenebis (azo)) bis
(4-amino-) disodium salt) is a benzidine-based anionic diazo
dye, that is, a dye with two azo groups (C32H24N6O6S2.2Na,
MW = 696.67 g mol−1, C.I. 22,020, kmax=497 nm and
pKa=4). Distilled water was used for preparation of various
solutions.
2.2 Ni0.6Zn0.4Fe2O4 (NZF) Nanoparticles
Synthesis
Ni0.6Zn0.4Fe2O4 (NZF) ferrites were prepared via the citrate
method by dissolving stoichiometric amounts of FeS-
O47H2O, Zn (COO)2 6H2O and NiCl2 6H2O with the molar
ratio of Ni+2: Zn2+: Fe3+ = 0.6:0.4:2 in distilled water and
adding them to an aqueous solution of citric acid (a molar
ratio of the metals to citric acid (M:CA) of 1:2) under con-
tinuous stirring. The mixture was then stirred until the
obtained solution became brown red and was kept under
stirring at room temperature for a further 24 h and the
precipitate was finally collected, washed three times with
deionized water and ethanol and then dried at 80 °C for
24 h. Finally, the precursor was consequently milled and
calcined at T = 900 °C for 4 h with the heating rate of
10 °C/min.
2.3 Characterization
The XRD diagrams were collected by X-ray powder
diffractometer (Bruker D8 Advance) with Cu Ka radiation
(k = 0.15418 nm). The average crystalline size (dXRD) cal-
culation using the Scherrer (Azàroff 1968) equation. The
microstructures and the surface morphology of samples were
analyzed with a Jeol JSM 6360LV. The scan UV–vis
spectrophotometer (Perckin Elmer Lambda 650) equipped
with an integrated sphere assembly was used to determine
the UV–vis diffuse reflection spectra in the wavelength range
200–900 nm. The band gap energy of the samples can be
evaluated from the Eg measurements using Kubelka-Munk
(K-M) model (Chen et al. 2009). Fourier transform infrared
(FTIR) spectra were achieved on FTIR-4200 spectrometer.
L. Nadjia et al.
2.4 Method
The heterogeneous Fenton–like experiments were performed
in 400 mL glass beaker. For the reaction experiment, 0.1 g
of NZF catalyst was added to 200 mL of CR dye aqueous
solution at an initial concentration of 20 mg/L, followed by
adjusting pH between 7 and 8. Before oxidation, the sus-
pension was magnetically stirred for 60 min in the dark until
the adsorption equilibrium was reached. After that, an ali-
quot of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) with H2O2/H2O volume
ratio ranging from 2.5 to 30 was added to the solution to
initiate the reaction. At given intervals, 5 ml aliquots were
collected and filtered. The obtained filtrates were finally
monitored using a UV–vis spectrophotometer (Shimadzu
UV mini-1240) at the maximum absorption band of CR
(kmax = 500 nm).
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Characterization
The XRD patterns of the NZF sample show the characteristic
reflections of the Fd3 m cubic spinel structure (space group
Fd3 m; JCPDS CARD 01-1108). The refined lattice
parameter allows us to exclude the presence of any impu-
rities or secondary phases. The crystallite size was calculated
using the broadening of the hkl = 311, as a prominent
reflection peak. The average particle size has been calculated
using the well-known Scherrer’s formula (Azàroff 1968). It
was found that the crystallite size of NZF is 81.62 nm.
TREOR 90 refinement XRD was designed to simultaneously
refine both the lattice parameter and crystallite size. It was
observed that the lattice parameter value is 8.2864 Å, which
is in good accordance with the standard JCPDS value of
8.441 Å (JCPDS No. 22-1012). FTIR absorption spectrum
of the NZF sample shows two absorption bands. The higher
band m1 is located at 675.647 cm−1 whereas lower band m2 is
around 435.834 cm−1. The highest band m1 corresponds to
intrinsic stretching vibrations of metals at the tetrahedral site,
Mtetra–O, whereas lowest band m2 is assigned to octahedral
metal stretching, Moct–O. The m2 band values are less com-
pared to those of the m1 band. This is due to the fact that the
tetrahedral site dimension is less compared to the octahedral
site dimension. The high resolution scanning electron
microscopy (HR-SEM) micrograph of NZF sample exhib-
ited uniform, almost spherical shaped particle like mor-
phology with loosely agglomerated particles. The UV–
vis DRS absorption spectrum of the NZF exhibit
well-defined absorbance bands around 750 nm in the visible
Spinel Ni0.6Zn0.4Fe2O4 Nano-Catalyst: Synthesis…
region, which gives the first notation that the NZF catalyst
can be employed as a visible light responsive photo- catalyst.
The estimated values of the NZF band gap is 1.6 eV.
Compared with the bulk band-gap of ZnFe2O4 (1.9 eV), the
NZF sample absorption edges have red shifted, which might
be ascribed to the additional band gap energy levels within
the band gap. These localized levels (oxygen vacancies) in
the photocatalyst allow the excitation of electrons from the
VB to CB with the absorption of relatively low energy
photons. This is in good agreement with values reported by
other authors (He and al. 2016).
3.2 Heterogeneous Fenton-like Process
The degradation of CR azo-dye was researched at various
operating parameters using NZF/H2O2 as the heterogeneous
Fenton-like oxidation system. The results showed that the
heterogeneous Fenton type processes could be effectively
operated at milder pH conditions and the maximum 92.07%
degradation efficiency pH was obtained at pH 7.4 within
60 min. The impact of H2O2/H2O volume ratio on the
degradation of CR azo dye during Heterogeneous
Fenton-like oxidation shows that the degradation efficiency
increased from 54.67 to 92.07% with an increase in v(H2O2)/
v(H2O) volume ratio from 2.5 to 20. However, the dye
removal efficiency was gradually reduced as the H2O2 vol-
ume ratio increased to more than v(H2O2)/v(H2O) = 20. The
increase in v (H2O2)/v(H2O) from 2.5 to 20 significantly
produces more hydroxyl radicals (˙OH) which enhances the
oxidation rate (Zhang et al. 2016). The degradation effi-
ciency slightly rises from 52.46 to 92.07% as the initial CR
concentration was increased from 10 to 20 mg/L and then
noticeably decreased to 19.17% for 50 mg/L. The slight
decline in the degradation efficiency may be caused by the
self-scavenging effect of ˙OH by excess Fe2+ in the NZF
matrix. The degradation of CR was significantly affected by
the catalyst dosage. The optimum dosage was observed at
1 g/ L of catalyst and 92.07% degradation was achieved
within 60 min. The effect of ionic strength on degradation of
CR on ZNF/H2O2 system was also investigated in Na2CO3
solutions with the mass concentration range from 5 to
30 g/L. Indeed, bicarbonate had an inhibitory effect in the
NZF/H2O2 system and its presence could inhibit H2O2
degradation through its scavenging effects on the ˙OH rad-
icals. It is well-known that a higher temperature enhances the
formation rate of the ˙OH radicals according to the Arrhe-
nius law, but also favors the decomposition of H2O2 to O2
and H2O, which reduces the efficiency of the heterogeneous
Fenton process. Certainly, once the temperature was
increased from 25 to 60 °C, the heterogeneous oxidation of
143
NR by CP-2/H2O2 process drastically declined from 92.07 to
29.49%. The degradation efficiencies of NZF catalyst toward
CR in various conditions such as H2O2 only (homogeneous
Fenton process), NZF catalyst only (adsorption system) and
NZF/H2O2 catalyst system (heterogeneous Fenton-like pro-
cess employing iron-based catalyst) were investigated.
Consequently, less than 10% of CR was observed after
60 min in H2O2 system, while, in the presence of NZF
catalyst only, we achieved 54.67% degradation efficiency.
However, the mixture of magnetic NZF and H2O2 leads to a
high degradation rate (92.07%), which was attributed to the
synergetic effect of iron-based catalyst, which resulted in
increased production of hydroxyl radicals and direct oxida-
tion of CR spices, indicating that NZF is a heterogeneous
Fenton-like catalyst. Kinetic studies confirmed that the
heterogeneous Fenton-like process at various operating
parameters followed pseudo-first-order reaction kinetics.
4 Conclusion
Ni0.6Zn0.4Fe2O4 (NZF) ferrites catalyst has been suc-
cessfully prepared by citrate gel method. The as-produced
material was characterized by XRD, SEM, FTIR and
UV–Vis DRS techniques. The as-produced material
exhibits typical NZF cubic spinel structure with high
crystallinity and a porous structure. The average particle
size and the bandgap energy of NZF were found to be
81.62 nm and 1.60 eV, respectively. NZF was used as a
heterogeneous Fenton-like nano-catalyst which exhibited
higher efficiency of 92.07% degradation of CR in the
presence of H2O2 within 60 min. Kinetic studies con-
firmed that the heterogeneous Fenton-like processes fol-
lowed pseudo first-order reaction kinetics.
References
Azàroff LV. Elements of x-ray crystallography. New-York:
McGraw-Hill; 1968.
Chen JL, Chen D, He JJ, Zhang SY, Chen ZH. The microstructure,
optical, and electrical properties of sol–gel-derived Scdoped and
Al–Sc co-doped ZnO thin films. Appl Surf Sci.
2009;255:9413–9.
Frei EH, Gunders E, Pajewsky M, Alkan WJ, Eshchar J. Ferrites as
contrast material for medical X-ray diagnosis. J Appl Phys.
1968;39:999–1001.
Gar´cia-Jimeno S, Ortega-Palacios R, Cepeda-Rubio MFJ, Vera A,
Leija L, and Estelrich J. Improved thermal ablation efficacy using
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Res. 2012;128:229–248.
Gubin SP, Koksharov YA, Khomutov GB, Yurkov GY. Magnetic
nanoparticles: preparation, structure and properties. Russian Chem
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144
He HY, Huang JF, Lu J. Photo- and photo-fenton-like catalytic
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separable ZnFe2O4-reduced graphene oxide hybrid nanostructures.
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Zn1−xNixFe2O4 nanostructures for photoelectrochemical applica-
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Rashad MM, Fouad OA. Synthesis and characterization of nano-sized
nickel ferrites from fly ash for catalytic oxidation of CO. Mat Chem
Phys. 2005;94:365–70.
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 Biodegradation of Urban Stromwater
Pollution in a Sequence of Constructed
Porous Riffles in a Mediterranean Creek

Pascal Breil, Jonathan Gervaix, Philippe Namour, Marie-Noëlle Pons,

and Olivier Potier

Keywords
Pollution Biodegradation Porous medium Urban creek

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Our aim was to provide guidelines for restoring and
enhancing the self-purification capacity of Mediterranean
urban creeks (no summer flow), in particular their resilience
to pollution induced by discharges of combined sewer
overflows (CSO). Urban stormfall discharges from combined
sewer harshly impact creeks both morphologically, due to the
erosion process linked to an unbalance between water flow
and sediment load, and biochemically by the outflows of
wastewater and polluted runoffs from urban areas. The ero-
sion process alters the riverbed porousness and may lead to
the pollution associated water table. Polluted water will also
circulate in creek without any dilution during dry periods,
and reach downstream perennial water bodies and thus
jeopardising some ecological and recreational services.
P. Breil
J. Gervaix
P. Namour (&)
Irstea, 5 Rue de La Doua, 69626 Villeurbanne, France
e-mail: philippe.namour@irstea.fr
P. Breil
e-mail: pascal.breil@irstea.fr
J. Gervaix
e-mail: jonathan.gervaix@univ-lyon1.fr
M.-N. Pons
O. Potier
Université de Lorraine, LRGP ENSIC CNRS, B.P. 20451,
54001 Cedex Nancy, France
e-mail: marie-noelle.pons@univ-lorraine.fr
O. Potier
e-mail: olivier.potier@univ-lorraine.fr
Chaudanne creek, located at Grézieu-la-Varenne (Rhône,
France), drains a 2.7 km2 watershed. Its land use is 90%
rural (meadows and crops) and 10% urban. The setup con-
sists in three sand deposits naturally stored behind three
porous weirs originally designed to control the incision
process. Weirs are made of wood logs, allowing water cir-
culation through a sand mass on average 1 m thick and
about 2 m wide. A well (Ø 75 mm) network is used to
monitor surface water quality (Si wells) up- and downstream,
and in hyporheic zone (Hi wells) of sand deposits, 30 cm
below sand surface. This setup is described in Fig. 1.
Each well hosts a multi-parameter probe (Ysi 6920V2©)
logging dissolved oxygen, temperature, electrical conduc-
tivity, pH and redox potential at 10 min time-step, over a full
hydrological cycle. Weekly water samplings in wells and in
creek allowed the monitoring of pollution indicators (NO−3 ,
NO−2 , NH+4 , PO3−
4 and COD). Creek and CSO discharge
flows were measured by the field observatory consortium
(OTHU1). Nitrogen compounds are expressed in nitrogen
equivalents to compare quantities of various nitrogenous
forms. Measurement points were pooled by station (0 to 4,
see Fig. 1.) to analyze the global variation ranges of pollu-
tion indicators in each sand deposits.
1
OTHU: Observatoire de Terrain en Hydrologie Urbaine (http://www.
graie.org/othu/).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 145

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_48
146 P. Breil et al.

Fig. 1 Longitudinal
cross-section of the set-up on the
Chaudanne creek. Points related
to the letters (S)urface and
(H)yporheic are the points of
continuous measurement and for
water sampling. Photos: upstream
natural riffle (0), CSO outlet
“urban disposal”, three
constructed riffles (1, 2, and 3),
downsteam natural riffle (4)

Fig. 2 Variations of the dissolved oxygen concentration with time and space at wells H1 to H6 in the constructed riffle 1. ES00 stands for surface
dissolved oxygen concentration. The dash line of 1 mg/L is the threshold for the denitrification process

3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Pollution Trapping Effect by Accumulated
Sand Layers
Nitrogen is essentially present under NO−3 form, followed by
NH+4 then NO−2 . NH+4 has the highest concentrations at sta-
tions 1, 2 and 3 compared to the natural stations 0 and 4.
Similarly, a poor quality zone mainly occurs in the three
stations located in constructed riffles. Organic matter
released from the CSO during rainy season explains the NH+4
content at station 1. NO−3 contents indicate a poor water
quality at all stations without any discriminating effect of the
constructed riffles. This results from the agricultural activity
taking place in the watershed: NO−3 concentration is high
during the winter rainy season, but decreases in spring
because of absorption by active vegetation. NO−2 distribution
is comparable to NH+4 with 15 times lower concentrations.
NO−2 comes from NH+4 oxidation and very rapidly turns into
NO−3 by nitrification. PO3− 4 and COD have a similar behavior
to NH+4 . In surface water the concentrations of pollution
indicators are in the middle to good class. Hyporheic zone at
natural station 4 does not exhibit any impact, whereas nat-
ural weirs concentrate organic and metallic pollutants
Biodegradation of Urban Stromwater Pollution in a Sequence …
Sand mass
Organic Matter oxidation
Bedrock
Fig. 3 Prospective design of one unit of a constructed riffle to trap organic matter during low flows and process it by oxidation during medium
flow period
(Zhang 2014; Namour et al. 2015). At low natural flows,
constructed riffles trap very efficiency the pollution dis-
charged by the CSO device.
3.2 Aerobic Biodegradation in Man-made Weirs
Bacteria use dissolved oxygen to degrade organic matter.
Dissolved oxygen content in surface water (S1) is on average
12 mg/L, which is the saturation value for the studied period
(see example from Fig. 2). CSOs release organic matter and
oxygen-depleted water. Oxygen depletion does not persist
because natural flow brings oxygenated water from
upstream. At well H1, dissolved oxygen content does not
exceed 4 mg/L. In fact, the upstream part of sand deposit
traps the organic matter flows which infiltrate through sed-
iment, driven by the water flux. At well H3, average dis-
solved oxygen concentration is about 5 mg/L. Difference
with the surface (12 mg/L) indicates an oxygen consumption
related to biodegradation activity. At well H6, content varies
from near 0 to 8 mg/L. Water leaving the first constructed
riffle (1) is therefore depleted in dissolved oxygen. This
could be managed, for example, through a passive aeration
ramps downstream each constructed riffle.
4 Conclusion and Perspectives
Constructed riffles seems to have a dual function: (i) trap
the pollution delivered by a CSO and avoid its down-
stream dissemination; and (ii) biodegrade on-site this
Gabion: metal cage filled with rocks.
2
147
Permeable gabion
blocks
At mean flow condition
Original bed profile
pollution. During the study, the natural regeneration of
the sand deposit during large flood events was observed.
It is possible to improve the system by replacing the
artificial weirs with ramps of gabions2 that maintain
hydraulic continuity and produce more efficient aeration
than waterfalls (Khdhiri 2014; Khdhiri et al. 2014).
Constructed riffles should be tested on other small creeks
in parallel with a design assistance model. A design
project is proposed in Fig. 3.
Acknowledgements The authors thank the French National Research
Agency (EPEC ANR-10-ECOT-007), the Field Observatory in Urban
Water Management (OTHU, www.othu.org/, FED 4161), the Greater
Lyon, the Rhône-Mediterranean & Corsica Water Agency, and the
Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes Region for their scientific and financial
support.
References
Khdhiri H. Epuration en eaux courantes: évaluation et modélisation de
la capacité d’oxygénation dans les cascades et les chutes d’eau.
Doctorat de l’université de Lorraine 2014, http://www.theses.fr/
2014LORR0216.
Khdhiri H, Potier O, Leclerc JP. Aeration efficiency over stepped
cascades: better predictions from flow regimes. Water Res. 2014;55
(15):194–202.
Namour Ph, Eschach D, Schmitt L, Moulin B, Fantino G, Bordes C,
Breil P. Stream pollution concentration in riffle geomorphic units
(Yzeron basin, France). Sci Total Environ. 2015;532:80–90.
Zhang Y. Epuration naturelle : de la rivière à la zone humide de rejet.
Doctorat de l’Université de Lorraine 2014. http://www.theses.fr/
2014LORR0302.
 Effect of Chemical Modifications
on the Adsorption of Nickel Ions Using
Micro-Particles of Dry Palm Fibers

Asma Boudaoud, Mebrouk Djedid, Mokhtar Benalia, Chifaa Ad,

Hicham Elmsellem, and Amina Zaid

Keywords
Palm fibers Chemical modifications Nickel Adsorption Characterization

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

A lot of research has been carried out about the subject of
heavy metals adsorption by the dry plants (Bansal et al.
2009; Ahmed 2013), to face the dangers of heavy metals and
their effect on the environment and health (Piotrowski and
Coleman 1980; Honda et al. 1983). In order to develop such
studies many researchers has been trying chemical activa-
tions of plants to increase their adsorption potentials to the
heavy metals.
The aim of the present paper was to study the efficiency
of a different chemical pre-treatment of dry palm fibers
powder using acidic, basic, alcoholic and aldehyde modifi-
cations so as to remove nickel (Ni) ions from the aqueous
solution through adsorption.
The chemically Treated Palm fibers were prepared by the
methods outlined by Toles et al. (1997) for acidic activations
with H3PO4 and HNO3 solutions, respectively. Toles et al.
(1997), the method outlined by Borysiak (2013) for basic
activation with NaOH solution (Nogueira et al. 2010). The
methods outlined by Nogueira et al. (2010)and Noeline B.F.
et al. were adopted, consisting of preparing the alcoholic and
Aldehyde Treated Palm fibers with CH3OH and HCOOH
solutions, respectively (Borysiak 2013; Noeline et al. 2005).
The analysis of the functional groups was performed
using FT-IR instrument (4200-FT-IR, JASCO, Tokyo,
Japan).
The equilibrium sorption experiments were conducted by
adding 1 g biosorbent to 100 ml heavy metal solution
(100 mg/L, pH 5–6). The mixture was agitated on a rotary
shaker at 300 rpm at 25 °C for 3 h.

3 Results and Discussion

A. Boudaoud (&)
M. Djedid
M. Benalia
C. Ad
A. Zaid
Laghouat University, Laghouat, Algeria
e-mail: asmaboudaoud@gmail.com 3.1 Characterization of Treated PF
M. Djedid
e-mail: m.djedid@lagh-univ.dz The analysis by infrared spectrometry of the palm powder
before and after the chemical modification confirmed the
M. Benalia
e-mail: benalia_mokhtar@yahoo.fr modification of the structural characteristics (Table 1).
C. Ad
e-mail: chiffaad@gmail.com
3.2 Effect of Chemical Modifications
A. Zaid
e-mail: aminazaid92@gmail.com on Adsorption
H. Elmsellem
Oujda University, Oujda, Morocco Figure 1 shows the adsorption of different metal ions using
e-mail: h.elmsellem@yahoo.fr the palm fiber powder activated with different chemical

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 149

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_49
150 A. Boudaoud et al.

Table 1 FT-IR spectra of untreated and chemically treated PF

Raw-PF HNO3-PF H3PO4-PF NaOH-PF CH3OH-PF HCOOH-PF Assignments
3293 3278 3340.1 3266.82 3342.03 3335.28 OH stretching (hydroxylic groups)
2910.60 2890.7 2887.83 2974 2944.7 2911 CH stretching (aliphatic chains)
1623.77 1637.27 1601 1766.48 1710 1708.62 C=O stretching (carboxylic groups)
1455.03 – 1424 1572.66 1506.13 1594 C=O stretching (esters)
1315 – – 1405.85 1420.32 1421 OH stretching (phenolic groups)
1242.9 1274.72 1235 – – 1241 Vibration of carboxylic acids
1158.04 1059.6 – – 1100.19 – Vibration of C–O–C and OH of polysaccharides
1033.66 1022.09 980.25 1063.55 1030.77 1028

FT-IR characterization was performed to analyze the

modification obtained after the chemical treatments.
Finally, the results of this study show that high adsorptive
capabilities were observed with the basic treatment than
other chemical treatments.

References

Ahmed Hegazi H. HBRC J. 2013;9:276–82.

Fig. 1 Adsorption capacity and removal (%) of Ni (II) by chemically
treated PF
Treatments. The obtained results show that the PF activated
with NaOH can effectively be used to remove metal ions
from wastes.
4 Conclusion
This paper described the experiments on chemical treated
adsorbents for Nickel ions removal. The greatest Chem-
ical modifications have been tested for Ni (II) removal.
Bansal M, Garg U, Singh D, Garg VK. J Hazard Mater. 2009;162:312–
20.
Borysiak S. J Appl Polym Sci. 2013;127:1309–22.
Honda K, Tatsukawa R, Itano K, Miyazaki N, Fujiyama T. Agricu Biol
Chem J. 1983;47:1219–28.
Noeline BF, Manohar DM, Anirudhan TS. Sep Purif Tech-
nol J. 2005;45:131–40.
Nogueira GM, Rodas ACD, Leite CAP, Giles C, Higa OZ. Bronislaw
Polakiewicz, Marisa M. Beppu. Bioresource Technology.
2010;101:8446–51.
Piotrowski JK, Coleman DO. A general report. UNEP, Nairobi.
1980;23:123–8.
Toles CA, Marshall WE, Johns MM. Carbon. 1997;35:1407–14.
 Effects of Petroleum Pollution in Niger Delta
Wetlands: Interplay Between the Social
and Ecological Systems

Francis O. Arimoro, Jude E. Uku, and Nelson O. Odume

Keywords

Environmental management Heavy metal Macrofauna Niger delta
Oil pollution Sustainability

1 Introduction
The issue of environmental sustainability cannot be
overemphasized in the Niger-Delta as this is fundamental to
the overall well being and the development of the area
especially the well being of future generations which is an
important aspect of environmental economics (Eregha and
Irughe 2009). The Niger-Delta region is dominated by rural
communities that depend solely on the natural environment
for subsistence living. The oil industry located within this
region has immensely contributed to the growth and devel-
opment of the country which is a fact that cannot be disputed
but unsustainable oil exploration activities have rendered the
Niger Delta region one of the five most severely petroleum
damaged ecosystems in the world. The aquatic fauna and
flora are either destroyed or completely eliminated (Emuedo
et al. 2014). A good knowledge of the aquatic fauna avail-
able in these communities, and their abundance at various
chosen study locations will therefore form a basis for setting
and marking out protected areas in these water bodies where
their continuous existence will be ensured in the midst of oil
F. O. Arimoro (&)
J. E. Uku
Applied Hydrobiology Unit, Department of Biological Sciences,
Federal University of Technology, P. M. B. 65, Minna, Akure,
Niger State, Nigeria
e-mail: f.arimoro@futminna.edu.ng
J. E. Uku
e-mail: ukudt@yahoo.com
N. O. Odume
Unilever Centre for Environmental Water Quality, Institute for
Water Research, Rhodes University, PO BOX 94 Grahamstown
6140 Grahamstown, South Africa
e-mail: nelskaro@yahoo.com
exploration in the area. The overall goal will also be geared
towards the strengthening of policies that will further
enhance the effective management, protection and conser-
vation of these species.
Most studies regarding the connection between oil related
environmental problems and the impact on the region have
not really achieved extensive work on the link between the
impact on aquatic macrofauna and the resulting economic
and social effects. So this study seeks to fill this gap by
examining the present status of aquatic macrofauna and
environmental variables in the selected affected areas in the
Niger Delta and its socioeconomical impact on the residing
communities.
2 Materials and Methods
The Study area is located in the wetland area of Ogidigben
community in Warri South West Local Government area of
Delta State, Nigeria. The Escravos area where this research
work was carried out is located several producing wells, flow
stations and tank farms of various multinational oil compa-
nies. It is situated approximately 5o 12′ E and 5o 34′ N of the
equator. Its center lies at a latitude of 5.58006 and longitude
of 5.1792 and it has an elevation of 1 m above the sea. With
two major Rivers: Saghara (Abiteye) and Ugborodo on lati-
tude 5.5833, and longitude 5.1667. Post impact assessment of
two wetland areas affected by oil exploration and spill were
investigated in the Niger Delta. The surface water quality was
determined according to the methods of APHA (1998)
including heavy metals, important nutrients, anions and
cations. The macrofauna including invertebrates groups and
fish were also collected at the sampling sites using standard

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 151

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_50
152
methods (Arimoro et al. 2014, 2015). Pre-spill data of water
quality and macrofauna were obtained from Environmental
Impact Assessments (EIA) reports of studies conducted in
these wetlands in 1999. The wetland ecological structure was
evaluated using fish, macro-invertebrate assemblage struc-
ture, and physico-chemical parameters, while the social
component was evaluated by means of a questionnaire that
probed various human aspects that have direct bearing on the
health and functionality of the wetlands.
3 Results and Discussion
Environmental data thus physical and chemical parameters
provide a clear distinction between the pre-spill data and the
post spill data. The high organic load as well as elevated
levels of heavy metals (Copper (Cu), Mercury (Hg), Lead
(Pb), Nickel (Ni), Chromium (Cr), Zinc (Zn), Cadmium (Cd),
Iron (Fe), Vanadium (V) and Barium (Ba)), COD, BOD,
Ammonia, Conductivity, turbidity, total organic carbon and
some cations and anions in the surface water and sediments is
attributable to petroleum contaminants in the water body. In
addition, the results obtained in this study confirmed that
there were changes in habitat, water quality and diversity of
benthic invertebrates and fish species in the post spill data as
compared with the pre spill data. It is increasingly being
recognized that the sustainable management of natural
resources requires a cautious attention to both ecological and
human/social systems as the two sub-systems interact.
Because humans have far-reaching powers to impact upon
the structure, function and organization of the aquatic
ecosystems, recent studies advocate an integrated,
system-based approach for the concurrent management of the
ecological and social subsystems. The integrated, system-
based approach view humans as an integral and tightly
coupled component of the ecosystems; this is here concep-
tualized as complex social-ecological system framing.
In this study, the on-going interactions, interconnected-
ness as well as feedbacks between the wetlands and the
F. O. Arimoro et al.
surrounding human communities, can best be approached
from the perspective of complex social-ecological system
(SES). The complex (SES) recognized the tightly coupled
and integrated nature of the ecological and human systems,
and therefore advocates the concurrent management of both
systems and their components. Complex SES are charac-
terized by cross scale dynamics, emergence and surprises,
multiple feedback loops, interactions and
interconnectedness.
4 Conclusion
The relationship between the biological and environ-
mental projections deduced from this investigation show
that the degradation of the fragile ecosystem will continue
for another twenty years if measures are not taken to
ameliorate the condition. In addition, oil companies
should adopt best practices to minimize the harmful
effects of oil operations in the Niger Delta.
References
APHA (American Public Health Association). Standard methods for
the examination of water and wastewater, WEF and AWWA, 20th
edition, USA, 1998.
Arimoro FO, Ikomi RB, Nwadukwe FO, Eruotor OD, Edegbene AO.
Fluctuating salinity levels and an increasing pollution gradient on
fish community structure and trophic levels in a small creek in the
Niger delta. Nigeria Int Aquat Res. 2014;6:187–202.
Arimoro FO, Odume ON, Uhunoma SI, Edegbene AO. Anthropogenic
impact on water chemistry and benthic macroinvertebrate associated
changes in a southern Nigeria stream. Environ Assess Monit.
2015;187:14. doi 10.1007/s10661-014-4251-2.
Emuedo OA, Anoliefo GO, Emuedo CO. Oil pollution and water
quality in the niger delta: implications for the sustainability of the
mangrove ecosystem. Global J HUMAN-SOCIAL SCI: B Geog-
raphy, Geo-Sci, Environ Disaster Manage. 2014;14(6); Online
ISSN:2249–460x.
Eregha PB, Irughe IR. Oil induced environmental degradation in the
Nigeria’s Niger-Delta: the multiplier effects. J Sustainable Develop
Africa 2009;11(4):160–75.
 Influence of Temperature and Doping
Content on the Photocatalytic Activity
in Visible Light of W-Doped TiO2

Chérif Moslah, Teresa Aguilar, Mohamed Ksibi, Rodrigo Alcántara,

and Javier Navas

Keywords
Titanium dioxide Tungsten doping Band gap Photocatalytic activity Visible light
Methylene blue

1 Introduction W-TiO2 (T700), 5%W-TiO2 (T700) and 5%W-TiO2 (T900).

TiO2 is one of the most efficient semiconductors used as a
photocatalyst for the degradation of organic compounds.
Photocatalytic activity depends on several properties, such
as band gap energy, specific surface area, the extent of
crystallinity, the structure of the material, etc. (Kumar et al.
2012).
In this study, the effect of dopant concentration and the
annealing temperature on the resulting phase, crystallinity,
optical and photocatalytic properties was analyzed.
2 Materials and Methods
W-doped TiO2 samples were synthesized following the
method used by Aguilar et al. (2013); a low temperature
hydrolysis reaction designed in our laboratory using titanium
n-butoxide as a precursor. TiO2 was doped by different W
percentages (1 and 5wt%) and thermally treated at different
temperatures (700 °C and 900 °C) The obtained samples are
named as following Pristine (T700), Pristine (T900), 1%
C. Moslah (&)
M. Ksibi
Laboratory of Environment Engineering and Ecotechnology,
ENIS, University of Sfax, Soukra Road, PB.11733038 Sfax,
Tunisia
e-mail: cherif.moslah.tn@gmail.com
C. Moslah
T. Aguilar
R. Alcántara
J. Navas (&)
Departamento de Química Física, Facultad de Ciencias,
Universidad de Cádiz, E-11510 Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
e-mail: javier.navas@uca.es
In order to characterize the W-doped TiO2 samples, several
instrumental techniques were used to find the proportion of
W in the structure, the crystalline phases, and the band gap
energy.
The photocatalytic activity of the pure and W-doped TiO2
nanoparticles was analyzed. A study of the photodegradation
of methylene blue (MB) was performed using a LED spot-
light emitting at visible region. The initial concentration of
the aqueous solution of MB (purity 82%, Panreac) was
1.56  10−5 M, and the concentration of the photocatalyst
was 0.3 g L−1. The photocatalyst/MB mixture was kept in
darkness for 90 min, and the reaction time was 6 h. The
photodegradation rate (D%) of MB was studied by absor-
bance measurements; D% = [(C0-Ct)/C0]*100, where C0 is
the initial concentration of MB and Ct is the concentration
after determined time t.
3 Results and Discussion
Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy
(ICP-AES) results revealed that the estimated W contents in
the samples were found to be in good agreement with the
theoretical values. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns
(Fig. 1) exhibit the presence of both polymorphs Anatase
and Rutile, in accordance with the references, JCPDS
21-1272 for anatase and JCPDS 21-1276 for rutile. Raman
spectra are in accordance with the XRD results. For the
sample 5%W-TiO2 treated at 900 °C, a new phase (H) ap-
peared which can be a Tungsten Oxide (W5O14, PDF
41-0745) or a composite oxide of Ti and W. It is clear that

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 153

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_51
154
A (101)
R (110)
Intensity (u.a)
R (101)
A (200)
A (004)
R (111)
20 30 40
2 Th (°)
Fig. 1 Pristine XRD patterns, 1% W and 5% W-TiO2 treated at
T = 700 °C
the doping delays the transition Anatase to Rutile to high
temperature. The doping causes the decrease of Anatase
crystallite size for all the treated samples at 700 °C. As the
thermodynamic stability of Titania polymorphs depends on
the crystallite size (Zhang et al. 2000), the delay of transition
Anatase to Rutile is caused by the decrease of particle size.
The same results were found by Štengl et al. (2011). The
optical band gap (Eg), measured by UV–Vis spectroscopy in
diffuse reflectance mode, did not fluctuate that much after
doping or increasing the temperature. It increases slightly by
increasing the doping %, when the crystallites decrease in
size for samples treated at 700 °C, in accordance with the
quantum confinement model (Khadar et al. 2010).
Despite the rise of Eg, all prepared W-doped samples
have higher activity than the Degussa P25 as shown in
Table 1. These results mean that the photocatalytic activity
does not depend only on band gap but the temperature and
doping cotenant can play an important role to enhance the
photocatalytic activity. The best photocatalytic activity in
visible-light has been achieved with the sample labelled 5%
W-TiO2 (T700). This high photoactivity can be related to the
decrease of anatase crystallite size caused by the increase of
doping %. The sample 5%W-TiO2 (T900) also shows an
important photocatalytic activity and contains only 5% of
Anatase. Thus the new apparent phase (H) enhanced the
photocatalytic activity of the Rutile phase similar to the
pyrochlore phase found by Desiré et al. (2015) having the
same effect on the Rutile phase. So the doping % affects
meaningfully the photocatalytic activity.
C. Moslah et al.
Table 1 Photocatalytic activity of P25, 1% W and 5% W-TiO2 treated
at T = 700 °C and 5% W-TiO2 treated at T = 900 °C under visible
Pristine light irradiation
1% W-TiO2
Photocatalyst D% K app (s−1)
5% W-TiO2
P25 21 1.86E-4
R (211)
1% W (T700) 57 7.00E-4
5% W (T700) 74 1.05E-3
5% W (T900) 64 7.11E-4
A (211)
A (105)
R (220)
4 Conclusion
W-doped TiO2 samples were prepared by a low temper-
ature hydrolysis reaction using titanium n-butoxide as a
precursor. The estimated W contents by ICP-AES were in
good agreement with the theoretical values. The best
50 60 70 performance in MB dye photocatalytic decomposition
was achieved at 5 wt% W doping, with samples that have
the smallest anatase crystallite size. XRD and Raman
exhibit the presence of both polymorphs Anatase and
Rutile for all the samples. Comparing the XRD patterns,
the doping delays the transition Anatase-Rutile to high
temperature and causes the decrease of anatase crystallite
size for all the treated sample at 700°C. Also, a new phase
(H) appeared for 5% W-TiO2 at 900°C. The best pho-
toactivity in visible-light has been achieved with 5%
W-TiO2 (T700) and the new apparent phase (H) at 900° C
enhanced the photoactivity of the rutile phase.
References
Aguilar T, Navas J, Alcántara R, Fernández-Lorenzo C, Gallardo JJ,
Blanco G, Martín-Calleja J. A route for the synthesis of Cu-doped
TiO2 nanoparticles with a very low band gap. Chem Phys Lett.
2013;571:49–53.
Desiré M, Navas J, Aguilar T, Sánchez-Coronilla A, Fernández-Lor-
enzo C, Alcántara R, Piñero JC, Blanco G, Martín-Calleja
J. Tm-doped TiO2 and Tm2Ti2O7 pyrochlore nanoparticles: enhanc-
ing the photocatalytic activity of rutile with a pyrochlore phase.
Beilstein J Nanotechnol. 2015;6:605–16.
Khadar MA, Shanid NM. Nanoscale fine-structure evaluation of RF
magnetron sputtered anatase films using HRTEM, AFM,
micro-Raman spectroscopy and fractal analysis. Surf Coat Technol.
2010;204:1366–74.
Kumar BV, Velchuri R, Prasad G, Bansal C, Vithal M. Preparation,
characterization, photocatalytic activity and conductivity of BiLnZr
2O7 (Ln = La, Sm, Eu and Gd). Mater Chem Phys. 2012;136:439–47.
Štengl V, Velická J, Maríková M, Grygar TM. New generation
photocatalysts: how tungsten influences the nanostructure and
photocatalytic activity of TiO2 in the UV and visible regions. ACS
Appl Mater Interfaces. 2011;3:4014–23.
Zhang H, Banfield JF. Understanding polymorphic phase transforma-
tion behavior during growth of nanocrystalline aggregates: insights
from TiO2. J Phys Chem B. 2000;104:3481–7.
 Phosphorus Removal Efficiencies via
a b Proteobacterium Isolated from Active
Phosphate Mine Area in Southern Tunisia

Imen Daly, Abdelwahab Chatti, and Salah Jellali

Keywords

Biological phosphorus removal Novel polyphosphate accumulating bacteria
b proteobactericum Phosphate mine

1 Introduction subsequent reuse of phosphorus as discharged in urban or

Phosphorus stands as a key element, versatile for humans,
animals and plants alike. Yet, its excessive presence in
wastewaters could well favorize the development of
eutrophication phenomena and, consequently, the deterio-
ration of the water organis’ quality. Still, phosphorus has an
accurate economic value owing mainly to its common
application in several areas, mainly in the agricultural sector,
chemical and food industries. Global demand for this ele-
ment has continued to grow over the last decades and,
according to recent studies, the demand for phosphorus
might well exceed supply by 2035 (Cordell et al. 2011).
More recently, several technologies have been advanced and
tested for the sake of recovering phosphorus from wastes
and wastewaters such as struvite production, adsorption onto
low cost materials and accumulation in organisms. Indeed,
the latter could well stand as a sustainable and economical
solution to the already cited problems by allowing for a
I. Daly (&)
S. Jellali
Wastewaters and Environment Laboratory (LabEauE), Water
Research and Technologies Center, Technopark of Borj-Cedria,
BP. 273 8020 Soliman, Tunisia
e-mail: imen.daly@certe.rnrt.tn
S. Jellali
e-mail: salah.jallali@certe.rnrt.tn
I. Daly
Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, Tunis El Manar University, 2092
El-Manar II, Tunis, Tunisia
A. Chatti
Water Researsh and Technologies Center, Technopark of
Borj-Cedria, BP. 273 8020 Soliman, Tunisia
e-mail: chattiabdel@yahoo.fr
industrial wastewaters. In this respect, biological P recovery
may turn out to be possible through promoting the growth of
specific organisms, namely, the polyphosphate accumulating
organisms (PAOs), liable to absorb and store excessive
amounts of phosphorus (Seviours et al. 2003). Nowadays,
screening for new polyphosphate-accumulating strains,
standing as more efficient than those already described in
scientific literature, represents a rather promising measure
and attractive procedure whereby such biological systems
can be further enhanced.
2 Materials and Methods
Site, enrichment and bacteria isolation
The used soil sample was collected from an active Gafsa
sited phosphate mine (South of Tunisia). Cultivation based
techniques were used to investigate the presence of potential
polyphosphates accumulating bacteria (PAOs). The specific
medium for screening of PAOs (PA-Medium) as described
by Chaudhry et al. (2011) was used for the enrichment
experience that took two weeks. The strain PR 422 was
selected on the basis of a qualitative test, through application
of Toluidine blue-O dye (TBO) as described by Chaudhry
et al. (2011).
Phenotypic and biochemical characterization
The monoclonal strain was phenotypically and biochemi-
cally characterized via implementation of various tests, such
as the Gram test, the sporulation tests, nitrate-mobility test,
catalase and oxidase test, along with some carbohydrate

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_52
156
metabolism tests. The Analytical Profile Index API-20NE
test (Biomérieux, France) was performed in conformity with
the manufacturer set instructions. Bacterial production of
extracellular enzymes, such as amylase, lipase, caseinase,
gelatinase, was also investigated.
Evaluation of the isolate PR 422 phosphate removal
potential
The capacity of the strain PR 422 to uptake phosphorus in
PAM medium was evaluated by means of quantitative
method. Liquid samples were withdrawn at regular time
intervals and filtered through a 0.22 µm membrane filter.
The phosphate contents’ analysis, as “Pi”, was performed
spectrophotometrically at 430 nm, through application of the
nitrovanadomolybdic method (Fleury and Leclerc 1943). As
for bacterial growth, it was monitored via a spectropho-
tometer apparatus, through measuring the samples’ absor-
bance level at 600 nm. The optical density was converted to
dry cell mass via a validated calibration curve.
Sequencing and analysis of 16SrRNA
The 16S rRNA gene sequence of PR 422 was compared with
those available at the national Center for Biotechnology
Information nucleotide database, through application of the
BLAST searching approach. The Phylogenetic tree based on
16S rRNA gene sequences, as provided by the NCBI data-
base (accession numbers are given in parentheses), was
constructed by the neighbour-joining method, using the
software package MEGA, version 6.
3 Results and Discussion
Phenotypic and biochemical characterization
Phenotypic and biochemical characterization revealed that
the strain PR 422 appears to stand as an oxidase positive
bacterium, catalase positive, non spore forming, with no
motility, H2S negative, arginine dihydrolase positive and
urease positive. The isolate showed non fermentative
growth. The implemented organic substrate assimilation test
Fig. 1 Phylogenetic Neighbor-joining tree, based on 16S rRNA gene sequences, showing the relationships binding strain PR 422 and other
bacterial taxa selected strains
I. Daly et al.
proved to reveal that the bacterium can assimilate acetate,
proprionate, citrate and arabinose. The isolate did not appear
to assimilate the following compounds: mannitol, malate,
maltose and glutamate. Additionally, the strain PR 422
demonstrated negative results regarding the production of
amylase, lipase, caseinase and gelatinase.
The phosphorus removal potential
The reached results revealed well that the isolate PR 422 was
able to remove 23 mg of Pi/g of dry weight following a 24 h
incubation span. The estimated amount of accumulated Pi is
roughly 47%. In addition, the starvation of PR 422 appeared
to enhance the quantity of total recovered phosphorus to
29.19 mg/g of dry weight with an accumulated fraction of
about 70%. Such findings prove to highlight well the isolate
PR 422 potential efficiency and fit for a biological uptake
and recovery of phosphorus.
Phylogenetic analysis
Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene homology
demonstrated well that the strain PR 422 turns out to pertain to
the class of b proteobacteria, associated with an unculturable
beta-proteobacterium (GU120612.1) 98%, c (KX444202.1)
97%, Castellaniella denitrificans KF371657.1 96%, Alcali-
genes sp (FJ531636.1) 96%, and Pseudomonas sp
(X448694.1) 96% (Fig. 1).
To note, several studies have demonstrated that some
Betaproteobacteria members appear to fit appropriately well
for the wastewater treatment process. This is due mainly to
their ability to catalyze denitrification (Ginige et al. 2004),
nitrification (Fudala-Ksiazek et al. 2014), or to remove
phosphorous from sewage (Crocetti et al. 2000; Blackall
et al. 2002).
Similarly, the attained results proved to indicate, also, that the
strain PR 422 stands as an unusual bacterium. Further anal-
yses are required such as those relating to cellular fatty acid
(CFA) composition, the percentage of G + C content [as
documented by Baron (1996)], so as to define the bacterial
isolate whether as a new species or a new strain type.
Phosphorus Removal Efficiencies via a b Proteobacterium …
4 Conclusion
The present research stands as an attempt to demonstrate
the interesting potential of b proteobacterium as a phos-
phorus recovery agent. Actually, studying a new bac-
terium’s physiological characteristics, as drawn from an
extreme ecosystem, might well provide new insights as to
the diversity and physiology of polyphosphates accumu-
lating bacteria. Similarly, the indigenous bacteria may
well exhibit extra interesting physiological adaptation
features to the examined environment that seem worth
investigating. As a matter of fact, the achieved findings
sound attractive and encouraging, underlining the isolated
bacteria interest as a selective and sustainable means of
phosphorous removal and recovery from wastewaters.
References
Blackall LL, Crocetti GR, Saunders AM, Bond PL. A review and
update of the microbiology of enhanced biological phosphorus
removal in wastewater treatment plants. Antonie Van Leeuwen-
hoek. 2002;81:681–91.
Baron EJ. Classification. In: Baron S, editor. Medical microbiology. 4th
ed, Chapter 3. Galveston (TX): University of Texas Medical Branch
at Galveston; 1996.
157
Chaudhry V, Nautiyal CS. A high throughput method and culture
medium for rapid screening of phosphate accumulating microor-
ganisms. Biores Technol. 2011;102:8057–62.
Cordell D, Rosemarin A, Schröder JJ, Smit AL. Towards global
phosphorus security: a systems framework for phosphorus recovery
and reuse options. Chemosphere. 2011;84:747–58.
Crocetti GR, Hugenholtz P, Bond PL, et al. Identification of
polyphosphate-accumulating organisms and design of 16S
rRNA-directed probes for their detection and quantitation. Appl
Environ Microbiol. 2000;66(3):1175–82.
Fleury P, Leclerc M. La méthode nitrovanadomolybdique de mission
pour le dosage colorimétrique du phosphore, Soninte´reˆt en
biochimie. Bulletin de la Societe Chimique et Biologie. 1943;25:
201–5.
Fudala-Ksiazek S, Luczkiewicz A, Fitobor K, Olanczuk-Neyman K.
Nitrogen removal via the nitrite pathway during wastewater
co-treatment with ammonia-rich landfill leachates in a sequencing
batch reactor. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2014;21(12):7307–18.
Ginige MP, Hugenholtz P, Daims H, Wagner M, Keller J, Blackall LL.
Use of stable-isotope probing, full-cycle rRNA analysis, and
fluorescence in situ hybridization–microautoradiography to study
a methanol-fed denitrifying microbial community. Appl Environ
Microbiol. 2004;70:588–96.
Seviour RJ, Mino T, Onuki M. The microbiology of biological
phosphorus removal in activated sludge systems. FEMS Microbiol
Rev. 2003;27:99–127.
 Eco-Friendly Finishes for Textile Fabrics

Imene Belhaj Khalifa and Neji Ladhari

Keywords
Textile fabric Green process Plasma technology Bio-polymer Surface properties

1 Introduction process on the textile surface can be promoted. In fact, as a

Most often, high-quality textiles with functional properties
require further treatment of their surface to cater for global
market requirements. In most cases, conventional wet surface
treatment processes require high energy consumption, large
water amounts, often toxic chemicals, as well as the pro-
duction of liquid and gaseous effluents entailing expensive
purification treatments. Actually, environmental and energy
saving concerns have driven researchers and industrialists to
substitute chemical treatment processes with alternatively
greener technologies, that prove to be more efficient and less
costly. In this respect, the plasma technology seems to meet
such requirements. This physical technology consists in
using reactive plasma particles (ions, electrons, excited atoms
and photons) for the purpose of breaking covalent bonds by
means of the collision phenomenon (Faushais et al. 1977),
thus, subsequently creating free radicals and functional
groups on the treated surface. In fact, plasma treatment helps
in achieving certain desired properties such as wettability
(Abd Jelil et al. 2013) while promoting further graft poly-
merization (Gupta et al. 2010; Khalifa et al. 2017).
In the context of the present study, plasma treatment has
been used as a means whereby the Silk Sericin grafting
I. B. Khalifa (&)
Textile Engineering Department, National Engineering School,
Monastir, Tunisia
e-mail: Imene.bhk@gmail.com
I. B. Khalifa
N. Ladhari
Textile Engineering Laboratory, University of Monastir, IseT of
Ksar Hellal, Ksar Hellal, Tunisia
N. Ladhari
Higher Institute of Fashion Crafts of Monastir, Monastir 5000
Monastir, Tunisia
natural protein derived from silkworm Bombyx mori, Silk
Sericin is mostly discarded in silk processing wastewater
(Khalifa et al. 2012). It is proved to be a very useful material
owing to the wide range of unique properties it displays, e.g.,
moisture absorption ability, antibiotic and antibacterial
activities, biocompatibility, biodegradability, UV and
oxidative resistance.
2 Materials and Methods
Materials: A 100% polyester woven fabric was used for the
study implementation. Sericin powder, with a molecular
weight range 20, was purchased. Petrol Ether, Ethanol,
Acetic Acid.
Activation of textile surface with plasma technology:
The treatment was done in GEMTEX Laboratory using an
atmospheric plasma machine. The machine parameters were
velocity, electrical power, frequency, electrode length and
inter-electrode distance.
Bio-polymer application on the pre-activated surface:
Plasma treated and untreated cleaned fabric samples were
padded in a solution containing Sericin and acetic acid.
Then, they were squeezed with a padder and dried.
Characterization of the textile surface: The treatment
process was evaluated in terms of:
– Wettability with respect of water contact angle (°) and
capillarity (%) measurements. The test was implemented
by means of a tensiometer “3S Balance” from GBX
instruments, in conformity with the Wilhelmy principle
method.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 159

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_53
160 I. B. Khalifa and N. Ladhari

– Surface zeta potential, as measured via streaming

potential measurement, using a Zetacad equipment at
25 °C. A 0.001 mol/L of KCl electrolyte solution was
used.
– Surface morphology investigated by means of a scanning
electron microscopy (SEM).

3 Results and Discussion

The surface functionalization techniques help mainly create

particular functional groups on the textile supports, which
subsequently serve as initiators within the grafting process,
or can simply optimize the finishing or dyeing of textile
materials. Polyester, as a fiber widely used for biomaterial Fig. 1 SEM micrographs of untreated fabric
applications, is difficult to functionalize.
Despite its remarkably high mechanical properties, it is
hydrophobic and inert in nature, making direct surface
treatment of Polyester difficult to perform. As a result,
industrialists are enticed to treat these textiles with non
eco-friendly chemicals.
The improvement recorded in regard of the Plasma trea-
ted and grafted fabric surface wettability was indicated by
the decrease in the water contact angle (°) and increase in
Capillarity (%), in respect of the untreated sample (Table 1).
As it is shown in Table 1, the decrease in zeta potential
values recorded in the plasma treated fabric is mainly due to
the increase of COO- groups created on the polyester surface.
These functional groups will be used as initiators for the
grafting of Sericin polymers. Regarding the Sericin grafted
fabrics, independently of plasma treatment, the surface char-
ges were positive indicating the presence of NH3+ groups,
Fig. 2 SEM micrographs of plasma treated and grafted fabric
associated with the existence of Sericin on polyester surface.
The SEM micrographs, as illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2,
highlight the persistence of Silk Sericin across the polyester polyester fabrics are readily subjected to aging with time
surface as pre-activated with plasma treatment. (Khalifa et al. 2017), the present study reached results appear
The Polyester fabrics’ surface properties have been to demonstrate not only that cross-linking of Sericin on
greatly enhanced in terms of hydrophilicity due to the sur- plasma-treated PET produces a durable hydrophilic finish,
face functionalization with air atmospheric plasma treatment but also that the hydrophilic properties turn out to be even
and with Sericin cross-linking. While plasma-treated further enhanced through Sericin concentration.

Table 1 Wettability and zeta Samples Contact angle (°) Capillarity (%) Zeta potential at pH 3
potential measurements of fabric
surface Untreated 81 3 −5.48
Plasma treated 38 51 −27.81
Untreated-grafted 50 40 23.35
Plasma treated-grafted 38 83 12.84
Eco-Friendly Finishes for Textile Fabrics
4 Conclusion
The recently intensified rate of environmental pollution
has kindled the researchers’ interest as to the discovering
of alternative healthy products for the well-being of
mankind. In this regard, the plasma technology seems to
stand as a highly promotional process which likely to
help in substituting the hazardous chemical techniques.
Actually, the present study’s attained results prove to
indicate well that the implementation of plasma treat-
ment, as a low-environmental impact technology, along
with the application of sustainable bio-polymers, could
provide a novel alternative approach whereby new textile
products could be promoted.
161
References
Abd Jelil R, Zeng X, Koehl L, Perwuelz A. Prediction of plasma
surface modification of woven fabrics using neural networks. Int J
Appl Res Text. 2013;1:31–40.
Belhaj Khalifa I, Ladhari N, Nemeshwaree B, Campagne C. Crosslink-
ing of Sericin on air atmospheric plasma treated polyester fabric.
J Text Inst. 2017;108:840–5.
Faushais P, Bourdin E. Plasma chemistry and its short-term opportu-
nities. J Phys 1977; C, 3:111–134.
Gupta B, Srivastava A, Grover N, Saxena S. Plasma induced graft
polymerization of acrylic acid onto poly(ethylene terephtalate)
monofilament. Indian J Fiber Text Res. 2010;35:9–14.
Khalifa I, Ladhari N, Touay M. Application of sericin to modify textile
supports. J Text Inst. 2012;103:370–7.
 Variation of Ten Durum Wheat Genotypes
Yield and Nitrogen Agronomic Efficiency
Under Mediterranean Subhumid Condition
Kalthoum Harbaoui, Karima Belguesmi, Amel Mguidiche,
Abdennour Sebei, and Chahine Karmous



Keywords
Durum wheat Efficiency
1 Introduction
In Tunisia, durum wheat occupies 50–75% of the area
reserved for cereals and accounts for 60% of national cereal
production. Water and N fertilizers are the most limiting
factors of the Tunisian wheat production (Laatiri-Souki et al.
1998). N requirements for durum wheat are important and
were estimated to 3.2 kg/quintal of produced grains con-
trasting with only 2.4 kg/quintal for barley (Gate 1995).
Indeed, N fertilization constitutes one of the most important
agronomic practices in cereals, particularly since the elimi-
nation of crop rotations (Crews and Peoples 2004). The used
N fertilizers for wheat are constituted at 90% by
ammonium-nitrate (NH4NO3). Nitrogen use efficiency
(NUE) for cereals does not exceed 40%, which corresponds
to marginal additional cost of 60% resulting from the
non-absorbed nitrogen lost in the environment. The NUE
declined with a reduction in water application and an
increase in N rates (Rathore et al. 2017). The low average of
NUE was attributed in part to plant N losses as NH3, farming
system, tillage regime, N fertilization practice and crop
rotation (Dai et al. 2016). Worldwide, excessive N input is
responsible for reduced N fertilizer recovery and NUE
(Foulkes et al. 2009). Elsewhere, agronomic efficiency (AE),
depends on two physiological factors: (i) N uptake efficiency
(NUpE), defined as the amount of N uptake by the crop per
unit of N available to the crop and (ii) N utilization efficiency
(NUtE), defined as the grain yield per unit of N uptake by
K. Harbaoui (&)
K. Belguesmi
A. Mguidiche
A. Sebei
Regional Field Crops Research Center (CRRGC), Béja, Tunisia
e-mail: harbaoui_kalthoum@yahoo.fr
C. Karmous
The School of Higher Education in Agriculture of Mateur, Mateur,
Tunisia
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_54



Growth parameters N levels Yield parameters
the crop. NUE equations can be expanded to include addi-
tional factors components derived from soil and crop phys-
iological processes, environmental and economic factors
(Huggins et al. 2010).
2 Materials and Methods
Seven Durum wheat improved genotypes (Om Rabia,
Karim, Razzek, Khiar, Nasr, Maali and Salim) and three
landraces (Bidi, Mahmoudi and Inrat69) were grown during
the crop season 2015–2016 in Béja, a city in North-Ouest of
Tunisia (Latitude: 36.73 m, Longitude: 9.23 m, Altitude:
184 m) under rainfed condition characterised by tempera-
ture, precipitation and humidity described in Table 1.
A complete randomized bloc design with 3 replicates was
adopted for this assay. The date of sowing was achieved on
December 20th, 2015 at a rate of 350 seeds/m2. The plot
size was 2.4  5 m. Three nitrogen levels were applied:
0 kg ha-1.75 kg ha-1, and 150 kg ha-1. Nitrogen fertilizers
were applied using the ammonitrate (33.5%) in three frac-
tions at key growth stages: Z13: early tillering (30%); Z16:
elongation (40%) and Z32: 2nd node (30%). The soil type of
the experimental area is mostly clay loam with pH 7.2.
Five plants per plot were sampled ten days after each
Nitrogen application in order to measure different growth
parameters such as: Plant length (PL), Number of leaves
(NL), Number of tillers (NT), Dry matter (DM: %), Leaves
areas (LA).To assess the effect of nitrogen levels on the yield
of bread wheat genotypes, the number of spikes per m2 (NS),
number of grains per spike (NG), thousand kernel weight
(TKW) and average yield (GY) were measured at harvesting
by the use of three meter square area from each experimental
163
164 K. Harbaoui et al.

Table 1 Climatic conditions (temperature, precipitation, humidity) of the experimental site Oued Beja measured during 2015–2016 cropping
season
Climatic factors October November December January February March April Mai June
T° min (°C) 77.5 14.06 11.44 5.12 6.35 6.52 6.15 9.57 18.20
T° max (°C) 27.10 20.14 17.83 17.06 17.78 18.63 24.57 27.86 34.63
Precipitation (mm) 77.5 108.8 21.4 65 39.2 115.6 23.4 40.4 0
HR (%) 75.4 86.6 90.0 88.7 86.2 86.1 78.4 70.7 47.8

plots. Also, nitrogen agronomic efficiency (NAE) was cal-
culated for each N level and each replicate.
Statistical Analysis: ANOVA analysis was computed
using SPSS software version 20.0. Treatment means were
compared by Duncan’s multiple range test (a = 0.05).
3 Results and Discussion
Figure 1a shows that significant differences (p < 0.05) in
GY parameter between improved genotypes and landraces.
We can deduce that the yield establishment was highly
linked to the proportion of applied nitrogen. Maali followed
by Salim were the best genotypes that use the available
soluble fraction of nitrogen to accomplish the maximum of
their yield at 150 kg N. ha−1. The lowest value of GY was
recorded for Mahmoudi landrace either under half level or
full level of applied nitrogen. This could be explained by the
fact that mineral nitrogen will be available till near anthesis
growth stage for a greater resulting grain yield (Kara 2010).
This indicates that the improved genotypes could reach their
optimum genetic yield when they could obtain an optimum
level of nitrogen at the best timing. This could be explained
by the capacity of recently selected genotypes known as
more resistant to commune diseases to assimilate the soluble
fraction of nitrogen.
Therefore, the NAE calculation as shown in Fig. 1b
demonstrated highly interesting for Razzek and Salim and
seemed to be more important at half N rate than full N rate.
This could be explained by the fact that sufficient available
nitrogen for cereal is used by plant when little amount of N
is supplied. Otherwise, the big amount of N supply has been
leached at rate 150 N ha−1. The results also show that
improved genotypes require high levels of nitrogen in order
to fully express their genetic potential as confirmed by
Rathore et al. (2017).
Variation of Ten Durum Wheat Genotypes Yield …
Fig. 1 a Means of grain yield
recorded for all tested genotypes
at three N levels. b Nitrogen
Agronomic efficiency of tested
genotypes at two N levels
4 Conclusion
We can conclude that all morphological parameters are
affected by the N levels and screen a genetic variability
between tested cultivars. Also, improved varieties
responded better to the yield elaboration than landraces.
Improved varieties showed high variability according to
nitrogen agronomic efficiency. Although it provides
information on the ability of genotypes to use a fertilizer
to improve yield and its components. However, NAE is
only one component of the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE).
In order to better investigate on NUE, we are planning to
calculate all the other components that consider the lost
amount of N, the N given by the soil and the N in the crop
residues.
165
References
Crews TE, Peoples MB. Legume versus fertilizer sources of nitrogen:
ecological tradeoffs and human needs. Agric Ecosyst Environ.
2004;102:279–97.
Dai X, Wanga Y, Donga X, Qiana T, Yina L, Donga Sh, Chua J,
Hea M. Delayed sowing can increase lodging resistance while
maintaining grain yield and nitrogen use efficiency in winter wheat.
Crop J. 2016. (In press: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cj.2017.05.003).
Foulkes MJ, Hawkesford MJ, Barraclough PB, Holdsworth MJ, Kerr S,
Kightley S, Shewry PR. Identifying traits to improve the nitrogen
economy of wheat: recent advances and future prospects, Field
Crop Res. 2009;114:329–42.
Gate P. Ecophysiologie du blé. Ed. ITCF. Technique et Documentation.
Lavoisier, Paris; 1995. 419 p.
166
Huggins D, Pan W, Smith J. Yield, protein and nitrogen use efficiency
of spring wheat: evaluating field scale performance. Chapter 17 in
CSANR Research Report 2010-001. Precision N field performance.
2010.
Kara B. Influence of late-season nitrogen application on grain yield,
nitrogen use efficiency and protein content of wheat under Isparta
ecological conditions. Turk J Field Crops. 2010;15(1):1–6.
Laatiri-Souki K, Nortcliff S, Lawlor DW. Nitrogen fertilizer can
increase dry matter, grain production and radiation and water use
K. Harbaoui et al.
efficiencies for durum wheat under semi-arid conditions. Eur J
Agron. 1998;9:21–34.
Rathore VS, Nathawat NS, Renjith SB, Sasidharan P, Yadav BM,
Kumar M, Santra P, Yadava ND, Yadav OP. Yield, water and
nitrogen use efficiencies of sprinkler irrigated wheat grown under
different irrigation and nitrogen levels in an arid region. Agric Water
Manag. 2017;187:232–45.
 Optimization of Coagulation/Flocculation
Process for Landfill Leachate Treatment
Using Box–Behnken Design

Rachid Elmoubarki, Mohamed Taoufik, Ahmed Moufti,

Hanane Tounsadi, Fatima Zahra Mahjoubi, Samir Qourzal,
Mohamed Abdennouri, and Noureddine Barka

Keywords
Landfill leachate Ferric chloride Response surface methodology Box–behnken design
Coagulation Optimization COD

1 Introduction ferric chloride and ferric chloro-sulfate are added to generate

Being categorized as high strength wastewater, landfill lea-
chate is a complex mixture of organic and inorganic matters
many of which are toxic and harmful. The composition of
leachate depends on landfill age, percolation, precipitation
and type of solid waste (Narayanasamy et al. 2014; Kochany
and Lipczynska-Kochany 2009).
Landfill leachate is a source of pollution for ground water
and surface water resources as well. Therefore, it is essential
to treat the leachate adequately. Complex quality and the
presence of hazardous and toxic materials in landfill leachate
along with low BOD/COD ratio limit the application of
biological processes (Rocha et al. 2011). Hence, chemical
processes are massively used for landfill leachate as pre-
treatment or post-treatment based on chemical leachate
quality. processes include coagulation–flocculation, adsorp-
tion and membrane processes that change pollutants from
liquid to solid phase as sludge (Abbas et al. 2009). Coagu-
lation–flocculation is an efficient process in which inorganic
metal salts such as aluminum sulfate (alum), ferrous sulfate,
R. Elmoubarki (&)
M. Taoufik
A. Moufti
H. Tounsadi

F. Z. Mahjoubi
M. Abdennouri
N. Barka
Laboratoire Des Sciences Des Matériaux, Des Milieux et de La
Modélisation (LS3 M), FPK Univ. Hassan, 1, BP.145, 25000
Khouribga, Morocco
e-mail: elmoubarkirachid@gmail.com
M. Taoufik
A. Moufti
Centre Régional Des Métiers L’Education et de La Formation,
Casablanca-Settat, Annexe de Settat, Morocco
S. Qourzal
Equipe de Matériaux, Photocatalyse et Environnement,
Département de Chimie, Faculté Des Sciences, Université Ibn
Zohr, Cité Dakhla, B.P. 8106 Agadir, Morocco
high-valence cations within the solution by reducing the zeta
potential (Verma et al. 2012).
For the reduction of cost in integrated processes, the
optimization of the Coagulation–flocculation process can be
a vital practice for the improvement of total efficiency.
Response surface method (RSM) is a statistical tool for the
optimization of chemical processes in wastewater treatment
which evaluates relative significance of independent vari-
ables. Moreover, RSM optimizes the process parameters
with limited number of experiments and offers an empirical
model for the responses (Ghafari et al. 2009).
In the present study, in order to investigate the
coagulation-flocculation process as a pre-treatment, a high
strength leachate sample was selected having high total
suspended solids (TSS) and low biodegradability (low
BOD5/COD). Coagulation-flocculation process was opti-
mized by RSM with tow responses of COD and turbidity
removals.
2 Materials and Methods
Landfill leachate samples were collected from Mohammedia
and Benslimane landfill, Morocco. In these two regions, 400
tons of solid wastes are being disposed daily at this site.
After the leachate sampling, the samples were preserved
in dark polyethylene containers and kept in temperature of
4 °C.
Factorial experimental design was used to optimize the
preparation conditions, COD and turbidity removal effi-
ciency. RSM designs allow us to estimate interactions and
even quadratic effects, and hence give us the idea of the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 167

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_55
168
Table 1 Process factors and
their levels
Factors
Coagulant (g/l(X1)
Flocculant (g/L) (X2)
Time (min) (X3)
(local) shape of the response surface under investigation.
Box-Behnken design has the maximum efficiency for an
RSM problem involving three factors [coagulant (X1),
flocculant (X2) and time of stirring (X3)] and three levels
(high, middle and low). Thus, the number of runs required is
less compared to a central composite design. As regards the
measured responses, we retained the amount of COD and
turbidity removal (Table 1).
3 Results and Discussion
Based on the general quadratic response surface model, the
following empirical relationships were obtained for the
prediction of the three responses regarding to various levels
of the factors:
YðCOD removal %Þ ¼ 35:43 5:93ðX1Þ0:39ðX2Þ4:19 ðX3Þ
 22:52ðX1X1Þ 8:47ðX1X2Þ
 7:21ðX1X3Þ
Yðturbidity ðNTUÞÞ ¼ 2665; 07859; 63ðX1Þ0:39ðX2Þ
113; 46ðX3Þ  375; 65ðX1X2Þ
97; 25ðX1X3Þ  7:21ðX1X3Þ
 1162; 20ðX1X1Þ
The ANOVA results showed that the equations ade-
quately represented the actual relationship between each
response and the significant variables. The F-value implies
that the models are significant and values of “Prob > F” less
than 0.05 indicate that the model terms are significant.
Especially larger F-value with the associated p value
(smaller than 0.05, confidence interval) means that the
experimental systems can be modeled effectively with less
error. Therefore, interaction effects as adequate model terms
can be used for modeling the experimental system. Finally,
the mathematical models for the COD and turbidity removal
were used to build response surfaces as well as determine the
optimal conditions of this process (coagulant (X1 = 7.2 g/l),
flocculant (X2 = 0.20 g/l) and time of stirring (X3 = 20
min). For the COD removal, the most significant interactions
R. Elmoubarki et al.
Levels of Box-Behnkeu
Low (−1) Middle (0) High (+1)
4.8 7.2 9.6
0.04 0.12 0.2
10 20 30
were the coagulant/time, and the interaction between the
flocculant/coagulant. For turbidity removal, the best signif-
icant interaction was activation time/coagulant, in the
removal of turbidity.
4 Conclusion
In this study, the methodology of an experimental design
was used to optimize the COD and turbidity removal by
coagulation-flocculation process and to determine the
influence of the parameters (coagulant, flocculants dose,
and time of stirring) on the landfill leachate treatment by
coagulation-flocculation. The main conclusions that can
be drawn from this work were given above. The effect of
the coagulation dose showed a positive impact on
the amount of COD and turbidity removal. In addition,
the model designed for the optimal design fitted well the
experimental data, with a coefficient of determination, R2
of 0.92 and an Adj-R2 of 0.88. The p-value of this model
was less than 0.05, which indicates that the model is very
significant.
References
Abbas AA, Jingsong G, Ping LZ, Ya PY, Al-rekabi WS. Review on
Land fi ll Leachate Treatments. 2009;6(4):672–84.
Ghafari S, Aziz HA, Isa MH, Zinatizadeh AA. Application of response
surface methodology (RSM) to optimize coagulation–flocculation
treatment of leachate using poly-aluminum chloride (PAC) and
alum. J Hazard Mater. 2009;163(2–3):650–6.
Kochany J, Lipczynska-Kochany E. Utilization of landfill leachate
parameters for pretreatment by Fenton reaction and struvite
precipitation—a comparative study. J Hazard Mater. 2009;166
(1):248–54.
Narayanasamy L, Murugesan T. Degradation of Alizarin Yellow R
using UV/H2O2 advanced oxidation process. Environ Prog Sustain
Energ. 2014;33(2):482–9.
Rocha EMR, Vilar VJP, Fonseca A, Saraiva I, Boaventura RAR.
Landfill leachate treatment by solar-driven AOPs. Sol Energy.
2011;85(1):46–56.
Verma AK, Dash RR, Bhunia P. A review on chemical
coagulation/flocculation technologies for removal of colour from
textile wastewaters. J Environ Manage. 2012;93(1):154–68.
 Removal of Arsenic by Iron (Hydr)oxide
Impregnated Granular Activated Carbon
Derived from a Tunisian Date Stones

Farah Bouhamed, Zaineb Bacari, Zouheir Elouear, and Jalel Bouzid

Keywords

Activated carbon Iron (hydr)oxide nanoparticle Batch sorption Arsenic
Kinetic Isotherms

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Arsenic is one of the most toxic and carcinogenic heavy
metals, and is regarded by the World Health Organization
(WHO) as the first priority issue among the toxic substances
(Hughes 2002; Kapaj et al. 2006).
Modified adsorbents, such as activated carbon with iron
oxides, have been reported in the literature to improve
adsorption capacities and mechanical properties, indicating
that arsenic adsorption processes are becoming more effi-
cient (Chen et al. 2007; Fierro et al. 2009; Jang et al. 2008)
Our recent work demonstrated a successful conversion of
date stones to activated carbon (Bouhamed et al. 2012). How-
ever, this activated carbon already prepared in the previous work
has a significant retention capacity of heavy metals (Bouhamed
et al. 2012; 2013a, b). The objective of this work was to extend
our previous study to improve this activated carbon after
impregnated with iron oxides. Metal (hydr)oxides impregnated
in granulated activated carbon can be used to remove arsenate or
other contaminants (Suri et al. 1999; Zhang et al. 2005).
The primary advantage of using GAC because of its large
specific surface over other materials was not properly used
Coopera et al. 2010; Hristovski et al. 2008). In addition, iron
impregnated on the exterior surface was susceptible to sta-
bility issue and lost adsorption capacity.
Iron oxides, such as goethite, have shown good perfor-
mance as arsenic adsorbents due to their high selectivity for
this element. However, iron oxides have low mechanical
resistance.
F. Bouhamed (&)
Z. Bacari
Z. Elouear
J. Bouzid
Laboratoire Eau Energie et Environnement, Ecole Nationale
D’Ingénieurs de Sfax, B.P.W 3038 Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: bouhamed.farah@gmail.com
2.1 Preparation of the Iron-Modified
Granulated Activated Carbon (Fe-GAC)
In the present study, activated carbon was produced from
Tunisian date stones. It was used as raw material to produce
activated carbon via chemical activation using phosphoric
acid (analytical grade) as a dehydrating agent. The activated
carbon was prepared using a method described in a previous
work (Bouhamed et al. 2012). The activated carbon has
particle sizes ranging between 100 and 160 lm (Granular
activated carbon GAC). The surface area (SBET), the total
pore volume, and the average pore diameter of the prepared
adsorbent, determined from the Brunauer–Emmett and Teller
(BET) model, were 826 m2 g−1, 0.49 cm3 g−1, and 4.2 nm,
respectively (Bouhamed et al. 2013a, b). The pH at point of
zero charge (pHpzc) is 3.34, which indicated that the majority
of the functional groups on the adsorbent were acidic.
The GAC was impregnated with iron (hydr)oxide using
synthesis methods. GAC was selected as the base support
material because of its macroporous structure, large pore
volume, and the efficacity to adsorbent heavy meatels
(Bouhamed et al. 2013a, b). In this method, GAC is pre-
treated with KMnO4 and then brought in contact with a Fe
(II)/water solution to form ferric (hydr)oxide nanoparticles
(Coopera et al 2010; Hristovski et al. 2008). Specifically,
50 g of air-dried GAC was mixed with 500 mL KMnO4
solution in amber glass/Teflon cap 1 L bottles at 30 rpm
under the following conditions: concentration of MnO4
(0.1 N). Contact time for MnO4 and GAC (60 min) and the
percentage of Fe in dry Fe-GAC is (10% ±0.2).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 169

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_56
170
2.2 Characterization of Iron-Modified
Granulated Activated Carbon (Fe-GAC)
The physico-chemical characteristics of iron-modified
granulated activated carbon (Fe-GAC) in this experiment
were determined. Nitrogen adsorption—desorption iso-
therms at 196 °C were measured with an automatic
adsorption instrument (ASAP 2010, Micromeritics). The
specific surface area was determined by the BET isotherm
equation. Prior to the measurements, the samples were out
gassed at 300 °C under nitrogen for at least 3 h.
The point of zero charge (pHZPC) of the adsorbent was
determined by the method described by Bouzid et al. (2008).
Bulk density was determined as follows: Crystalline phases
eventually present in the adsorbent material were analyzed
by powder X-ray diffraction (XRD analyzer Philips X Pert).
Microstructure of the raw material and the –iron modified
granulated activated carbon conditions were examined using
a scanning electron microscopy (SEM, Philips XL30).
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Batch Adsorption Experiments
The arsenic adsorption experiments as well as the influence of
the contact time, pH, concentration, and temperature were
conducted. A known weight at two media such as granulated
activated carbon (GAC) and iron-modified granulated activated
carbon (Fe-GAC) as (0.5 g) was added to 200 mL of arsenic s
synthetic solution. Sorption experiments were performed by
batch equilibration technique. Solutions were prepared from
AsO3 salt and distilled water in the range of 10–100 mg/L.
Before the addition, the pH of the metals solution was adjusted
with diluted nitric acid or sodium hydroxide. After the
adsorption process the adsorbent separated from the samples by
filtering and the filtrate was analyzed for As (III) using a flame
atomic absorption spectrophotometer (HITACHI Z-6100).
Experiments on sorption kinetics were carried out with the
solution of initial concentration of 100 mg/L and contact time
of 5–480 min. The same initial concentration was used to study
the effect of pH. To evaluate the effect of temperature, the
sorption studies were also carried out at 10 and 40 °C by
shaking in tempered water bath. All experiments were per-
formed in triplicates; the standard deviation did not exceed 5%.
4 Conclusion
The iron content in the modified activated carbons
increases about 20% of surface area, and this element is
present as gohetite. Also, the 5–12% reduction on the
F. Bouhamed et al.
pore volume of micropores suggests that the iron hydro
(oxides) particles anchored on the carbon surface are
smaller, which helped to produce materials with a con-
siderably high surface area of about 1024 m2 g−1. The As
(III) adsorption capacity of activated carbons increases
after modification with iron due to the presence of iron
hydro(oxide) nanoparticles. The modified activated car-
bons removed As (III) at similar concentrations to those
found in drinking water (<300 mg L−1), but it was found
to be the most efficient material according to adsorption
capacity and adsorption kinetics. Temperature does not
have a significant effect on the As (III) adsorption
capacity, which is endothermic.
References
Bouhamed F, Elouear Z, Bouzid J. Adsorptive removal of copper
(II) from aqueous solutions on activated carbon prepared from
Tunisian date stones: equilibrium kinetics and thermodynamics.
J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng. 2012;43:741–49.
Bouhamed F, Elouear Z, Bouzid J (2013a) Batch sorption of Pb(II) ions
from aqueous solutions using activated carbon prepared from date
stones: equilibrium, kinetic, and thermodynamic studies. Deswater.
1:1–11.
Bouhamed F, Elouear Z, Bouzid J, Ouddane B (2013b) Application of
activated carbon based on a Tunisian date stons for the Ni(II) and
Zn(II) adsoption in single and binary systems. Fresenius Environ
Bull. 22:3490–3500.
Bouzid J, Elouear Z, Ksibi M, Feki M, Montiel A. Study on removal
characteristics of copper from aqueous solution by sewage sludge
and pomace ashes. J Hazard Mater. 2008;152:838.
Chen W, Parette R, Zou J, Cannon F. Arsenic removal by iron-modified
activated carbon. Water Res. 2007;41:1851–58.
Coopera AM, Hristovskib KD, Möllerc T, Westerhoffd P,
Sylvesterc P. The effect of carbon type on arsenic and trichloroethylene
removal capabilities of iron (hydr)oxide nanoparticle-impregnated
granulated activated carbons. J Hazard Mater. 2010;183:381–8.
Fierro V, Muñiz G, Gonzalez-Sanchez G. Arsenic removal by
iron-doped activated carbons prepared by ferric chloride forced
hydrolysis. J Hazard Mater. 2009;168:430–7.
Hughes MF. Arsenic toxicity and potential mechanisms of action.
Toxicol Lett. 2002;133:1–16.
Hristovski KD, Westerhoff PK, Moller T, Sylvester P. Effect of
synthesis conditions on nano-iron (hydr)oxide impregnated granular
activated carbon. Chem Eng J.2008;146:237–243
Jang M, Chen W, Cannon F. Preloading hydrous ferric oxide into
granular activated carbon for arsenic removal. Environ Sci Technol.
2008;42:3369–74.
Kapaj S, Peterson H, Liber K, Bhattacharya P. Human health effects
from chronic arsenic poisoning-a review. J Environ Sci Health A.
2006;41:2399–428.
Suri RPS, Liu JB, Crittenden JC, Hand DW. Removal and destruction
of organic contaminants inwater using adsorption, steam regener-
ation, and photocatalytic oxidation. A pilot-scale study, J Air Waste
Manage Assoc. 1999;49(8):951–958.
Zhang FS, Itoh H. Iron oxide-loaded slag for arsenic removal from
aqueous system, Chemosphere. 2005;60(3):319–325.
 Study of Methylene Blue Adsorption
in Aqueous Solution Using
Alginate-Bentonite Beads
Asma Oussalah and Abdelhamid Boukeeroui



Keywords
Adsorption Basic dye
1 Introduction
Sodium alginate is a biodegradable polymer that is generally
regarded as a safe substance, because of its nontoxic proper-
ties and gel-enhancing properties (He et al. 2015). The addi-
tion of Bentonite in gel forming alginate polymers produces
an excellent matrix that increases the compound adsorption
properties. It also improves the mechanical strength, because
the clay increases viscosity and improves stability and several
studies had showed this (Benhouria et al. 2015; Djebri et al.
2016; Uyar et al. 2016). In addition, the bentonite is efficient in
the removal of textile dye (Benhouria et al. 2015; Djebri et al.
2016). Furthermore, the encapsulation method is easy, cheap
and bentonite deposit is locally available.
2 Materials and Methods
Raw bentonite (noted B) originated from Maghnia deposit
(West of Algeria). The sodium alginate solution was pre-
pared by mixing 2 g of sodium alginate in 100 mL deion-
ized water with stirring for 1 h, and then 6 g of bentonite
clay were added. The mixtures were stirred overnight. When
the mixture became homogeneous, it was dropped through a
burette into 4% (w/v) calcium chloride to form beads with
vigorous stirring. The excess unbounded calcium chloride
from the bead surface was removed by washing many times
with deionized water. The washed beads were then dried for
A. Oussalah (&)
A. Boukeeroui
LTMGP Laboratory, University of Bejaia, Bejaia, Algeria
e-mail: asma3485@gmail.com
A. Boukeeroui
e-mail: hamid_602001@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_57


Bentonite Calcium alginate
48 h at room temperature and noted A-B. At the end, they
were stored in a clean bottle. Functional groups of A and
A-B were analyzed by a SHIMADZU FTIR 8400 spec-
trometer over the wave range from 4000 to 400 cm−1 (KBr
1%). The adsorption of adsorbate (methylene blue) was
conducted in a batch. All mixtures were shaken at 25 °C and
pH 6.5. The suspensions were then centrifuged and the basic
dye concentrations in the supernatant were measured with
UV-visible spectrophotometer (Model: OPTIZEN 3220 UV)
at 640 nm wavelength. Adsorption isotherms were deter-
mined at 25 °C, pH 6.5, by shaking 0.05 g or 0.01 g of the
adsorbent B or A-B respectively with V ml of dye solution
(concentration Ci = 10–3000 mg/l). After being continu-
ously stirred (100 rpm) for time t (min), the solutions were
separated from the solid by centrifugation. The remaining
concentrations in the supernatants Ce (mg/l) were deter-
mined by UV-visible spectrophotometer at 640 nm. Two
isothermal models Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms were
applied to the experimental data.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 FTIR Study
The functional groups of A and A-B were characterized by
FTIR spectra and shown in Fig. 1. The strong peak at
3416 cm−1 was assigned to stretching vibration of OH
groups (interlayer water of bentonite and alginate) and the
small band at 2926 cm−1 was assigned to the –CH stretch-
ing. The intensive peak at 1623 cm−1 was attributed to the
OH-bending mode of H2O bending band (A-B spectrum),
while the peak at 1030 cm−1 represented the Si–O stretching
vibrations, which was mainly associated with
171
172 A. Oussalah and A. Boukeeroui

Fig. 1 Infrared Spectra of

alginate bead (A) and encapsulate
beads alginate-bentonite (A-B)

montmorillonite (A-B spectrum). The bands at 1616 and
1424 cm−1 were attributed to the asymmetric and symmetric
stretching vibrations of carboxylate groups of alginate,
respectively (A and A-B spectra).
3.2 Isotherm Study
The adsorption obeys well the Langmuir isotherm. This
indicates that the surface of adsorbent is monolayer covered
with adsorbed molecules (MB) (Mohammadi et al. 2014).
According to Langmuir isotherm, the maximum adsorption
capacity of Alginate-Bentonite (A-B) nanoparticles toward
MB increased from 345 to 521.76 mg/g. Besides, the qmax
value of MB for A-B adsorbent was much higher than pre-
vious reported adsorbents, such as alginate-clay
quasi-cryogel beads (181.8 mg/g) (Uyar et al. 2016) and
graphene oxide/calcium alginate (181.81 mg/g) (Li et al.
2013) (Table 1).

Table 1 Langmuir and Model Langmuir Freundlich

Freundlich isotherm parameters 2
and theirs respective correlation qmax (mg/g) KL (l/mg) R 1/n KF R2
coefficients B 345 0.07 0.97 0.28 58 0.92
A-B 521.76 0.046 0.98 0.23 104.98 0.92
Study of Methylene Blue Adsorption in Aqueous Solution …
4 Conclusion
In this work, the adsorption of methylene blue in aqueous
solutions was studied using alginate—bentonite as sup-
ports. The encapsulation had doubled the maximum
adsorption capacity of bentonite references.
References
Benhouria A, Azharul Islam M, Zaghouane-Boudiaf H, Boutahala M,
Hameed BH. Calcium alginate–bentonite–activated carbon com-
posite beads as highly effective adsorbent for methylene blue. Chem
Eng J. 2015;270:621–30.
Djebri N, Boutahala M, Chelali NE, Boukhalfa N, Zeroual L. Enhanced
removal of cationic dye by calciumalginate/organobentonite beads:
173
Modeling, kinetics, equilibriums, thermodynamic and reusability
studies Int J Biol Macro. 2016;92:1277–87.
He Y, Wu ZS, Tu L, Han Y, Zhang G, Li C. Encapsulation and
characterization of slow-release microbial fertilizer from the
composites of bentonite and alginate. Appl Clay Sci. 2015;109–
110:68–75.
Li Y, Du Q, Liu T, Sun J, Wang Y, Wu S, Wang Z, Xia Y, Xia L.
Methylene blue adsorption on graphene oxide/calcium alginate
composites. Carb Polym. 2013;95:501–7.
Mohammadi A, Daemi H, Barikani M. Fast removal of malachite green
dye using novel super paramagnetic sodium alginate-coated Fe3O4
nanoparticles. Int J Bio Macro. 2014;69:447–55.
Uyar G, Kaygusuz H, Bedia Erim F. Methylene blue removal by
alginate–clay quasi-cryogel beads. React Funct Polym. 2016;106:
1–7.
 Easy and Cost Effective Preparation
of Cellulose Beads from Almond Shell:
Characterization and Application in Copper
(II) Adsorption from Aqueous Solutions
Najeh Maaloul, Paula Oulego, Manuel Rendueles, Achraf Ghorbal,
and Mario Díaz



Keywords
Adsorption Almond shell
model
1 Introduction
Cellulose is the most abundant biopolymer on earth and it is
frequently extracted from plant sources. The dissolution of
cellulose requires “green” solvents. In this sense, ionic liq-
uids (ILs) have been gradually used to dissolve cellulose due
to their environmental friendliness (Darji et al. 2015). Thus,
1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (BmimCl) has been
selected due to its effectiveness in the dissolution of cellu-
lose (Muginova et al. 2016; Meng et al. 2017). The regen-
erated cellulose has several potential applications in
biomedical science, pharmaceutical health care, cosmetics,
energy science, and water treatment. So far, numerous pro-
cesses have been employed for water treatment such as
chemical precipitation, membrane filtration, ion exchange,
reserve osmosis, and electrochemical treatment. All of these
N. Maaloul (&)
A. Ghorbal
Applied Thermodynamics Research Unit, National Engineering
School, University of Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia
e-mail: maaloul.najeh@hotmail.fr
A. Ghorbal
e-mail: achraf.ghorbal.issat@gmail.com
P. Oulego
M. Rendueles
M. Díaz
Chemical Engineering and Environmental Technology,
University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
e-mail: oulegopaula@uniovi.es
M. Rendueles
e-mail: mrenduel@uniovi.es
M. Díaz
e-mail: mariodiaz@uniovi.es
A. Ghorbal
Higher Institute of Applied Sciences and Technology,
University of Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_58




Cellulose beads Characterization Heavy metals Kinetic
techniques can be employed for the treatment of industrial
effluents but their use is limited due to their high cost.
Adsorption technique is proved to be an economic and
effective method for the removal of a number of pollutants
from water, thanks to its efficiency and flexibility. In a recent
research, cellulose hydrogels prepared with BmimCl have
been tested not only as effective adsorbents for aqueous dye
solution (indigo carmine), but also as a sensing material
for spectrophotometric determination of this dye in
water-soluble foods, tuffs and pharmaceuticals (Muginova
et al. 2016). In this context, the goal of the present work was
the preparation of cellulose beads from almond shells (Pru-
nus dulcis) in BmimCl and their application for Copper
(II) ions adsorption from aqueous solutions. The prepared
cellulose beads were characterized by FTIR, SEM, XRD and
TGA/DTG. The equilibrium isotherms and the adsorption
kinetics in batch and in a fixed bed column were also
investigated to better understand the adsorption process of
Copper (II) in aqueous solution. The reusability of prepared
biomaterials were also investigated.
2 Materials and Methods
Cellulose beads from almond shell (CBBAS) were prepared
by dissolving cellulose extracted from Tunisian almond
(Prunus dulcis) shell in an ionic liquid (ILs):
1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (BmimCl). The
extracted cellulose named as “bleached almond shell (BAS)”
was prepared according to the method described by Maaloul
et al. 2017 in a recent research. The regeneration of cellulose
gel was achieved by adding the cellulose solution onto an
anti-solvent and then freeze-dried. The structure of cellulose
175
176
beads were characterized by FTIR and SEM. The crys-
tallinity and thermal stability were determined by XRD and
TGA/DTG, respectively. The adsorption of Copper (II) was
studied at different initial concentrations, ranging from 50 to
700 mg L−1. The effect of contact time in batch and fixed
bed column was also studied, using Copper (II) solution with
initial concentration of about 200 mg L−1 and pH 6.
A quantitative determination of copper (II) ions was carried
out by inductively coupled plasma (ICP) mass spectrometry
(ICP-MS) using an Agilent 7500 ce spectrometer (Agilent
Technologies).
3 Results and Discussion
The external and internal structure of freeze-dried cellulose
beads was examined by SEM. The typical SEM images of
cellulose beads showed a relevant highly porous
microstructure. The pore size of cellulose hydrogel ranged
from 5 to 17 µm. The pores formed in these supramolecular
hydrogels have some obvious advantages in transporting
guest molecules such as water, metal ions, etc. Figure 1
shows the diffraction patterns of bleached almond shell
(BAS) and the cellulose beads of bleached almond shell
(CBBAS). A sharp peak can be seen at 2h value around 20°,
suggesting the successful conversion of cellulose I into
Fig. 1 Diffraction patterns of bleached almond shell (BAS) and
cellulose beads of bleached almond shell (CBBAS)
N. Maaloul et al.
cellulose II during dissolution and regeneration of cellulose.
TGA and DTG analysis showed a high thermal stability of
the prepared beads.
The data of the equilibrium modeling was studied in
batch experiments at 30 °C and pH 6, using a biosorbent
concentration of 0.1 g L−1 and initial concentration of
Copper (II) ions in the range of 50–700 mg L−1. Such data
were fitted to different adsorption models such as Fre-
undlich, Redlich-Peterson, Sips and Toth, Sips model being
the best one (R2 = 0.99998) with a maximum adsorption
capacity of 128.24 mg g−1 (Fig. 2).
The experimental kinetic data was modeled using
pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order kinetic models.
Table 1 summarizes the calculated kinetic parameters for the
Copper (II) ions adsorption from aqueous solution onto
CBBAS biosorbent in batch experiment. The obtained
results showed that the pseudo-second-order kinetic model
fitted well the experimental data (R2 > 0.99). Moreover, the
kinetic study in a fixed bed column showed that the maxi-
mum adsorption capacity of Copper (II) was found to be
77.12 mg g−1 at a flow rate of 3.9 mL min−1 and a bed
height of 2 cm. The re-adsorption efficiency (RE) of the
biosorbent show an acceptable usability as the RE value is
higher than 60% after four adsorption—desorption cycles.
Fig. 2 Simulation of isotherm by Langmuir, Freundlich, Redlich-
Peterson, Toth and Sips models of Copper (II) adsorption onto CBBAS
Easy and Cost Effective Preparation of Cellulose Beads … 177

Table 1 Kinetic constants for Kinetic model Parameters Values

the Copper (II) adsorption in
aqueous solution onto cellulose Experimental adsorption capacity qexp (mg g−1) 106.5
beads (CBBAS) Pseudo-first-order model qe (mg g−1) 102.9
qt ¼ qe ð1  ek1 t Þ k1 (min−1) 0.35
R2,a 0.96
X2,b 40.75
−1
Pseudo-second-order model qe (mg g ) 106.85
q2 k t
qt ¼ 1 þeqe2k2 t k2 (g mg−1 min−1) 0.007
R 2,a
0.99
X2,b 12.07
a 2
R is the coefficient of determination
b
X2 is the Reduced Chi square

4 Conclusion environmental remediation applications. Besides, the

Highly porous cellulose beads were successfully prepared
from regenerated cellulose of almond shells waste
through an easy dissolution in BmimCl IL and regener-
ation methods. Cellulose beads exhibited highly porous
microstructure which could be used as biosorbents for
contaminated wastewater. The maximum biosorption
capacity of biosorbents was found to be 128.24 mg g−1.
The kinetic adsorption experiment demonstrated that the
adsorption equilibrium can be reached within 2 h and the
maximum adsorption capacity for Copper (II) ions was
106.85 mg g−1 in batch experiments and 77.12 mg g−1 in
fixed bed column ones. These findings showed that ILs
play an important role not only in the course of the
dissolution-regeneration of cellulose, but also in the
adsorption of toxic heavy metal such as Copper (II).
Cellulose beads with high porosity could potentially be
useful as low-cost absorbent materials in biomedical or
synthesized biosorbent also had easy packing.
References
Darji D, Alias Y, Som FM, Razak NHA. Microwave heating and
hydrolysis of rubber wood biomass in ionic liquids. J Chem
Technol Biotechnol. 2015;90:2050–56.
Muginova SV, Myasnikova DA, Kazarian SG, Shekhovtsov TN.
Evaluation of novel applications of cellulose hydrogel films recon-
stituted from acetate and chloride of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium by
comparing their optical, mechanical, and adsorption properties. Mater
Today Commun. 2016;8:108–17.
Meng Y, Pang Z, Dong C. Enhancing cellulose dissolution in ionic
liquid by solid acid addition. Carbohydr Polym. 2017;163:317–23.
Maaloul N, Oulego P, Rendueles M, Ghorbal A, Diaz M. Novel
biosorbents from almond shells: characterization and adsorption
properties modeling for Cu(II) ions from aqueous solutions.
J Environ Chem Eng. 2017;5:2944–54.
 Carboxylic Magnetic Latex Particles Using
Seeded Emulsion Polymerization
for Wastewater Treatment

Zied Marzougui, Mohamed Damak, Ahmed Bitar, Geraldine Augsti,

Quentin Lelong, Boubaker Elleuch, and Abdelhamid Elaissari

Keywords
Magnetic emulsion Seeded emulsion polymerization Core-shell morphology
Functionalization Methacrylic acid

1 Introduction part is related to the characterization of the prepared mag-

Magnetic particles have gained special attention as support
of molecules, biomolecules and used in various fields related
to life science such as in vitro diagnostic (Roveimiab et al.
2012; Macková et al. 2012), in vivo imaging (Ahmd et al.
2012; Medeiros et al. 2013) and also in bioinorganic
chemistry (Yan et al. 2012). Magnetic particles are attractive
due to the effect that magnetic separation was often reported
to be more advantageous than other classical separation
methods, such as centrifugation or filtration, providing easy
and fast separation in disperse media under well defined
permanent magnet (Marzougui et al. 2015). Additionally, in
some applications magnetic nanoparticles can be regenerated
and then reused for several adsorption cycles, which has a
positive impact from an economic and industrial point of
view. The aim of this manuscript was to prepare well defined
submicron magnetic latex particles bearing functional
groups for specific adsorption of heavy metal ions. To target
such objective, this work was divided in two parts. The first
Z. Marzougui (&)
A. Bitar
G. Augsti
Q. Lelong
A. Elaissari
University of Lyon, CNRS, University Claude Bernard Lyon 1,
LAGEP UMR 5007; 43 Boulevard Du 11 November 1918, 69622
Villeurbanne, France
e-mail: marzougui_zied@hotmail.com
M. Damak
Applied Chemistry and Environment Research Unit, Faculty of
Sciences; Department of Chemistry, Boulevard de
L’Environnement, 5000 Monastir, Tunisia
Z. Marzougui
M. Damak
B. Elleuch
Laboratory of Environmental Engineering and Ecotechnology
GEET, National School Engineer of Sfax, University of Sfax,
3052 Sfax, Tunisia
netic latex particles and the second part is focused on
evaluating the prepared magnetic colloidal particles for
wastewater treatment.
2 Materials and Methods
Submicron magnetic latex particles with carboxylic group
functionality were prepared and then used as adsorbent for
adsorption and desorption of heavy metal ions, according to
our previous mentioned work using seeded emulsion poly-
merization (Marzougui et al. 2015). The synthesis was per-
formed via seeded emulsion polymerization in two
successive steps (Fig. 1), including the encapsulation of
preformed oil-in-water magnetic emulsion using Styrene (St
20%) and Divinylbenzene (DVB 80%) to obtain a magnetic
core and poly(St-DVB) shell latex particles. Then, the pre-
pared magnetic poly(St-DVB) latex particles were encap-
sulated using Methacrylic acid monomer (MAA) to prepare
Methacrylic acid coated-magnetic poly(St-DVB) particles.
The adsorption behavior of these latex adsorbents was
investigated by means of batch experiments at 20 °C. The
magnetic adsorbent was added of the corresponding metals
solutions. The mixture was adjusted to desired pH values
using 0.1 M NaOH or HCl solutions and mixed by shaking
(200 rpm) for 1 h until the equilibrium was established. The
magnetic adsorbents were then separated from the mixture
by a permanent magnet,, as schematically represented in
Fig. 2. After the magnetic separation, the supernatant was
collected for estimation of the residual metals ions spec-
trophotometrically using a Thermo Scientific Atomic
Absorption Spectrophotometer (Model ICE 3000 AA

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 179

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_59
180 Z. Marzougui et al.

Fig. 1 Synthesis of Itaconic acid coated-magnetic poly(divinylbenzene) latex particles MLP-MAA

system). Equilibrium adsorption capacity of the corre-

sponding metal ions was determined using the mass balance
according to Zhang et al. (2013).

3 Results and Discussion

Submicron and carboxyl-functionalized magnetic latex par-

Fig. 2 Adsorption-desorption–regeneration cycles of magnetic latex
particles
ticles were elaborated using seeded emulsion polymerization
technique in the presence of oil-in-water (o/w) magnetic
emulsion as seed. The polymerization conditions were
optimized in order to get well-defined latex particles with
magnetic core and polymer shell bearing carboxylic
(–COOH) functionality, as schematically represented in
Fig. 1: starting from (o/w) magnetic emulsion as seed,
synthesis process was performed by copolymerization of
styrene (St) monomer with the cross-linker divinylbenzene
(DVB). The prepared magnetic latex particles were first
characterized in terms of particle size, chemical composition,
morphology, magnetic properties, magnetic content, and
colloidal stability using various techniques, e.g. particle size
analyzer using dynamic light scattering (DLS) technique,
Fourier transform infrared, transmission electron micro-
scopy, vibrating sample magnetometer, thermogravimetric
analysis, and zeta potential measurements as a function of
pH of the dispersion media, respectively. The prepared
magnetic latex particles were then used as second seed for
Carboxylic Magnetic Latex Particles Using Seeded Emulsion …
further functionalization with methacrylic acid (MAA) in
order to enhance carboxylic groups on the magnetic particle
surface. The results showed that final magnetic latex parti-
cles possessed a spherical morphology with a core-shell
structure and enriched carboxylic acid functionality.
The hydrodynamic size of the latex particles was
determined and then noted to be in the range from 400 to
650 nm. The latex particles structure and morphology were
examined by transmission electron microscopy and exhib-
ited spherical morphology with a magnetic core/polymer
shell-like structure after the polymerization step. Latex
particles were negatively charged irrespective of pH of the
dispersion medium. The observed negative zeta potential in
the investigated pH domain shows the appreciable colloidal
stability of the prepared magnetic latex particles. The
amount of organic matter (polymer) induced during poly-
merization was calculated in view of the weight loss per-
centages in the TGA curves. The major weight loss due to
the calcination of organic matter occurred in the range of
200–450 °C and reached a plateau at 500–700 °C repre-
senting the residual mass% of the inorganic iron oxide
part. The weight proportions of the organic poly (divinyl-
Fig. 3 Separation of magnetic latex particles from suspension using an external magnetic field
Fig. 4 Ni(II) adsorption and regenerated MLP-MAA adsorbent with five adsorption–regeneration cycles
181
benzène@styrene-co- methacrylic acid) crosslinked shells
were estimated at around 21.89% considering that the mass
retention at 700 °C for magnetic emulsion as a reference
was 76.26% (Figure not shown).
Various factors affecting the uptake behavior such as
contact time, temperature, pH, amount of MLP-MAA and
initial concentration of Ni2+ were evaluated. The adsorption
process was relatively fast and the equilibrium could be
reached within 5 min, and the maximum adsorption of Ni2+
ions occurred at pH 6 (Fig. 3).
MLP-MAA exhibited a high stability and good
reusability under experimental conditions. Ni2+ ions could
be desorbed completely by 0.1 mol L−1 HCl solution within
1 min, and the regenerated MLP-MAA could retain the
original metal removal level. MLP-MAA was able to
remove 98% of Ni2+ ions, indicating no irreversible sites on
the surface of MLPIA for desorption process. The 5
adsorption–desorption cycles (Fig. 4) suggested that the
nanoadsorbent in this study had a great potential in practical
applications. The Ni2+-loaded ML-MAA magnetic adsorbent
can be easily desorbed by changing the pH of the desorption
medium.
182
4 Conclusion
Submicron magnetic latex particles were successfully
prepared in two successive steps using seeded emulsion
polymerization technique. The prepared carboxyl-bearing
magnetic particles were fully characterized using various
techniques. The prepared magnetic latex particles were
used as adsorbents of heavy metals. The results obtained
demonstrated that the prepared magnetic latex particles
were submicron in size, negatively charged and have
good colloidal stability. In addition, the prepared mag-
netic latex particles have high magnetic content (>58%)
which makes them easier to be separated under the effect
of classical external magnetic field. Indeed, less than one
minute was enough to induce total separation under
classical external magnet which is highly favorable for
fast separation applications.
Z. Marzougui et al.
References
Ahmd M, Rashid K, Nadeem M, Masood K, Ali S, Nafees M,
Gull N, Ibrahim M-ul-HN, Saeed A, Qureshy A, Aleem F,
Naseer H, Mehmood S, Hyder SW. J Colloid Sci Biotechnol.
2012;1:201.
Macková H, Horák D, Trachtová Š, Rittich B, Španová A. J Colloid Sci
Biotechnol. 2012;1:235.
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(16):15807–19.
Medeiros SF, Lara SF, Oliveira PFM, Moraes RM, Alves GM,
Elaissari A, Santos AM. J Colloid Sci Biotechnol. 2013;2:180.
Roveimiab Z, Mahdavian AR, Biazar E, Heidari KS. J Colloid Sci
Biotechnol. 2012;1:82.
Yan H, Yang L, Yang Z, Yang H, Li A, Cheng R. J Hazard Mater.
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 Fixed Bed Adsorption Dynamics
Experimental Study and Modeling of C3H6
Capture into Faujasite Type Zeolite

Olfa Ouled Ltaief, Nesrine Dammak, and Mourad Benzina

Keywords
Fixed bed adsorption Modelling Propylene Faujasite Clay

1 Introduction
The adsorption of C3H6 on Faujasite type zeolite prepared
from Tunsian illitic clay has been investigated through fixed
bed expirements. The effects of various operating parameters
including inlet C3H6 concentration(2000–6000 ppm), gas
flow rate (50–150 ml min−1) and the bed height (10–18 cm)
on adsorption performance were studied. The results showed
that the Faujasite zeolite has an excellent adsorption capacity
for the C3H6. For the modelling of the fixed bed a mathe-
matical model was developed and tested predicting the
behavior of the fixed bed adsorption experiments accurately.
The experimental data and the corresponding model simu-
lated results were compared. The experiments can always be
reproduced by simulation with high correlation coefficients
(R2 = 0.998).
2 Materials and Methods
obtained gel was then transferred into stainless autoclave and
crystallized at 60 °C for 24 h. Finally, the solid product was
separated by filtration and washed thoroughly several times
with deionized water until it reached a pH of around 9, and
then it was dried and crushed.
2.2 Adsorption Experiments
The adsorption of the C3H6 was measured in a continuous
flow system on a fixed bed at atmospheric pressure. Before
each test, the adsorbent was treated in flowing air (2 L h−1)
at 200 °C for 4 h. The flow of the gases (balance with air)
was adjusted by a Calibrage CAL PC-5 apparatus consisting
of a saturator and mass flow controllers. After reaching a
stable flow, the adsorbate passed through the adsorbent bed.
The feed and the reactor outflow gases were analyzed on line
by a micro-gas chromatograph (VARIAN CP4900).

2.1 Preparation of Faujasite Type Zeolite 3 Results and Discussion

from Tunisian Clay
RC was first crushed and grinded to obtain powder
(<60 µm). RC was then mixed with NaOH powder. The
resulting material was grinded, placed into nickel crucible
and heated in a muffle furnace. The fused sample was then
cooled to room temperature, grinded to a fine powder and
added to the appropriate amount of distillated water, fol-
lowed by vigorous stirring at room temperature. The
O. Ouled Ltaief (&)
N. Dammak
M. Benzina
Water, Energy and Environment Laboratory, Code AD 10-02
ENIS, B.P 3038 Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: olfa.ol@live.fr
3.1 Dynamic Adsorption of Propene
on Faujasite Type Zolite
The breakthrough curves present the evolution of the C/C0
ratio as a function of time, where C is the concentration of
propene at the outlet of the column and C0 is the concen-
tration of propene at the inlet. The adsorption capacity
before breakthrough matches the quantity of propene
adsorbed along the column. The saturation of the zeolite was
reached when C/C0 was up to 1. The dynamic adsorption
behavior of propene was evaluated on the synthesized Fau-
jasite. The effects flow rate, bed height and C3H6 inlet

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 183

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_60
184 O. Ouled Ltaief et al.

concentration on adsorption capacity were studied. The 3.2 Modelling

effects of flow rate on propene adsorption on the zeolite were
studied. The experiments were carried out at different gas
flow rates: 50, 100 and 150 mL min−1. In each test run the
bed height was kept constant at 10 cm and inlet concentra-
tion of propene was varied from 4 to 12 mg L−1. The results
presented in Fig. 1 show that the breakthrough time
decreases from 35 to 7 min as the flow rate was increased
from 50 to 150 mL min−1 for an inlet propene concentration
of 4 mg L−1. Thus the lower the flow rate, the higher the
retention of propene by the FAU syn as well as the break-
through. The fast breakthrough and the rapid saturation of
the bed at a greater flow rate could be explained by the rise
in the flow rate that contributed to a reduction of the resi-
dence time of gas in the column and consequently to the
decrease of the contact time between the adsorbate and the
adsorbent. In fact, the low flow rates can increase the
thickness of the mass transfer layer around the zeolite, which
leads to the increase of the external mass transfer (film)
resistance and consequently delaying the breakthrough.
According to the inverse effect of gas flow rate on propene
adsorption and breakthrough time, it is recommended to
design a process with low flow rate to increase retention
efficiency.
1 (I) the axial dispersion term, (II) convection flow term,
C 0 = 4 mg/L
Z=10 cm
0.8
For most of the adsorption processes, the adsorbent is in
contact with a gas in a filled bed. An understanding of the
dynamics activities of similar systems is then necessary for a
reasonable process design and optimization. Usually, a fixed
bed model used to define the behavior of the gas phase in an
adsorption bed is derived from the mass balances based on
the following assumptions.
• Ideal gas law applies,
• The porosity of the column is considered to be constant
along the column length (equal to 0.4),
• The radial concentration gradient is negligible,
• the column is supposed cylindrical with constant section
(S) and of L length,
• temperature changes in particles are neglected
(isothermal),
• the adsorbent grains are assumed to be spheres of a
homogenous size.
In order to model the dynamic behavior of an adsorption
column, a gas mixture containing the air (carrier gas) and the
propene (solute) of an initial concentration C0 is considered,
passing with a flow rate Q a fixed adsorption bed. According
to the hypotheses stated above, the dynamic adsorption
model consists of the following equations, which include:
(III) accumulation in the fluid phase and (IV) the accumu-
lation in the solid phase consists of the following second
order partial differential equation:

@2C @C @C ð1  ebed Þ @q
0.6 DL 2 þ u þ þ qads ¼ 0 ð1Þ
@Z
|fflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflffl} @Z @t e
|ffl{zffl} |{z} |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl @t
bed
ffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
C/C0

I II III IV
Q=50 mL.min-1
0.4 The kinetic models chosen for a comparative study are:
Q=100 mL.min-1
– local Equilibrium model (ILE)
0.2 Q=150 mL.min-1 – External fluid film model (external transfer: TE)
– The Linear Driving Force (LDFS) model or the particle
0 grain diffusion model (DGPS) to describe the transfer
0 20 40 60 80 100 process within the particle of adsorbent (internal transfer).
Time (min)
Model 1: ILE, TE and LDFS without axial mass
Fig. 1. Effect of the feed flow rates on the adsorption of propene into dispersion
FAU syn (C0 = 4 mg/L, Z = 10 cm)
Fixed Bed Adsorption Dynamics Experimental Study … 185

Fig. 2. Breakthrough curves of

propene in FAU syn:
experimental and predicted data

The first term of the equation of Eq. (1) complicates the internal mass transfer by the LDFS model mainly at the
calculations. It is usually neglected by assuming a piston beginning of the experiment.
flow without axial dispersion. Then, the equations system
describing the column behaviour is given by:
4 Conclusion
@q The effect of flow rate, adsorbate concentration and bed
u @@C @C
Z þ @t þ
ð1ebed Þ
ebed qads @ t ¼0
height on the adsorption of propene within FAU syn was
@q kf
av
@t ¼ qads
ðC  Ci Þ examined. In order to study the relationship between the
@q various parameters influencing the mass transfer and the
@t ¼ kLDFS
ðqi  qÞ
adsorption phenomena into the FAU syn adsorbent bed, a
qi ¼ 1qmþ
K
C
K
Ci
i
mass balance equation was used leading to the estab-
lishment of a second order partial differential equations.
In the order to determine the accuracy of the fixed bed Firstly, to simplify the calculation, the term of axial dis-
model, the results of this model were simulated using comsol persion with a transfer obeying to the LDFS law was
Multiphysics software and compared to the experimental neglected. Then, in order to be closer to the real phe-
one. The results given in Fig. 2 show a small deviation nomena, we took into account the effects due to the
between the predicted and experimental breakthrough dispersion and the internal transfer within the particle of
(R2 = 0.948). adsorbent (DGPS theory). The resolution of the system of
In fact, for a low breakthrough time (t < 50) the numer- equations obtained was performed on
ical breakthrough curves were dispersive when compared to COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS. The comparison of the
the experimental ones. For higher values, the numerical simulated and experimental curves proves the effective-
curves match better the experimental measurements. This ness of the model and shows a good similarity between
observation can be explained by a bad representation of the the theory and the experiment.
 Organic Acids Assisted Phytoextraction
of Heavy Metals: A Review

Hafiz Muhammad Tauqeer and Muhammad Sagir

Keywords
Heavy metal toxicity Low molecular weight organic acids Metal mobilization
Phytoextraction Remediation rhizosphere

1 Introduction 2 Heavy Metal Sources of Soil

Metallic compounds are present in the environment and are
of great concern for ecological systems due to their toxicity.
These elements are recognised as arsenic (As), chromium
(Cr), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), cobbalt (Co), lead (Pb),
mercury (Hg) and nickel (Ni). These metallic compounds are
present in high amounts in the environment as contaminants
and the quality of soil, atmosphere and water system is
greatly influenced by them considering as a threat to humans
and animals by entering into the food chain (Jing et al. 2007;
Lone et al. 2008; Handique and Handique 2009). They are
non-biodegradable and retain in the environment for several
years. Many metals are referred as mutagenic and carcino-
genic (Beyersmann and Hartwig 2008).
The applications of organic acids for phytoextraction has
attained significant importance during the past few years.
These organic acids are low cost, easily available, prepared
at small scale and avoid risk of ground water contamination,
thus preferred over synthetic chelators. The increased metal
solubility by lowering the soil pH. Moreover, these organic
acids are biodegradable and sufficient amount of oxygen and
carbon are obtained from as an end product which increased
soil microbial activity (Van Hees et al. 2003).
H. M. Tauqeer (&)
Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Gujrat,
Gujrat, Pakistan
e-mail: enviro1537@gmail.com
M. Sagir
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Gujrat, Hafiz
Hayat Campus, Gujrat, Pakistan
e-mail: m.sagir@uog.edu.pk
Contamination
Heavy metals are commonly delineate as elements having
atomic number >20 and have metallic properties. The most
common heavy metals are arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd),
copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr),
cobalt (Co), mercury (Hg), and manganese (Mn). Some of
these metals are considered as micronutrients like Cu, Mn,
Zn, Fe and Co and essential for plants growth, while others
have toxic effects on plants, vegetables, humans and animals
such as Pb, Hg, Ni, As, Cr, and Cd (Gaur and Adholeya
2004; Tangahu et al. 2011).
Metal pollution has disastrous effects on biological sys-
tems. Toxic metals such as Cd, Cr, Pb, Ni and Hg are not
easily biodegraded and easily accumulate in living organ-
isms and thus causing disorders and other various diseases in
the organisms even at a low concentration. The disruption in
naturally occurring biogeochemical cycle of metals due to
anthropogenic activity, soils of the urban and rural areas may
have been accumulated by one or more type of heavy metals.
Heavy metal pollution by anthropogenic activities leads
toward more mobility and bioavailability of metals in soils
than in pedogenic or lithogenic (D’amore et al. 2005).
Disposal of metal rich waste in inappropriate un-protected
landfills, lead based paints applications, use of leaded
gasoline, application of fertilizers, Sewage sludge (bioso-
lids), animal manures, compos, coal combustion residues,
pesticides, atmospheric depositions and petrochemicals are
major sources of soil contamination by heavy metals due to
wide range of anthropogenic activities (Wuana et al. 2010;
Singh and Prasad 2011).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 187

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_61
188
3 Factors Influencing Phytoextraction
The desired characteristics of plants for efficient phytoex-
traction are fast growth rate, high biomass production, long
roots, strong defensive mechanism against high concentra-
tions of metals, high accumulation efficiency and high
translocation factors (Song et al. 2015). In general, high
biomass producing plants absorb diverse range of heavy
metals at low concentrations. This might be due to the
availability of trace metals to plants roots is regarded as key
factor in restricting the efficiency of phytoextraction. High
metal accumulation capacity of plant species can only be
achieved when metals are mobile in soil solution with their
effective translocation to aerial parts (Sheoran et al. 2016).
3.1 Bioavailability of Heavy Metals
Heavy metal uptake by plants depends upon the solubility of
metals in soil solution. The availability of metals for plant
uptake depends upon metal fractions. Metal fractions are
categorized into three forms, available, unavailable and
exchangeable metal fractions. Bioavailable metals exist in soil
solution as free metal ions, soluble metal complexes, metals
adsorbed to inorganic elements in soil (Sheoran et al. 2016).
Unavailable metals are exist in various fractions like chemical
fraction bound to organic matter, precipitated in the form of
oxides, carbonates, hydroxides, minerals, trapped in the
structure of silicate minerals, and thus are very difficult for
plant uptake. Similarly, exchangeable fractions are attached to
organic matter, presence of Fe–Mn oxides, carbonates and are
very difficult to extract by plants (Li et al. 2014). Primarily,
metals such as Cd and Zn exist in exchangeable and readily
available form, whereas metals like Pb is found less
bioavailable as soil precipitates (Shakoor et al. 2014).
3.2 Soil Factors Affecting Metal Bioavailability
3.2.1 Soil Type
Soil texture considered as key component that control the
bioavailability of metals in soil. Loam and sand soils have
highest metal availability while clay loam soils have med-
ium and fine texture soils have less available metals (She-
oran et al. 2016).
3.2.2 Soil pH
Soil pH is also considered as an important factor in phy-
toextraction purpose. Normally, the content of metals in soil
solution could be increased or decreased by lowering or
enhancing soil pH. By lowering soil pH, the amount of H+
will be increased in which further increased exchangeable
capacity of cations. Moreover, the adsorption of H+ ions to
soil particles will also enhance with decline in pH.
H. M. Tauqeer and M. Sagir
Furthermore, a decline in soil pH breaks
dissolution-precipitation equilibrium and release high con-
centrations of metals in soil solution (Song et al. 2015).
4 Conclusion
The success of phytoremediaton/phytoextraction is
depends upon the the concentration of metal and
bioavailability in the soil. The applications of organic
acids increased metal uptake by lowering soil pH.
Moreover, these acids are low cost, easily available,
environment friendly so their application in reclamtion of
metal polluted soils is a promising technique.
References
Beyersmann D, Hartwig A. Carcinogenic metal compounds: recent
insight into molecular and cellular mechanisms. Arch Toxicol.
2008;82:493–512.
D’amore JJ, Al-Abed SR, Scheckel KG, Ryan JA. Methods for
speciation of metals in soils. J Environ Qual. 2005;34(5):1707–45.
Gaur A, Adholeya A. Prospects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in
phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated soils. Current Sci.
2004;86(4):528–34.
Handique GK, Handique AK. Proline accumulation in lemongrass
(Cymbopogon flexuosus Stapf.) due to heavy metal stress. J Environ
Biol. 2009;30:299–302.
Jing Y, He Z, Yang X. Role of soil rhizobacteria in phytoremediation
of heavy metal contaminated soils. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B.
2007;8:192–207.
Li Z, Wu L, Hu P, Luo Y, Zhang H, Christie P. Repeated phytoex-
traction of four metal-contaminated soils using the cadmium/zinc
hyperaccumulator Sedum plumbizincicola. Environ Pollut.
2014;189:176–183.
Lone MI, He Z, Stoffella PJ, Yang X. phytoremediation of heavy metal
polluted soils and water: progress and perspectives. J Zhejiang Univ
Sci B. 2008;9:210–20.
Shakoor MB, Ali S, Hameed A, Farid M, Hussain S, Yasmeen T,
Ullah N, Bharwana SA, Abbasi GH. Citric acid improves lead
(Pb) phytoextraction in brassica napus L. by mitigating Pb-induced
morphological and biochemical dama- ges. Ecotox Environ Safe.
2014;109:38–47.
Sheoran V, Sheoran AS, Poonia P. Factors affecting phytoextraction: a
review. Pedosphere. 2016;26(2):148–166.
Singh A, Prasad SM. Reduction of heavy metal load in food chain:
technology assessment: a review. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol.
2011;10:199–214.
Song NN, Ma YB, Zhao YJ, Tang SR. Elevated ambient carbon
dioxide and Trichoderma inoculum could enhance cadmium uptake
of Lolium perenne explained by changes of soil pH, cadmium
availability and microbial biomass. Appl Soil Ecol. 2015;85:56–64.
Tangahu BV, Sheikh Abdullah SR, Basri H, Idris M, Anuar N,
Mukhlisin M. A review on heavy metals (As, Pb, and Hg) uptake
by plants through phytoremediation. Int J Chem Eng. 2011.
Van Hees PA, Jones DL, Godbold DL. Biodegradation of low
molecular weight organic acids in a limed forest soil. Water Air
Soil Pollut Focus. 2003;3(4):121–44.
Wuana RA, Okieimen FE, Imborvungu JA. Removal of heavy metals
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 Adsorptive Removal of Cationic and Anionic
Dyes from Aqueous Solution by Utilizing
Reed Treated with Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate
as a New Bioadsorbent

Sarra Karoui, Rim Ben Arfi, Karine Mougin, and Achraf Ghorbal

Keywords
Reed Sodium dodecyl sulfate Bioadsorbent Eriochrome black T Malachite green
Adsorption

1 Introduction Adsorption kinetics and equilibrium were studied and

The textile sector represents the main source of water pol-
lution. Indeed, textile discharges are mostly directly routed
to watercourses without prior treatment. Because of their
stability and their low biodegrability, the dyes present a real
danger for man and his environment. There are several
physical, chemical and biological methods to treat and dis-
color polluted effluents such as coagulation-flocculation,
membrane filtration, photo catalytic degradation, chemical
oxidation, ozonation, ion exchange, electrochemical meth-
ods and adsorption. The adsorption process has received a
lot of attention due to its simplicity, high efficiency,
eco-friendly nature as well as the availability of a wide range
of low cost adsorbents. In the present work, the Tunisian
reed treated with sodium dodecyl sulfate (referred to as
R-SDS) was studied as bioadsorbent for cationic and anionic
dyes. Different adsorption parameters were studied on the
raw reed (referred to as R). The biomaterial was character-
ized (in terms of physical, thermal and chemical properties).
modeled.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Materials and R-SDS Preparation
The reed (R) was obtained from a wet area in Gabes Tunisia.
It was dried and sieved before use. The reed powder was
treated with the (sodium dodecyl sulfate) SDS solution
(25%). The mixture was then stirred for 24 h before the
solution was filtered and then the dough obtained was
washed several times with distilled water. Eriochrome
Black T (EBT) and Malachite Green (MG) were respectively
purchased from Panreac AppliChem and Loba Chemicals,
and used without additional purification.
2.2 Characterisation and Analytical Methods

S. Karoui (&)
R. B. Arfi
A. Ghorbal
Research Unit UR11ES80, National Engineering School of Gabes,
University of Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia
e-mail: sarra.karoui20@gmail.com
A. Ghorbal
e-mail: achraf.ghorbal.issat@gmail.com
K. Mougin
CNRS, Institute of Materials Science of Mulhouse, UMR 7361
Mulhouse, France
e-mail: karine.mougin@uha.fr
A. Ghorbal
Higher Institute of Applied Sciences and Technology of Gabes,
University of Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia
The pHPZC of R-SDS was obtained by adding a fixed
quantity of adsorbent to 50 mL of NaCl solution each time
after adjusting pH between 1 and 12 and the suspension was
equilibrated for 24 h. Fourier Transform Infrared Spec-
troscopy (FTIR) measurements were performed using a
Spectrum Two PerkinElmer spectrometer, in the attenuated
total reflection (ATR) mode, with a highly sensitive
deuterated triglycine sulfate (DTGS) detector. The samples
were scanned 10 times in the range of 450–4000 cm−1, with
a 2 cm−1 spectral resolution. Thermo-gravimetric measure-
ments (TGA/DTG) of R and R-SDS were also performed
using thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA/DSC3+, Mettler

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 189

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_62
190
Toledo) under inert gas N 2100 ml/min with a heating rate
of 10 K/min. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used
to examine the R-SDS morphology and elucidate the
adsorption mechanism. The structure including BET surface
area, pore volume and pore size was determined by nitrogen
adsorption/desorption isotherms.
2.3 Adsorption Experiments
Biosorption studies were performed in Erlenmeyer flask
containing 50 mL of dye solution, and stirred at 320 rpm. In
order to determine the optimum biosorption conditions, the
experiments were conducted using different biosorbent
(dried reed) masses, in the range of 0.1–12.0 g L−1, and
different dye concentrations in the range 50–200 mg L−1.
The effect of temperature on the biosorption process was
studied at three different temperatures: 22, 30 and 40 °C at
initial pH 4.8 ± 0.2. The concentration of Malachite Green
(MG) and Eriochrome Black T (EBT) dyes in the solution
was determined spectrophotometrically (UV-visible spec-
trophotometer, PG Instruments Ltd., UK) at 529 and
616 nm, respectively.
The amount of adsorption at time t, qt (mg/g), was
obtained as follows (Miraboutalebi et al. 2017):
qt ¼ ðC0  Ct ÞV=m
where C0 and Ct (mg L−1) are the liquid-phase concentra-
tions of solutes at initial and any time t, respectively, V is the
volume of solution (L) and m is the dosage of adsorbent (g).
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 R and R-SDS Characterizations
The pHPZC corresponds to a pH value when pHinitial is equal
to pHfinal. The results are 6.1 for R and 6.5 for pHpzc of
R-SDS. When pH is less than pHpzc the adsorbent surface is
positively charged and for a pH greater than pHpzc the sur-
face charge is negative (Bonetto et al. 2015). Figure 1
depicts the FTIR-ATR spectra of the R and R-SDS particles.
The R spectrum shows adsorption bands at around 2920–
2850 cm−1 resulting mainly from the C–H stretching
vibration in cellulose and hemicelluloses. There is also a
broad adsorption band at 3332 cm−1 which corresponds to
the O–H stretching vibration in cellulose and hemicelluloses.
A series of peaks at around 1370–1600 cm−1 indicated the
existence of lignin. This shows the principal functional
groups found in lignocellulosic materials. After SDS treat-
ment, we noticed the: disappearance of C–H binding to
2850 cm−1; a change in the intensity of the peaks at 1321
S. Karoui et al.
and 1374 cm−1 related to functional groups characteristic of
lignin, increase in the wideband intensity at 3336 cm−1 of
the O–H bonds (Singh et al. 2016). The ATD-ATG curve of
R shows a first thermal incident at T 35–100 °C which
corresponds to dehydration. The second process occurred
between 220 and 370 °C, mainly as a result of the depoly-
merization of hemicelluloses, the breakdown of cellulose
glycosidic bonds and the decomposition of lignin. (Yang
2007). The ATD-ATG curve of R-SDS shows the appear-
ance of another thermal process at T = 300 °C which means
SDS degradation. The purpose of the SEM examination was
to illustrate the porosity, especially that created by the SDS
treatment. The presence of pores in the R-SDS surface is
evident from the SEM image (Fig. 2). A developed porosity
makes it possible to increase the specific surface area of
R-SDS and, consequently, the number of active sites on
which the molecules of the EBT and MG could bound. BET
surface area was calculated from a nitrogen adsorption iso-
therm for R-SDS degassed at 90 °C for 12 h. In addition, the
total pore volume and the average pore diameter were
measured. The obtained surface area, total pore volume and
BJH adsorption average pore diameter were 1.349 m2 g−1,
0.0046 cm3 g−1 and 24.0845 nm, respectively. R-SDS has
large BET specific surface area.
3.2 MG and EBT Removal by R-SDS
This study shows that the amount of adsorbed dye by R
increases as the particle size decreases, the most favorable
mass is 2 g/L, the adsorption is favored for natural pH of
dyes, and the rise in temperature affects the adsorption effi-
ciency. The interaction adsorbate-adsorbent was feeble and
has proven to be a physical interaction. On the basis of these
results we used particles with sizes of less than 100 µm,
mass equal to 2 g/L, natural dye pH, and at ambient tem-
perature. The evolution of the amount of the dyes uptake as a
function of the contact time for various initial dye concen-
trations is presented in Fig. 3. It can be observed that a rapid
dye adsorption occurred within the first 2 min until a state of
equilibrium. In addition, these results indicated that the
increase in the dye concentration goes hand in hand with the
increase in the amount of adsorbed dye at equilibrium. It is
also noted that R-SDS has high cationic adsorption effi-
ciency. During the amount of adsorbed dye at an initial
concentration equal to 100 mg/L is 49.52 mg/g.
The FTIR curve shows that after MG adsorption, a peak
related to the functional and 13.08 mg/g for MG and EBT,
respectively. In addition the amount of adsorbed dye at an
initial concentration equal to 100 mg/L by R was 46.74 and
22.91 mg/g for MG and EBT, respectively. Therefore,
R-SDS is more efficient for the MG uptake when compared
Adsorptive Removal of Cationic and Anionic …
Fig. 1 FTIR-ATR spectra of the
R (black line), R-SDS (red line),
R-SDS-MG (blue line), and
R-SDS-EBT (pink line)
Fig. 2 SEM images of a R-SDS, b R-SDS-MG and c R-SDS-EBT
to R. So, one can say that the SDS treatment improved the
cationic adsorption.
3.3 Characterizations After MG and EBT
Adsorption
Group of C = O around 1585 cm−1 and a peak linked to the
CH2 group around 698 cm−1 was observed. In addition the
increase in intensities of the peaks attributable to the OH
group towards 3333 cm−1 and C = O towards 1630 cm−1.
After EBT adsorption, the widening and increase in inten-
191
sity of the O-H band was observed. SEM images of R-SDS
after adsorption of MG and EBT are shown in Fig. 2. As
can be seen in Fig. 2b, c, R-SDS-MG and R-SDS-EBT has
a slightly rougher and irregular surface. From this image,
we can conclude that There is formation of the dye
multilayer. The BET surface area, total pore volume and
BJH adsorption average pore diameter of R-SDS-MG
(1.5466 m2 g−1, 0.00441 cm3 g−1 and 19.5648 nm), are
greater than those of R-SDS-EBT (1.1155 m2 g−1,
0.00373 cm3 g−1 and 18.7845 nm, respectively). Indicating
that R-SDS has more accessibility to adsorb the MG than
the EBT.
192
Fig. 3 Effect of initial
concentration and contact time on
removal of MG and EBT by
R-SDS
3.4 Adsorption Isotherm
Biosorption data, For the MG and EBT, obtained at equi-
librium, plotted as qe, function of Ce, were best fitted to the
Freundlich and Toth isotherm models. Indicating the for-
mation of more than one adsorption monolayer on the sur-
face in heterogeneous sites with different binding energies.
3.5 Adsorption Kinetics
The biosorption kinetics of cationic and anionic dyes were
investigated using three kinetic models, namely
pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order and intra-particular
diffusion. The correlation coefficient close to unity, and
experimental values for qe,exp similar to the calculated ones
indicate that MG and EBT biosorption process was descri-
bed by the pseudo-second-order model.
3.6 MG and EBT Removal Mechanism
The thermodynamic study on R proves that for MG, the three
thermodynamic parameters DH°, DG° and DS° have negative
values, indicating that the reaction is exothermic, sponta-
neous and the order of distribution of the molecules of the
dye on the molecule, Adsorbent is important relative to that
of the solution. For EBT, the positive values of DG° indicate
S. Karoui et al.
that the reaction is not spontaneous. Moreover, the exami-
nation of the values of the standard enthalpy shows that the
adsorption process is of an exothermic nature and that it is a
physisorption, as well. The interaction adsorbate-adsorbent
was feeble and has proven to be a physical interaction. The
determination of pHpzc makes it possible to forward
hypotheses to explain the adsorption mechanism. For a
couple cationic adsorbent/anionic adsorbate, the dominant
interaction is electrostatic attraction. However, for a couple
adsorbent/adsorbate with the same load, the dominant inter-
action can be of type p-p or charge-dipole or hydrogen bond.
FTIR spectra of R-SDS-MG and R-SDS-EBT indicating
successful formation of hydrogen bond.
4 Conclusion
The Tunisian reed is an invasive plant, native to wetlands.
The reed treated with SDS could be used as an alternative
bioadsorbent for an efficient removal of anionic and
especially cationic dyes from aqueous solutions. The dye
adsorption was analyzed thermodynamically and kineti-
cally. Kinetic studies confirmed that the pseudo-second
order model could be plotted well for the studied systems.
In addition, the results indicated that Toth and Freundlich
models were the best fit, for EBT and MG dyes removal
by R-SDS. The study clearly shows that the R-SDS is a
feasible, effective, economic and promising candidate for
the treatment of anionic and cationic dyes wastewater.
Adsorptive Removal of Cationic and Anionic …
References
Bonetto LR, Ferrarini F, De Marco C, Crespo J. Removal of methyl
violet 2B dye from aqueous solution using a magnetic composite as
an adsorbent. J Water Process Eng. 2015.
Miraboutalebi SM, Nikouzad SK, Peydayesh M, Allahgholi N, Vafa-
joo L, Mckay G. Methylene blue adsorption via maize silk powder:
193
kinetic, equilibrium, thermodynamic studies and residual error
analysis. Process Saf Environ Protect. 2017;. doi:10.1016/j.psep.
2017.01.010.
Singh YD, Mahanta P, Bora U. PT NU SC. 2016;. doi:10.1016/j.
renene.2016.11.039.
Yang H. Characteristics of hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin pyrol-
ysis. 2007;86:1781–88. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2006.12.013.
 Enhanced Removal of Eriochrome Black T
from Water Using Phragmites
Australis Functionalized with
Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide (CTAB)

Rim Ben Arfi, Sarra Karoui, Karine Mougin, and Achraf Ghorbal

Keywords
Eriochrome black T Adsorption Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide
Phragmites australis Kinetics Sorption isotherm

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

In this study, the cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (referred
to as CTAB) (Cao et al. 2014) as a cationic surfactant has
been loaded on the surface of Phragmites australis particles
using the impregnation method. The adsorptive properties of
raw and CTAB-modified forms of Phragmites australis were
experimented. The impact of key parameters such as initial
concentration, pH of the initial solution, adsorbent dosage
and contact time on Eriochrome Black T (referred to as
EBT) dye removal by the raw and CTAB-modified Phrag-
mites australis (referred to as PA and CTAB-PA, respec-
tively) was studied for the first time in a batch mode. The
kinetic data were evaluated by pseudo-first and
pseudo-second order, intraparticle diffusion and Elovich
models. Equilibrium isotherms were analyzed according to
Langmuir, Freundlich and Temkin models and constants of
isotherm equations were determined (Maaloul et al. 2017).
R. B. Arfi (&)
S. Karoui
A. Ghorbal
Research Unit UR11ES80, National Engineering School of Gabes,
University of Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia
e-mail: rimbenarfighorbal@yahoo.fr
A. Ghorbal
e-mail: achraf.ghorbal.issat@gmail.com
K. Mougin
CNRS, Institute of Materials Science of Mulhouse, UMR 7361
Mulhouse, France
e-mail: karine.mougin@uha.fr
A. Ghorbal
Higher Institute of Applied Sciences and Technology of Gabes,
University of Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia
The Phragmites australis stems were collected from the
wetland of Oued el Melah in the governorate of Gabès
(Tunisia). The CTAB was used to modify the PA surface.
The concentration of the surfactant solution was calculated
based on three times the critical micelle concentration of
CTAB (about 1 mmol/L). The surface morphology of PA and
CTAB-PA was obtained using the scanning electron micro-
scopy (SEM) technique employing an XL30 apparatus
(Philips Co., Netherlands). The XRD measurements were
performed on an X’Pert Pro X-ray diffractometer (PANa-
lytical, Netherlands). The Brunauer, Emmett and Teller
(BET) surface area of adsorbents were measured using
ASAP 2420 (Micrometrics Instrument Corp., USA) surface
area analyzer. Thermogravimetric (TGA) and derivative
thermogravimetric (DTG) curves of the raw and
CTAB-modified PA were carried out using a thermogravi-
metric analyzer (TGA/DSC3+, Mettler Toledo, USA).
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) measure-
ments were performed using a Spectrum Two PerkinElmer
spectrometer, in the attenuated total reflection (ATR) mode,
with a highly sensitive deuterated triglycine sulfate (DTGS)
detector. The samples were scanned 16 times in the range of
450–4000 cm−1, with a 2 cm−1 spectral resolution. The
surface chemistry characterization of the adsorbants was
performed with pH drift method, which was conducted to
determine the pH of the point of zero charge (pHzpc). The
effect of temperature on the adsorption process was studied
at three different temperatures: 22, 30 and 40 °C. The con-
centration of Eriochrome Black T (EBT) dye in the solution
was determined spectrophotometrically (UV-visible spec-
trophotometer, PG Instruments Ltd., UK) at 529 nm.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 195

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_63
196 R. B. Arfi et al.

(a) (b) 70 100

350
100
300
90
60
80 80
250

adsorption (%)

adsorption (%)
50
Cads(mg/g)

Cads(mg/g)
200 60
70
PA
150 40 60
CTAB-PA
PA 40 PA
100 CTAB-PA 50
30 CTAB-PA
50 PA
20 40
CTAB-PA
20
0 30
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
masse (g/L)
pH

Fig. 1 a Effect of the adsorbent dosage on the removal of Eriochrome Black T by PA and CTAB-PA. b Effect of initial pH on the adsorption of
Eriochrome Black T on PA and CTAB-PA

The amount of adsorption at time t, qt (mg/g), was 4 Conclusion

obtained as follows (Salvadori et al. 2014):
qt ¼ ðC0  Ct ÞV=m
where C0 and Ct (mg/L) are the liquid-phase concentrations
of solutes at initial and any time t, respectively, V is the
volume of solution (L) and m is the dosage of adsorbent (g).
This study highlighted the feasibility of modified
Phragmites australis particles by cationic surfactants for
ð1Þ the removal of Eriochrome Black T dye from aqueous
solution in batch mode.
References

3 Results and Discussion
The effect of adsorbent dosage on EBT adsorption is shown
in Fig. 1a, an increase in adsorbent dosage from 0.1 to
12 g/L led to an increase in EBT adsorption from 11.41 to
81.68 and from 67.41 to 100 for PA and CTAB-PA,
respectively, which suggests that there is an important effect
of the PA surface functionalization.
To investigate the contribution of electrostatic interac-
tions, we initially studied the effect of initial pH in the range
of 4–10. Figure 1b shows that the sorption capacities for
EBT on PA and CTAB-PA decrease from pH 4 to pH 10.
Cao JS, Lin JX, Fang F, et al. A new absorbent by modifying walnut
shell for the removal of anionic dye: Kinetic and thermodynamic
studies. Bioresour Technol. 2014;163:199–205. doi:10.1016/j.
biortech.2014.04.046.
Maaloul N, Oulego P, Rendueles M, et al. Novel biosorbents from
almond shells: Characterization and adsorption properties modeling
for Cu(II) ions from aqueous solutions. J Environ Chem Eng.
2017;5:2944–54. doi:10.1016/j.jece.2017.05.037.
Salvadori MR, Nascimento CAO, Corrêa B. Nickel oxide nanoparticles
film produced by dead biomass of filamentous fungus. Sci
Rep. 2014;4:6404. doi:10.1038/srep06404.
 Removal of Cadmium(II) Ions from Synthetic
Aqueous Solutions Using Maize Leaves
as an Eco-Friendly Sorbent Material in Batch
Mode: A Preliminary Study

Houcine Benaïssa and Mohamed Meziani

Keywords
Removal Sorption Cadmium Maize leaves Kinetics, equilibrium Modeling

1 Introduction at natural solution pH in batch conditions. The effect of two

Cadmium, a non-essential and non-beneficial element to
humans, plants and animals, is non-biodegradable. It has
attracted great attention of environmentalists as one of the
most toxic heavy metals. Therefore, it is necessary to remove
cadmium ion from industrial effluents. The major cadmium
release sources are electroplating, smelting, alloy manufac-
turing, pigments, plastic, battery, mining and refining pro-
cesses (Holan et al. 1993; Volesky et al. 1993). Current
technologies for cadmium removal from wastewater such as:
precipitation, adsorption, membrane processes, ionic
exchange, floatation, and among others, lack a sufficiently
high affinity and selectivity to reduce residual cadmium to
the levels dictated by ever more stringent government reg-
ulations (Yin and Blanch 1989). These disadvantages,
together with the need for more economical and effective
methods for recovery of metal from wastewater, have
resulted in the development of alternative separation tech-
nologies. In recent years, agricultural by-products have been
widely studied as sorbent materials for metal removal from
dilute aqueous wastes.
This work, as an update of another presented elsewhere
(Benaïssa 2008), studied the possibility of using an agri-
cultural solid waste: maize leaves, as an inexpensive sorbent
for the removal of cadmium (II) ions from synthetic aqueous
solutions. This material was selected because it is abun-
dantly available in Algeria, hence cost effective sorbent. The
metal sorption equilibrium and kinetics tests were performed
H. Benaïssa (&)
M. Meziani
Laboratory of Sorbent Materials and Water Treatment,
Department of Chemistry-Faculty of Sciences, University of
Tlemcen, P.O. Box. 119, 13 000 Tlemcen, Algeria
e-mail: ho_benaissa@yahoo.fr
parameters such as: contact time and initial metal concen-
tration on metal sorption kinetics, has been studied. Two
simplified kinetic models including a first-order and pseudo
second-order models were selected to analyse the metal
sorption kinetics. In order to describe the metal sorption
isotherm mathematically and to obtain information about the
maximum metal sorption capacity of this sorbent tested. The
equilibrium data were analysed using Langmuir and Fre-
undlich models.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Sorbent and Metal
In this work, an agricultural waste: maize leaves, has been
employed as a low-cost sorbent material in the removal of
cadmium from aqueous solutions. This waste was collected
from the region of Bensekrane (Tlemcen—ALGERIA), in
the form of larges flakes, cut and sun/air dried at ambient
temperature. Prior sorption experiments, this material was
continuously washed with distilled water to remove the
surface adhered particles and water soluble materials, and
oven dried overnight at 80 °C for 24 h after filtration. This
material was crushed and sieved to have particles of
heterogeneous size (0.1–3.15 mm) for further batch sorption
experiments.
Cadmium solutions of desired concentration were pre-
pared from Cd(NO3)2.4H2O (Windor Laboratories Limited),
by dissolving the exact quantities of cadmium salts in dis-
tilled water. All chemicals were commercial products used
without purification.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 197

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_64
198
2.2 Uptake Kinetics
For metal removal kinetics studies, 0.6 g of dried maize
leaves was contacted with 300 mL of metal solutions of
different initial metal concentrations (100, 200 and
300 mg/L) in a beaker agitated vigorously by a magnetic
stirrer using a water bath maintained at a constant temper-
ature of 25 ± 1 °C. In all cases, the working pH (5.69–5.93)
was that of the solution and was not adjusted. The residual
cadmium concentration in the aqueous solution at appro-
priate time intervals was obtained by using a Cd2+ ion
selective electrode technique. The electrode used for mea-
surement of cadmium was Orion Model 9448 and was used
in conjunction with Orion Model reference electrode and an
Orion Model 710 A meter, which provided readings accu-
rate to ±0.1 mV. For the pH measurement, an Orion Model
9107 combination electrode, with the aforementioned meter,
was used. The metal uptake qt (mg metal ion/g dried sorbent)
was determined as the difference between the concentrations
before and after the sorption.
2.3 Uptake Isotherm
The sorption equilibrium isotherm was determined by con-
tacting a constant mass (0.1 g) of sorbent material with a
range of different concentrations of cadmium solutions: 10–
600 mg/L. The mixtures were shaken in a series of beakers
with equal volumes of solution (50 ml) for a period of 24 h,
time more than sufficient to reach equilibrium, at room
temperature 25 ± 1 °C. The pH of mixture was not con-
trolled after the initiation of experiments. After, the same
procedure described previously was followed to analyze the
solutions at equilibrium.
During the course of sorption experiments, no chemical
precipitation and losses of cadmium to the containers were
detected.
3 Results and Discussion
The results obtained confirm that maize leaves can remove
cadmium ions from synthetic aqueous solution at natural
solution pH (5.59–6.01). Its sorption performances are
H. Benaïssa and M. Meziani
strongly affected by the contact time and initial cadmium
concentration. The quantity of metal sorbed at equilibrium
increased with an increase of initial metal concentration:
17.50 mg/g (C0 = 100 mg/L) and 52.30 mg/g (C0 = 300
mg/L). The necessary time to reach equilibrium was variable
and initial metal concentration dependent: 80 min for
C0 = 100 and 300 mg/L, and 150 min for C0 = 150 mg/L.
The sorption kinetics was well described by a pseudo-second
order rate model. A good fitting of dye sorption equilibrium
data was obtained with Langmuir model in all the range of
concentrations studied. Under the investigated experimental
conditions, the maximum metal sorption capacity obtained
by maize leaves was about 62.00 mg/g. During the course of
cadmium removal by this sorbent, a decrease in the value of
the initial pH of solutions for the first times of contact
solution—sorbent material followed by a state of equilib-
rium, was observed.
4 Conclusion
These first results obtained under these experimental
conditions tested, confirmed that maize leaves could be
considered as an efficient, economic, and ecological
alternative for the removal of cadmium ion from synthetic
aqueous solutions. They stimulate the continuation of this
research in order to improve the sorption capacity of
maize leaves for this metal and others.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Ministry of
High Education and Scientific Research, Algeria (Project
No. E 1301/07/02). Thanks are due to Mr. M-A. Elouchdi for his help
in the analysis of liquid samples.
References
Benaïssa H. Identification of new sorbent materials for cadmium
removal from aqueous solutions. In: Proceeding of the twelfth
international water technology conference, IWTC12, Alexandria,
Egypt. 2008. p. 103–19.
Holan ZR, Volesky B, Prasetyo I. Biosorption of cadmium by biomass
marine algae. Biotechnol Bioeng. 1993;41:819–25.
Volesky B, May H, Holan ZR. Cadmium biosorption by saccha-
romyces cerevisiae. Biotechnol Bioeng. 1993;4:826–9.
Yin J, Blanch HW. A bio-mimetic cadmium adsorbent: design,
synthesis, and characterization. Biotechnol Bioeng. 1989;34:180–8.
 Effect of Amphiphilic Copolymers on Armco
Steel Corrosion

Narimene El Korso, Fatima Zohra Sebba, Seghier Ould Kada,

and Nihel Dib

Keywords
Copolymers Armco steel Sulfuric acid
Corrosion inhibition Adsorption
1 Introduction
Metal corrosion is a major problem that must be confronted
for safety, environmental and economic reasons (Abed et al.
2001). Acids were deployed in many service environments
such as pickling, boilers cleaning, des-scaling and acidifi-
cation of oil wells. Unfortunately, the acid tends to induce
corrosion which, if not checked, could reduce the metal life
service (Mansri and Bouras 2014). Inhibitors are added to
such acid solutions in order to reduce the degree of metal
attack and the rate of acid consumption (Popova et al. 2003;
Noor 2005).
The use of organic inhibitors containing double bonds or
heteroatoms, such as O, N and S, has proved to be one of the
best protection means against metal corrosion (Popova et al.
2003).
2 Materials and Methods
In this work, we have developed and studied the effect of
inhibition of new inhibitors, namely Poly (ɛ-caprolactone-b-
N-vinyl pyrrolidone)(KFB), poly [(ɛ-caprolactone-b-N-vinyl
pyrrolidone) -g-vinylpyridine](KFC), and poly [(ɛ-capro-
lactone-b-vinylpyrrolidone)-g-vinylpyridine quaternized]
(KFCQ) on Armco steel corrosion in aqueous solution of
sulfuric acid at various concentrations at 25 °C. The study
was carried out by weight loss measurements and the
adsorption parameters were studied.
The temperature effect on the corrosion behaviour of
Armco steel in 0.5 M H2SO4 in the presence and absence of
the inhibitors was studied in the temperature range 298–
338 K. The adsorption free energy (DG°ads) and the acti-
vation parameters (Ea, DHa°, DSa°) for the steel dissolution
reaction in the presence of copolymers were determined.
3 Results and Discussion
The steel corrosion rates decreased with the increasing
inhibitor concentration, while the inhibition efficiency (%I)
increased.

N. El Korso (&)
F. Z. Sebba
S. Ould Kada
N. Dib

Laboratory of Macromolecular Physical Chemistry, Department of
Chemistry, University of Oran1-Ahmed Ben Bella, BP 1524
ELM_Naouer, 31000 Oran, Algeria
e-mail: narimenekor@outlook.fr
F. Z. Sebba
e-mail: fzsebba@yahoo.fr
S. Ould Kada
e-mail: pr_senia@yahoo.fr
N. Dib
e-mail: nihelicp@yahoo.fr

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 199

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_65
200 N. El Korso et al.

Maximum inhibition efficiency of polymers was found to
be 84% at 100 ppm.
The adsorption of copolymers on the Armco steel surface in
0.5 M H2SO4 was according to the Langmuir isotherm model.
The copolymers inhibition efficiency decreased with rise
in temperature, suggesting a physical adsorption mechanism.
• The inhibitors adsorption of the Armco steel in 0.5 M
H2SO4 Obeys Langmuir isotherm. The process is com-
petitive between chemisorption and physical adsorption
• The inhibitors inhibition efficiency decreases with the
rise in temperature.

Blank KFB KFC KFCQ

T(K) W0 (mg cm−2 h−1) W (mg cm−2 h1) E (%) W (mg cm−2 h1) E (%) W (mg cm−2 h1) E (%)
298 35.5 12 66.19 5.5 84.50 9.5 73.23
308 37.5 15 60 8.5 77.33 13.5 64
318 44 21 52.27 14.5 67.04 19 56.81
328 47.5 27 43.15 18.5 61.05 23 51.57
338 49 30 38.77 24 51.02 28.5 41.83

4 Conclusion References

Abed Y, Hammouti B, Touhami F, Aouniti A, Kertit S, Mansri A,

• The tested copolymers show good inhibitive effects on
Armco steel corrosion in 0.5 M H2SO4 and their inhi-
bition efficiencies increase with concentration.
• Maximum inhibition efficiency was 84% at 150 ppm
concentration.
Elkacemi K. Bull Electrochem. 2001;17:105.
Mansri A, Bouras B. Mor J Chem. 2014;2:252.
Noor EA. Corros Sci. 2005;47:33.
Popova A, Sokolova E, Raicheva S, Christov M. Corros Sci.
2003;45:33.
 Simplified Model for Adsorption Method
on Activated Carbon in Fluidized Bed Reactor

Ghozlane Khaled, Kahina Abdelkrim, Fares Zouaoui,

and Saliha Bourouina-Bacha

Keywords
Adsorption Fluidized bed Mathematical model Mass transfer

1 Introduction
The phenomenon of adsorption of organic compounds in
porous materials is very complex. Several mathematical
models have been developed in order to simulate the evo-
lution of the adsorption efficiency as a function of the
resistances to the mass transfer and to optimize the process
versus the operating conditions. The mathematical model
developed in this paper is based on the dual resistance to
intra-particular matter transfer and in the liquid film sur-
rounding the activated carbon particles. It has been assumed
that the flow is piston type with maximum radial dispersion.
This model contributes to the understanding of the rela-
tionships between the various resistances to mass transfer
and the adsorption process in our column. The other models
found in the literature are more complex. They take into
account the effect of the axial dispersion along the bed of the
adsorbent and eventual concentration gradients, as well as
the diffusion in the surface and in the pores of the particles
taking into account the fraction of radial microporosity
(Tsibranska and Hristova 2010; Veeraraghavan and Fan
G. Khaled (&)
K. Abdelkrim
F. Zouaoui
S. Bourouina-Bacha
Process Engineering, University of Bejaia, Bejaia, Algeria
e-mail: kghouzlane@yahoo.fr
K. Abdelkrim
e-mail: kah.abdelkrim@gmail.com
F. Zouaoui
e-mail: fareszou06@gmail.com
S. Bourouina-Bacha
e-mail: lgebej@yahoo.fr
1989). The aim of this work was the modeling of the
adsorption process of methylene blue on activated carbon in
a fluidized bed reactor operating in a closed circuit. Subject
to certain physically feasible assumptions and relying on the
surface diffusion model, a simplified model resulting from
the writing of the mass balance equations was applied to the
dynamic simulation of this process. The equations of our
model with the initial conditions are solved analytically; the
theoretical concentrations in adsorbed and liquid phases in
the axial direction and into the reservoir are compared to
those obtained experimentally. The advantage of the pro-
posed model is its facility and flexibility of application to
fluidized bed or fixed bed absorbers, by calculating the
number of transfer units (N).
The developed model consists of three parts:
– a local balance sheet at the presumed spherical par-
ticles of mean radius R:
d
q
q ¼ ðKg aÞðC  CeÞ ð1Þ
dt
ð1  eÞ 3
a¼
e R

q (mg/g) is the average quantity adsorbed per unit mass of
adsorbent at each instant t, ρ is the density of the solution
filling the column (g/cm3), kg is the overall mass transfer
coefficient (m s−1), c, ce are solute concentrations within the
fluid and at the equilibrium respectively (mg/L), ε is the
porosity of the bed, R is the radius of the particle.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 201

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_66
202 G. Khaled et al.

Table 1 Values of kg and NUT T (°C) Qv (cm3/s) U (cm/s) NUT Kg 104(cm/s) Adsorption yield %
for different flow rates
30 5.07 2.356 0.1404 4931 87
10.38 3.598 0.1064 7796 82
14.22 4.840 0.0628 10.895 81

– macroscopic balance on the column of height H and

radius Rc:

@c ð1  eÞ dq
U þ q ¼0 ð2Þ
@z e dt
U is the superficial velocity of the fluid (cm/s)

– a balance on the reservoir:

dCin 1
¼ ðCout  Cin Þ ð3Þ
dt sR
For adsorption from a dilute solution, the accumulation in
the fluid is usually negligible compared to the accumulation
on the solid (Mutlu and Gökmen 1998), so, the equation that
describes the model is: Fig. 1 Line fit for the experimental residual concentration and those
calculated by the Model
 
N

t
Cin ¼ C0 exp e  1 ð4Þ
sR

H
Kg
N¼a ð5Þ
U
Cin et Cout are the concentrations at the inlet and the outlet
of the column respectively (mg/L), τR is the passage time in
the tank, C0 is the initial concentration in the column (mg/L),
N is the number of transfer units and H is the height of the
bed.
2 Materials and Methods
Methylene blue adsorption tests on activated carbon were
carried out in a cylindrical plexiglass column (Din = 2 cm,
H = 52 cm) operating in a closed circuit, keeping the
operating conditions constant: pH = 6, T = 30 °C and par-
ticle size dp = 1.8 mm. The Flow rate values of 5.07, 10.38
and 14.22 mL/s were used.
From the feed tank containing 11 L of methylene blue
solution of initial concentration of 53 mg/L, a pump con-
tinuously feeds the column containing a bed of activated
carbon. Samples were taken from the reservoir throughout
the experiment, which allowed us to monitor the evolution of
Methylene Blue concentration. The latter was determined
from the absorbance measurement of the solution at
λ = 664 nm for each sample.
3 Results and Discussion
The table below shows that the increase in the flow rate of
the solution always has an effect on the mass transfer in the
column. In general, if the turbulence is sufficient, the
number of transfer units to adsorb the same quantity of
methylene blue is lower than in the case of a less agitated
solution. The higher the value of this number is, the faster
the displacement velocity of the solute molecules from one
phase to another is, which gives a higher adsorption yield
(Table 1).
Figure 1 shows an excellent agreement between the
experimental data and those predicted by the model. The
confidence interval (CI) corresponds to the estimated mean
response, and the prediction interval (PI) corresponds to the
predicted response of a single observation.
4 Conclusion
This model contributes to understanding the influential
phenomena on the adsorption process in fluidized bed
columns operating in a closed system. An almost perfect
fit was achieved between the theoretical residual con-
centration and the experimental measurements. The
increase in the flow rate generally leads to a decrease in
the number of transfer units (N) and an increase in the
Simplified Model for Adsorption Method on Activated …
overall mass transfer coefficient. Also the increase in N
promotes the adsorption process, In addition, a low res-
idence time in the reservoir (and in the column), itself
linked to a large flow rate of the solution, has a beneficial
effect on the increase of the adsorbed amount.
For simplicity, thanks to its economy of calculation
and rapid implementation, this model can be applied to
simulate the adsorption process in fluidized bed columns
in the selected operating conditions.
203
References
Mutlu M, Gökmen V. Determination of effective mass transfer
coefficient (Kc) of patulin adsorption on activated carbon packed
bed columns with recycling. J Food Eng. 1998;35:259–66.
Tsibranska I, Hristova E. Modeling of heavy metal adsorption into
activated carbon from apricot stones in fluidized bed. Chem Eng
Process. 2010;49:1122–7.
Veeraraghavan S, Fan LT. Modeling adsorption in liquid-solid
fluidized beds. Chem Eng Sci. 1989;44:2333–44.
 Cupronickel Alloy Corrosion Inhibition
in a Medium (0.5 M Nacl)
Hamida Essom



Keywords
Desalination Corrosion
1 Introduction
Copper-nickel alloys are extensively used in marine appli-
cations and in desalination plants (Sherif et al. 2007; Sherif
and Park 2006) because of their good electrical and thermal
conductivities, mechanical properties, corrosion resistance,
and ease of fabrication of the equipment (Revie 2000). Their
main applications are the tubes as condensers, sprays and
heat exchangers. The reasons of this enormous consumption
of the tubes containing copper in the piping systems are its
facility of work during the installation, and consequently the
low installation costs, its contribution to health and the
maintenance of healthy water. Moreover, copper is well seen
as a biodegradable metal in the environment since its
potential is 100% recyclable (Revie and Wiley 2000).
Amines and diazoles derivatives have been reported to be
very effective inhibitors for copper in acidic solutions (Sherif
et al. 2007; Sherif and Park 2006). The inhibition mecha-
nism varies depending on the chemical nature of the inhi-
bitor and the corrosion-causing factor (Sastri 2001; Fiala
et al. 2007; Trachli et al. 2002; Otmacˇic´ 2003; El Issami
et al. 2002; Dafali et al. 2003; Huynh et al. 2002). Otmacˇic´
and Stupnisek-Lisac (2003) examined the inhibiting effect of
non-toxic imidazoles derivatives, in a neutral chloride
medium. Those containing phenyl groups showed a better
performance. Laachach et al. (El Issami et al. 2002) also
confirmed that 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole (ATA) exhibits an
excellent protective effect on the corrosion of Cu–30Ni in
NaCl solution, because the complex film with copper oxide
E. Hamida (&)
Laboratory of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, Badji
Mokhtar-Annaba University, PO Box 12 23000 Annaba, Algeria
e-mail: Essom_h@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_67




Alloy cupronickel Chlorine Sea water Brine. environment
and triazoles formed at the metal surface increases its sta-
bility (Allam et al. 2005; Hack 1980). Other authors (De
Sanchez and Schiffrin 1982; Allam et al. 2005; Popplewell
et al. 1973) noted that some pollutant favors a selective
dissolution of Cu–Ni alloys through the formation of copper
complexes, which generally protect the alloy against the
corrosion (Allam et al. 2005; Popplewell et al. 1973). During
the previous few years, several studies on the Cu–Ni alloys
have been completed. Sayed et al. (Sutter et al. 1999) con-
cluded that at a very high concentration of S2−, the alloy
suffered from pitting corrosion. Hack (Tromans and Sun
1991) reported that the required concentration of S2− to
increase the corrosion susceptibility of Cu–Ni (90/10) alloy
may be as low as 0.01 ppm. De Sanchez and Schiffrin (Omar
et al. 1986) studied the disruptive effect of sulphide ions on
the protective film formed on Cu–Ni (90/10) alloy. Organic
inhibitors have been reported to protect Cu–Ni alloys from
corrosion in different environments (Badawy et al. 2006;
Benmessaoud et al. 2007). The heterocyclic organic com-
pounds, namely, azoles, were reported to show marked
inhibition efficiency against the corrosion of Cu–Ni alloys
(Babic et al. 1999; Badawy et al. 2005). Omar et al. (Badawy
et al. 2006), Badawy et al. (Yuan and Pehkonen 2007),
Benmessaoud et al. [28] Babic et al. [29] Allam et al. [30]
studied the effect of many inhibitors on the corrosion of Cu–
Ni (90/10) alloy. Silarly, cupronickel tubes corrosion, used
in the distillation units of multi flash or desalination MSF
has been extensively studied by many researchers. An
effective organic compound has the capacity to be adsorbed
on the surface of the metal by moving the water molecule of
a corroding interface as follows:
OrgðsolÞ þ nH2 OðadsÞ ! OrgðadsÞ þ nH2 OðsolÞ
205
206 H. Essom

Fig. 1 Potentiodynamic 2
polarization curves of Cu–Ni 1,5
(90/10) alloy in 0.5 M NaCl at
1
different concentrations of Analco 1
at 02 h immersion (Temperature: 0,5
30 °C)
0

-0,5
3
-1 5 4
2

log (|I/mA|)
6 7

-1,5

-2

-2,5

-3
Blank -1 Bleu
10ppm -2 Rouge
-3,5 20ppm -3 Grenas
30ppm -4 Noir
35ppm -5 Bleu Marine
-4 40ppm -6 Noir
60ppm -7 vert

-4,5

-5

-1,5 -1 -0,5 0 0,5 1

Ewe/V

The inhibitor adsorption is influenced by the electronic
structure of the inhibiting molecules [31–32] by the steric
factors, electron density of the distributor atoms and also by
the presence of functional groups such as C = NH, –
N = N–, –CHO, R–OH, C = C, etc.
2 Materials and Methods
The chemical composition of Cu–Ni alloy are (0.148%Sn,
1,43%Fe, 1,12%Zn, 0.015%Al, 0.0003%P, 0.5%Sb,
0.0583%Pb, 0.0202%Si, 0.017%S, 0.0056%As, 10%Ni, and
the remainder is Cu). A traditional assembly with three
electrodes includes an electrode of work, a platinum elec-
trode and the reference electrode was Ag/AgCl/1.0 M KCl.
The cell is connected to a potentiostat/galvanostat standard
Gamry, controlled by a computer. The impedance studies
were carried out at the open circuit potential (OCP) in the
frequency range from 100,000 kHz to 0.001 MHz under the
sinusoidal wave excitation of ±5 mV amplitude. The Tafel
polarization curves of were obtained at a rate of 03 mv/min
sweeping. The potentiodynamic polarization studies were
conducted in the potential range of −1.5 V to +1.5 V versus
Ag/AgCl with a scan rate of 1 mVs−1. The electrochemical
and impedance studies were carried out at different con-
centrations, namely, 10, 20, 30, 35, 40 and 60 ppm.
3 Results and Discussion
See Figs. 1, 2 and 3.
Cupronickel Alloy Corrosion Inhibition in a Medium (0.5 M Nacl) 207

1 100

1 000 Cu90Ni10 - 0,5M NaCl -------- 1

Cu90Ni10 -0,5MNaCl + 10ppm Inhib ------ 2
900 Cu90Ni10 - 0,5MNaCl + 20ppm Inhib ------- 3
Cu90Ni10 - 0,5M NaCl + 30ppm Inhib -------- 4
Cu90Ni10 - 0,5M NaCl + 35ppm Inhib -------- 5
800
Cu90Ni10 - 0,5M NaCl + 40ppm Inhib - ------- 6
Cu90Ni10 -0,5MNaCl + 60ppm Inhib - ------- 7
700

600
-Im(Z)/Ohm

500
6
400
7
4
300 5

200 1 2
3

100

-100

500 1 000 1 500 2 000

Re(Z)/Ohm

Fig. 2 Nyquist (EIS) plots of Cu–Ni (90/10) alloy in medium curves of 0.5 M NaCl with and without inhibitor

Fig. 3 Cyclic voltammograms of copper–nickel (90/10) alloy in medium 0.5 M NaCl with of 35 ppm NALCO a 1 h, b 8 h without of 35 ppm
NALCO c 1 h, d 8 h (Temperature 25 °C)

4 Conclusion of nalco was observed when its concentration is higher

The electrochemical study showed that nalco product
tested is a good corrosion inhibitor, against Cu–10Ni
corrosion in a medium of 0.5 M NaCl at pH 7.25. The
inhibitor acts on the anodic and cathodic electrochemical
processes at the same time. A remarkable inhibiting effect
than 30 ppm. These results were confirmed by the
impedance tests where the effect of the inhibitor addition
was observed to be distinguished with a resistance
increase and a strong electrochemical interface capacity
value reduction. The electrochemical impedance studies
208
showed that nalco molecules increase both the charge
transfer resistance and the film resistance of the Cu–Ni
(90/10) alloy. The surface examination studies by EDX
confirmed the presence of a protective nalco film on the
alloy surface. This inhibitor may be applied in coolant
circuits using sea water as a cooling fluid.
References
Allam NK, Ashour EA, Hegazy HS, El-Anadouli BE, Ateya BG.
Effects of benzotriazole on the corrosion of Cu10Ni alloy in
sufide-polluted salt water. Corros Sci. 2005;47(9):2280–92.
Babic R, Metikos-Hukovic M, Loncar M. Impedance and photoelec-
trochemical study of surface layers on Cu and Cu- 10Ni in acetate
solution containing benzotriazole. Electrochim Acta. 1999;44
(14):2413–21.
Badawy WA, Ismail KM, Fathi AM. Environmentally safe corrosion
inhibition of the Cu-Ni alloys in acidic sulfate solutions. J Appl
Electrochem. 2005;35(9):879–88.
Badawy WA, Ismail KM, Fathi AM. Corrosion control of Cu-Ni alloys
in neutral chloride solutions by amino acids. Electrochim Acta.
2006;51(20):4182–9.
Benmessaoud M, Es-salah K, Hajjaji N, Takenouti H, Srhiri A,
Ebentouhami M. Inhibiting effect of 2-mercaptobenzimidazole on
the corrosion of Cu-30Ni alloy in aerated 3% NaCl in presence of
ammonia. Corros Sci. 2007;49(10):3880–88.
Dafali A, Hammouti B, Makhlisse R, Kertit S. Corros Sci.
2003;45:1619.
De Sanchez SR, Schiffrin DJ. The flow corrosion mechanism of copper
base alloys in sea water in the presence of sulphide contamination.
Corros Sci. 1982;22(6):585–607.
El Issami S, Bazzi L, Hilali M, Saloghi R, Kertit S. Ann Chim Sci Mat.
2002;27:63.
H. Essom
Fiala A, Chibani A, Darchen A, Boulkamh A, Djebbar K. Appl Surf
Sci. 2007;253:9347.
Hack H. Susceptibility of 17 machinery alloys to sulphide induced
corrosion in seawater. Techincal Report AWFAL-TR-B1- 4019,
Bethesda, Md, USA. 1980.
Huynh N, Bottle SE, Notoya T, Trueman A, Hinton B, Schweins-
berg DP. Corros Sci. 2002;44:1257.
Omar IH, Zucchi F, Trabanelli G. Schiff bases as corrosion inhibitors of
copper and its alloys in acid media. Surf Coat Technol. 1986;29
(2):141–51.
Otmacˇic´ H, Stupnisˇek-Lisac E. Electrochim Acta. 2003;48:985.
Popplewell JM, Hart RJ, Ford JA. the effect of iron on the corrosion
characteristics of 90–10 cupro nickel in quiescent 3.4% NaCl
solution. Corros Sci. 1973;13(4):295–309.
Revie WR, editor. Uhlig’s corrosion handbook. 2nd ed. Wiley; 2000.
p. 729. ISBN 0-471-15777-5.
Sastri S. Corrosion Inhibitors principles and applications. USA: Wiley;
2001.
Sayed SM, Ashour EA, Youssef GI. Effect of sulfide ions on the
corrosion behaviour of Al-brass and Cu10Ni alloys. 2003;78:825–
34.
Sherif M, Park S. J. Electrochim Acta. 2006;51:4665.
Sherif M, Erasmus M, Comins D, Colloid J. Interface Sci.
2007;311:144.
Sutter EMM, Ammeloot F, Pouet MJ, Fiaud C, Couffignal R.
Heterocyclic compounds used as corrosion inhibitors: correlation
between 13C and 1H NMR spectroscopy and inhibition efficiency.
Corros Sci. 1999;41(1):105–15.
Trachli B, Keddam M, Srhiri A, Takenouti H. Corros Sci. 2002;44:997.
Tromans D, Sun RH. Anodic polarization behavior of copper in
aqueous chloride/benzotriazole solutions. J Electrochem Soc.
1991;138(11):3235–44.
Yuan SJ, Pehkonen SO. Surface characterization and corrosion
behavior of 70/30 Cu–Ni alloy in pristine and sulfide containing
simulated seawater. Corros Sci. 2007;49(3):1276–304.
 Optimized Physico-Chemical Treatment
of the Fuel Washing Water of an Industrial
Gaz-Blok with Ferric Chloride and Polymer

Hajar Qachach, Mohamed Tahiri, Salah Souabi, Meriem Abouri,

and Imane Chanaa

Keywords
Wastewater treatment Physicochemical process The fuel washing water Response
surface methodology

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

A coagulation flocculation process was used to treat the fuel
washing water of city of Mohammedia with ferric chloride
(FeCl3) and polymer. A 42 central composite experimental
design and response surface methodology were used to
evaluate and optimize the reagents dosage and to achieve a
compromise between efficiency and operational costs. The
influence of pH was also evaluated to determine the most
suitable pH condition. The best regression coefficients (R2)
were obtained for chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal,
biological oxygen demand (BOD5) removal suspended
matter (SM) and turbidity removal, reaching values of 0.92,
0.92, 0.96 and 0.95 respectively. The most significant factors
in the analysis of variance (ANOVA) in this study were pH
and FeCl3 dosage or COD removal, BOD5 removal, SM and
turbidity removals. However, flocculent dosage was not the
most significant factor.
Multiple response optimizations fits the optimum values
of the factors and the responses as 0.36 mL/L of coagulant
and 5.4 mL/L of polymer and 86.66, 97.23, 99.18 and
99.92% of COD, BOD5, SM and turbidity removal respec-
tively at pH = 8.17.
H. Qachach (&)
M. Tahiri (&)
S. Souabi
M. Abouri

I. Chanaa
Laboratory Interface, Materials, Environment, Faculty of Science
Aïn Chock, University Hassan II of Casablanca, BP 5366, 20100
Mâarif, Morocco
e-mail: qachach.hajar@gmail.com
The wastewater was collected from the wastewater treatment
plant equalization tank of a papermaking-reconstituted
tobaccoslice mill in Guangdong, China.
The experimental set-up used for the coagulation–floc-
culation experiments at laboratory scale consisted of a
Jar-test device (Jar Test Flocculator FC-6S Velp Scientific)
in which six stirring blades were connected to a motor that
operated under adjustable conditions. The system permitted
the experiments to be performed with ease and the different
variables affecting the removal of suspended fat and
organic matter to be interpreted such as pH, stirring time
and speed, retention time or reactant concentrations.
(Fig. 1, Table 1)
3 Results and Discussion
Optimizated physico-chemical characteristics were used to
determine the optimum process parameters for maximum
removal of turbidity, COD, BOD5, SM…, of the fuel
washing water using the coagulant-Flocculation process.
The removal percentages of turbidity, COD, DBO5, MES
(i.e., 99.92%, 86.66%, 97.23%, 98.9%, 65.45%, 76.67%,
60.63%, 91.36%, 46.89% respectively) were in good
agreement with empirical results using these optimum
conditions. However, the values of the factors particularly
coagulant dosage and injection time could influence the
studied responses. This was due to higher coagulant
dosage and injection time where the latter may contribute
to the dilution effect of the response variables. Thus the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 209

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_68
210 H. Qachach et al.

Fig. 1 Percentage of pollution

removal of turbidity, COD,
BOD5, suspended matter, phenol,
detergent, total phosphorus and
ammoniacal nitrogen

Table 1 The characteristics of the fuel washing 4 Conclusion

Parameter Value The fuel washing water treatment using batch
Turbidity (NTU) 4000 coagulation/Flocculation techniques was optimized using
Conductivity (ms/cm) 0628 42 central composite experimental design and response
Temperature (°C) 19.8
surface methodology. The influence of three decisive
factors (i.e., coagulant dose, flocculant dose and pH) were
pH 8.17
modeled and optimized to increase the removal of four
COD (mg/L) 7200
response variables. Overall, pH, coagulant dose and
BOD5 (mg/L) 3821.2 flocculant dose are significant for pollutant removal;
SM (mg/L) 535 however, these three factors are fundamental for maxi-
Nitrate (mg/L) 7.41 mizing the performance of the optimization through
Phenol (mg/L) 83.33 response surface methodology system. These findings are
Detergent (mg/L) 188.52 directly applicable to the commercial use 42 central
Total phosphorus (TP) (mg/L) 102.07
composite experimental design and response surface
methodology for the treatment of the fuel washing water.
Ammoniacal nitrogen (mg/L) 44.16
TKN (mg/L) 22.5

References

optimization process in this study successfully reduced the
coagulant dosage and injection time which consequently
resulted in lower sludge production and less dilution
effect.
Martin MA, Gonzalez I, Berrios M, Siles JA, Martin A. Optimization of
coagulation-flocculation process for wastewater derived from sauce
manufacturing using factorial design of experiments. Chem Eng.
2011;172:771–82.
J. Company, Coagulantes y floculantes aplicados en el tratamiento de
aguas (Coagulants and flocculants for Wastewater T)
 Degradation of Pharmaceutical Contaminant
in Water via Fountain Photoreactor

Djilali Tassalit, Nadia Chekir, Ouassila Benhabiles, Nachida Kasbadji

Merzouk, Manel Bradai, and Hakim Kissarli

Keywords
Advanced oxidation technology Heterogeneous Zinc oxide Fixed bed photoreactor
Ibuprofen

1 Introduction anti-inflammatory widely used in Algeria, usually prescribed

Availability and accessibility to freshwater stand as impor-
tant determinants of the economic growth and social
development associated patterns. Indeed, a safe water supply
and an appropriate sanitation constitute the most essential
factors necessary for a healthy and prosperous life to take
place. In this respect, the issue of water treatment and reuse
turns out to be a major and paramount global concern.
Hence, emerging new contaminants such as pharmaceutical
compounds have recently attracted particular attention.
Among these compounds lies ibuprofen (IBP), an
D. Tassalit (&)
O. Benhabiles
N. Kasbadji Merzouk
Unité de Développement des Equipements Solaires
(UDES/EPST), Centre de Développement des Energies
Renouvelables (CDER), 42415 Tipaza, Algeria
e-mail: tassalit2003@gmail.com
O. Benhabiles
e-mail: benhabiles.ouassila@gmail.com
N. Kasbadji Merzouk
e-mail: nkmerzouk@gmail.com
N. Chekir
M. Bradai
H. Kissarli
Faculté de Génie Mécanique et de Génie des Procédés,
Laboratoire des Phénomènes de Transfert, Université des Sciences
et de La Technologie Houari Boumediene (USTHB),
16111 Bab-Ezzouar, Algiers, Algeria
e-mail: nchekir@yahoo.fr
M. Bradai
e-mail: bradai-manel@hotmail.fr
as analgesic and antipyretic drugs (Richards and Cole 2006;
Klavarioti et al. 2008). Unfortunately, the extensive use of
IBP has been proved to be associated with a secondary
effect: IBP was detected in used water (Focazio et al. 2008).
Wastewater treatment plants are not able to completely
eradicate such a compound (Focazio et al. 2008). Among the
depollution strategies applied there lies the Advanced Oxi-
dation Processes (POA), which seems to stand as an inter-
esting option for the treatment of wastewater. The use of a
heterogeneous photocatalysis is an efficient method for water
purification involving the reduction and oxidation reactions
in presence of oxygen molecules and hydroxyl anions. In
photocatalysis, semiconductors are generally applied for the
case of suspension. However, this method may turn out to be
costly once scaled-up owing to the sophisticated task of
recovering the photocatalyst particles after treatment,
resulting in the amplification of processing costs. An alter-
native method is to use the catalytic process, supported in
different media, without hampering its activity. Photocatal-
ysis process, as used in this project, could well stand as an
effective alternative to the classical recalcitrant pollutants’
eliminating methods. Since the discovery of the TiO2 pho-
tocatalytic power by Honda and Fujishima, photocatalys
appears to gain remarkable interest. Indeed, the latter has
proved to be noticeably fit for treating wastewater
(FAO 2008).
With the aim of developing the tourism sector, while
introducing modernization and decoration in the cities, water
fountains have recently turned out to be a fashionable effect
with regard to the entirety of the world countries, including
Algeria. Still, the crucially relating problem, which has so far
remained inevitable, is that associated with the thousands of

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 211

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_69
212 D. Tassalit et al.

cubic meters of waste water that are lost during the cleaning
process of these fountains, especially that their visual aspect
sounds highly inconvenient. Another major disadvantage
relating to these fountains lies in the bacteriological prolif-
eration, taking place when water stagnates, favorizing the
installation of a biofilm and microalgae.
As a modest remedy to such a problem, the present study
is aimed to develop a new fountain photoreactor useful for
degrading water associated pollutants. In this context, a
fountain fixed bed photocatalytic reactor, incorporating ZnO
catalyst and UV stemming from a UV lamp, was used for the
purpose of testing its performance in regard of the photo-
catalytic destruction of pharmaceutical contaminants. The
test applied to this model reactor, useful for the degradation
of pharmaceutical pollutants, as a means conceived to help
in further enhancing the reactor’s efficiency and performance
as to the photodegradation of Ibuprofen under radiation, was
performed through application of a special experimental Fig. 1 Design and experimental setup
design useful for maintaining the parametric study
optimization.
3 Experimental Procedure
2 Design of Fountain Photoreactor The manipulations are carried out according to the following
steps:
The fountain photoreactor is a new semi-pilot prototype in
the form of an architecture that uses treatment processes • Preparation of the ibuprofen solutions with the desired
based on the oxidation of organic molecules, in presence of a concentrations. Amounts of powdered ibuprofen are
semiconductor catalyst under solar UV light or ultraviolet weighed and diluted in distilled water in a volumetric
emitting lamps. flask, with a volume relative to the concentration to be
The organic pollutant photodegradation process is carried prepared. This preparation is followed by a homoge-
out by means of a fountain photoreactor incorporating a nization procedure, on a magnetic stirring plate, while
three-dimensional flow and a rotating system, to promote avoiding contact with daylight;
contact of the polluting catalyst and homogenization of the • Adjust the pH to the desired value using HCl and 0.1 N
solution during processing. The circulation system is closed, NaOH solutions on testing the pH effect;
with a particular compound geometry composed of a set of • Insert the ibuprofen solution into the reservoir;
glass spheres, superimposed one over the other, with • Insert the titanium dioxide into the reservoir;
respective diameters of 32, 24 and 20 cm. The whole rests • Switch on the U.V lamp;
on a basin which collects the solution poured on a catalytic • Samples of 2 mL are taken at regular time intervals;
support (Fig. 1). The water is recovered in a tank with a • Filtration of the volume taken with Millipore filters, to
volume capacity of 5 L. This photoreactor is powered by separate the liquid phase from the solid one;
photovoltaic panels to ensure energy autonomy. The exci- • Samples’ Analysis via UV/visible spectrophotometer.
tation and reaction of photoreactor catalyst is maintained by
exposing the active surface to two irradiation sources that
help in ensuring the pollutant degradation, while evaluating
the entire performances. 4 Results and Discussion
So, Ibuprofen was used as a pharmaceutical pollutant
model. It is an anti-inflammatory substance that pertains to For the sake of studying the reactor’s rotation influence of
the family of aryl-alkanoic acids, specifically, the subfamily the on the degradation efficiency, two tests were carried out,
of aryl-propionic acids. The material applied as a photocat- with and without rotation. The degradation of a dye
alytic compound is titanium dioxide. Indeed, in addition to Orange II with a concentration of 10 mg/L, of an amount of
its safety, it is also a low cost product, which makes it an 0.1 g/L in P25 and a free pH, was selected foe a study.
industrially interesting material. Figure 2, depicts the temporal variations of orange acid II
Degradation of Pharmaceutical Contaminant in Water …
Fig. 2 Evolution of the degradation of orange acid II with and without
rotation
with and without rotation. The obtained yield present 99.7%
during the rotation test and a yield of 49.2% with
non-rotational tests, over a treatment time interval of
150 min. It was discovered that the rotation procedure
proves to have a highly positive effect on the degradation
efficiency exceeding the rate of 47% as compared to the
non-rotating system.
As for the second test, it consists in determining the
Ibuprofen pollutant associated residence time. A concentra-
tion of a tracer represented by the electrolyte (KCl, 0.1 N) is
introduced at the reactor inlet at the initial time and,
instantaneously, at the rate of one (01) mL per pulse injec-
tion, through detecting the concentration of Plotter at the
output, every 5 s. Concerning conductivity, it was measured
at the level of the reactor outlet via a conductivity meter. The
results obtained were in the form of conductivity curves as a
function of time. For each flow, respectively, Q = 15, 40 and
Fig. 3 Timing distribution curves (for respectively Q = 15, 40 and 80 mL/s)
213
80 mL/s, two tests were performed, one with rotation and
another without.
Based on the results shown in Fig. 3, one could well note
that the mineral salt related residence time, with rotation,
proved to be remarkably greater than that recorded for the
no-rotation case, displaying an average ratio of 1.60. This
applies to the three flows, allowing us to conclude that the
rotation appeared to highly affect the residence time, and that
the transit time seemed to decrease when the traffic flow
tended to increase.
In the third test, ibuprofen was eliminated via various
processes:
– adsorption where the solution is brought into contact with
the catalyst, which acts as an adsorbent without any input
of the photons;
– Photolysis where the pollutant is brought into contact
with a light source in the absence of catalyst;
– And photocatalysis in the presence of the catalyst and the
UV irradiation source;
We carried out a series of tests maintaining the following
operating conditions: Recirculation rate of the solution is
41 mL/s; Initial ibuprofen concentration is 10 mg L; P25
amount is 0.2 g/L and free pH is between 4.9 and 5.2).
The comparative results, concerning the different ibupro-
fen elimination processes, are given in Fig. 4, highlighting
the kinetics of the active substance adsorption over a 350 min
treatment time. The equilibrium was achieved after a few
hours, and only 6% of the active molecule was adsorbed. In
absence of P25, the amount of ibuprofen removed under UV.
irradiation (photolysis) proved to be less than 4%, in the joint
presence of P25 with the radiations U.V.
214
Fig. 4 Temporal evolution of the reduced concentration of ibuprofen
for different processes
5 Conclusion
This study was aimed to develop and evaluate the
purification efficiency of a new fountain type photoreac-
tor used for the treatment of effluents contaminated with
organic micropollutants. This new photoreactor can be
used to treat polluted water by emphasizing efficiency and
decorative appearance in order to integrate this type of
reactor in urban and industrial areas such as a
self-cleaning system or a photocatalytic treatment and
disinfection system. waters. The results showed that this
D. Tassalit et al.
type of reactor is effective in degrading Ibuprofen, a
pharmaceutical pollutant that is difficult to degrade.
Yields above 98% were obtained at initial concentrations
much higher than those found in the actual effluents. In a
first step, a preliminary study was carried out to study the
system’s rotation influence on the efficiency of the pho-
tocatalytic degradation treatment of a dye (orange acid
II). This study allowed us to conclude that the rotation
promotes agitation and homogenization of the solution to
be treated and the rotational flow increases the time of
passage of the solution in the photoreactor. The transit
time is much greater when the system is in rotation. This
study managed to demonstrate well that photocatalysis
proves to stand as a highly efficient process, ensuring a
degradation performance exceeding the rate of 98%.
References
FAO, Nation unies, World Resources Institute (WRI) Copyright ©
2008, United Nations Environment Programme & Philippe
Rekacewicz (Le Monde diplomatique). 2008.
Focazio MJ, Kolpin DW, Barnes KK, Furlong ET, Meyer MT,
Zaugg SD, Barber LB, Thurman ME. Sci Total Environ.
2008;402:201.
Klavarioti M, Mantzavinos D, Kassinos D. Environ Int. 2008. doi:10.
1016/j.envint.2008.07.009.
Richards SM, Cole SE. Ecotoxicology. 2006;15:647.
 Solar Photodegradation Using Zinc Oxide
Catalyst for the Elimination of Phenol
and Acetamiprid from Water

Djilali Tassalit, Ouassila Benhabiles, Nadia Chekir, Nachida Kasbadji

Merzouk, Naima Sahraoui, Smail Nouissi, Mazigh Brahimi,
and Sara Mahidine

Keywords
Water treatment Photocatalysis Optimisation Phenol Acetamiprid Solar radiation

1 Introduction between the nexus perspective and adaptation to climate

During the last few decades, new techniques have emerged
in the field of water and wastwater treatment using renew-
able energies and green processes, among which the
Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) belonging to the
latest generation of techniques developed in this field. They
aim at the total mineralization of pollutants in CO2, H2O
and inorganic compounds. Among these processes, the
photocatalysis oxidation appears as a method of choice for
this type of application (Loos et al. 2009; Song et al. 2006).
Moreover, the use of renewable energies will be an
adapted response to this problem. Indeed, it is worth
recalling that the use of renewable energies, particularly
solar energy, in the various fields of development and
Integrating energy and water systems at all scales offers
unique opportunities for energy and water security. the
concept of a water–energy–food nexus is gaining currency,
and adaptation to climate change has become an urgent need,
little effort has been made so far to understand the linkages
D. Tassalit (&)
O. Benhabiles
N. Kasbadji Merzouk

S. Mahidine
Unité de Développement des Equipements Solaires, UDES/EPST,
Centre de Développementdes Energies Renouvelables, CDER,
42415 Tipaza, Algeria
e-mail: tassalit2003@gmail.com
D. Tassalit
N. Chekir
N. Sahraoui
S. Nouissi
M. Brahimi
Faculté de Génie Mécanique et de Génie Des Procédés,
Laboratoire des Phénomènes de Transfert, Université des Sciences
et de La Technologie Houari Boumediene (USTHB), 16111
Bab-Ezzouar, Algiers, Algeria
change (Stambouli 2011).
This use might be beneficial to Algeria, a country
exposed to the sun most of the year and which must benefit
from this inexhaustible resource energy. Treating wastewater
with renewable energy constitutes a reliable and approved
alternative to contribute to the preservation of the environ-
ment (Safarzadeh-Amiri et al. 1996).
The aim of this study was to demonstrate the effective-
ness of the solar photodegradation process for the removal of
recalcitrant organic pollutants widely used in Algeria. An
optimization study of the operating conditions was carried
out in order to understand the influence of the initial con-
centration of the pollutant, the concentration of the catalyst,
the pH of the solution and the addition of H2O2 on the
degradation of the treated pollutants.
Experimental setup
The evaluation of the photocatalysis process for the
degradation and optimization of the operating conditions of
the treatment of the water contaminated with phenol and
acetamiprid were carried out using a solar photoreactor
designed and achieved in the framework of research project
of cooperation between Algeria and Tunisia.
This system consists of an inclined plastic corrugated
support 1 m long and 0.5 m wide which consists of 28
ripples in which a powdered catalyst was fixed. The polluted
water was pumped from an 8-liter tank using a solar pump
connected with two 12 v batteries powered by photovoltaic
panels. The experimental system is shown in Fig. 1. Pho-
toreactor is shown in Fig. 1. The excitation of the catalyst in
our photoreactor is ensured by exposing the active surface to
two irradiation sources for the degradation of pollutants and
to evaluate these performances.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 215

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_70
216 D. Tassalit et al.

Fig. 1 Experimental setup

2 Results and Discussion The obtained results show that the amount of pollutant
eliminated during photolysis and adsorption is practically
The photodegradation of phenol and acetamiprid was carried negligible. whereas, during photocatalysis, the degradation
out under solar radiation. Various methods have been tested: rate of acetamiprid increases remarkably to reach a yield of
an adsorption where the solution was brought into contact 75% After 300 min of treatment and a yield of 99%, for
with the catalyst without any contact with a light source, phenol, after 100 min. From these results, we can conclude
photolysis where the pollutant is brought into contact with that solar photocatalysis appears as a method of choice for
natural light and photocatalysis in the presence of the cata- the degradation of acetamiprid and phenol. This is in
lyst and source of solar radiation. A comparative study was agreement with the results found by Safarzadeh-Amiri et al.
therefore carried out between Photolysis, adsorption and (1996), which confirm that heterogeneous photocatalysis is a
photocatalysis for the removal of acetamiprid and phenol. method that allows the oxidation of most organic pollutants.
Figure 2 represent the temporal evolution of the concentra- In the process of solar heterogeneous photocatalysis, the
tion of phenol using different processes. photodegradation is greater when the number of photons
absorbed is important by the creation of the e-Hole at the
1,2 particle surface of the photocatalyst (Zouzelka and
C/C0 Rathousky 2017). In order to study the influence of the
1 luminous flux on the abatement efficiency of the recalcitrant
pollutants studied, experiments were carried out for acet-
0,8 Photocatalysis
amiprid and phenol degradation during two different days
0,6 photolysis (sunny and partially cloudy) while maintaining the same
Adsorption operating conditions (Fig. 3, Table 1).
0,4
From this table and the values of the kinetic constants, it
0,2 can be seen that the speed of the photodegradation reaction
of the two pollutants increases with the increase in luminous
time (min)
0 flux. In addition, the initial velocities increase from 0.025 to
0 50 100 150 200
0.111 mg L−1 min−1 for acetamiprid and from 0.142 to
Fig. 2 Temporal evolution the phenol concentration using different 0.371 mg L−1 min−1 for phenol for the cloudy and sunny
processes days, respectively.
Solar Photodegradation Using Zinc Oxide Catalyst … 217

Fig. 3 Temporal variation of the reduced phenol and acetamiprid concentration (sunny and partially cloudy days)

Table 1 Values of velocity constants, initial velocity and half-reaction time for different solar radiations
Solar flux (W m−2) X% kapp r0 t1/2 R2
(min−1) (mg L−1 min−1) (min)
Acetamiprid Sunny day 830.95 81 0.0111 0.111 6 0.99
Cloudy day 452.99 50 0.0025 0.025 28 0.99
Phenol Sunny day 816.68 99 0.0371 0.371 19 0.99
Cloudy day 561.47 99 0.0142 0.142 49 0.99

3 Conclusion
This study explored the elimination of water pollution by
organic products and a pesticide largely used in agricul-
ture in Algeria. The parametric study of the factors
influencing the photodegradation ratio are taking in
consideration. The degradation and adsorption rate con-
stants increase with the increasing concentration of acti-
vated carbon for both pollutants. The higher the initial
concentrations of pollutants, the lower the rate of disap-
pearance and the rate constants. Specifically, we have
evaluated the improvement of photocatalytic activity
using Zinc oxide for the total pollutant removal. It was
found that the photocatalytic oxidation reaction followed
the pseudo-first order model. The photodegradation ratio
reached 98% after 300 min of solar radiation. The test of
this reactor improved the efficiency for the degradation of
organic pollutants.
References
Loos R, Gawlik BM, Locoro G, Rimaviciute E, Contini S, Bidoglio G.
Environ Pollut. 2009;157:561–8.
Safarzadeh-Amiri A, Bolton JR, Cater SR. J Adv Oxid Technol.
1996;1:18–26.
Song L, Zhu B, Gray S, Duke M, Muthukumaran S. Membranes.
2006;6.1:18–24.
Stambouli AB. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2011;15(2):1169–81.
Zouzelka R, Rathousky. J Appl Catal B: Environ 2017;217:466–76.
 Comparative Study of Natural and Synthetic
Clays Used as Supported Catalysts in Dyes
Degradation by Advanced Oxidation
Processes

Hafsa Rabah, Khadidja Khaldi, Abderrahim Choukchou-Braham,

Djahida Lerari-Zinai, and Khaldoun Bachari

Keywords
H-montmorillonite K10 Congo-Red Fenton Photo-Fenton Photo-catalysis

1 Introduction In Algeria, bentonite reserves (clays) are among the lar-

Dyes are considered as one of the main sources of water
pollution. It is estimated that over 100,000 tons of dyes are
produced per year, approximately, up to 10% of which is
discharged in the environment (Ajmal et al. 2014; De León
et al. 2015). Most of these are non-biodegradable, toxic and
potentially carcinogenic (Sun et al. 2008). The advanced
oxidation processes AOP are promising for the water treat-
ments which, in the ideal case, mineralize the organic stuff
without leaving any hazardous molecules. These sykstems
consist in the generation of hydroxyl radicals as primary
oxidants (Vinodgopal and Peller 2003). Some of the most
widely known AOPs are those called Fenton, photo- catal-
ysis and photo-Fenton techniques. In order to minimize the
challenges associated with the homogeneous reactions, a
new class of heterogeneous catalysts has been developed
based on the incorporation of the Fenton catalyst on porous
supports such as clays. These materials are attractive, to
prepare potential catalysts, owing to its high surface area,
porosity, acidity, thermal stability, low cost and high
selectivity.
H. Rabah (&)
K. Khaldi
A. Choukchou-Braham
Laboratoire de Catalyse et Synthèse En Chimie Organique
(LCSCO), Faculté Des Sciences, Université de Tlemcen, Tlemcen,
Algeria
e-mail: rh13000cata@gmail.com
K. Khaldi
e-mail: khadidjaphy@yahoo.fr
A. Choukchou-Braham
e-mail: cba_dz@yahoo.fr
K. Khaldi
D. Lerari-Zinai
K. Bachari
Centre de Recherche Scientifique et Technique En Analyses
Physico-Chimiques (CRAPC), Bou Ismaïl, Algeria
gest in the world. They are found in Oran (western Algeria).
In particular, the Roussel (Maghnia) quarry, whose reserves
are estimated at one million tons, and those of M’zila
(Mostaganem) with reserves of two million tons. However,
this important resource needs to be rehabilitated as much as
possible by physicochemical treatment in order to widen its
field of use, in particular that of catalysis.
The main goal of the present study was to valorise
algerian natural clay which is economic, available and
environment freindly. Both of the acidified natural bentonite
(HMont) and synthetic clay K10 were used as modified and
supported catalysts for textile dye degradation through
advanced oxidation processes. DRX, BET were employed to
characterize prepared catalysts, UV-visible spectroscopy was
used to quantify the rate of degradation and The ionic
chromatography was thus used to evaluate the mineralization
of Congo-Red.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Catalysts Synthesis
Natural montmorillonite powder, collected from the deposits
of Western town of Maghnia in Algeria, was purified and
exchanged three times with H+ ions by stirring in HCl
solution, while the commercial product (K10) was used
without any purification.
Ti-PILCs support was prepared by hydrolysis of Ti
(OC3H7)4 with HCl according to the protocol cited in ref-
erence (Dali 2015). Finally, the synthesis of Fe/Ti-PILCs
with different contents was achieved by impregnation. Six
samples were prepared and divided into two series, 1%

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 219

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_71
220
Fe/Ti-PILK10, 5% Fe/Ti-PILK10, 10% Fe/Ti-PILK10 and
1% Fe/Ti-PIL Hmont, 5% Fe/Ti-PIL Hmont, 10% Fe/Ti-PIL
Hmont.
2.2 Catalytic Evaluation of Solids
Photo-Fenton catalytic reaction was carried out in a batch
cylindrical reactor containing 100 mL of the aqueous dis-
persion of Congo-Red, oxidant and the catalyst. The pollu-
tant was left in contact with the catalyst for 30 min until the
adsorption equilibrium was reached, then H2O2 and irradi-
ation have been launched. Irradiations were performed with
a lamp inside a quartz jacket, immersed in the mixture and
coaxial with the photoreactor. The sample was analyzed
under UV-Vis spectrophotometer with 497 nm wavelength
with time interval. The color rate decrease was monitored.
The different degradation process (Fenton, Photo-Fenton,
Photo catalysis) were done.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Textural Analyses
The N2 sorption isotherms of Acidified Bentonite (Hmont),
Ti PILC, 1% Fe/Ti PILC, 5% Fe/Ti PILC and 10% Fe/Ti
PILC, synthetic Bentonite K10, Ti-PILK10, 1%
Fe/Ti-PILK10, 5% Fe/Ti-PILK10 and 10% Fe/Ti-PILK10
are presented in Figs. 1 and 2. All samples showed an iso-
therm type IV according to IUPAC classification, with H4
type hysteresis. The results of surface area show the pore
evolution after each treatment. The specific surface increase
after each preparation step. The porosity of the pillared
material is higher than the unpillared.
Fig. 1 N2 adsorption–desorption isotherms and pore size distribution
calculated with BJH method of: Hmont based catalysts
H. Rabah et al.
Fig. 2 N2 adsorption–desorption isotherms and pore size distribution
calculated with BJH method of: K10 based catalysts
The textural properties deduced from these isotherms are
summarized in Table 1. Considerable changes were
observed in the surface properties of the Hmont after inter-
calation of Ti. The BET surface area of Ti PILC was
increased to 162 m2/g, as compared to the original Hmont
(140 m2/g), this indicates the successful pillaring of the TiO2
species into the silicate layers of the clay (Bineesh et al.
2008). After impregnation of the Ti-pillared clay with 1%
Fe, the BET surface area was decreased to 147 m2/g, which
can be explained by the blocking of some pores by Iron
species. However, in the case of the 5% and 10%
Fe/Ti-PILC, the surface area was increased (196 and
193 m2/g respectively) due to the formation of iron pillars.
For K10 based catalysts, the surface area was not changed
before and after intercalation with TiO2 (155, 153 m2/g).
However, it was increased after iron impregnation for two
catalysts 1% Fe/Ti-PILK10 and 5% Fe/Ti-PILK10
(168,165 m2/g), and decreased in the case of 10%
Fe/Ti-PILK10 catalysts because of pores blocking.
3.2 Structural Analyses
XRD patterns of the prepared materials are presented in
Figs. 3 and 4. For Hmont, the characteristic diffraction peaks
of montmorillonite (19.7°, 35.55°, 54.08° and 64°) are
mainly observed and exhibit strong diffraction peak at 6.9°
which corresponds to the basal spacing of d001 = 16 Å (Zhao
et al. 2015).
The intensity of characteristics Hmont peaks in the XRD
patterns of the Ti PILC decreased and some new peaks at
2h = 25°, 37°, 48° and 53° appeared, indicating that Ti
species were introduced in the Hmont interlayer. The pil-
lared clay sample Ti-PILC did not show the (001) peak. This
Comparative Study of Natural and Synthetic Clays … 221

Table 1 Surface area (SBET), total pore volume (Vp) and pore diameter (dp) of samples
Natural clay based catalysts Synthetic clay based catalysts
Materials SBET (m2. g−1) Vp (cm3. g−1) dp (Å) Materials SBET (m2. g−1) Vp (cm3. g−1) dp (Å)
HMont 140 0.15 30 K10 155 0.22 33
10 mmol Ti-PILC 162 0.16 30 10 mmol Ti-PILK10 153 0.15 31
1% Fe/Ti-PILC 147 0.15 30 1% Fe/Ti-PILK10 168 0.17 30
5% Fe/Ti-PILC 196 0.20 30 5% Fe/Ti-PILK10 165 0.19 30
10% Fe/Ti-PILC 193 0.21 30 10% Fe/Ti-PILK10 141 0.14 30

indicates a highly disordered structure. Moreover, the char-

acteristic peaks of Titanium in the anatase phase were
observed (JCPDS: 21-1272) (Boudali et al. 2005a). For K10
based catalysts, the characteristic diffractions of the mont-
morillonite clay K10 occurred at (20.2°, 34.25°, 61.0°) as
well as the quartz phase and the mica group that appeared
respectively at 26.0° and 19° (Mansour et al. 2011; Dali
et al. 2015). For the titanium intercalated clay (10 mmol
Ti-PILC), all representative diffractions of the anatase took
place at (26°, 37°, 45°, 54°) (Dali et al. 2015; Romero et al.
2006; Boudali et al. 2005b).
After Fe (III) impregnation, Ti PILC pattern is preserved
with lower intensity as a result of a crystallinity reduction.
Moreover, we noted that all our materials did not show any
Fig. 3 XRD diffractograms of HMont based catalysts
specific reflection indicating the formation of Fe oxide
(Hammoumraoui 2010), the diffractions of the iron oxide
intercalated appeared at 2h = 33.28; 35.74; 49.49; 54.23;
62.26 40. This is related to the fact that Fe attachment in the
Ti PILC is achieved by ion exchange (Fatimah and
Nurkholifah 2016).

3.3 Degradation of Congo-Red Over Fenton,

Photocatalysis and Photo-Fenton Processes

After the synthesis and Characterisation, the obtained cata-

Fig. 4 XRD diffractograms of K10 based catalysts
lysts were tested for catalytic degradation of Congo-Red
over the three processes in order to compare the two series of
prepared catalysts, the rate of Congo-Red degradation is
summarized in Table 2.
This study demonstrated the no efficiency of the Congo
Red oxidation by Fenton process for all catalysts. In case of
the photocatalysis process, the efficiency was increased by
an average of 50% for the k10 clay catalysts, whereas it was
222
Table 2 Degradation (%) of Catalysts
Congo-Red for the three
processes 1% Fe/Ti PIL Hmont
5% Fe/Ti PIL Hmont
10% Fe/Ti PIL Hmont
1% Fe/Ti PILK10
5% Fe/Ti PILK10
10% Fe/Ti PILK10
a
50 mL Congo-Red [10−4 M], 0.033 g catalyst, 0.025 mL H2O2, 1 h
b
100 mL Congo-Red [10−4 M], 0.067 g catalyst, 0.05 mL H2O2, 1 h
increased by an average of 35% for the natural clay catalysts.
The synergistic effect was clearly demonstrated for the
photo-Fenton process as it contains higher conversions with
an average of 88% for commercial clay catalysts and 74%
for the catalysts based on natural clay. Therefore, it can be
concluded that the performance of natural clay-based cata-
lysts is close to that of synthetic clay-based catalysts.
4 Conclusion
From these results, it can be seen that the catalytic
activity of the natural clay catalysts is close to that of the
synthetic clay catalysts. The presence of iron ions with
the H2O2 (Fenton) as well as the titanium ions with the
UV irradiations (photo-catalysis) gives a very strong
synergistic effect in photo Fenton oxidation.
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for heterogeneous photo-fenton process. Ind Eng Chem Res.
2015;54(4):1228–35.
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properties of Fe-pillared bentonite at various Fe content. Bull
Chem React Eng Catal. 2016;11(3):398–405.
Hammoumraoui I. Synthèse du mélange cyclohexanol-cyclohexanone
par oxydation du cyclohexane par les hydroperoxydes en présence
de métaux supportés sur oxydes métalliques, 2010, Université A.
Belkaid-Tlemcen.
Mansour H, et al. Les colorants textiles sources de contamination de
l’eau: CRIBLAGE de la toxicité et des méthodes de traitement.
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tion. Clays Clay Miner. 2006;54(6):737–47.
Sun J, et al. Photocatalytic degradation of Orange G on nitrogen-doped
TiO2 catalysts under visible light and sunlight irradiation. J Hazard
Mater. 2008;155(1–2):312–9.
Vinodgopal K, Peller J. Hydroxyl radical-mediated advanced oxidation
processes for textile dyes: a comparison of the radiolytic and
sonolytic degradation of the monoazo dye Acid Orange 7. Res
Chem Intermed. 2003;29(3):307–16.
Zhao YH, et al. Effective activation of montmorillonite and its
application for Fischer-Tropsch synthesis over ruthenium promoted
cobalt. Fuel Process Technol. 2015;136:87–95.
 Enhanced Efficiency
of the Coagulation/Flocculation Treatment
of Vegetable Oil Refinery Wastewater Using
Response Surface Methodology

Ghofrane Louhichi, Imen Khouni, and Ahmed Ghrabi

Keywords
Oil refinery wastewater Coagulation/flocculation COD Turbidity Box–behnken
RSM

1 Introduction dose of coagulants and flocculants and pH (Khayet et al.

Vegetable oils contain various minor substances such as
phospholipids, free fatty acids, waxes, coloring pigments
(Koris et al. 2002). Therefore, these substances may affect
the quality of the wastewater generated by the refinery
manufacturing since its discharge contains high amount of
organic matters, oil, grease and suspended solids. Therefore,
the treatment of vegetable oil refinery wastewater is a
complicated task trying to meet the desired effluent standards
(Chipasa 2001). Consequently, it represents one of the major
environmental problems that can result in environmental
pollutions and serious damage to the ecosystem. Several
treatment methods for vegetable oil refinery wastewater were
applied such as adsorption, coagulation, anaerobic treatment,
reverse osmosis and ultra-filtration (Un et al. 2009). Among
these methods, the treatment by coagulation/flocculation
(CF) within a short period of time was found the most
suitable, popular and effective solution for the treatment of
oily wastewater discharged to the environment. Many fac-
tors may influence the CF efficiency, such as the type and
G. Louhichi
I. Khouni (&)
A. Ghrabi
Laboratory of wastewater treatment and environment, Water
Research and Technologies Centre of Borj-Cedria (CERTE),
BP 273, 8020 Soliman, Tunisie
e-mail: imen.khouni@yahoo.fr
G. Louhichi
e-mail: ghofranlouhichi@outlook.fr
A. Ghrabi
e-mail: a.ghrabi@yahoo.fr
G. Louhichi
Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage,
7021 Jarzouna, Tunisie
2011). The optimization of these factors may increase the CF
process efficiency. The response surface methodology
(RSM) was proposed to determine the impact of individual
factors and their interactive influences.
The objectives of this investigation were (i) to optimize
the CF treatment of vegetable oil refinery wastewater
adopting a full range of response surface methodology
(RSM) using central composite design (CCD) model, (ii) to
analyze the efficiency of the system under different condi-
tions and (iii) to investigate the interactive effects of exper-
imental factors, including coagulant concentration,
flocculant dosage and initial pH.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Coagulation/Flocculation Treatment
and Screening Reagents
Experimental coagulation/flocculation (CF) tests were car-
ried out according to the well-known “Jar-test” protocol. The
reagents addition sequence was carried out in two steps. The
sample is stirred rapidly for a period of 5 min at 180 rpm,
followed by a further slow mixing of 20 min at 30 rpm
before allowing it to settle for 30 min.
A preliminary study on the effect of coagulant nature and
dose, flocculant dose and initial pH aimed to identify the
most critical factors. Furthermore, several coagulants such as
calcium chloride (CaCl2), ferric chloride (FeCl3), alumina
sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), carbonate Calcium (CaCO3), magne-
sium chloride (MgCl2) and ammonium sulphate
((NH4)2SO4) were tested. The use of all types of coagulant

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 223

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_72
224
helps to identify the appropriate coagulant in the removal
efficiency of the treatment method.
To identify the best coagulant dose, only the specific
coagulant was analyzed, and its concentration was varied
between 0 and 3 g/L. On the other hand, CHT-Flocculant
CV, industrial flocculant, was used as a flocculating agent
with a dose ranging from 0 to 500 mg/L.
COD and turbidity removal were determined according to
the standard methods suggested by American Public Health
Association (1998).
2.2 CF Process Optimization Using RSM
Approach
In this study a three-level Box–Behnken full factorial design
was employed to optimise the CF treatment of wastewaters
from vegetable oil refinery. Coagulant dose (X1) (1–4 g/L),
flocculant dose (X2) (20–100 mg/L) and pH (X3) (6–12) are
taken as independent variables, while turbidity and COD
removals were chosen as the responses Y1 and Y2,
respectively. A total of 29 experiments were performed.
An empirical second-order polynomial model (Y) (re-
sponse function) for predicting the optimal point was used in
the following form:
XX
k k1 X
X k X
k
Y ¼ a0 a i Xi þ aij Xi Xj þ
i¼1 i¼1 j¼2 i¼1
The results of the experimental design, regression and
graphical analysis of the data obtained were analyzed and
interpreted using NemrodW version 2000-D statistical
software.
Fig. 1 COD removal percentage
as a function of different
coagulant reagent and dose
(flocculant concentration
of 50 mg/L and pH after
coagulation of 7)
G. Louhichi et al.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 CF Performance for Turbidity and COD
Removal
The addition of chemical reagents (coagulant and flocculant)
improved the treatment of vegetable oil refinery wastewater
(VORWW). Among the different coagulants tested, alu-
minium sulphate (SA) provided better results than those
obtained with the ferric chloride and the other coagulants.
The removal of turbidity and COD was satisfactory when
60 mg/L of CHT flocculant was added to 3 g/L of SA at
initial pH of 9. The C/F treatment of vegetable oil refinery
wastewater led to 97% COD removal and 100% turbidity
reduction (Figs. 1 and 2).
However, the traditional optimisation is usually carried
out by varying a single factor while keeping all the other
factors fixed at a specific set of conditions, it is
time-consuming and incapable of reaching the true optimum
due to ignoring the interactions among the variables. Thus, it
is desirable to develop an acceptable process in short
time, with less reagents and raw materials to indicate the
relative significance of a number of variables and their
interactions.
3.2 CF Treatment Optimization Using Response
aij Xi2 þ 2
Surface Methodology and Box Behnken
Design
ð1Þ
The application of the response surface methodology using
Box Bhenken design to the C/F of vegetable oil refinery has
given an empirical correlation for the removal of turbidity
and COD.
Enhanced Efficiency of the Coagulation/Flocculation Treatment … 225

Fig. 2 Treatment of vegetable oil refinery wastewater (VORWW) using aluminum sulphate concentration of 3 g/L, flocculant dosage of 60 mg/L
and initial pH of 9; a Raw VORWW before CF treatment, b VORWW after CF treatment showing a total reduction of turbidity

The three-dimensional (3D) surface plots provide a better Y1 ¼  69:869 X1  75:382 X2 þ 168:679 X3  85:654 X12
explanation of the effects of the independent variables and þ 163:598 X22 þ 69:306 X1 X2  79:375 X2 X3
their interactions. They show the relative effects on COD
ð2Þ
and turbidity removals of any two variables when the
remaining (third) variable was kept constant (Fig. 3). Y2 ¼ 96:700 þ 24:739 X1  5:893 X2  7:340 X3  17:635 X12
The experimental results were evaluated and the different
þ 7:797 X22  23:084 X32 þ 8:800 X1 X2  2:181 X2 X3
predicted responses (Y) for percentages of COD and Tur-
bidity removals of samples treated were obtained in Eqs. (2) ð3Þ
and (3):

Fig. 3 Three-dimensional
response surface plots for
turbidity removal (a) and COD
removal (b) from vegetable oil
refinery wastewater treated using
CF treatment as a function of
coagulant and flocculant
concentration when initial pH was
kept constant (pH = 9)
226
For all the models, analysis of variance (NemrodW) for
turbidity removal (Y1) and COD removal (Y2) showed that
the fitted second-order response surface models were highly
significant.
4 Conclusion
Turbidity and organic matters removal from vegetable oil
refinery wastewater by coagulation/flocculation method
using aluminum sulfate was investigated. The CF opti-
mization was analyzed using response surface method-
ology (RSM) and Box Benhken design in order to
investigate the effects of three major factors and their
interaction such as coagulant concentration, flocculant
dose and initial pH. The predicted values of turbidity and
COD removal obtained using the response function were
in good agreement with the experimental data.
For maximum turbidity and COD removal, the opti-
mum pH was of 8.86 with optimum coagulant concen-
tration of about 3.5 g/L and flocculant dosage of about
87.23 mg/L. This study showed that statistical design
methodology was an efficient and feasible approach in
determining the optimum conditions for maximum tur-
bidity and COD removal by the CF process.
G. Louhichi et al.
Under the optimum conditions, the experimental
results indicated that CF was very efficient and able to
achieve 100% turbidity and 90% chemical oxygen
demand (COD) removals. Analysis of variance (Nem-
rood) showed a high variance coefficient (R2) value of
0.78 thus ensuring a satisfactory adjustment of the
second-order regression model with the experimental
data.
References
Chipasa KB. Limits of physicochemical treatment of wastewater in the
vegetable oil refining industry. Pol J Environ Stud. 2001; 141–8.
Khayet M, Zahrimb AY, Hilal N. Modelling and optimization of
coagulation of highly concentrated industrial grade leather dye by
response surface methodology. Chem Eng J. 2011; 167:77–83.
Koris A, Vatai G. Dry degumming of vegetable oils by membrane
filtration. Desalination 2002; 149–153.
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 18th
American Public Health Association/American Water Works
Association/Water Environment Federation, Washington, DC;
1998.
Un UT, Koparal AS, Ogutveren UB. Electrocoagulation of vegetable
oil refinery wastewater using aluminum electrodes. J Environ
Manage 2009; 428–433.
 Static Studies on Cationic Dye Desorption
Efficiencies from Chemically Modified
Orange Tree Sawdust: Experimental Results
and Mechanisms Investigations

Ahmed Amine Azzaz, Salah Jellali, Hanene Akrout,

and Latifa Bousselmi

Keywords
Methylene blue Desorption Regeneration Batch Lignocellulosic material
Hysteresis

experiments showed that maximum dye uptake was about

1 Introduction
79 mg/g. Studies on the dye uptake mechanisms by the
biomass suggested that it was mainly driven by a cationic
Methylene Blue (MB) is the one of the most commonly used
exchange process between liquid and solid phases. Despite
substances for cotton, wood and silk dyeing. Exposure to
the importance of the adsorption method for wastewater
MB could cause serious injuries to humans and animals’
treatment, it is only considered as a pollution transfer tech-
eyes and in some cases could lead to mental confusion and
nique and does not solve permanently the water pollution
methemoglobinemia. Thus, appropriate treatments of
issue. Furthermore, the unique use of sawdust for water
industrial wastewaters rich with such dyes have recently
treatment is not economically interesting for industrials,
drawn increasing scientific attention with the focus on
seeking multiple uses of both biosorbents and dyes. The main
reducing their negative impacts onto both human health and
goal of this study was to assess the impact of various
ecosystems biodiversity and favor their reuse.
experimental conditions, the MB desorption efficiencies from
In our previous studies (Azzaz et al. 2015, 2016), the
previously loaded orange tree sawdust under static mode.
effect of chemical treatment on the physical and chemical
characteristics of a lignocellulosic material was assessed.
Next, methylene blue (MB) adsorption onto alkali treated
orange tree sawdust (ATOS) was followed under various
2 Materials and Methods
experimental conditions in batch mode. The results showed
Batch experiments (static mode), consisted in stirring 0.1 g
that alkali treated orange tree sawdust surface presents high
of the chemically modified orange tree sawdust with 0,14 M
functional groups concentrations, susceptible of creating
NaOH (ATOS) loaded with MB at different concentrations
high energy bonds with the dye molecules. Adsorption
(42.78, 51.72, 63.78, 71.09, 74.52 and 74.68 mg/g) in
A.A. Azzaz (&)
S. Jellali
H. Akrout
L. Bousselmi 100 mL of NaCl aqueous solutions. The effects of NaCl
Wastewaters and Environment Laboratory, Water Research concentrations, stirring time duration and succession of
and Technologies Center, BP 273, 8020 Soliman, Tunisia adsorption/desorption cycles were studied.
e-mail: ahmedamine.azzaz@certe.rnrt.tn
S. Jellali
e-mail: salah.jallali@certe.rnrt.tn 3 Results and Discussion
H. Akrout
e-mail: hanene.akrout@certe.rnrt.tn 3.1 Desorption Kinetic
L. Bousselmi
e-mail: latifa.bousselmi@certe.rnrt.tn The experimental batch desorption study demonstrated that
A.A. Azzaz this process was very dependent on the contact time. Indeed,
Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, the related kinetic was relatively fast and reaches an
7000 Jarzouna, Tunisia

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 227

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_73
228
equilibrium state after about 120 min (Fig. 1). The appli-
cation of classical kinetic models reveals that the
pseudo-second order model was the best that allows a suc-
cessful fitting of the experimental data, which suggests that
MB desorption occurs mainly by chemisorption. Moreover,
it could be remarked that desorbed quantity of dye increases
when increasing the used NaCl concentration. In fact, the
quantity of released MB went from 20 to 42 mg/g for NaCl
concentrations of 0.05 and 1 M, respectively. This finding is
due to the fact that, at increasing concentrations of NaCl,
sodium ions compete with positively charged dye molecules
upon occupancy of surface functional sites. This phe-
nomenon causes the release of MB previously adsorbed onto
the support matrix to the solution in order to establish a
thermodynamic balance between the aqueous solution and
the adsorbent (Alberghina et al. 2000).
3.2 Desorption Hysteresis
It is interesting to determine the theoretical number of the
needed desorption cycles to reach a complete regeneration of
the biomass. For this purpose, the formula proposed by
Gebremariam et al. (2012) was used to determine the theo-
retical number of desorption cycles in function of the adsorbed
and desorbed pollutant quantity at a given regeneration cycle.
In our study, the desorption of MB was performed using dis-
tilled water and 0.5 M NaCl aqueous solution. The results
Fig. 1 Desorption kinetics of
MB from ATOS using various
NaCl aqueous solutions
A.A. Azzaz et al.
given in Fig. 2, show that desorption yield increases with the
increasing initial dye concentration at the adsorption step. For
instance, cumulated desorption yield increased from 11.29 to
17.06% between first and fifth desorption cycles using dis-
tilled water at initial dye concentrations of 42.8 and
74.5 mg/g, respectively. This increase is mainly due to the
increase in diffusion gradient between solid and liquid phase.
Furthermore, the diffusion rate in the desorption process is
higher than the one noticed for the adsorption, presenting
higher isotherm desorption slopes.
On the other hand, the use of the eluent was a great
importance in the values of desorption yields. In fact,
complete desorption of MB from ATOS was reached at
lower number of cycles when using NaCl aqueous solutions.
The values found when using the formula given by Gebre-
mariam et al. showed a considerable drop of the desorption
cycles from 559 to 575 when using distilled water to 42 to
50 cycles using 0.5 M NaCl solution for initial dye con-
centrations between 42.8 and 74.5 mg/g, respectively. These
results confirm that desorption of MB from ATOS is mainly
governed by a chemical reaction.
3.3 Desorption Mechanisms
Surface analysis performed on the biomass before and after
dye desorption was carried out using SEM/EDX and FTIR
apparatus. Optimized and loaded MB sawdust showed a
Static Studies on Cationic Dye Desorption Efficiencies …
Fig. 2 Desorption isotherm and hysteresis phenomenon of MB from ATOS using a distilled water and b 0.5 M NaCl aqueous solutions
uniform structure with saturated pores, confirming the
adsorption of the dye molecules (Amirnia et al. 2016). After
desorption, it can be seen that the homogeneous aspect of the
surface has become less important, since a large fraction of the
molecules of BM retained has been eliminated. In addition,
the images indicate the existence of a crystal structure on the
surface of the SBOopt after desorption. According to the
elemental analysis, the peak corresponding to sodium
increased significantly after desorption, which shows the
deposition of NaCl crystals on the ATOS surface. These
results confirm the substitution of BM molecules by Na+ on
the surface of the biomass during desorption.
Infrared spectroscopy performed on the MB-loaded ATOS
and after desorption revealed a heterogeneous surface struc-
ture for both materials with the presence of a multitude of
functional groups, namely hydroxyl, carbonyl, phenolic and
carboxylic groups before and after the desorption experi-
ments. After desorption, the ATOS spectrum showed a
decrease in spectrum intensity. This may be due to the
increased concentration of free functional groups after the
release of the dye molecules (Duran et al. 2011). Thus, we can
notice a significant increase in the intensities of the peaks
recorded between 3500 and 3000 cm−1, relative to free (OH–)
and bound (O–H) hydroxyl groups. Vibration was recorded at
1688 and 1618 cm−1 in relation to primary and secondary
alcohols m (COO–) and aliphatic and carboxylic ether groups
before and after desorption, respectively. Elongation of the m
(C–O) ester was also observed at 1406 and 1402 cm−1. Peaks
were also recorded at 780 and 590 cm−1, exhibiting a flat
deformation vibration of the –CH groups.
229
4 Conclusion
The experimental results have shown that the desorption
of MB using acidic solutions or NaCl in batch mode is
highly dependent on the contact time. This kinetics is
relatively rapid for the case of saline solutions and
reaches a state of equilibrium after about 120 min. The
application of classical kinetic models shows that the
pseudo-second order best describes the experimental
values, which means that the desorption of the MB takes
place mainly by chemisorption. The use of several con-
secutive cycles of desorption of MB initially adsorbed on
ATOS at different concentrations made it possible to
deduce that the desorption efficiency of the BM increases
with the MB concentration initially adsorbed on the solid
support and the number of desorption cycle Practiced for
distilled water or also saline solutions. In addition,
aqueous solutions of NaCl (0.5 M) prove to be very
effective in the desorption of the MB since the desorption
yield increases from 60% in the first cycle to more than
89% in the 5th desorption cycle.
References
Alberghina G, Bianchini R, Fichera M, Fisichella S. Dimerization of
Cibacron Blue F3GA and other dyes: influence of salts and
temperature. Dye Pigm. 2000; 46:129–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0143-7208(00)00045-0.
Amirnia S, Ray MB, Margaritis A. Copper ion removal by Acer
saccharum leaves in a regenerable continuous-flow column. Chem
Eng J. 2016; 287:755–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2015.11.056.
230
Azzaz AA, Jellali S, Akrout H, et al. Optimization of a cationic dye
removal by a chemically modified agriculture by-product using
response surface methodology: biomasses characterization and
adsorption properties. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2016; 1–16. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7698-6.
Azzaz AA, Jellali S, Assadi AA, Bousselmi L. Chemical treatment of
orange tree sawdust for a cationic dye enhancement removal from
aqueous solutions: kinetic, equilibrium and thermodynamic studies.
Desalin Water Treat. 2015; 3994:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/
19443994.2015.1103313.
A.A. Azzaz et al.
Duran C, Ozdes D, Gundogdu A, Senturk HB (2011) Kinetics and
isotherm analysis of basic dyes adsorption onto almond shell
(Prunus dulcis) as a low cost adsorbent. J Chem Eng Data. 2011;
56:2136–47. https://doi.org/10.1021/je101204j.
Gebremariam SY, Beutel MW, Flury M, et al. Nonsingular
adsorption/desorption of chlorpyrifos in soils and sediments:
experimental results and modeling. Environ Sci Technol. 2012;
46:869–75. https://doi.org/10.1021/es203341b.
 Biosorption of Methylene Blue
from Aqueous Solution Using Seagrass:
Batch Study
Riyad Mahfud, Nada Abd EL Latief, and Omar Sultan



Keywords
Biosorption Seagrass
1 Introduction
Many treatment processes have been used for the removal of
dyes from wastewater. The Biosorption process is one of the
most promising used methods because of its effective, cheap,
dye-removing capacity from industrial wastewaters on the
extensive scale (Aksu and Tezer 2005). There are various
low cost adsorbents which are used in the biosorption pro-
cess such as wheat straw (Robension et al. 2002) cotton
waste, rice husk (Safa and Bhatti 2011) maize cob,
treated parthenium biomass, Almond oil cake (Ardeiani et al.
2008).
Discovering a new adsorbent material and predicting the
performance of such material under the effect of various
parameters like initial concentration and contact time is a
very important research area as it saves time and effort. To
the best of our knowledge, this paper is the first to study the
performance of seagrass material as adsorbent for removal
efficiency of methylene blue from an aqueous solution in
batch mode. The organic SG adsorbent was chosen based on
its availability, which can be easily obtained for
free-of-charge from Sabratha city, Libya (Mahfud and Sakal
2016).
R. Mahfud (&)
N. A. E. Latief
Chemical Engineering Department, Sabratha University,
Sabratah, Libya,
e-mail: rasm@zu.edu.ly
O. Sultan
Chemical Engineering Department, Zawia University,
Zawia, Libya,
e-mail: sultan@zu.edu.ly
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_74



Methylene blue Isotherms Kinetics
2 Materials and Methods
The working MB solutions were prepared by diluting the
stock solution with deionized water to give the appropriate
concentration. The residual dye solution was measured using
UV visible spectrophotometer at a wavelength correspond-
ing to the maximum absorbance for the dye solution
(kmax = 665 nm). The seagrass, with long flat blade, was
collected from sabratha city, Libya. Then it was washed and
oven-dried. Then, part of the dried sample was soaked in
distilled water in an amount sufficient to cover the raw
materials completely and mixed vigorously for 30 min.
After mixing, the SG was subjected to drying at 90 °C in an
oven for 24 h. Then it was crushed and sieved to different
sizes; size of 355 lm was used (Fig. 1).
The Batch studies were conducted in flasks by adding
0.1 g of seagrass to 10 mL of methylene blue (MB) solu-
tions of different concentrations (5–25 mg/L). After shaking
the flasks at 150 rpm for 2.5 h in an incubater shaker, the
final concentration of MB solutions in each sample was
determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
(Model JENWAY 6305).
The amount of MB adsorbed by SG, and the percentage
removal (%) of dye were calculated using the following
equations:
ðC0  Ce ÞV C0  Ce
qe ¼ ; Removal ð% Þ ¼  100
m C0
where qe is the amount of dye adsorbed per unit biosorbent
(mg dye/g of biosorbent), C0 and Ce are the initial and
equilibrium dye concentrations in the solution respectively
(mg/L), V, the volume of solution (L) and m is the mass of
biosorbent (g).
231
232 R. Mahfud et al.

(a)
(b)

Fig. 1 The preparation of seagrass a after drying b after sieving (355 lm)

Fig. 2 a The Effect of the initial (a)

concentration and the contact 1.4
30 mg/L
time on the amount of sorbate 25 mg/L
sorbed at time t per unit mass of 1.2 20 mg/L (b)
sorbent; b the equilibrium 15 mg/L 1.2
10 mg/L
concentration of MB versus the 1 5 mg/L
1
amount of sorbate sorbed at
qt, mg/g

0.8
equilibrium per unit mass of 0.8

qe, mg/g
sorbent 0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 50 100 0 5 10 15 20
Time, minute Ce , mg/L

3 Results and Discussion
The equilibrium relationship between the concentration of
methylene blue in solution phase and on the seagrass was
studied at room temperature. The equilibrium data (Fig. 2)
obtained from this study was analyzed using two isotherm
models, Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models. The
analysis of the results using these isotherms showed that the
Freundlich sorption isotherm described the sorption process
better than the Langmuir isotherm. This is based on the
values of the obtained regression coefficients (R2).
The study of adsorption kinetics describes the solute
uptake rate and evidently this rate controls the residence time
of adsorbent at the solid-solution interface. The kinetics of
MB adsorption on SG was analyzed using pseudo first order
and pseudo second order, and the kinetics was found to
follow the pseudo-first order. The MB blue removal % at 30,
25, 20, 15, 10 and 5 mg/L were 38, 44, 48, 49, 55 and 66%,
respectively.
4 Conclusion
The present investigation clearly demonstrated the applica-
bility of SG as biosorbent for MB dye removal from aqueous
solutions. Experiments were carried out at different initial
dye concentrations. By considering the experimental results
and adsorption models applied in this study, it can be con-
cluded that adsorption of MB obeys Freundlich isotherm,
SG shows the highest adsorption capacity at 30 mg/L, which
is 1.41 mg/g. The optimum percentage removal was
obtained at 5 mg/L (66%). Adsorption kinetics follow the
pseudo-first order kinetic model for the SG adsorbent.
Biosorption of Methylene Blue from Aqueous Solution …
References
Aksu Z, Tezer S. Biosorption of reactive dyes on the green alga
Chlorella vulgaris. J Process Biochem. 2005;40:1347–61.
Ardejani FD, et al. Adsorption of Direct Red 80 dye from
aqueous solution onto almond shells. J Hazard Mater. 2008;151:
730–7.
233
Mahfud R, Sakal S. Deep bed column design using south sabratha sand and
granular carbon in urban stormwater filtration. ICCPGE. 2016;1:25–30.
Robinson T, Chandran TB, Nigam P. Removal of dyes from synthetic
textile dye effluent by adsorption on apple pomace and wheat strow.
Water Resour. 2002;36:2824–30.
Safa Y, Bhatti HN. Adsorptive removal of direct dyes by low cost rice
husk. Afr J Biotech. 2011;10:3128–42.
 Adsoptive Removal of an Azo Dye (Methyle
Orange) onto a Low Cost Adsorbent Using
the Experimental Research Methodology

Imane Bencheikh, Imane Abourouh, Said Kitane,

Abdelmalek Dahchour, Mohammadine El Mrabet, and Souad El Hajjaji

Keywords
Adsorption Methyle orange (MO) Factorial design Low cost sorbent

1 Introduction called adsorbent. There are different adsorbents, such as

Polluted water is a water containing a mixture of pollutants
dissociated or dispersed in water resulting from the domes-
tic, industrial or agricultural human activities. These pollu-
tants are generally artificial substances. Once dispersed in
the environment, they cause a negative impact because of
their non-biodegradablity. Dyes are among these substances,
mostly used in the textile sector. Because of their toxicity
and non biodegradability, they are an environmantal danger
due to the presence of carcinogenic groups such as aromatic
groups (Rehman 2013). To fight their potential danger, there
are several methods of treatment, like adsorption, charac-
terized by great efficiency and simplicity of implementation.
The purification by adsorption is carried out via a solid
I. Bencheikh (&)
I. Abourouh
S. E. Hajjaji
Laboratory of Spectroscopy, Molecular Modeling, Materials and
Environment, Faculty of Sciences, University Mohamed V of
Rabat, Av Ibn Battouta, BP1014, 10000 Rabat, Morocco
e-mail: imaneben98@gmail.com
I. Abourouh
e-mail: abourouh.iman@gmail.com
S. E. Hajjaji
e-mail: Selhajjaji@hotmail.com
S. Kitane
Laboratory of Mines Environment and Sustainable Development,
Higher National School of Mines Rabat, Av Hadj Ahmed
Cherkaoui, Agdal Rabat, Morocco
e-mail: Kitane@enim.ac.ma
A. Dahchour
M. E. Mrabet
IAV Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco
e-mail: abdel_dahchour@yahoo.fr
M. E. Mrabet
e-mail: mrabet2222@gmail.com
activated carbon, but their high cost limits their use. So
cheap adsorbents with similar efficiency has been the
objective of a lot of recent research (Abdel Salam et al.
2011). In our study, agriculture waste was used, and its
purification capacity was evaluated to remove an azo dye.
2 Materials and Methods
The agriculture waste was used after washing, drying and
grinding, for removing MO from aqueous solutions. In order
to study the effect of the main factors responsible for the MO
adsorption onto the used waste, a factorial design was used
23 = 8 experiments. Different masses of the used adsorbent
(m = 0.125 g and m = 0.250 g) were immersed in 25 ml
MO solution ([MO] = 5, [MO] = 20 ppm). The pH was
varied (pH = 2, pH = 10) and stirred for 30 min. The
solution was then centrifuged and analyzed with UV-Visible
at the wavelength 464 nm. To determinate the influence of
each factors, the yields shown in Table 1 were calculated
and processed by Nemrodow software.
3 Results and Discussion
The following Table 1 displays the retention rate of the 8
experiences (Fig. 1).
To obtain a good yield, it is necessary to work with a
large mass of adsorbent and a low concentration of adsorbate
in an acid solution. This can be explained by the fact that at
low pH values the surface of the adsorbent would be sur-
rounded by H+ ions which increases the interaction of the
MO ions (anionic pollutant) with the sites of the adsorbent
(Weber and Morris 1963; Alzaydien 2009).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 235

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_75
236 I. Bencheikh et al.

Table 1 Operating conditions and retention rate R (%)

No. experience pH Mass (g) [MO] (mg/L) Retention rate (%)
1 2 0.125 5 46.20
2 11 0.125 5 11.68
3 2 0.250 5 57.07
4 11 0.250 5 22.55
5 2 0.125 20 33.63
6 11 0.125 20 3.46
7 2 0.250 20 42.32
8 11 0.250 20 11.41

Fig. 1 Graphical analysis of the effect of different parameters on the adsorption of MO onto the agriculture waste

4 Conclusion Alzaydien AS. Adsorption of methylene blue from aqueous solution

This study aimed to test the efficiency of a low cost
sorbent to remove MO from aqueous solution. In general,
the results indicated that this sorbent is a suitable material
for adsorptive removal of MO from an aqueous solution.
Acknowledgements We thank the “National Center for Scientific and
Technical Research” in Rabat (Morocco) for their support by the
Excellence Scholarship.
onto a low cost natural Jordanian Tripoli. Am J Env Sci. 2009;5
(3):197–208.
Rehman MSU. Adsorption of brilliant green dye from aqueous solution
onto red clay. Chem Eng J. 2013;228:54–62.
Weber WJ, Morris JC. Kinetics of adsorption on carbon from solution.
J Saint Eng Div Am Soc Eng. 1963;89:31–60.

References

Abdel Salam OE, Reiad NA, El Shafei MM. A study of the removal
characteristics of heavy metals from wastewater by low-cost
adsorbents. J Adv Res. 2011;2:297–303.
 Catalytic Wet Air Oxidation
of Parahydroxybenzoic Acid
by Catalysts Based on Zirconia
Itidel Belkadhi, Mohamed Achref Bouabdellah, Lassaad Ben
Hammouda, and Zouhaier Ksibi



Keywords
CWAO p-HBZ Zirconia
1 Introduction
Wet air oxidation (WAO) is an interesting treatment of toxic
and nonbiodegradable wastewater such as phenolic products,
which are at the same time too dilute to be incinerated and
highly concentrated for a biological treatment. Furthermore,
for the oxidation of organic and inorganic substances in an
aqueous solution or suspension, by means of oxygen or air,
it appears that this process requires moderate temperature,
varying from 180 to 315 °C and a relatively moderate
pressure situated between 2 and 15 MPa (Luck 1999).
However, the performances of this process can be greatly
improved using heterogeneous or homogeneous catalysis
(CWAO).
During the last few years, zirconia has been one of the
most studied oxide. In fact, this very stable support modified
by sulfate, phosphate or tungstate groups (Lunsford et al.
1994; Babou et al. 1995; Ai 1977; Pattnayak and Parida
2000) or by metallic species such as Pt, V, Ru, Ti or Y (Li
et al. 2004; Martín-Hernández et al. 2012; Labalme et al.
2000; Burri et al. 2013) showed remarkable catalytic prop-
I. Belkadhi (&)
M. A. Bouabdellah
L. Ben Hammouda

Z. Ksibi
Laboratory of Chemistry of Materials and Catalysis,
University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: belkadhi.itidel02@gmail.com
M. A. Bouabdellah
e-mail: bouabdellah.achref@gmail.com
L. Ben Hammouda
e-mail: bhlassaadbh@gmail.com
Z. Ksibi
e-mail: ksibizouhaier@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_76




Ceria Tungsten Ruthenium
erties in many types of reactions. In this study, and con-
sidering the very important physico-chemical properties of
mixed oxide based on ZrO2 and ceria, we were interested in
the wet air oxidation of parahydroxybenzoic acid (p-HBZ)
using zirconia-ceria mixed oxide catalysts modified with
tungsten and ruthenium species.
2 Materials and Methods
Samples of zirconia-ceria mixed oxide doped with W and Ru
species (Ru-W/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2) were prepared by the
co-precipitation synthesis, using zirconium oxynitrate (ZrO
(NO3)2.2H2O) and cerium nitrate (Ce(NO3)2,6H2O), as Zr
and Ce sources, respectively. It should be pointed out that
the molar ratio Ce/Zr was fixed at 1/3 and molar percentage
of tungsten and Ru were fixed at 5 and 3% respectively.
In a typical synthesis, all solids were prepared according
to the following procedures 3.53 g of (ZrO(NO3)2.2H2O)
was dissolved in 24.32 mL of distilled water. After stirring,
a solution was obtained, followed by adding 1.76 g of (Ce
(NO3)2,6H2O) under stirring to generate a clear solution.
Then an aqueous ammonia (NH4OH) solution was mixed
with the initial homogeneous solution at a fixed pH = 10.
The obtained solid was separated by filtration and rinsed
with excess deionized water. The obtained solid was then
dried at 373 K during 12 h and thereafter impregnated using
ammonium metatungstate ((NH4)6H2W12O40) and Ru (NO)
(NO3)x(OH)y aqueous solutions.
The prepared solid was then calcined from room tem-
perature to 973 K with a heating rate of 2 K min−1 and held
at 973 K for 3 h under O2. Finally, all studied samples were
reduced, during 3 h, under hydrogen at 673 K.
237
238 I. Belkadhi et al.

The as-prepared materials were characterized by means of
X-ray diffraction (XRD), N2 adsorption-desorption at 77 K
and H2-TPR in order to investigate the mesostructural and
physico-chemical properties.
To evaluate the catalytic performances of the different
obtained samples, the catalytic wet air oxidation (CWAO) of
the p-HBZ acid, in an autoclave at 140 °C and 50 bars, was
employed as a test.
3 Results and Discussion
X-ray diffraction analysis (Fig. 1) shows that in all the
samples, the zirconia crystallized in the quadratic metastable
phase (Liu et al. 2010). This result suggested that an
inhibiting crystallite size growth effect by Ce4+ species may
occur. It is also important to note that the tungstate species
were present in the monoclinic phase (Nishiguchi et al. 2016;
Sim et al. 2010) and that the Ru-containing samples which
have been only calcined reveal an agglomeration of the Ru
species in contrast to the reduced ones (Yu et al. 2016).
According to the N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms
(Fig. 2), we acknowledge that all the solids exhibit an isotherm
type IV with a hysteresis type H2 corresponding to mesoporous
samples characterized by pores which are associated to spher-
ical particles. As shown in Table 1, the incorporation of
ruthenium slightly improved the textural properties by
increasing both the surface area and the average pore diameter.
Moreover, it appears (Table 2) that doping sample with
ruthenium followed by a reducing treatment under H2 con-
siderably increased the catalytic activity. This result can be
explained by a modification of the redox properties of the
support, which enhances the dispersion of the Ru particles,
favoring the transfer of oxygen from the aqueous phase to
the active sites (Hammedi et al. 2015). Finally, it seems that
the reduction treatment improves the Ru dispersion and
thereafter the metallic specific surface area, leading to an
expansion of the catalytic performances.

Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2
W/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2
Ru/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2
Ru/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2R
Ru-W/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2R
Intensity (a.u.)

20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
2 théta (°)

Fig. 1 Diffractograms of different catalysts

Fig. 2 N2 adsorption–desorption
5 Ce0.25
-Zr0.75O2
Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2
isotherms and porous distribution W/Ce -Zr O
0.25 0.75 2 0.05
Ru/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2 W/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2
Ru/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2
Absorbed volume (cm /g)

Ru/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2R
Ru/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2R
3

Ru-W/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2R
Ru-W/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2R
dV/log(D)

Relative pressure (P/P0) Pore diameter (A°)

Catalytic Wet Air Oxidation of Parahydroxybenzoic Acid … 239

Table 1 Textural properties of Catalysts SBET (m2/g) Average pore diameter (Å)
catalysts
Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2 29 39
W/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2 34 39
Ru/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2 33 46
Ru/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2R 106 29
Ru-W/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2R 36 43

Table 2 Results after 6 h of Catalysts Conversion of p-HBZ acid (%)

CWAO of p-HBZ acid
C0.25Z0.75 O2 32
W/C0.25Z0.75O2 30
Ru/C0.25Z0.75O2 19
Ru/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2R 91
Ru-W/Ce0.25-Zr0.75O2R 31

4 Conclusion Babou F, Coudurier G, Vedrine JC. J Catal. 1995;152:341–9.

In conclusion, the obtained results show that doping
zirconia-ceria mixed oxide catalysts, in particular by the
Ru element, leads to an exaltation of the catalytic activity
during the catalytic wet oxidation reaction of p-HBZ acid.
However, the incorporation of the tungstrate species
inhibits the activity of these catalysts, which may be due
to a reduction of the surface area and to the agglomera-
tion of surface tungstate species leading to large particles
of WO3.
At the same time, it should be noted that the activity of
the reduced (Zr0.75Ce0.25 RuR) catalyst is higher than that
of the calcined one, which proves that the reduction
treatment enhances the Ru dispersion and thereafter the
metallic specific surface area developed by this sample.
Burri A, Jiang Na, Ji M, Park S, Khalid Y. Top Catal. 2013;56:
1724–30.
Hammedi T, Triki M, Alvarez MG, Chimentao RJ, Ksibi Z, Ghorbel A,
Llorca J, Medina F. J Environ Chem Lett. 2015;13:481–6.
Labalme V, Béguin B, Gaillard F, Primet M. App Catal A. 2000;2:
307–16.
Li Y, He D, Zhu Q, Zhang X, Xu B. J Catal. 2004;221:584–93.
Liu Li, Yao Z, Liu B, Dong L. J Catal. 2010; 275:45–60.
Luck F. Catal Today. 1999;53:81–91.
Lunsford JH, Sang H, Campbell SM, Liang CH, et al. Catal Lett.
1994;27:305–14.
Martín-Hernández M, Carrera J, Suárez-Ojeda ME, Bessonb M,
Descorme C. App Catal B. 2012;123–124:141–50.
Nishiguchi T, Oka K, Matsumoto T, Kanai H, Utani K, Imamura S.
J Appl Catal A. 2016;301:66–74.
Pattnayak PK, Parida KM. J Colloid Interface Sci. 2000;226:340–5.
Sim A, Cant NW, Trimm DL. Int J Hyd Energy. 2010;35:8953–61.
Yu J, Lu X, Shi Y, Chen Q, Guan Q, Ning P, Tian S, Gu J, Int J Hyd
Energy. 2016;1–13.

References

Ai M. Bull Chem Soc Jpn. 1977;50:2579.

 Elaboration of a Lignocellulosic Material
for a Comparative Study of Adsorption
of Micropollutants in Aqueous Solution

Mustapha Rechache and Seghier Ould Kada

Abstract
Our work consisted in the upgrading of a biopolymer derived from sawdust using chemical
activation by chemical agents (acid, base and salt) to make our material applicable to the
organic pollutants elimination in aqueous solution by The adsorption method with a study
of chemical kinetics, temperature, and pH. Finally, the last part of this work consisted in
checking the regeneration of the material after several desorption and readsorption cycles.

Keywords
Organic pollutants Chemical activation Valorisation Adsorption

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Human activities are increasingly generating huge quantities
of solid, liquid and gaseous effluents. Liquid effluents from
various industries contain pollutants of organic and inor-
ganic nature, which are often toxic to man and the envi-
ronment. The consequences of these discharges are, on the
one hand, a decrease in drinking water resources and a
disruption of the ecosystem balances. The most commonly
encountered pollutants are heavy metals from the mechani-
cal surface treatment industries and dyes from the textile
industry.
Our work consisted in the upgrading of a biopolymer
derived from sawdust using a chemical activation by
chemical agents (acid, base and salt) to make our material
applicable to the elimination of organic pollutants in an
aqueous solution by the adsorption method with a study of
the chemical kinetics, temperature, and pH. Finally, the last
part of this work consisted in checking the regeneration of
the material after several cycles of desorption and
readsorption.
R. Mustapha (&)
O. K. Seghier
University of Oran, Oran, Algeria
e-mail: rechachemustapha@yahoo.fr
O. K. Seghier
e-mail: pr_senia1@yahoo.fr
Synthesis of sawdust of soda wood (SBONa).
*Sieve sawdust with a diameter of 250 lm.
A solution of NaOH 20% by weight was prepared in a
1000 ml solution and a mass of 50 g of sawdust was added.
The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 4 h. Once
the suspension has been filtered, the material obtained was
washed several times with distilled water to a neutral pH and
finally dried in the oven at a temperature of 800 °C for 12 h.
• Treatment of (SBONa) with acetic acid:
A total volume of 500 ml, 30% acetic acid (150 ml) and
70% acetone (350 ml) were added to a 1000 ml solution
and a mass of 20.85 g of SBONa was added. The mix-
ture was stirred for 4 h at room temperature. After fil-
tration, the obtained material was washed several times
with distilled water until neutral pH and then dried in the
oven for 12 h at a temperature of 800 °C.
• Functionalization of SBONa with sebacoyl chloride:
A 500 ml volume of toluene was taken to a 1000 ml
volume and a mass of 13.83 g of SBONa treated with
acetic acid was added and the mixture was stirred for
48 h at room temperature. 150 ml of pyridine were then
added and stirring was continued for 12 h. Then 27 ml of
sebacoyl chloride and 27 ml of toluene were poured onto
the material and the mixture was stirred for 16 h at room

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 241

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_77
242
temperature. Finally, after filtration, the obtained material
was washed with distilled water several times and with
acetone and dried in an oven.
3 Results and Discussion
The experimental results have shown that this material can
be used for the removal of two dyes from the textile industry,
yellow thiazole (JT) and bright yellow (JB). It also allows to
reach a fixing capacity of the order of 1400.40 mg/g and of
140 mg/g respectively.
4 Conclusion
In the course of our work, we have established a com-
parative study of the removal of two anionic dyes (yellow
thiazole, bright yellow) from the textile industry in
aqueous solution by an adsorbent synthesized from a
lignocellulosic waste.
The results of this study indicate that: The variation in
the pH of the solutions has almost no effect on the
adsorption capacity of the dyes by the material. The
kinetic study obeys the pseudo second order kinetic
model. The elimination rates reached maximum values of
M. Rechache and O. K. Seghier
90.13% and 39.50% of yellow dye thiazole and yellow
gloss respectively. The regeneration of the saturated
material by the two dyes gave us very satisfactory elim-
ination rates of 85.83% and 65.11% for the thiazole
yellow and the bright yellow, respectively. The prepared
material has proved to be an excellent adsorbent carrier. It
has several advantages such as the abandance of the raw
material, the material processing low cost and finally the
rapid regeneration with stable removal rates with the dyes
recovery.
References
Aziz A. Elimination of mineral and organic pollution by various
adsorbent supports. Ph.D. thesis, University of Mostaganem.
Djaem A. Elimination of phenol and malachite green by activated wood
sawdust.
Marchessault RH, Sundararajan PR. Cellulose. The Polysaccharides,
Molecular Biology Series. London: Aspinall, Academic Press,
XNC. 2, 1983. p. 11–95.
Osmond NM. Activated carbon fiber adsorbent materials. Adsorpt Sci
Technol. 2000;18(6):529–39.
Park K, Kim J-H. Carbon. 2001;39:1741–6.
 Study of the Effectiveness of Copper
Retention on Three Different Hydrogels

Nour Elhouda Ben Ammar, Taieb Saied, Mohamed Barbouche,

and Ahmed Hichem Hamzaoui

Keywords
Copper Crosslinking Water penetration Hydrogel

1 Introduction
Hydrogels are three-dimensional polymeric networks whose
main feature is the ability to absorb and retain large water
volumes. Because of their excellent characteristics, these
superabsorbents have been widely used in many areas, such
as tissue engineering (Yu et al. 2016), wound dressings
(Chen et al. 2013), agriculture (Bortolin et al. 2012) and
water treatment (El-Sherbiny et al. 2013). These hydrogels
may be synthesised using energetic sources like the gamma
radiation technique (Lugao and Malmonge 2001) or a
chemical initiator such as persulfates.
In this paper, we aimed to study the effect of hydrogel
synthesis method and composition on copper retention.
Therefore, we started with hydrogels synthesis and charac-
terisation followed by copper retention experiments.
Two hydrogel samples were synthesised using gamma ray
radiation technique and the third one was synthesised using
Azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN) as a thermal initiator. They
were characterised by means of swelling experiments, rheo-
logical measurements and Scanning Electronic Microscopy
(SEM) images. The effect of pH on copper retention was
N. E. Ben Ammar (&)
A. H. Hamzaoui
Laboratory of Useful Materials Valuation, National Center for
Research in Materials Sciences, Borj Cedria Technopark, BP 73,
8027 Soliman, Tunisia
e-mail: nourelhouda.benammar@gmail.com
T. Saied
Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry and Electrochemistry,
Sciences Faculty of Tunis, University of Tunis El-Manar,
University Campus, 2092 Tunis, Tunisia
M. Barbouche
Laboratory of Nanomaterials and Systems for Renewable Energy,
Research and Technologies Centre of Energy, Technopark of
Borj-Cedria, BP 95, 2050 Hammamlif, Tunisia
followed for all samples and also copper release was moni-
tored. The kinetic study of copper retention was established
and finally the corresponding kinetic model was attributed.
2 Materials and Methods
Two samples were synthesised using gamma ray technique at
a total dose of 20 kGy in the Tunisian semi-industrial 60Co
gamma irradiation facility. All reagents were mixed in a flask
at 80 °C, and adjusted to 100% with distilled Water. The
obtained solutions were transferred into 40 ml closed plastic
flasks in order to be irradiated. The first sample contains 8%
polyvinyl pirrolidone (PVP) and 1% agar (8P1A0G20) while
the second one consists of 8% PVP, 1% agar and 5% poly-
ethylen glycol (PEG) (8P1A5G20). The third sample was
synthesized chemically using AIBN as a radical initiator. It
has the same composition 8% PVP and 1% agar with 0.02%
of AIBN (8P1A02AM). PVP and agar were mixed in a
three-neck flask and adjusted with water until 100% weight.
The reaction occured under nitrogen. The flask was provided
with a reflux setup and temperature was kept equal to 80 °C.
After one hour, AIBN was added and the mixture was left
under agitation during four more hours.
SEM analyses were performed using JSM-5400 Mul-
tipurpose Digital Scanning Electron Microscopes using an
acceleration voltage of 5 kV. Before SEM observation, all
the samples were freeze-dried for 60 h, fixed on copper stubs
and coated with gold.
Rheological measurements to determine the network
structure of the gels were carried out at room temperature in
a Thermo MARSII Rheometer equipped with a PP20
(20 mm diameter plate/plate geometry). All measurements
were performed in the linear viscoelastic region.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 243

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_78
244
Table 1 Network parameters as Hydrogel Elastic mudulus G’ (Pa)
a function of hydrogel
composition 8P1A02AM 10,322
8P1A0G20 4425
8P1A5G20 784
(a) : 8P1A02AM (b) : 8P1A0G20
Fig. 1 SEM images of different hydrogels
3 Results and Discussion
The hydrogels swelling properties investigation revealed that
chemically synthesized 8P1A02AM swells up to 255% of its
weight with water, but for gamma ray synthesized
8P1A0G20 the swelling capacity is about 1475% and for
8P1A5G20 it increases up to 2530%. On the other hand,
network parameters calculation using rheological measure-
ments provided the following results collected in Table 1.
Depending on previous results, it is clear that water
retention increases from chemical to gamma ray synthesis
due to the increase in mesh size (n) and crosslink density
(ve). But when PEG is added, crosslinking density decreases
and water retention increases considerably. In fact, increas-
ing pore size in gamma ray synthesized hydrogels leads to a
better water penetration which enhances the swelling
capacity. On the other hand, SEM images illustrate a sig-
nificant dissimilarity in the morphology of the network. As
illustrated in Fig. 1a, chemically synthesized hydrogel
shows a porous and disorganized structure, with the presence
of globular filaments on the pore walls attributed to the
aggregation of grafted agar. But for gamma ray synthesized
hydrogels (Fig. 1b, c), the network becomes more organised
with the increase of macropores size by adding PEG,
proving the presence of a crosslinked network.
These three hydrogels were used to adsorb copper from
aqueous solution of 500 ppm. Copper retention as a function
of pH and time was studied and revealed that the optimal pH
ranges between 4 and 5.2 and that the less crosslinked
hydrogel (8P1A5G20) retains the largest amount of Cu2+
N. E. Ben Ammar et al.
Crosslink density (ve) (mol/m3) Mesh size n (nm)
2.5 E-6 23.8
1.4 33.96 E 3
0.234 82.82 E 3
(c) : 8P1A5G20
(36.5 mg/g of dry gel), whereas only 21.1 mg of Cu2+ is
adsorbed per gram of 8P1A02AM. This could be explained
by the pore size. In fact, if the pore size increases as illus-
trated by the SEM images of the sample 8P1A5G20, the
penetration of Cu2+-loaded water increases and the copper
can easily access the sorption sites within the gelled net-
work. Also, the hydrogels release capacity investigation
revealed that for 8P1A5G20, 62% of the retained copper are
released by stirring, but only 7.6% are released by
8P1A02AM. This is explained by the agar grafting, con-
taining hydroxyl groups in 8P1A02AM, which induces
copper chelation by hydrogen bonds hence reinforcing its
connection into the network. The adsorption kinetic of the
prepared hydrogel was undertaken in order to clarify the
control mechanism of the copper adsorption process. Four
different kinetic models were tested (pseudo first-order,
pseudo second-order, Elovich and intraparticle diffusion
model). Relying on the correlation coefficient R2, it was
found that for 8P1A5G20, the pseudo second-order model
fitted better the experimental results.
4 Conclusion
The copper retention of three different hydrogels was
investigated. It was determined that the gel synthesized
by gamma radiation in the presence of PEG adsorbed the
biggest quantity of copper II (36.5 mg/g of dry gel) but
could not hold it for a long time and quickly released it.
While chemically synthesized hydrogel, can maintain
92.8% of the retained copper in its network because of its
grafted structure.
Study of the Effectiveness of Copper Retention on Three …
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Mattoso LHC. Application of polysaccharide hydrogels in adsorp-
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2013;96:450–9.
Lugao AB, Malmonge SM. Use of radiation in the production of
hydrogels. Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res B. 2001;185:37–42.
Yu J, Chen F, Wang X, Dong N, Lu C, Yang G, Chen Z. Synthesis and
characterization of MMP degradable and maleimide cross-linked
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2016;133:312–20.
 Orange Methyl Adsorption from Aqueous
Solutions by Layered Double Hydroxides

Miloud Aissat and Noureddine Bettahar

Keywords
LDH DRX Orange methyl Adsorption Thermodynamic parameters Intercalation

1 Introduction products which are found in the discharged water. Adsor-

The rapid growth of the global economy has caused many
environmental problems due to a serious pollution problem.
The abuse use of chemical products is an environmental
toxicological problem. The consequences can be serious for
water resources. In this perspective, our study came to
contribute to depollution with new means using new mate-
rials with interesting properties. Among these materials,
LDHs whose synthesis is easy and inexpensive can be a tool
in the treatment of polluted water (Cavani et al. 1991). Our
contribution consists in using HDL as a means of sorption of
dyes which are considered as polluting agents of waters
especially for the textile industry. This study considered the
removal of the orange methyl (OM) from water on different
calcined and uncalcined MgAl, ZnAL and MgZnAL-layered
double hydroxides. The different LDHs were prepared by the
copreprecipation method. The materials were obtained for
molar ratios R = 2 for the differents LDHs. The carbonated
layered calcination of these solids leads to the formation of
mixed oxides which have the property of being able to be
regenerated by adsorbing new anionic entities or by using
them as catalysts for the degradation reactions of organic
M. Aissat (&)
Department of Process Engineering, Faculty of Sciences and
Technology, University Center El-Wancharissi, 38000 Tissemsilt,
Algeria
e-mail: miloud_org@yahoo.fr
N. Bettahar
Laboratory of Inorganic Materials Chemistry and Application,
Faculty of Chemistry, University of Science and Technology
Mohamed-Boudiaf, PB.1505 EL-Menouar, 31000 Oran, Algeria
e-mail: nbettahar2001@yahoo.fr
bents and adsorption products were characterized by
physicochemical techniques. The structural characterization
of the material was carried out by X-ray diffraction, infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR). Dosages of the polluted solutions were
monitored by UV-Visible spectrometry.
2 Materials and Methods
In this study our investigations focused on some objectives
among which we can cite: The LDH adsorption potential
evaluation towards colored compounds such as Orange
Methyl (OM), it is considered an azo dye since it has an aryl
or alkyl group attached to the molecular structure. Com-
mercially, it is usually in the forms of sodium salt, which in
water renders this dye soluble. The time contact influence,
initial dye concentration, adsorbent dosage, pH and tem-
perature on the adsorption process performance were
studied.
The Mg–Al–LDH, Zn–Al LDH and Mg–Zn–Al–LDH
form were prepared by the coprecipitation method. An
aqueous solution (250 ml) of Mg(Cl2)2⋅6H2O or Zn
(Cl2)2⋅6H2O and Al(Cl3)3⋅9H2O with MII/Al molar ratio of
2. A flow rate of simultaneously added NaOH solution
(1 mol l−1) was added to the solution of Na2CO3 (1 mol l−1)
to maintain pH = 9. Coprecipitation was carried out under
vigorous stirring at ambient temperature. The resulting sus-
pension was stirred for 1 h. The product was filtered off,
washed thoroughly with distilled water and dried at 80 °C
for 24 h. The obtained LDHs were denoted as Mg–Al–Cl2;
Zn–Al–Cl2 and MgZn–Al–Cl2. The resulting product was
pulverized in a mortar ready for use and for a chemical
analysis characterization.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 247

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_79
248 M. Aissat and N. Bettahar

The batch experiments were carried out using a constant

sample volume of 50 ml in a series of volumetric flask in a
ambient temperature, with a three concentration of LDH (40,
60 and 80 mg/L) for each initial dye concentration (40–80
and 200 mg/L) at a predetermined contact time (0–120 min).

3 Data Analysis

The amount of dye adsorbed by the LDH was calculated by

applying the mass balance equations:

% dye uptake ¼ ðCo  Ct =Co Þ  100 ð1Þ Fig. 1 Uncalcined LDHs PXRD patterns

Adsorption Capacity; qeðmg=gÞ ¼ ðCo  Ct Þ : V=M ð2Þ

where Co is the initial dye concentration (mg/L); Ct is the
dye concentration (mg/L) at any time t; V is the volume of
solution (L) and M is the LDH weight (g).
4 Results and Discussion
bands. The weakest are located at 1360, 959, 659 and
552 cm−1, whereas the most intense are located at
1360 cm−1. Other bands located at 466, 406, 432, 556 and
609 cm−1 correspond to characteristic vibrations of Mg–OH,
Zn–OH bonds, Al–OH ZnMg–OH and OH–Zn–Al–OH,
OH–Mg–ALOH respectively (Zhang et al. 2004).

4.1 Powder X-Ray Diffraction 4.3 OM Adsorption Thermodynamic Parameters

Study by Various LDHs
The general appearance of the spectra is typical of hydro-
talcite compounds type (Frost et al. 2009; Criello et al. The thermodynamic constants provide information on
2007). Indeed, this characteristic is represented by the energy related inherent changes bound of the adsorption
existence of intense and symmetrical peaks the low values of phenomenon.
2h and less intense peaks and generally asymmetric higher The thermodynamic parameters, such as the enthalpy
angular values. The first peak at 2h = 11.5° was indexed as (ΔH°) and entropy (ΔS°) for the sorption of OM are cal-
(003) and corresponds to d003  7.7A° according to Bragg’s culated using the following equations:
law. The second peak at 2h = 23° was indexed as (006) and
corresponds to d006  3.85A°. The third peak at 2h = 35° DGo ¼  RT lnKd ð3Þ
was indexed as (012) and corresponds to d012  2.52A°.
DGo ¼ DHo  TDSo ð4Þ
The intense reflection about 2h  61° was indexed as
(110) and corresponds to d110  1.45A°. This reflection is
independent of the stacking mode layers constituting the
layered hydroxide. Indeed, the inter planar distance of the
line (110) is half of the metal-metal distance in the slips
(Fig. 1).

4.2 Infrared Spectroscopy

The general appearance of the spectrum of phase [Zn–Al–

CO3], [Mg–Al–CO3] and [ZnMg–Al–CO3] in Fig. 2 is quite
similar to all the layered double hydroxide phases. The main
vibration bands that were observed are a broad and intense
band at 3425–3439 cm−1, corresponding to the stretching
vibration of hydroxyl groups; a band at 1624 cm−1 corre-
sponding to the deformation vibration of water molecules;
the carbonate anion is represented by several adsorption Fig. 2 Uncalcined LDHs FTIR spectra
Orange Methyl Adsorption from Aqueous Solutions …
Table 1 Thermodynamic Sample T (K)
parameters data for the OM dye
adsorbed on the MgAl–LDH500 MgAl–LDH500 283
293
303
313
lnKd ¼ DSo= R  DHo=RT ð5Þ
where T is the absolute temperature (°K), R is the gas
constant (8.314 Jmol−1 K−1), and Kd (cm3 g−1) is the dis-
tribution coefficient which is calculated with the following
expression:
The trace of the Van’t Hoff curve LnKd versus 1/T gave a
line for the different LDHs from which DHo and DSo will be
calculated for slope and intercept, respectively (see Table 1).
OM adsorption on three LDHs was investigated at 10, 20,
30 and 40° C (Table 1 result for MgAl–LDH500) and the
adsorption isotherms obtained constants were used to cal-
culate the thermodynamic parameters such as Gibbs free
energy, enthalpy and entropy.
DG° Values refer to the temperatures used. These are
negative, indicating that the nature of the adsorption is
spontaneous and that the affinity of the materials used to the
OM anionic dye is high. The intercalation of the dye in the
space interfolliaire of the used materials is adsorption on
the outer surface of the adsorbent (Bouraada et al. 2014).
The DS° positive value of indicates a fairly good LDH
affinity used with the dye and is a sign of an increased degree
of freedom of the materials after adsorption (Renault et al.
2008; Qiuhong et al. 2007).
5 Conclusion
This study showed that The Mg–Al–LDH, Zn–Al LDH
and Mg–Zn–Al–LDH can be used as efficient adsorbents
for the removal of the OM dye from solutions. The
adsorption mechanism on external surfaces and interca-
lation was confirmed by XRD and FTIR analysis from the
calcined and uncalcined LDH. The processing parameters
249
DSo (j/mol. K) DHo (Kj/mol) DGo (Kj/mol)
79.67 20.38 −1.98
−2.77
−3.56
−4.35
such as, contact time and initial dye concentration,
competition and temperature can affect the adsorption
process. The resulting negative DG° values correlated
with a positive value of DH° indicate that the adsorption
process is spontaneous and endothermic under the
experimental conditions. Thermal treatments for regen-
erating the different LDHs after OM adsorption suggest
that this material can be recycled. All the result allow
seeing that the ZnAL–LDH has given the best result. It is
probably due to the greater interfoliairs distance that
appears in the XRD patterns.
References
Bouraada M, Bessaha H, Ménorval LC. Removal of evans blue and
yellow thiazole dyes from aqueous solution by Mg–Al–CO3 layered
double hydroxides as anion-exchanger. Mediterr J Chem.
2014;3:894–906.
Cavani F, Trifiro F, Vaccari A. Hydrotalcite-type anionic clays:
preparation, properties an applications. Catal Today. 1991;11:
173–301.
Criello M, Perez C, Fernandez J, Eimer G, Castellon ER. Appl Catal A
General. 2007;317:11–9.
Frost RL, Spratt HJ, Palmer SJ. Spectrochimica Acta Part A. Mol
Biomol Spectr. 2009;72:984–8.
Qiuhong H, Zhiping X, Shizhang Q, Haghseresht F, Wilson M, Lu GQ.
A novel color removal adsorbent from heterocoagulation of cationic
and anionic clays. J Colloid Interface Sci. 2007;308:191–9.
Renault F, Morin-Crini N, Gimbert F, Badot P, Crini G. Bioresour
Tech. 2008;99:7573–86.
Zhang LH, Evans DG, Forano C, Duan X. Structure and thermal
evolution of Mg–Al layered double hydroxide containing interlayer
organic glyphosate anions. Thermochim Acta. 2004;424(1–2):
15–23.
 Biodegradion Studies
and Thermomechanical Caracterisations
of PDLA/TPS

Khadija Mbarki, Mariem Fersi, Adel Sayari, and Boubaker Elleuch

Keywords
PDLA Starch IR DSC DRX DMTA SEM Biodegradation

Then the last one on C3 was acetylated due to steric hin-

1 Introduction
drance. As a result, the theoretical maximum degree of
substitution (DS) is 3. To remedy the weak mechanical
Recently, polysaccharides and their derivatives have become
properties of TPS, blending the TPS with other natural
a serious alternative polymers and found increasing indus-
polymers appears to be a promising approach in order to
trial applications (Diop et al. 2011). Starch has been one of
preserve the biodegradable aspect of this biopolymer
the most widely natural biopolymers because of its avail-
(Jumaidin et al. 2017). In our study, the matrix was the
ability and low cost. However, the major constraints are its
Polylactic acid (PLA). The chemical structure of the esteri-
hydrophilicity, some physical characteristics and poor
fied starch was characterized by FTIR, the thermal stability
mechanical properties of native starch strongly preventing
and the degradation process by thermogravimetric analysis
some of its applications in the plastic products (Barrios et al.
(TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and wide
2013; Xu et al. 2004). To overcome these shortcomings,
angle X-ray diffraction. The mechanical properties and
intense research has been achieved, developing methods to
crystallinity of the mixture PDLA/TPS was investigated.
esterify the hydroxyl groups with fatty acids and their
PDLA is a semicrystalline polymer and has a rigid structure.
derivatives (Diop et al. 2011; Aburto et al. 1999). The good
The aerobic biodegradation of the biocomposite was inves-
deal in this work was to replace these organic solvents by a
tigated in liquid and solid media.
vegetable oil (Lehmann et al. 2010). Thermoplastic starch
has two main disadvantages when compared to most plas-
tics; it is mostly water-soluble and has poor mechanical
2 Materials and Methods
properties. The starch molecule has three free hydroxyl
groups on C2, C3 and C6 of the anhydroglucose unit. Fur-
A sample of native starch was placed with maize oil (1 eq
thermore, the free OH groups have different reactivities.
glucose/0.5 oleic acid) in a three-necked flask equipped with
Primary, the OH on C6 is more reactive and acetylated
a mechanical stirrer. The mixture was carried out at 120 °C
firstly. Next in order, the secondary one on C2 is more
for 48 h. The reaction mixture became viscous and
reactive than the OH group on C3 was acetylated secondly.
yellowish.

K. Mbarki (&)
M. Fersi
A. Sayari
B. Elleuch

National School of Ingeneering of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia 2.1 Infra-red Analysis
e-mail: mbarki.khadija24@hotmaiil.fr
M. Fersi IR spectra of pure PDLA and the PDLA/TPS samples were
e-mail: m.fersi@gmail.com
recorded with a FTIR spectrometer. FTIR spectroscopy was
A. Sayari used to identify the presence of functional groups existing in
e-mail: Adel.sayari@yahoo.fr
thermoplastic starch. The absorption was then measured
B. Elleuch over a range of 4000–650 cm−1.
e-mail: boubaker.eleuch@enis.rnu.tn

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 251

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_80
252
Fig. 1 FTIR spectra of starch
(a) and FTIR spectra of
PDLA/TPS (b)
2.2 Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis
The Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis (DMTA) was
conducted using a Dynamic Mechanical Analyzer 150, to
study the tan d temperature and dynamic modulus of dif-
ferent composites.
2.3 Thermal Analysis
The thermal characteristics of the neat PDLA and
PDLA/TPS blends were monitored by thermogravimetric
analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetric (DSC
Q100, TA instrument, France).
2.4 Mechanical Testing
Using this single analysis, the Young modulus (E), the
tensile strength and elongation at break can be measured.
The mechanical properties of composites were measured
using an Instron universal testing machine with a crosshead
speed of 2 mm/min and a load cell of 100 N. The average
values were calculated from at least three replicates of each
sample.
2.5 Crystallinity Studies (DRX)
X-ray diffraction was used to study the crystallinity of the
pure components and PDLA/CMFs composites. The spectra
were recorded in an angular range 10 °C < 2h < 40 °C at
room temperature.
K. Mbarki et al.
2.6 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
The used fibers morphology CMFs as well as composites
microstructure was studied using a scanning electron
microscope (SEM), with an acceleration voltage of 20 kV.
3 Results and Discussion
To identify the structure of esterified starch, FTIR spectra
were recorded together with the spectra of native starch. The
spectrum of native starch was shown to be of several
absorbencies at 1159, 1082, and 1014 cm−1, which were
attributed to C–O bond stretching. The characteristic anhy-
droglucose ring stretching vibrations appeared at 992, 929,
861 and 765 cm−1. The broad bond due to hydrogen bonded
hydroxyl groups appeared at 3241 cm−1. FTIR spectra of
esterified starch showed a new peak at 1750 cm−1 which
was characteristic of carbonyl C=O, this new bond con-
firmed the esterification of starch. The FTIR spectra was
shown in Fig. 1.
The esterification of corn starch decreased the crys-
tallinity of the starch. The mechanical properties of
PDLA/TPS biocomposite was improved, thus can be carried
out to the reinforcement of PDLA with the incoporation of
TPS.
4 Conclusion
Based on the results of the present study, the modification
of starch by esterification with the maize oil decreased the
crystallinity. Furthermore, the mixture of PDLA/TPS
improved the thermomechanical properties of the
Biodegradion Studies and Thermomechanical …
biocomposite. The incoportation of TPS accelerated the
biodegradation of the PDLA.
References
Aburto J, Hamaili H, Mouysset-Baziard G, Senocq F, Alric I,
Borredon E. Free-solvent synthesis and properties of higher fatty
esters of starch—part 2. ResearchGate. 1999;51:302–7. https://doi.
org/10.1002/(SICI)1521-379X(199909)51:8/9<302:AID-
STAR302>3.0.CO;2-E.
Barrios SE, Giammanco G, Contreras JM, Laredo E, López-Carras-
quero F. Characterization of esterified cassava starch with long alkyl
side chains and different substitution degrees. Int J Biol Macromol.
2013;59:384–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2013.04.079.
253
Diop CIK, Li HL, Xie BJ, Shi J. Effects of acetic acid/acetic anhydride
ratios on the properties of corn starch acetates. Food
Chem. 2011;126:1662–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.
12.050.
Jumaidin R, Sapuan SM, Jawaid M, Ishak MR, Sahari J. Thermal,
mechanical, and physical properties of seaweed/sugar palm fibre
reinforced thermoplastic sugar palm starch/agar hybrid composites.
Int J Biol Macromol. 2017;97:606–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijbiomac.2017.01.079.
Lehmann A, Volkert B, Hassan-Nejad M, Greco T, Fink H-P. Synthesis
of thermoplastic starch mixed esters catalyzed by the in situ
generation of imidazolium salts. Green Chem. 2010;12:2164.
https://doi.org/10.1039/c0gc00366b.
Xu Y, Miladinov V, Hanna MA. Synthesis and characterization of
starch acetates with high substitution. Cereal Chem J. 2004;81:735–
40. https://doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM.2004.81.6.735.
 Part III
Environmental Risk Assessment, Bioremediation,
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety
 Green for Brown (G4B): A Novel Tool
for Evaluating Phytoextraction in Soils
Polluted by Heavy Metals

Alejandro Gonzalez-Ollauri and Slobodan B. Mickovski

Keywords
Phytoextraction Model Plant Soil Heavy metal Arsenic

compartments. The modules workflow is: (i) Spatial distri-

1 Introduction
Soil pollution is a serious threat to human and environmental
health. Previous industrial activity in Scotland has left
behind a large brownfield area polluted by heavy metals
which is expensive to treat (GCVSDPA 2016). Phytoreme-
diation could be an effective and sustainable measure for
cleaning contaminated soil (Ansari et al. 2015). Although
phytoremediation has been extensively studied over the last
two decades, the governing environmental factors are not yet
clearly understood. Additionally, there is a severe lack of
applied research (Mahar et al. 2016) and holistic models
(Ansari et al. 2015) that could contribute to assess clean-up
strategies on polluted soil, and to shed light on the envi-
ronmental factors governing phytoremediation.
The aim of this paper is to introduce and evaluate a
simple, holistic, and realistic numerical tool able to predict
the phytoextraction of heavy metals from the soil over time.
2 Materials and Methods
Green for Brown (G4B) is an open-source, computer-based,
and spatially distributed tool for the evaluation of the phy-
toextraction potential of heavy metals from the soil. G4B
considers the soil-root zone as the control volume, where the
likelihood of reducing heavy metal concentrations with the
use of plants is explored. The tool comprises three different
modules that require easily quantifiable and ready available
inputs (Table 1) belonging to the soil, plant, and climate
A. Gonzalez-Ollauri (&)
S. B. Mickovski
BEAM Research Centre, Glasgow Caledonian University,
Cowcaddens Road G4 0BA, Glasgow, UK
e-mail: alejandro.ollauri@gcu.ac.uk
bution of plant roots in the soil over the growing season;
(ii) Plant-water uptake by roots; and (iii) Heavy metal release
to the soil solution and subsequent uptake by roots. G4B
uses the Monte Carlo method to account for environmental
uncertainty, and it predicts the concentration reduction of
heavy metals on a pixel-by-pixel basis Gonzalez-Ollauri and
MIckovski (2017). G4B is built in the statistical computing
software R v. 3.2.1 (R Core Team 2016).
To illustrate the potential of G4B, we carried out simu-
lations on one single pixel for the hyperaccumulator fern
Pteris vittata L. growing in an isotropic 1 m2 soil column
containing 3000 ppm of Arsenic (As) for a period of 9 years.
The plant material was assumed to be harvested after each
growing cycle. The proportion of labile As was assumed to
be ca. 17% (Shelmerdine et al. 2009). As release was
assumed to depend on the soil pH (Shelmardine et al. 2009),
while soluble As was assumed to be released steadily from
the soil solids to the soil solution. All the As in the soil
solution were assumed to be in the form of arsenate and
transported from the roots to the fronds. Arsenate advection
and difussion was neglected. Soil moisture was assumed to
be at steady-state and homogeneously distributed over the
soil profile. The inputs used in the simulation are shown in
Table 1.
3 Results and Discussion
The simulation outcomes (Fig. 1) indicate that G4B pre-
dicted rooting depths of ca. 300 mm below the ground level
(b.g.l.) under the considered pedoclimatic conditions
(Table 1). Based on the simulation conditions and assump-
tions (Sect. 2), plants followed a cyclical pattern of activity
(Fig. 1a) within the growing season (i.e. mid-May–October;

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 257

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_81
258 A. Gonzalez-Ollauri and S. B. Mickovski

Table 1. List of input parameters/variables used to operate G4B

Compartment Soil Plant Climatea
Input Sand Clay Organic Porosity Moisture pH Solids-solution Leaf Max. Mean Mean Atm. Sunshine
content content matter [%] content partition coeff. area contaminant rainfall daily pressure duration
[%] [%] conten [%] index uptake factor intensity air [hPa] [h/day]
[%] during temp
growing [°C]
season
[mm/event]
Value 74.97 1.6 5.57 0.68 0.23 8.5 0.3 2.5 0.3 9.14 8.13 1011.32 3.76
a
Mean value for the simulation period

(a) Root development (b) As extraction by plant (c) As concentration in soil

150
50
SAFETY LEVEL
250

As concentration (mgL-1d-1)
As extraction (mgL-1d-1)
40
Rooting depth (mm)
200

100
30
150

20
100

50
10
50

0
0

2000 2001 2002 2003 May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
Time (years) Time (Month) Time (years)

Fig. 1 G4B simulation outcomes: a Root development in terms of rooting depth in the soil for three selected growing cycles b Arsenic
(As) phytoextraction from the soil for a selected growing cycle c As concentration in the soil over time

Fig. 1b). During the growing season, higher plant-water References

uptake activity during the hot days, led to higher As
extractions (Fig. 1b), suggesting that phytoextraction may be Ansari AA, Singh Gill S, Gill R, Lanza GR, Newman L (editors).
more effective in warm climates. Phytoremediation. Management of environmental contaminants,
The tested fern was able to extract, on average, vol. 1. London, UK: Springer; 2015.
17.23 mg L−1 of As from the soil solution per growing cycle Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) and
the Environmental Agency. Soil guideline values for arsenic
(Fig. 1c). Eight growing cycles would be required to reduce contamination. Bristol, UK: UK Environmental Agency; 2002.
the concentration of As in the soil solution to safe level Gonzalez-Ollauri A, Mickovski SB. Plant-Best: A novel plant selection
(DEFRA 2002; Fig. 1c), which is in line with other tool for slope protection. Ecol Eng. 2017;106:154–73.
published studies (Shelmerdine et al. 2009; Verma et al. Glasgow and the Clyde Valley Strategic Development Planning
Authority (GCVSDPA), January 2016. Clydeplan: strategic devel-
2006). opment plan, vacant and derelict land monitoring report 2014.
Mahar A, Wang P, Ali A, Awasthi MK, Lahori AH, Wang Q, Li R,
Zhang Z. Challenges and opportunities in the phytoremediation of
4 Conclusion and Outlook heavy metals contaminated soils: a review. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf.
G4B was shown to be effective and realistic for simu- 2016;126:111–21.
lating phytoextraction of As from the soil. According to R Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical
computing. Viena, Austria: R Foundation for statistical computing.
the simulation results, plants can be an effective measure 2016. http://www.R-project.org.
for remediating soil polluted by heavy metals. Phytoex- Shelmerdine PA, Black CR, McGrath SP, Young SD. Modelling
traction effectiveness was found to be related to the phytoremediation by the hyperaccumulating fern, Pteris vitata, of
atmospheric water demand. Future work will see testing soils historically contaminated with arsenic. Environ Pollut.
2009;157:1589–96.
the uncertainty and sensitivity of the tool, its application Verma P, George KV, Singh HV, Singh SK, Juwarkar A, Singh RN.
on larger scales, as well as verification of the tool Modeling rhizofiltration: heavy-metal uptake by plant roots. Envi-
assumptions and behaviour through laboratory and in situ ron Model Assess. 2006;11:387–94.
experiments.
 Optimization of Different Key Culture
Conditions for Enhanced Biodegradation
of a Refractory Emerging Pollutant
by a Bacterial Isolate Through a Statistical
Approach

Claudia Popa Ungureanu, Lidia Favier, and Gabriela Bahrim

Keywords
Organic pollutant Bacteria Biodegradation Culture conditions Optimization
Response surface methodology

research and development of new performant sustainable

1 Introduction techniques to combat water pollution of refractory organic
molecules. In this context, bioremediation techniques using
Over the last decade, the problem of pollution of aquatic
microorganisms and/or plants to degrade toxic compounds
environment by pharmaceutically active (PhACs) com-
are considered as relevant because they are environment
pounds including drugs and their active metabolites has
friendly and imply relatively low costs.
raised an increasing concern because of their persistence in
Several works reported that white-rot fungi are one of the
surface water and their negative impact on living organisms.
promising groups of microorganisms suitable for the elimi-
Indeed, today it is well-known that some of these molecules
nation of pharmaceutically active (PhACs) compounds due
are not fully eliminated during the conventional municipal
to their ligninolytic enzyme system. In recent years, some
wastewater treatment, so they are released to the aquatic
studies proved that different species belonging to the genus
environment with the treated effluents (Matamoros et al.
Streptomyces, the main group of filamentous bacteria present
2008; Favier et al. 2015). Among them, clofibric acid
in soil and sediments, are able to degrade a wide range of
(CLF) is the main metabolite and the pharmacologically
organic and inorganic toxic compounds (Popa Ungureanu
active component of the lipid regulators clofibrate, etofi-
et al. 2015). Currently, the ability of a microorganism to
brate, and etofyllinclofibrate used as antilipaemic agents
degrade toxic molecules is strongly affected by many
(Popa Ungureanu et al. 2016).
experimental factors such as nutritional requirements, cells
Because conventional wastewater treatment processes
energetic status and physico-chemical culture conditions.
(WWTPs) were demonstrated to be inefficient for the
Therefore, the investigation of the effects of certain of these
degradation of recalcitrant pharmaceuticals, it has become
factors should indicate the optimal experimental conditions
essential to optimize and improve the current technologies,
that play a role in the bioremediation process and lead to an
in order to prevent environmental contamination (Yehya
optimum removal efficiency.
et al. 2015). To date, there is an increased need on the
Preliminary studies showed the positive potentialities of
some Streptomyces strains isolated from polluted soils on
C. Popa Ungureanu (&)
G. Bahrim clofibric acid biodegradation. However, the obtained
Faculty of Food Science and Engineering, “Dunarea de Jos”
biodegradation yields remain relatively low. In this context,
University, 47 Domneasca St., 800008 Galati, Romania
e-mail: Claudia.Popa@ugal.ro the aim of the present work was to increase the biodegra-
dation efficiency of this recalcitrant molecule by optimizing
G. Bahrim
e-mail: Gabriela.Bahrim@ugal.ro the fermentation conditions (nutritional and environmental
factors) using mathematical modeling and statistical
L. Favier (&)
Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, UMR approaches associated to Plackett–Burman and Response
6226, 11 Allée de Beaulieu, CS 50837, 35708 Rennes Cedex 7, Surface Methodology. Such strategy is less laborious and
France time-consuming compared to full factorial experimentation.
e-mail: lidia.favier@ensc-rennes.fr

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 259

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_82
260
2 Materials and Methods
The effects of various cultivation parameters (independent
variables) of Streptomyces MIUG 4.89, such as pollutant
concentration, concentrations of nitrogen and glucose,
inoculum concentration, inoculum age, pH, temperature,
agitation rate, incubation time and culture volume on the
cells growth and CLF removal were investigated in details.
The experiments were conducted in triplicate in batch mode,
in basal liquid media and under aerobic conditions. In all
biodegradation experiments, samples of bacterial cultures
were taken at different incubation times and evaluated for
cell growth (expressed as dry weight) and CLF residual
concentration. The CLF content was determined by high
performance liquid chromatography.
3 Results and Discussion
Plackett–Burman design was used to determine which
variables have significant effects on CLF biotransformation.
Statistical analysis of results demonstrated that inoculum
concentration, glucose content, temperature and incubation
time have positive effect for the biodegradation of the target
pollutant. Furthermore, a 23 full-factorial central composite
designed technique (CDD) was developed to obtain more
information about the significant effects and interactions
between the considered variables in order to increase the
elimination yield of clofibric acid. For the considered inde-
pendent variables, the variation ranges were: 3.0–10.0 g L−1
glucose, 4.0–10.0% (v/v) inoculation level, temperature 25–
40 °C and 7–14 days of submerged cultivation at constant
initial CLF concentration of 0.2 mg L−1. The calculated
values of the coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.9906) and
probability value (P < 0.0001) obtained in this work
demonstrated the significance of the obtained regression
model and good agreement between experimental and pre-
dicted values. According to the results of the statistical
design of experiments and mathematical modeling, the
C. Popa Ungureanu et al.
optimized conditions for CLF biodegradation by the selected
strain Streptomyces strain are: 6.5 g L−1 of glucose, an
inoculation level of 7% and a temperature of 30 °C after 11
days of submerged cultivation. Under the above optimized
conditions the biotransformation yield of CLF was 47%.
This result is considered very promising taking into account
the recalcitrance of the target molecule in wastewaters.
4 Conclusion
The obtained results in this study indicate the interest of
utilization of selected strains of wild Streptomyces for
biodegradation of clofibric acid under submerged condi-
tions. Plackett–Burman design was used in this work to
screen and determine the optimal culture conditions
which enhance the biodegradation of clofibric acid. Fur-
thermore, the obtained data suggested that the chosen
statistical optimization strategy offers an efficient and
feasible approach for the bioremediation of refractory
organic pollutants contaminated wastewaters.
References
Favier L, Simion AI, Rusu L, Pacala ML, Grigoras C, Bouzaza A.
Removal of an organic refractory compound by photocatalysis in
batch reactor-a kinetic study. Environ Eng Manage J. 2015;14:1327–
38.
Matamoros V, Garcia J, Boyona JM. Organic micropollutant removal
in a full-scale surface flow constructed wetland fed with secondary
effluent. Water Res. 2008;42:653–60.
Popa Ungureanu C, Favier L, Bahrim G, Amrane A. Response surface
optimization of experimental conditions for carbamazepine
biodegradation by Streptomyces MIUG 4.89. New Biotechnol.
2015;32:347–57.
Popa Ungureanu C, Favier L, Bahrim G. Screening of soil bacteria as
potential agents for drugs biodegradation: a case study with clofibric
acid. J Chem Technol Biotechnol. 2016;91:1646–53.
Yehya T, Favier L, Kadmi Y, Audonnet F, Fayad N, Gavrilescu M,
Vial C. Removal of carbamazepine by electrocoagulation: investi-
gation of some key operational parameters. Environ Eng Man-
age J. 2015;14:639–45.
 Assessing the Milk Production Impacts
on the Aquatic Ecosystem in Algeria

Ferroudja Younsi and Krim Louhab

Keywords

Environmental assessment Eutrophication Aquatic acidification
Aquatic toxicity LCA Milk production

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Milk is a very important part of our diet, due to the high
demand on this product and the relevance of the environ-
mental effects from its production. Hence, it was necessary
to determine the environmental consequences related to this
process. This study has two main objectives: it first aimed at
assessing the UHT milk production impacts on the aquatic
ecosystem (in terms of eutrophication, acidification and
ecotoxicity). Secondly, it tried to identify the contribution of
the various milk components to these impacts. The studied
effects are reported in the functional unit which corresponds
to 1 L of packed UHT milk. In this study we adopted the
“gate to gate” approach, i.e. from the raw materials pro-
duction to the finished product. The steps taken into account
are: raw materials packaging production (milk powder);
packaging production (polyethylene, tetra-brik); raw mate-
rials to delivery the dairy plant; delivery to the dairy plant,
and the milk processing. The consumption and waste man-
agement stages were excluded from this study. Figure 1
shows the boundaries of the studied system and the different
flows of materials and energy related thereto.
The method used in this study is structured according to the
life cycle assessment guidelines of the International Orga-
nization for Standardization (ISO): ISO 14040 (ISO 2006a)
and ISO 14044 (ISO 2006b). The Life cycle assessment
(LCA) is a tool that can be used to evaluate the environ-
mental load of a product, process, or activity throughout its
life cycle. SimaPro 8® was used as a support software in this
study.
3 Results and Discussion
Liquid waste from the dairy industry without prior treatment
contributes to several phenomena that disturb the quality of
the aquatic ecosystem in particular eutrophication. Table 1
gives the impacts of the UHT Production in terms of
eutrophication, acidification and ecotoxicity of water.
3.1 Eutrophication

Milk powder production represents 90% of this impact

(1.70E-04 kgPO4−3eq) out of a total of 1.88E-04 kg PO4−3 eq.
This is mainly due to the raw milk production stage in the
F. Younsi (&)
K. Louhab farm dairy. Indeed, several authors confirmed the agricultural
Food Technology Research Laboratory, University of Boumerdes, activities significant contribution due to nutrients emissions
Boumerdes, Algeria from organic and chemical fertilizers used (Bartl et al. 2011;
e-mail: younsi_umbb@yahoo.fr
Castanheira et al. 2010; Fantin et al. 2012). However, another
F. Younsi factor has to be considered: liquid waste during the raw milk
Laboratory of Soft Technologies, Valorisation, Physicochemistry
of Biological Materials and Biodiversity, University of production which COD can reach 224 g/l (Hospido et al.
Boumerdes, Boumerdes, Algeria 2003). As shown in Table 1, for 1 L of milk, tetra-brick

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 261

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_83
262 F. Younsi and K. Louhab

Fig. 1 System boundaries and

flow chart of the UHT milk
production
Milk powder Packing Cleaning products
producon producon producon

Emissions to air,
Energy Dairy plant water and soil

Finished product

Table 1 Impact assessment Flow Eutrophication (kgPO−3

4 eq) Acidification (kg SO2 eq) Ecotoxicity
results for 1L milk (kg TEG water)
Milk powder 1.70E-04 8.21E-03 1.98E+01
Tetra-brik 1.42E-05 1.05E-03 2.23E+01
Paper 6.37E-08 4.83E-06 2.82E-02
Cardboard 4.24E-06 1.23E-04 1.04E+01
PE 1.69E-07 2.32E-04 5.71E-02
Nitric acid 1.22E-09 2.26E-06 5.27E-02
Sodium hydroxide 3.11E-08 2.45E-05 1.93E+00
Ship transport 4.78E-09 5.03E-05 2.39E-01
Truck transport 2.59E-08 2.44E-05 1.06E+00
Electricity 2.38E-08 1.65E-05 6.33E-01
Steam 2.62E-09 5.09E-04 3.07E-05
COD 8.22E-10 9.53E-07 2.63E-02
BOD5 3.14E-10 3.63E-07 1.00E-02
Total 1.88E-04 9.81E-03 5.65E+01

packaging contributes by 8% of this impact (1.42E-05
kgPO4−3eq). This is attributed to the manufacture of the
cardboard due primarily to the COD of manufacturing
effluents. For the same reasons, the packaging cardboard
contributes with 2% to this impact. The impact of other flows
was considered negligible (<1% of the total impact).
energy consumption, particularly thermal energy which
contributed by 5%, as for the production of cardboard used
in the Tetra-brick packaging, it represents 11% of the
impact. NOx contributed by 11%; they were due to fuel
consumption by different means of transport.
3.3 Aquatic Ecotoxicity

3.2 Aquatic Acidification
Table 1 shows that milk powder was the main contributor by
84% to this impact. NH3 emissions from organic fertilizers
applied during the production of raw milk contributed by
76%. (13%) of the SOx emissions were mainly due to
Table 1 shows that, tetra-brick packaging is the main con-
tributor to this impact by about 40% (2.23E + 01 kg TEG
water). It was due mainly to its production phase, particu-
larly cardboard and aluminum. Milk powder is the second
largest contributor (35%), due to the different heavy metals
emitted during the extraction of fossil fuels used in raw milk
Assessing the Milk Production Impacts on the Aquatic …
production operations and the various transports (Eide
2002). The production of thermal energy and electricity
required for milk powder manufacturing also emits several
heavy metals. The production of packaging cardboard con-
tributed by 18%; sodium hydroxide used for CIP operations
intervened by 4% because of heavy metals emitted during its
production, truck transport by 2%. The contribution of the
remaining elements was negligible.
4 Conclusion
This study evaluated the impacts of UHT milk production
on aquatic ecosystem in terms of eutrophication, acidifi-
cation and ecotoxicity relying on the LCA approach. The
results show that for both eutrophication and acidification,
milk powder is the main contributor due to the raw milk
production. Regarding ecotoxicity the results show that
tetra-brick packaging is the most intensive contributor.
263
References
Bartl K, Gómez CA, Nemecek T. Life cycle assessment of milk
produced in two smallholder dairy systems in the highlands and the
coast of Peru. J Clean Prod. 2011;19:1494–505.
Castanheira EG, Dias AC, Arroja L, Amaro R. The environmental
performance of milk production on a typical Portuguese dairy farm.
Agric Syst. 2010;103:498–507.
Eide MH. Life cycle assessment (LCA) of industrial milk production.
Int J LCA. 2002;7:115–26.
Fantin V, Buttol P, Pergreffi R, Masoi P. Life cycle assessment of
Italian high quality milk production. A comparison with an EPD
study. J Clean Prod. 2012;28:150–9.
Hospido A, Moreira MT, Feijoo G. Simplified life cycle assessment of
Galician milk production. Int Dairy J. 2003;13:783–96.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization). Environment
management-life cycle assessment-principles and frame-work.
2006a; EN ISO 14040.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization). Environmental
management-life cycle assessment-requirements and guidelines.
2006b; EN ISO 14044.
 Behavior of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles
in Terrestrial Systems—Evaluation Trough
Batch and Leaching Column Tests

Eliana Tassi, Francesca Bretzel, Manuele Scatena, and Roberto Pini

Keywords
Engineered nanoparticles Availability in soil Mobility of n-TiO2 NPs’ transport
Soil properties

sludges, biosolids or landfilling (Gogos et al. 2012). The

1 Introduction
transport of n-TiO2 in porous media depends on its own
properties and the properties of the medium where released
Nanotechnology, a rapid evolving field of matter manipu-
(Xu et al. 2017). The objective of this study was to provide
lation to develop and produce extremely small
fundamental information on the mobility and availability of
tools/materials, is having exponential increase in a number
n-TiO2 in four different Italian soils through batch and
and diversity of materials. Engineered nanoparticles (ENPs)
leaching column tests.
have, among other important intrinsic properties, active
surfaces and are subject to transformations, adsorption,
precipitation and accumulation on solid matrixes, contami-
2 Materials and Methods
nants or living organisms. ENPs are being object of concern
about their spread and harmful effects in aerial, aquatic and
Soil samples were collected in different locations and named
terrestrial environments (Mudunkotuwa et al. 2016; Amde
as CS, LS, OS and SS according to their main characteristic
et al. 2017; Coll et al. 2016). It has been shown that soil is a
(clayey, landfill, organic and sandy soils, respectively).
major final sink of ENPs, where engineered titanium dioxide
Collected soils were dried, sieved (0–2 mm) and analyzed
nanoparticles (n-TiO2) represent over 50% of ENPs
for the laboratory experiments. Batch and leaching columns
encountered in soil (Keller et al. 2013). Nano-TiO2 are
experiments were performed using pristine n-TiO2 pur-
widely used in cosmetics, medicines, paints, catalysts, plant
chased from Sigma-Aldrich, anatase, 25 nm. Batch tests
protection products, fertilizers, and numerous other appli-
were conducted after 24 h shaking of NPs, soil and water
cations are estimated to further increase with potential neg-
(ratio 1:25:500 w/w/v). Mixtures were transferred into a
ative effects in soils and living organisms. Nano-TiO2 can
500 ml glass column (time 0) and allowed to settle undis-
reach different environmental compartments directly by the
turbed. Aliquots were collected periodically at the top of the
uses of nanopesticides and nanofertilizers or by accidental
suspended mixtures and analyzed for aggregate size distri-
release, and indirectly via reuse of wastewaters, sewage
bution (Mastersizer 2000, Malvern) and Ti concentration
E. Tassi (&)
F. Bretzel
M. Scatena
R. Pini (ICP-OES Liberty Axial, Varian). Leaching column experi-
Institute of Ecosystem Studies, National Research Council, Pisa, ments were performed with a constant load of n-TiO2 sus-
Italy pensions, using a ‘Mariote bottle’ system (Fig. 1), through a
e-mail: eliana.tassi@ise.cnr.it
10  4.6 cm (length  diameter) soil column. Suspensions
F. Bretzel of n-TiO2 were prepared in ultra-pure milli-Q water quality
e-mail: francesca.bretzel@ise.cnr.it
(Merck Millipore) by sonication for 30 min. (Sonifier 250,
M. Scatena Branson) in continuous mode at an output power of 80 W.
e-mail: manuele.scatena@ise.cnr.it
Known volumes of leached liquid were collected. Six col-
R. Pini umns of each soil type were leached, among which three
e-mail: roberto.pini@ise.cnr.it

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 265

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_84
266
Fig. 1 ‘Mariote bottle’ system for the leaching tests
were leached with ultra-pure water as controls. Leachates
aliquots were analyzed for Ti concentration and changes in
soil porosity (Mercury porosimeter WS2000, Carlo Erba)
along the columns (2 cm height portions) were analyzed
after soil columns were dried and sliced.
3 Results and Discussion
Soils differed significantly for their main properties: high
clay content in CS (41.5%) and OS (34.1%), high sand
content in SS (89.9%) and LS (78.8); high organic matter
content (OM) and dissolved organic carbon in OS (9.5%,
1249 lgC/g dw, respectively); high cationic exchange
capacity (CEC) in CS (41.6 cmol+/kg) and OS
(52.1 cmol+/kg) and high electrical conductivity (EC) in SS
(728 mS/cm).
E. Tassi et al.
0.50
0.45
OS, organic soil
0.40
LS, landfill soil
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
CumulaƟve volume - normalized to n° pore volume
Fig. 2 Breakthrough curves from leaching tests
Breakthrough curves in LS and OS (Fig. 2) showed that
NPs passed more rapidly through the OS than through the
LS: after one pore-volume about 17% of Ti was found in the
effluent of OS while no Ti was yet leached from LS. At the
breakthrough approximately 70–73% of Ti was retained by
both saturated soil columns. However, at higher
pore-volume, in OS a plateau was reached and in LS the
relative Ti concentration (C/Co) still decreased, indicating a
progressive retention of NPs in the landfill soil (LS), and a
continuous leaching of about 30% of NPs in the organic soil
(OS) column. Although LS is a typical sandy soil with low
cation exchange capacity and low organic matter, the
retention of NPs occurs and could be imputable to the high
ionic strength, which reduces the stability of NPs’ aggre-
gates facilitating the precipitation/adsorption in pores/active
sites of soil. On the other hand, it is known that dissolved
organic matter can contribute to the stabilization of NPs and
facilitates the colloidal transport, as observed in OS break-
through curves.
Batch tests in CS, OS and SS soils gave indications of the
amount of titanium and the sizes of homo- hetero-aggregates
suspended in the circulating soil solution after longer times
(days) than those observed in leaching tests. Ti concentration
of NPs suspended in the upper liquid phase of batch tests
showed an abrupt decrease for all soils, but remained con-
stant from the day 6. After 6d, CS showed the lowest Ti
concentration (0.3% of Ti at time zero) and OS the highest
(1.8% of Ti at time zero), meaning that most of NPs settled
down with soil, however despite the similar high clay
amount in both soils, the higher dissolved organic matter in
OS probably contributed to the stabilization of n-TiO2 in soil
solution acting as a kind of surfactant and reducing the
tendency of NPs’ aggregation and settling, giving a sterically
stabilized system. The analysis of aggregate size distribution
Behavior of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles in Terrestrial …
Fig. 3 Size distribution in the
aliquots of batch tests
in the aliquots from batch tests in CS, OS and SS soils
(indicated respectively as soil I, II and III in Fig. 3) revealed
that only the suspension with OS (soil II, blue color) showed
a lower well-defined bimodal size distribution on d6.
4 Conclusion
Soil properties influenced the size of n-TiO2 aggregates,
their amount in soil solution, as well as the mobility of
n-TiO2 when suspended or leached in different soils. The
dissolved organic matter in the organic soil (OS) was the
predominant factor facilitating the transport of NPs in
soil. On the other hand, the amount of dissolved ions (soil
ionic strength) in sandy soils was the factor which greatly
reduced the availability and mobility of n-TiO2 in SS and
267
LS soils. The present study showed important results that
could be used to assess possible routes of NPs’ exposure
in terrestrial ecosystems.
References
Amde M, Liu J, Tan Z, Bekana D. Transformation and bioavailability
of metal oxide nanoparticles in aquatic and terrestrial environments.
A review. Environ Pollut. 2017;230:250–67.
Coll C, Notter D, Gottschalk F, Sun T, Som C, Nowack B. Probabilistic
environmental risk assessment of five nanomaterials (nano-TiO2,
nano-Ag, nano-ZnO, CNT, and fullerenes). Nanotoxicology.
2016;10:436–44.
Gogos A, Knauer K, Bucheli TD. Nanomaterials in plant protection and
fertilization: current state, foreseen applications, and research
priorities. J Agric Food Chem. 2012;60:9781–92.
268
Keller AA, McFerran S, Lazareva A, Suh S. Global life cycle
releases of engineered nanomaterials. J Nanopart Res.
2013;15:1692–703.
Mudunkotuwa IA, Anthony TR, Grassian VH, Peters TM. Accurate
quantification of TiO2 nanoparticles collected on air filters using a
E. Tassi et al.
microwave-assisted acid digestion method. J Occup Environ Hyg.
2016;13:30–39.
Xu X, Xu N, Cheng X, Guo P, Chen Z, Wang D. Transport and
aggregation of rutile titanium dioxide nanoparticles in saturated porous
media in the presence of ammonium. Chemosphere. 2017;169:9–17.
 Organic Carbon in Urban Wetland Sediments
and Implication for Potential Greenhouse
Gas Emission

Shuai Shao, Xiuquan Tai, Feng Zhen, Jianbing Li, and Yubao Li

Keywords
Urban wetland Sediment Organic carbon Greenhouse gas emission

1 Introduction 3 Results and Discussion

Urban wetlands play an important role in maintaining the
environmental systems of cities in southeastern China where
population is large, economy is active and rainfall is plen-
tiful. These wetlands receive discharges from residential
houses, factories, schools, offices, farms and rainwater which
lixiviate and scour land surfaces, thus leading to the accu-
mulation of organic and inorganic matters in the sediments.
The fate of organic carbons in sediments has become a
challenging issue, especially when they are exposed to air
after dredging. The present study was then to investigate
organic carbon in an urban wetland in Wenzhou City,
southeastern China, and the implication on potential green-
house gas emission from urban sediment was also discussed.
2 Materials and Methods
3.1 Organic Carbon in Urban Wetland Sediment
in Wenzhou
The contents of surface sediment organic carbon in Sanyang
Wetland in Wenzhou ranged from 17.94 to 50.57 mg/g, with
an average value of 31.91 mg/g and a standard deviation of
±17.50 mg/g, and the heavy organic carbon fraction
accounted for 97.44–98.71% of the total organic carbon. The
mean ratio of C/N was 13.64 with a standard deviation of
±0.78. The carbon fraction measured by 1H NMR was
ranked as follows: Aliphatic group>Alkoxy
group>Phenyl>Carboxyl>Acetal group, with a value of
38.38, 21.79, 18.08, 18.03 and 3.4%, respectively. The high
oxidation of organic carbon in sediments implied human
impacts and anthropogenic sources from terrestrial areas.

We analyzed sediment samples from an urban wetland of
Wenzhou City for the total contents and chemical forms of
organic carbon by using potassium dichromate sulfuric acid
spectrophotometry (Guo 2014) and 1H NMR methods (Lin
2011). Research reports on sediment carbon in urban areas
of representative big cities in China were consulted for
discussions on potential greenhouse gas emission. Organic
index (calculated by the multiplication of carbon fraction
and nitrogen fraction) (Yu 2010) was employed to assess
organic pollution level.
3.2 Organic Pollution of Urban Sediment
in Wenzhou
The organic indexes of 9 urban wetland sediment samples
ranged from 0.2413 to 1.769, with an average of 1.124,
falling into the highest level IV. The results indicate that the
sediments were highly impacted by anthropogenic activities.
3.3 Organic Carbon in Urban Sediments
of Southeastern Chinese Cities

S. Shao
X. Tai
F. Zhen
J. Li
Y. Li (&) 3.3.1 Organic Carbon Contents

College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Wenzhou Total organic carbon of 17 selected urban wetlands in
University, Wenzhou, China
southern China was averaged at 39.77 g/kg with a range
e-mail: yubao@wzu.edu.cn

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 269

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_85
270 S. Shao et al.

from 2.68 to 129.0 g/kg (Table 1). All of these cities (in- matter. Fourteen of these selected urban wetlands had
cluding 9 provincial capitals) have a population of over 2 organic pollution level of III and IV, and the other three had
million, and their wetlands have been polluted with organic level II pollution.

Table 1 Organic carbon contents and organic indexes of urban wetland sediments in 17 cities, southeastern China
City Urban wetland Urban Literature TOC Organic Organic Remarks
population (g/kg) index pollution
(million) level
Shanghai Huangpu river 20.69 Peng et al. 10.03 0.2192 III Municipality directly under the
(2008) Central Government
Nanjing Qinhuai river 6.78 Ye et al. 12.92 0.1568 II The capital of Jiangsu Province
(2011)
Suzhou Miaojia river 8.02 Feng et al. 46.00 1.921 IV
(2010)
Wuxi Wuxi section of 4.94 Shan 20.20 0.3832 III
Jinhang canal (2001)
Hangzhou West lake 4.95 Li et al. 129.0 6.784 IV The capital of Zhejiang Province
(2015)
Ningbo Dongqian Lake 5.20 Ran et al. 24.59 0.4438 III
(2007)
Wenzhou Sanyang wetland 6.20 This study 31.91 1.124 IV
Wuhan South Lake 8.59 Wei (2010) 65.69 2.010 IV The capital of Hubei Province
Nanchang Aixi Lake 3.31 Zhang 128.4 4.118 IV The capital of Jiangxi Province
(2007)
Hefei Nanfei river 5.67 Li et al. 49.25 1.248 IV The capital of Anhui Province
(2013)
Wuhu Jing Lake 2.32 Wang 12.02 0.2386 III
(2007)
Changsha Tiane Lake 3.04 Wang 31.91 0.4032 III The capital of Hunan Province
(2010)
Nantong Tongjia river 4.70 Tang 26.10 0.7389 IV
(2016)
Fuzhou Youxizhou wetland 5.19 Jia (2009) 14.72 0.1105 II The capital of Fujian Province
Xiamen Yundang Lake 3.49 Zheng et al. 2.683 0.07011 II
(2013)
Guangzhou Guangzhou section 12.08 Li (2014) 30.58 0.6465 IV The capital of Guangdong
of Pearl River Province
Changzhou Chaizhibang river 3.34 Tang 40.03 1.360 IV
(2014)
Organic Carbon in Urban Wetland Sediments …
3.3.2 Global Change Issues Related to Ex Situ
Disposal of Polluted Sediment
With the increasing contamination of urban wetlands and
heightening awareness of environmental protection, many
cities in China have been or are planning dredging polluted
sediments for better wetlands. In south China, urban wet-
lands are in big number and cover large areas, resulting in a
huge volume of polluted sediments. For example, Wenzhou
is a coastal prefecture city with about 2 million of population
and 910 km2 of terrestrial land. Its three urban districts have
229 km2 of water bodies (urban rivers, lakes and ponds),
among which Sanyang Wetland has received increasing
attention. Our previous results indicated that there was 1.4
million m3 of organic polluted sediments in 3.2 km2 of rivers
in this wetland (Li et al. 2016). The municipal government
of Wenzhou has implemented the remediation and restora-
tion of polluted rivers since 2005. However, the exposure of
organic rich sediments to air after dredging led to various
concerns because the oxidation of organic matter may
increase the emission of carbon dioxide and other green-
house gases.
3.3.3 Energy Recycling
Organic polluted sediments contain valuable heat energy.
The calorific values of sediments were 13,010–18,481 kJ/kg
(i.e. about 47% of that of standard coal) for Sanyang Wet-
land and 7000–10,000 kJ/kg for Dianchi Lake (Zhao 2015).
It is thus possible to recycle heat energy from polluted
sediments as a substitute of coal. The sediments can also be
used for the production of brick or ceramics, honeycomb
briquettes and so on.
4 Conclusion
Sediments of Sanyang Wetland in Wenzhou have been
polluted by organic matter with organic carbon content
up to 50 mg/g. The Aliphatic group accounted for 38% of
271
the total organic carbon, presenting high oxidation level.
Seventeen urban wetlands in the big cities in southern
China were evaluated for their pollution with organic
matter, and the results indicated that urban sediments
were rich with organic carbon. Improper disposal of such
polluted sediments can accelerate organic matter oxida-
tion and consequently increase the emission of green-
house gases. It is suggested to further research into
polluted sediments as a carbon sink and a greenhouse gas
source. Furthermore, the high caloric value of urban
sediments could lead to great potential for energy recy-
cling, and the feasibility to utilize these organic rich
sediments as a potential energy needs further investiga-
tion and validation.
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carbon sequestration and its relationship with soil pH in Qinglan-
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China. J Soils Sediments. 2016:2296–305.
Yu H, Zhang W, Lu S, Yan S, Hu R, Chen L, Zhang L, Yu J. Spatial
distribution characteristics of surface sediments nutrients in Lake
Hongze and their pollution status evaluation.2010:961–8.
Zhao J. Pyrolysis products characteristic of Dianchi Lake sediment and
desulfurization performance of Dianchi lake sediment supported
catalyst. Kun Ming: Kunming University of Science and Technology,
2015.
 Application of Bacteriophage and Essential
Oil to Monitor Bacterial Biofilm Formation

Myriam Ben Said, Dhekra Trabelsi, Faouzi Achouri, Marwa Ben Saad,
Latifa Bousselmi, and Ahmed Ghrabi

Keywords
Water Biofilm Essential oil Phage Bio-control

This present study suggested the use of biological and

1 Introduction
Biofilms are beneficial for bioremediation processes in terms
of eliminating oil spills and sewage treatment. However,
they can be harmful, mainly in the food industry sector and
in water distribution systems.
Current technologies used to control microbial contami-
nation include the use of chemical biocides and mechanical
scraping of biofilms formed in pipelines. In particular,
chemical biocides are largely ineffectual against sessile
bacteria protected in the complex communities known as
biofilms, and it is exactly these chemically resistant biofilm
communities that are the source of most bio-corrosion
(Collins et al. 2010).
M. B. Said (&)
F. Achouri
M. B. Saad
L. Bousselmi

A. Ghrabi
Waste Water and Environment Laboratory (LabEaue), Water
Researches and Technologies Center Borj-Cedria Technopark
(CERTE), Soliman, Tunisia
e-mail: myriam_rebia@yahoo.fr; myriambesaid@gmail.com
F. Achouri
e-mail: achouri87@gmail.com
M. B. Saad
e-mail: marwabensaad@gmail.com
L. Bousselmi
e-mail: latifa.bousselmi@certe.rnrt.tn
A. Ghrabi
e-mail: ahmed.ghrabi@certe.rnrt.tn
D. Trabelsi
Chemistry Laboratory Materials and Molecules Implementation
Institute for Scientific and Technical Application Studies of La
Marsa, Carthage University, 2070 Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: trabelsi_dhekraa@yahoo.fr
natural bactericide, cheap, safe to handle, natural, environ-
mentally benign agents instead of chemical reagents to
reduce and/or to prevent biofilm formation.
This paper focused on the development of approaches to
bio-control biofilm production based on virulent bacterio-
phage (phage) and essential oils (EOs).
The use of biological treatment in complementarity with
tertiary water treatment process, and especially in water
pre-treatment steps, has multiple benefits. The phage lysis
activity leads to a decrease in viable bacterial density and,
consequently, guarantees the reduction of virulence factor
expressed by pathogenic bacteria. Furthermore, the use of
lytic phages can reduce the subsequent bacteria reactivation
based on their remanence activity (Said and Otaki 2013). In
addition, the use of EOs with low concentration instead of
toxic chemical biocides can limit the biofilm formation and
this will essentially depend on the propriety and the biocide
activity of the plant EOs.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Isolation of Essential Oils
100 g of dried vegetal material (flowers of Citrus uranium or
leaves of Thymus vulgaris) were subjected to hydrodistil-
lation in a Clevenger type apparatus for 3 h. The obtained
essential oil was dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate and
kept in amber vials at 4 °C for further analysis.

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Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_86
274
2.2 Isolation of Bacteriophages and Study
of Their Susceptibility
A pool of bacteriophages was isolated from wastewater and
were tested for their specificity and lytic activity against
P. aeruginosa strains. Phages were isolated using plaque
assay.
2.2.1 Bacteriophage Titration of Stock Solution
Bacteriophage titer was analyzed as described by Said et al.
(2010). Briefly, 100 ll diluted phage solution, 100 ll bac-
terial overnight culture, and 3 ml molten agar were mixed in
a glass tube and poured into a TSA-containing Petri dish.
Plates were incubated for 18 h, after which plaque forming
units (PFU) were counted.
2.3 Biofilm Formation by P. Aeruginosa
and Bacteriophage Susceptibility
Biofilm phage susceptibility was determined by study of
phage infectivity in free-cell or planktonic form and with
biofilm community. Biofilm formation was quantified as
described (O’Toole et al. 2000).
3 Results and Discussion
To control biofilm production by P. aeruginosa strain,
without addition of chemical reagents, we included an
additional biological treatment step at inlet and/or outlet of
the disinfection water treatment process, in order to allow the
reduction and/or the inhibition of this resistant structure.
In this study we used a lytic phage called PAØ isolated
from a wastewater that has a specificity for the tested strain
of P. aeruginosa.
The pre-treatment of bacterial suspension with a single
lytic phage, or with phages cocktail, leads to a decrease in
bacterial density and, consequently, limits the establishment
of intercellular communication (QS), thus preventing biofilm
formation and inhibiting the expression of other virulence
factors.
The surveillance of biofilm production by P. aeruginosa
under photocatalytic treatment and phage infection can be
used as an effective approach to control and guarantee an
optimum water disinfection step without any risk of viru-
lence factor retention after water treatment.
M. B. Said et al.
To enhance the performance and the efficiency of waste
water treatment process without hazards, specially the
retention of the expression of virulent factors by pathogenic
bacteria, we added another natural treatment as the use of
essential oils (Eos) such as thyme (T. vulgaris). This EO
showed in vitro anti-biofilm activity through the inhibition
of plonctonic cell mobility and their attachment on an inert
surface and also the deterioration of biofilm structure.
The increased performance of photocatalytic water treat-
ment in presence of 1/1000 (w/v) of EO of thyme was
explained by the fact that the presence of photoactivatable
molecules (photosensitizers) in this type of oil. Their
molecules are able to absorb energy in the presence of both
water and light and pass from the ground state to the excited
state. Stored energy is subsequently transferred to the oxy-
gen present in the water. The latter then passes from the
fundamental state to the excited state (singlet oxygen). The
singlet oxygen generated by the combined action of a pho-
tosensitizer and light (photosensitizing), attack and damage
most microorganisms present in water. The photosensitiza-
tion properties of essential oil of Thymus vulgaris was used
to improve photocatalytic water treatment as a natural
photosensitizer.
4 Conclusion
The use of “biological and natural tools” in combination
with usual water treatment process can be considered as a
safety procedure to reduce and/or prevent the recontam-
ination of treated water, preventing the re-expression of
virulent factors by pathogenic bacteria such as biofilm
formation with friendly processes instead of chemical
biocides.
References
Collins TL, Markus EA, Hassett DJ, Robinson JB. The effect of a
cationic porphyrin on Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Curr
Microbiol. 2010;61:411–6.
O’Toole G, Kaplan HB, Kolter R. Biofilm formation as microbial
development. Annu Rev Microbiol. 2000;54:49–79.
Said MB, Otaki M. Enhancement of ultraviolet water disinfection
process. Afr J Biotech. 2013;12(20):2932–8.
Said MB, Otaki M, Hassen A. Detection of viable but non cultivable
Escherichia coli after UV irradiation using a lytic Qb phage. Ann
Microbiol. 2010;60:121–7.
 Biostimulation of Microbial Community
by Carob (Ceratonia siliqua) to Degrade Total
Petroleum Hydrocarbon
(TPH) in Contaminated Soil

Latifa Hamoudi-Belarbi, L’Hadi Nouri, Leila Bendifallah,

Safia Hamoudi, and Khaled Belkacemi

Keywords
Oil-contaminated soil Biostimulation Carob (Ceratonia siliqua) Total petroleum
hydrocarbons (TPH) degradation

1 Introduction siliqua) to degrade diesel oil hydrocarbons in contaminated

Oil releases during drilling operations, operating and trans-
portation is a major problem for oil companies that are
forced to conduct an adequate and effective treatment of
these pollutant emissions before any evacuation because of
the environmental protection requirements. Since chemical
processes are expensive and rarely neutral, bioremediation is
a gentle technique based on the principle of complete min-
eralization of petroleum products and therefore do not gen-
erate a toxic product. Thus, bioremediation is the most
effective, commonly requested and least expensive solution
(Perelo 2010). The objective of this study was to evaluate
biostimulation of microbial community by carob (Ceratonia
L. Hamoudi-Belarbi (&)
L. Nouri
Laboratoire de Technologie Alimentaire, Faculté des Sciences de
l’ingénieur, Université M’Hamed Bougara, Avenue de
l’indépendance, 35000 Boumerdès, Algérie
e-mail: Latifa.Hamoudi.1@ulaval.ca
L. Nouri
e-mail: hnouri2001@yahoo.fr
L. Bendifallah
Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université
Boumerdès, Université M’Hamed Bougara, Avenue de
l’indépendance, 35000 Boumerdès, Algérie
e-mail: bendif_l@yahoo.fr
S. Hamoudi
K. Belkacemi
Département de Sols et Génie Agroalimentaire, Centre en Chimie
Verte et Catalyse, Université Laval, Québec, QC G1V 0A6,
Canada
e-mail: safia.hamoudi@fsaa.ulaval.ca
K. Belkacemi
e-mail: khaled.belkacemi@fsaa.ulaval.ca
soil.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Crude Oil Origin and Preparation of Carob
Medium
Oil polluted soils (liquid and concentrated) were provided
from drilling wells in southern of Algeria. Samples were
collected, placed in appropriate containers and transported to
the Sonatrach laboratory locality.
Pods of C. siliqua were cut and manually de-seeded.
Carob kibbles were then pitted and macerated at third in
distilled water at 85 °C for 45 min, the mash was filtered,
centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 17 min, and then autoclaved at
120 °C for 20 min and stored at 4 °C before use.
2.2 TPH, pH and Humidity Measurements
TPH was measured by distillation using distiller mud
(H/S/E). pH was measured according to the methods
described in the international standard ISO 10390 NF.
Humidity was measured according to the international
standard ISO 1146 NF.
2.2.1 Microbiological Analysis
The total heterotrophic bacterial was enumerated at the end
of 2nd and 4th week of treatment by plating aliquots
(0.1 mL) of appropriate diluted soil samples on a nutrient

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 275

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_87
276
Fig. 1 Evolution of TPH (a),
humidity (b), pH (c) and
microbial count (d) during 4
weeks of treatments. Bac 1 CB:
treatment with carob, Bac 2 BEN:
treatment with Bentonite, Bac 3
TEM: control without treatment
agar. All inoculated plates were incubated aerobically at
room temperature (30 °C) and counted after 48 h.
3 Results and Discussion
TPH, humidity, pH and microbial count are displayed in
Fig. 1. The TPH analysis results show that the best treatment
was with the addition of carob achieving 29% reduction
TPH concentration, followed by bentonite treatment (31%)
and control (36%) respectively after the 30-day period
(Fig. 1a). Humidity decreased gradually during treatment to
12% for carob, and to 13% for bentonite (Fig. 1b). Humidity
is a limiting factor during biodegradation. 10% of humidity
is enough for biodegradation (Kumari et al. 2016). Figure 1c
shows the pH evolution during treatment. At the beginning
of treatment, pH was 8.85. This value decreased, then
increased to reach alkaline values that demonstrated the
presence of a microbial activity and the hydrocarbons
biodegradation. This hydrocarbons Biodegradation is higher
in alkaline conditions (Wang et al. 2007). An increase in
microorganism populations was observed at the end of the
experiments (Fig. 1d) shows that the organic amendment
given by carob stimulate microorganisms to degrade crude
oil. Besides, the hydrocarbons adsorption by bentonite is
L. Hamoudi-Belarbi et al.
stimulatory to the crude oil biodegradation. The ‘local
bridging effect’ and polarization of the interlayer water were
identified as two opposing influences arising from the
interlayer cations of clay minerals that probably determine
the hydrocarbons biodegradation extent.
4 Conclusion
Biostimulation is a research tendency in stimulating oil
biodegradation process. The fact that option carob has the
highest TPH loss than the other treatment options indi-
cated that it is a preferable remedial measure followed by
bentonite while the control without treatment proved to
be the least effective for crude oil bioremediation.
References
Kumari B, Singh SN, Singh DP. Induced degradation of crude oil
mediated by microbial augmentation and bulking agents. Int J
Environ Sci Technol. 2016;13:1029–42.
Perelo LW. Review: in situ and bioremediation of organic pollutants in
aquatic sediments. J Hazard Mater. 2010;177:81–9.
Wang Y, Tian Y, Han B, Zhao HB, Bi JN, Cai BL. Biodegradation of
phenol by free and immobilized Acinetobacter sp. strain PD12.
J Environ Sci. 2007;19:222–5.
 Magnetically Separable Low Cost Adsorbent
for Bioremediation of Th(IV) and Methylene
Blue Dye from Water Sample

Sugam Chavan, Sandip Sabale, Vikas Jadhav, and Prashant Chikode

Keywords
Delonix regia Bioremediation Adsorbent Thorium (IV) Methylene blue
Magnetic separation

1 Introduction and modified clays, microorganisms, activated carbon, dif-

The presence of radio nuclides in wastes is a major envi-
ronmental concern. The removal of radioactive ions from
wastewater is an important issue in liquid waste treatment.
The reason is that these ions are hazardous to the environ-
ment and human health due to their high toxicity even at low
concentrations and their half-life time (long half life times).
The occurrence of these pollutants in water is directly related
to industrial activities such as mining, nuclear power gen-
eration plants, nuclear weapon production and various lab-
oratory activities. The adsorption of toxic ions from aqueous
solutions onto clay minerals is a very important issue in
different areas of science. The treatment of radioactive liquid
waste is aimed at both decontamination and volume reduc-
tion (so as to simplify its storage). The sorption of heavy and
radioactive metal ions from effluents proved to be very
efficient, numerous sorbents being used for the removal of
uranium and thorium from the wastewaters, such as natural
S. Chavan
Devchand College, Arjunnagar, Nipani, 591237, India
e-mail: chavansugam@gmail.com
S. Sabale
Department of Chemistry, Jaysingpur College, Jaysingpur,
416101, Maharashtra, India
e-mail: srsabale@gmail.com
V. Jadhav
Soil and Water Laboratory, Jaysingpur College, Jaysingpur,
416101, Maharashtra, India
e-mail: vivijadhav@gmail.com
P. Chikode (&)
Department of Physics, Jaysingpur College, Jaysingpur, 416101,
Maharashtra, India
e-mail: prashantchikode@gmail.com
ferent types of cellulosic materials, zeolites and macro-
molecules etc. (Babic st al. 2002; Dobrowolski et al. 1986;
Rangel-Mendez et al. 2002; Sabale et al. 2014; Sabale et al.
2009; Sabale et al. 2010a, b). One of the most effective
methods in the treatment of radioactive wastewaters is based
on the adsorption processes. In recent years, inorganic
adsorbents have emerged as an increasingly substituting
or/and additional means for conventional organic adsor-
bents, particularly in low radioactive waste water. The Royal
Poinciana is found in Madagascar’s dry deciduous forests. In
the wild it is endangered, but it is widely cultivated else-
where. In addition to its ornamental value, it is also a useful
shade tree in tropical conditions, because it usually grows to
a modest height (mostly 5 m, but it can reach a maximum
height of 12 m) but spreads widely. Its dense foliage pro-
vides full shade. In areas with a marked dry season, it sheds
its leaves during the drought, but in other areas it is virtually
evergreen. Flowers appear in corymbs along and at the
branches ends. Pods are green and flaccid when young and
turn dark-brown and woody. The flowers are large, with four
spreading scarlet or orange-red petals up to 8 cm long and a
fifth upright petal called the standard, which is slightly larger
and spotted with yellow and white. The naturally occurring
variety flavida has yellow flowers. Seed pods are dark brown
and can be up to 60 cm long and 5 cm wide, the individual
seeds, however are small, weighing around 0.4 g in average.
The compound leaves have a feathery appearance and are
characteristic light bright green. They are doubly pinnate
each leaf is 30–50 cm long and has 20–40 pairs of primary
leaflets or pinnae on it and each of these is further divided
into 10–20 pairs of secondary leaflets or pinnules. In this
work the magnetically activated carbon has been synthesized

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_88
278
from Gulmohar (Delonix regia) plant and the sorption
studies of Th (IV) and methylene blue dye were carried out
and discussed.
2 Materials and Methods
The brown pods of the Gulmohar (Delonix regia) were
collected and dried in sun light for eight days. These pods
were cut into small pieces and crushed to get a powder. The
activated carbon was prepared by treating one part of raw
powder with two parts (by weight) of concentrated sulphuric
acid and kept in an oven maintained at 150 °C for 24 h. The
obtained material was washed with distilled deionized water
to remove the free acid and dried at 110 °C for 24 h. The
obtained charcoal was sieved to 100 mesh size and stored it
in air tight bottle. Now exactly weighed amount of sieved
charcoal is taken into 100 mL. beaker moistened by adding
1 N HNO3. This mixture was kept in a furnace at 90 °C for
4 h. 1 N HNO3 is helped to activate the surface of charcoal.
The charcoal activated with 1 N HNO3 was ready for
modification. Magnetization was produced or induced with
the help of adsorption of Fe3O4 particles on activated char-
coal with simple co-precipitation method. The solutions
Fig. 1 Delonix regia plant with flowering and fruit, close up of fruit pad used to obtain the charcoal
S. Chavan et al.
containing 2.72 g. of FeCl3 and 1 g of FeCl2 were mixed at
a certain molar ratio. Then 20 mL. 25% of NH4OH was
slowly added into the mixture with vigorous stirring at a
temperature ranging between 60 to 70 °C. The Fe3O4 carbon
particles were repeatedly washed and filtered before drying
at room temperature. The obtained material was analysed for
structural, morphological and compositional properties using
XRD, SEM and EDX.
3 Results and Discussion
The structural characterization of the charcoal and magnetic
charcoal was carried out using X-ray analysis pattern.
Figures 1 and 2 show the XRD patterns of charcoal and
magnetic charcoal. They show that the obtained charcoal is
of amorphous nature while magnetic charcoal is of crys-
talline nature. The magnetic properties were studied by
VSM. From magnetization properties it is evident that the
charcoal modification with ferrite shows a magnetic
moment. The compositional properties recorded from EDX
shows the successive doping of iron up to 5.5 weight per-
cent. The effect of pH on adsorption was carried out using
50 lg/mL. thorium solution. The study was carried out at pH
Magnetically Separable Low Cost Adsorbent … 279

Fig. 2 Characterization of the

obtained magnetic charcoal,
a XRD pattern, b Magnetic
properties of Carbon and
Magnetic carbon, c and d SEM
images of carbon and magnetic
carbon

Table 1. Sorption study of Th S. Concentration 0.1% 0.1 M Dilution Charcoal Absorbance %

(IV) at pH 2.20, stirring time No. lg/mL Indicator, mL HCL, mL mL in g adsorption
2.30 h
1 10 0.5 1 25 0.1 0.001 99.81
2 20 0.5 1 25 0.1 0.001 99.81
3 30 0.5 1 25 0.1 0.005 99.05
4 40 0.5 1 25 0.1 0.002 99.62
5 50 0.5 1 25 0.1 0.006 99.86
6 60 0.5 1 25 0.1 0.022 99.72
7 70 0.5 1 25 0.1 0.028 99.74
8 80 0.5 1 25 0.1 0.018 99.60
9 90 0.5 1 25 0.1 0.015 99.16
10 100 0.5 1 25 0.1 0.000 99.60
11 110 0.5 1 25 0.1 0.000 99.80
12 120 0.5 1 25 0.1 0.002 99.57
13 130 0.5 1 25 0.1 0.060 87.23
14 140 0.5 1 25 0.1 0.145 71.28
280
2.20, 4.71, 6.30 and 8.32. From Table 1 it is observed that
the adsorption percentage decreases with the pH increase.
The maximum adsorption was found at pH 2.20. The effect
of stirring time on the adsorption was carried out using
50 lg/mL. thorium solution and at pH 2.20 by varying
stirring time 1.00, 1.30, 2.00, 2.30, 3.00 h time interval. The
maximum adsorption was found at stirring time 2.30 h. The
effect of concentration of thorium was carried out by
increasing thorium concentration at pH 2.20 and stirring
time 2.30 h. From these results it is observed that the
obtained charcoal has the capacity of 120 lg/mL. Further
increase in this concentration decreases the adsorption per-
centage. The absorbance of difference of methylene blue dye
solution concentration before adsorption on charcoal was
determined using UV-visible spectrophotometer. The
adsorption percentage was also calculated for each of the
different methylene blue dye concentrations on charcoal. The
maximum 89% methylene blue adsorption was found using
the synthesied adsorbent.
4 Conclusion
The magnetically separable charcoal was prepared by
simple method from easily available Gulmohar(Delonix
regia) plant pods. The obtained charcoal shows good
S. Chavan et al.
magnetic moment and crystalline nature of magnetite and
hematite. Thanks to this method around 5.5 weight
percent of iron was successfully doped in the charcoal.
The obtained charcoal was then used for the sorption
studies of thorium. From this study it is concluded that
the obtained charcoal is efficient (Low Cost) for the
removal of metal ions and organic dyes.
Acknowledgements Authors are thankful to University Grants Com-
mission, New Delhi for sanctioning the grant (F.NO. 47-213/12(WRO)
Dated 26th February 2013) to carry out this project work. Authors are
also thankful to Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi for
sanctioning the grant under DST-FIST program (No/SR/FST/College-
151/2013(C)) to Jaysingpur College, Jaysingpur.
References
Babic BM, Milonjic SK, Polovina MJ, Cupic S, Kaludjerovic BV.
Carbon. 2002;40:1109–15.
Dobrowolski R, Jaroniec M, Kosmulski M. Carbon. 1986;24:15–20.
Rangel-Mendez JR, Streat M. Water Res. 2002;36:1244–52.
Sabale SR. J Bioremediat Biodegradation. 2014;5(5):1.
Sabale SR, Jadhav DV, Mohite BS. J Rare Earths. 2009;27(5):825–9.
Sabale SR, Jadhav DV, Mohite BS. J Radioanal Nucl Chem. 2010;284
(2):273–8.
Sabale SR, Mohite BS. J Anal Chem. 2010;65(8):809–13.
 Characterization of Bacteria Isolated
from Hydrocarbon Contaminated Soils
and Producers of Biosurfactants

Farida Benzina-Tihar, Thanina Chaouche, Mohamed Khoja,

and Hakima Mohand-Kaci Oulebsir

Keywords
Biodegradation Gasoil E24 Biosurfactants Landfarming

microscopic characterizations were achieved followed by

1 Introduction
Hydrocarbons in high concentrations in the environment and
their transfer have a detrimental effect on human health and
ecosystems.
The treatment of polluted soils can be carried out in
several physico-chemical and biological ways. The
biodegradation of hydrocarbons by microorganisms called
“hydrocarbonoclasts” was demonstrated by ZoBell (1946).
Since then, the number of identified bacterial species pos-
sessing this property has increased steadily.
Therefore, through this study, we proposed to undertake
the bioremediation of hydrocarbon contaminated soils in the
Hassi Messaoud area (Algerian Sahara oilfield) using their
indigenous microflora under experimental conditions.
2 Materials and Methods
Microorganisms were enriched from 20 samples collected at
1-m intervals in the ponds at a depth of 50 cm at 5 different
points, from a petroleum field in the Hassi Messaoud area,
which is about 850 km south-east, Algiers. The physico-
chemical parameter studies of ponds were carried out at the
laboratories. Then, a bacteriological analysis was carried out,
after purification of the obtained isolates, a macroscopic and
F. Benzina-Tihar (&)
A. Chaouche
H. M. -K. Oulebsir
Laboratory of Valorisation and Conservation of Biological
Resources, Faculty of Sciences, University M’hamed
Bougara of Boumerdes, BP35000 Boumerdès, Algeria
e-mail: benzinafarida@yahoo.fr
M. Khoja
Research Director at the Development Center (CRD),
Boumerdes, Algeria
physiological and biochemical identification (Api 20E and
Api 20NE. Molecular characterization of the most active
strains by the sequencing of the 16S rRNA was carried out.
On the other hand, efficacy tests by detecting the activity
of the strains with respect to the hydrocarbon determination
were carried out by the search for the emulsifying and
haemolytic activity as well as the extraction of the secondary
metabolites: Biosurfactants and antibiotics. Once the most
productive strains were selected, a biological treatment of
collected samples by the Landfarming method was carried
out. This treatment aimed to compare several bio-treatments,
namely biostimulation, bioaugmentation by mixed culture,
the use of bentonites and extracts of biosurfactants.
3 Results and Discussion
• The physicochemical tests of the ponds samples showed
that the pH is slightly alkaline (8.1) with a low relative
humidity of the soil (4.8%), while the chemical compo-
sition of the studied soil indicated a deficit of nitrogen
(0.4 mg/l) and phosphorus (0.46 mg/l) elements.
According to Eckford et al. (2002), the pollution of soils
by hydrocarbons results in a deficit of nitrogen with
respect to carbon. The COD/BOD5 ratio is 17.92,
according to Lefebvre, (2004), a ratio greater than 0.6
admits that the soil studied is biodegradable. This sug-
gests that there is a native flora capable of oxidizing the
polluting organic matter. The dosage of total hydrocar-
bons in the polluted ponds shows a content of
141.7 g/Kg of soil or 14.17% of soil. The results of the
chromatographic analyses obtained by GPC confirm that
the major fraction of our ponds is Gasoil. The

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_89
282
microbiological diagnosis revealed the presence of 7
strains that were selected by the E24 emulsification
activity. The best rates were observed in strains B1 and
B2 with an E24 of 45.71% and 62.85% respectively. The
strains B1 and B2 were gram negative, motile, catalase
and oxidase positive. On the basis of the phenotypic
features tested, strains B1 and B2 showed phenotypic
features resembling those of the members of the genera
Aeromonas and Entherobacter, respectively. The analy-
sis of 16S rRNA demonstrated that strain B1 possessed
similarities higher than 99% with those of the genus
Aeromonas. Also, the partial 16S rRNA sequence of
strain B2 was determined; the sequence was compared
with the published 16S rRNA sequences of representa-
tive members of the Eubacteria revealing that it had a
significant similarity. (100%) for possible species relat-
edness is found with several validly described Enter-
obacter spp. Examining the distance matrix indicated that
strain B2 may belong to one of these species. The
enterobacter genus Species have been reported as very
good producers of biosurfanctants by several researchers
(Mital et al. 2011; Sarafzadeh et al. 2013). The following
analyses for further species identification are suggested
by the complete 16S rDNA sequence analysis and DNA:
DNA hybridizations.
The capability of Aeromonas species to degrade diesel
was discussed in several works (Ilori et al. 2005; Kamal
et al. 2015).
The biosurfactants extraction by precipitation with pH
lowering followed by thin-layer chromatography showed
corresponding spots for the desired products. The treatment
by addition of biosurfactant extracts and bioaugmentation by
strain E2 (Entherobacter sp.) gave the best result with a TPH
F. Benzina-Tihar et al.
removal efficiency of the order of 76.42%. This very high
percentage for a more or less short duration requires a more
thorough study.
4 Conclusion
The present study has shown that the biological treatment
method by exploitation and the biological increase of
indigenous strain is a promising solution to solve the
pollution problem caused by drilling fluids.
References
Eckford R, Cook FD, Saul D, Aislabie J, Foght J. Free-living
heterotrophic nitrogen-fixing bacteria isolated from
fuel-contaminated Antarctic soils. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002;68:5181–5.
Ilori MO, Amobi CJ, Odoch AC. Factors affecting biosurfactant
production by oil degrading Aeromonas spp. isolated from a tropical
environment. Chemosphere. 2005;61(7):985–92.
Kamal I, Blaghen M, Lahlou FZ, Hammoumi A. Evaluation of
biosurfactant production by Aeromonas salmonicida sp. degrading
gasoline. Inter. Natio. J Appl Microbiol Biotechnol Res. 2015;3:89–
95.
Lefebvre O, Habouzit F, Bru V, Delgenes JP, Godon JJ, Moletta R.
Treatment of hypersaline industrial wastewater by a microbial
consortium in a sequencing batch reactor. Environ Technol.
2004;25(5):543–553.
Mital J, Anuradha K, Sheetal J, Sanjay J. Isolation, characterization of a
biosurfactant produced by Enterobacter sp MS16. Antifungal
application. Euro J Lipid Sci. 2011;113(11):1347–56.
Sarafzadeh P, Hezave AZ, Ravanbakhsh M, Niazi A, Ayatollahi S.
Enterobacter cloacae as biosurfactant producing bacterium: differ-
entiating its effects on interfacial tension and wettability alteration
mechanisms for oil recovery during MEOR process. Colloids
Surf B Biointerfaces. 2013;105:223–9.
Zobell CE. Action of microorganisms on hydrocarbons. Bacteriol Rev.
1946;10:1–49.
 Response of Solanum lycopersicum
to the Exposure to the Most Used
Pesticides in Tunisia

Ikram Jaabiri Kamoun, Rim Baccar Yangui, Jalel Bouzid,

and Radhia Gargouri Bouzid

Keywords
Oxidative stress Chlorophyll production Pesticides Pyrethroid Organophosphorus

3 months and irrigated daily. Sampling was performed

1 Introduction
Pesticides of the pyrethroid class, such as deltamethrin, are
widely used as insecticides because of their short biodegra-
dation period and their low tendency to accumulate in living
organisms (Laskowski 2002). The organophosphorus insec-
ticides are most commonly used in high levels leading to
their transfer in drinking water and in food and feed. More-
over, the use of organophosphorus is extensive in agriculture
and forestry because of their high activity against a broad
spectrum of pests (Villarini et al. 1998). However, these
pesticides have negative effects on nervous, hematological,
and respiratory systems in humans (Svobodov et al. 2003).
Moreover, the pesticide treatment of plants may generate an
oxidative stress by the accumulation of several Reactive
Oxygen Species (ROS). The aim of the current study was to
evaluate the effects of a pyrethroid (deltamethrin) and two
organophosphorus (dimethoate and chlorpyrifos) pesticides
on tomato plants (solanum lycopersicum L.)
weekly during the culture period. Chlorophyll content of this
plant species was evaluated.
2.1 Protein Extraction
Crude extracts were prepared by grinding 200 mg of leaves
in liquid nitrogen. The powder was transferred in an
eppendorf tube and was then supplemented with 1 mL
protein extraction buffer containing 1 mM EDTA, 10 mM
dithiothreitol, 1 mM PMSF and 40 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.8.
After centrifugation for 15 min at 12.000 rpm, the super-
natant containing total soluble proteins was recovered. Pro-
tein concentration was determined using standard Bradford
method (Bradford 1976).
Afterwards, Malondialdehyde (MDA) content, Superox-
ide dismutase (SOD) and Catalase (CAT) activities were
determined.

3 Results and Discussion

2 Materials and Methods
Tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum L.) of 2–4 leaves
were totally treated with 3 concentrations (0.1; 1; and 5 g/L)
of each pesticide. They were then grown in a greenhouse for
I. J. Kamoun (&)
R. B. Yangui
J. Bouzid
Laboratory of Environmental Engineering and Eco Technology,
University of Sfax, ENIS, Street Soukra Km 3.5, BP1173,
CP 3038, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: ikram.jaabiri@tunet.tn
R. G. Bouzid
Laboratory of Plant Biotechnologies Applied to Crop
Improvement, University of Sfax, ENIS, Street Soukra
Km 3.5, BP 1173, CP 3038, Sfax, Tunisia
The results show that the three pesticides treatment led to a
rapid induction of oxidative. A significant decrease of
chlorophyll content was also observed, especially in plants
treated with chlorpyrifos. The malonyldialdehyde
(MDA) production rates rose significantly in plants treated
with a concentration 5 g/L of both chlorpyrifos and
dimethoate. Deltamethrin induced a lower increase in MDA
content compared to organophosphorus pesticides. Total
superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities increased in the
leaves of plants treated with the highest concentration for
dimethoate and chlorpyrifos. However, the deltamethrin

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_90
284
treatment did not show any significant increase in SOD
activity. Similarly, the catalase (CAT) activity increased in
the leaves of plants treated mainly with the concentration
5 g/L of both organophosphorus. These results suggest that
chlorpyrifos seems to be more stressful for tomato plants
than dimethoate. However, deltamethrin treatment didn’t
lead to an increase in the CAT activity that remained com-
parable to that of controls.
All these data suggest that deltamethrin generated lower
damage on tomato plants in comparison with organophos-
phorus ones.
4 Conclusion
Potential physiological disturbances are observed when
plants are treated with a dose of 5 g/L which is 5 times
higher than the recommended dose in agricultural man-
I. J. Kamoun et al.
uals of the studied pesticides. Although pesticides do not
affect survival, their presence causes oxidative stress
against which plants respond by synthesis of antioxidant
enzymes (SOD and CAT).
References
Laskowski DA. Physical and chemical properties of pyrethroids. Rev
Environ Contam Toxicol. 2002;174:49–170.
Svobodov Z, Luskov V, Drastichov J, Svoboda M, Zlabek V. Effect of
deltamethrin on haematological indices of common carp (Cyprinus
carpio L.). Acta Vet. Brno. 2003;72:79–85.
Villarini M, Moretti M, Pasquini R, Scassellati-Sforzolini G,
Fatigoni C, Silvano Monarca MM, Rodriguez AV. In vitro
genotoxic effects of the insecticide deltamethrin in human periph-
eral blood leukocytes: DNA damage (‘comet assay’) in relation to
the induction of sister chromatid exchanges and micronuclei.
Toxicology. 1998;130:129–39.
 Clay Soil: A Good Conditioner for Amended
Alfalfa with Different Organic Amendments
Under Saline Irrigation Production

Sonia Mbarki, Artemi Cerdà, Chaima Jabri, Marian Brestic,

Chedly Abdelly, and Jose Antonio Pascual

Keywords
MSW compost Salty water Alfalfa crops Nutrient content Heavy metals
bioaccumulation

2 kg of clayey loamy soil with and without compost or

1 Introduction manure at the rate of 40 t ha−1 and irrigated with tap water at
2/3 of the field capacity and adding 0, 3 and 6 g l−1NaCl.
Several studies have used organic amendments to recover The amendment was applied before sowing. Three cuttings
salt-affected soils and improving soil fertility, soil physical were achieved every 40 days.
and biological properties and crop yields (Guangming et al. The proportioning of the ions was carried out on the fil-
2017; Trivedi 2017). Composts from many different origins, trate of the product of the extraction by flame spectropho-
municipal solid waste, farmyard manure have been assayed tometry, and standard photometer corning. Heavy metals
as substrates. Good results have often been obtained (Lakhdar content was measured by atomic absorption spectropho-
et al. 2009). In this study, an organic amendment was applied tometer Perkin-Elmer 3110. The statistical analysis of results
at a rate of 40 t ha−1 on loamy clayey soil was used to assess was performed with SPSS software (22.).
the feasibility of compost for use as a nutrient-releasing saline
soil remediation and determine any limitation to their use.
3 Results and Discussion
2 Materials and Methods Alfalfa productivity increased in both compost and Farm-
yard manure with no significant difference between them
Clayey loamy soil was collected from the region of Mornag (percentage of growth compared to control treatment was
and subdued at 2 mm. The physicochemical properties were 40% by a factor of two to three times from first cut to third
determined. Alfalfa seeds were grown in pots containing cut for plants grown in clay soil). Under salt irrigation, both
compost and manure increased the productivity of M sativa
S. Mbarki (&)
A. Cerdà
C. Jabri
M. Brestic
C. Abdelly

J. A. Pascual during second and third cuts but did not improve in the first
INRGREF, Ariana, Tunisia cut (Fig. 1). Only a fraction of N and other nutrients in
e-mail: mbarkisonia14@gmail.com manure or compost became plant available in the first year
A. Cerdà after application (Eghball et al. 2002). The amendment
e-mail: artemio.cerda@uv.es decrease Na accumulation in shoots and roots. The results
C. Jabri suggest that MSW compost compensates, at least partially,
e-mail: cheima.jabri@gmail.com for the negative effect of salinity on plant growth and
M. Brestic nutrient uptake and the mineral status in amended soil was
e-mail: marian.brestic@uniag.sk ameliorated even in the presence of salt.
C. Abdelly Alternatively, this dose of compost involved an increase
e-mail: abdelly.chedly@gmail.com (Table 1) of plant plomb, copper, cadmium, and zinc con-
J. A. Pascual centrations in the plant tissues. The metal accumulation did
e-mail: jpascual@cebas.csic.es

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 285

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_91
286 S. Mbarki et al.

400
1400 Roots
l
C3 C2 C1 350 kl
Shoots g jk i
1200 g
300

DW, mg.plant -1
1000 i
g 250
DW, mg.plant -1

800 g fg
e 200 efg
f
600 d
150
c cd
c
400 100

200 50

0 0
C C+S1 C+S2 Co Co+S1 Co+S2 M M+S1 M+S2 C C+S1 C+S2 Co Co+S1 Co+S2 M M+S1 M+S2

Fig. 1 Shoots and roots dry weight of alfalfa in presence of compost Co and salt at rates (S1 and S2)

Table 1 Translocation factor TF and bioaccumulation factor BAF of heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Pb et Cd)
C C + S1 C + S2 CO CO + S1 CO + S1 M M + S1 M + S2
Zinc TF 0.70 0.71 0.74 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.79 0.81 0.89
BAF 0.32 0.32 0.41 0.45 0.40 0.48 0.56 0.52 0.52
Copper TF 0.33 0.35 0.44 0.56 0.56 0.64 0.74 0.74 0.74
BAF 0.10 0.14 0.19 0.26 0.28 0.32 0.42 0.48 0.58
Plomb TF 0.38 0.40 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.54 0.64 0.66 0.66
BAF 0.13 0.15 0.24 0.23 0.28 0.31 0.41 0.45 0.45
Cadmium TF 0.52 0.56 0.65 0.92 0.90 1.19 0.94 1.18 0.94
BAF 0.10 0.13 0.18 0.26 0.29 0.35 0.45 0.48 0.52

not thwart the enhancement of alfalfa yield. Furthermore, the References

translocation factor reached 1 only in the case of Cd; how-
ever, it showed no significant difference with or without salt
irrigation following compost application.
4 Conclusion
The combining of MSW composts and alfalfa crop cul-
tivated in clay soil may be considered a good strategy for
saline soil remediation allowing alfalfa plant to mitigate
the effect of salt stress and heavy metal pollution on soil
environments.
Eghball B, Wienhold BJ, Gilley JE, Eigenberg RA. Mineralization of
manure nutrients. Biological Systems Engineering: Papers and
Publications. Paper 139. 2002. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/
biosysengfacpub/139.
Guangming L, Xuechen Z, Xiuping W, Hongbo S, Jingsong Y, Xiang-
ping W. Soil enzymes as indicators of saline soil fertility under various
soil amendments. Agric, Ecosystems Environ. 2017;237:274–9.
Lakhdar A, Achiba WB, Montemurro F, Jedidi N, Abdelly C. Effect of
municipal solid waste compost and farmyard manure application on
heavy-metal uptake in wheat. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal.
2009;40(21–22):3524–38.
Trivedi P, Singh K, Pankaj U, Verma SK, Verma RK, Patra DD. Effect of
organic amendments and microbial application on sodic soil proper-
ties and growth of an aromatic crop. Ecol Eng. 2017;102:127–136.
 Environmental Impact Evaluation
of Cropping Systems Using Life Cycle
Assessment: Case Study of Central Tunisia

Meriem Jouini, Yannick Biard, Nadhira Benaissa, Julien Burte,

Hajer Amara, and Carole Sinfort

Keywords
Life cycle assessment Semi-arid Cropping system Participatory diagnosis
Water and soil conservation work

to grave”). The main goal of this study was the impact

1 Introduction
Semi-arid agricultural areas are fragile territories where
water and soil resources must be preserved. In this context,
the impact evaluation is difficult due to the lack of data. In
this study, we focused on the upstream Merguellil water-
shed, located in central Tunisia, where several water and soil
conservation works (WSCW) were built since 1990 to
control water erosion, increase local infiltration and protect
the downstream area. The rapid expansion of conservation
measures raised the issue of their impact on soil and water
resources. The environmental assessment method chosen for
this study is the life cycle assessment (LCA), an international
normalized method widely used to assess the potential
environmental impacts of a system by accounting and
evaluating the resource consumption and the emissions. It
presents a characteristic of a global approach (all environ-
mental impacts are considered) and life cycle (“from cradle
assessment by LCA of the most relevant crop systems in our
territory, taking into account on-site and off-site contribu-
tions to environmental impacts. Our strategy was to combine
LCA with a participatory approach to integrate knowledge
and perceptions of local actors and provide elements on
environmental impacts for all stakeholders. The territorial
systemic participatory diagnosis enables to characterize the
dynamics of the territory, the developments of the agricul-
tural practices, and the typology of the existing farming
systems. This diagnosis was achieved through technical field
visits and interviews with farmers. LCA step was conducted
with an adapted LCI for representative systems determined
through a diachronic analysis.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 The Study Area

M. Jouini (&)
N. Benaissa
J. Burte
H. Amara Our study area is the Merguellil watershed located in
Institut National Agronomique de Tunisie (INAT), Tunis, Tunisia
Tunisia, a Mediterranean country. In the Mediterranean
e-mail: jouini.meriem11@gmail.com
region, soil degradation and water resources are a serious
J. Burte
threat to humans and the natural environment. Agriculture in
e-mail: julien.burte@cirad.fr
the Mediterranean is characterized by small size of farms, a
M. Jouini
large number of farms are less than 10 ha and are econom-
SupAgro Montpellier, Montpellier, France
ically less effective. The Merguellil Watershed is located in
M. Jouini
J. Burte
central Tunisia, characterized by a semi-arid climate with
Cirad, UMR-Geau, Montpellier, France
high rainfall variability and high evaporation rates (Lacombe
Y. Biard
et al. 2008). To protect the downstream watershed of Mer-
Cirad, UPR Hortsys, Montpellier, France
e-mail: yannick.biard@cirad.fr guellil against floods, a dam was built in 1989. The problems
of the study area are the variable and limited resources, the
C. Sinfort
Montpellier SupAgro, UMR-ITAP, Montpellier, France high water use, low control over access to water, etc. These
e-mail: carole.sinfort@supagro.fr problems are also encountered in the whole Mediterranean

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 287

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_92
288
basin, the basin Merguellil can then be regarded as an
exemplary case (Leduc et al. 2007).
2.2 Participatory Territorial Diagnosis
and Typology of Cropping Systems
Our strategy is to combine the approach of the life-cycle
assessment (LCA) with a participatory approach in the
upstream of Merguellil watershed in central Tunisia to
integrate the knowledge of local stakeholders and create
knowledge on the impacts environmental to policy makers,
farmers, etc. The first step in our approach was to make
participatory territorial diagnosis that allows us to charac-
terize the dynamics of the territory, identify the natural
resources and their uses, the change of agricultural practices
and the factors of these evolutions, and the typology of
farming systems. The diagnosis was achieved through field
technical visits and surveys with farmers. Characterization of
the territory dynamic was carried out by diachronic analysis.
This step allowed us to achieve a typology, identify the most
relevant cropping systems that need to be evaluated and
collect inventory data of each system.
2.3 LCA Methodology
LCA was performed on each type crop system identified.
First, survey data were transformed into inventory data to
calculate emission flows. Then, potential impact was cal-
culated using LCA-developed methods. In order to com-
municate the results of the environmental assessment with
different stakeholders, our approach was to evaluate sepa-
rately the contributions of foreground system (activities
located within the geographical boundaries of the territory)
Fig. 1 LCA of irrigated olive and abricot crop system without WSCW
M. Jouini et al.
and the background system (activities located outside the
geographical boundaries of the territory and linked to the
foreground system) (Loiseau 2014 and Azapagic et al.
2007). The in-site impacts (caused by foreground system)
and the off-site impacts (caused by background system) were
calculated by ILCD method using Simapro software.
3 Results and Discussion
Systemic territorial participatory diagnosis allowed the
typology and the characterisation of crop systems existing in
our territory. Four classes were identified to proceed with
LCA: irrigated crop system and rainfed crop system both in
the presence and absence of water and soil conservation
works combinations. The subdivision of these categories
enabled us to identify 11 types of cropping systems. The
system boundaries were from installation of crop to farm
gate and the functional unit is 1 ha.
The LCAs results showed that the potential impacts of
background and foreground systems have the same order of
magnitude. Figure 1 present the LCA results of irrigated
olive and abricot crop system without WSCW. The results
also exhibit that crop systems with WSCW always pre-
senting the highest potential impact at the background sys-
tem but this is not always the case for the foreground
systems. These negative impacts were explained by the
emissions from diesel consumption during the construction
of WSCW and the emission due to the production of
machine used also in construction of the WSCW. The LCA
results also showed that the potential impacts of rainfed
systems are negligible compared to irrigated systems
(Fig. 2). Figure 2 presents the contribution of each crop
system (both foreground and background system) on the
different mid-point impact. In fact, water and soil
Environmental Impact Evaluation of Cropping Systems …
Fig. 2 Comparative LCA of four crop systems
conservation works have a negative effect and contribute to
higher potential impacts (Fig. 2). However, these results do
not show the positive impacts of water and soil conservation
works on water and soil resources.
4 Conclusion
In conclusion, it is necessary to integrate the positive
impacts of water and soil conservation works by a local
and spatial assessment and it is also necessary to assess
the impacts of the territory (a combination of farming
systems).
This study demonstrated two major issues of LCA use
for sustainable development in semi-arid context: (i) LCA
results a communication with the stakeholders to fit with
their understanding of the system and (ii) localized the
impacts on soil and water resources, taking into account
water and soil Conservation Works.
289
References
Azapagic A, Pettit C, Sinclair P. A life cycle methodology for mapping
the flows of pollutants in the urban environment. Clean Technol
Environ Policy J. 2007;9:199–214.
Lacombe G, Cappelaere B, Leduc C. Hydrological impact of water and
soil conservation works in the Merguellil catchment of central
Tunisia. J Hydrol. 2008;359:210–24.
Leduc C, Ammar SB, Favreau G, Beji R, Virrion R, Lacombe G,
Tarhouni J, Aouadi C, Chelli BZ, Jebnoun N, Oi M, Michelot LJ,
Zouari K. Hydrol Sci J, Spec Sect: Dryland Hydrol Mediterr Reg.
2007;52.
Loiseau L. Elaboration d’une démarche d’évaluation environnementale
d’un territoire basée sur le cadre méthodologique de l’Analyse du
Cycle de vie (ACV): Application au territoire du bassin de Thau.
Thèse. France; 2014. p. 254.
 Metal Induced Cytopathologies
in the Copepod Tigriopus brevicornis
Sabria Barka and Corrine Cuoc



Keywords
Zooplankton Copepod
1 Introduction
Copepods are tiny (*1 mm) crustaceans belonging to
zooplankton which is a major trophic link in the aquatic food
web. Their biomonitoring is ecologically relevant since their
biological process and demoecological impairment must be
read as early signs of hazard occurring in the environment,
before higher levels organisms are concerned. Previous
studies showed that these animals accumulate metals (in the
hepatopancreas) to different extents over time and evolve
different ways of handling them (Barka 2007 and references
cited therein). However, detoxication responses may become
overwhelmed and metal toxicity exerts on cells affecting
their structures and organelles. This study analyzed the
ultrastructure of metal exposed copepod digestive guts in
order to evidence metal induced cytopathologies in digestive
gut cells.
2 Materials and Methods
Groups of adult copepods Tigriopus brevicornis (Müller
1776) were exposed to lethal (LC50) and sublethal (envi-
ronmentally relevant) concentrations ranges [lg L−1] of Cu
(15, 150), Zn (35, 700), Ni (5, 200), Cd (1, 47), Hg (1.75,
S. Barka (&)
Laboratoire de Toxicologie Environnementale et Marine, Institut
Supérieur de Biotechnologie de Monastir, IPEI Sfax, UR 09-03
Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: sabriabarka2@yahoo.fr
C. Cuoc
EA Evolution, Génome et Environnement, Case 36, Université de
Provence, 3, Place Victor Hugo, 13331 Marseille, France
e-mail: corinne.cuoc@univ-provence.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_93



Metal Cytopathology Water quality assessment
35) and Ag (7.5, 75) for 4 and 14 days respectively. Control
copepods were maintained in clean sea-water. The exposure
experiments were carried out in semi-static controlled con-
ditions (20 °C, dark/light regime of 12–12 h) with daily
renewal of test solutions. Copepods were sampled from each
experimental group and immediately fixed in 3% glu-
taraldehyde buffered with 0.2 M Na cacodylate at pH 7.4.
Fixative osmolarity was adjusted to 1050 mosmol.Kg−1 with
0.35 M saccharose. Samples were postfixed in 1% osmium
tetroxyde in water and, after alcoholic dehydratation,
embedded into Epon-Araldite. Ultra-thin sections (50–
80 nm) were collected on Ti grids, stained with uranyl
acetate and lead citrate and were observed on a Phillip 201
TEM.
3 Results and Discussion
Digestive gut epithelium ultrastructure of copepods exposed
to lethal and sublethal metal concentrations is presented in
Figs. 1 and 2 respectively. All metals, in the conditions of
our experiments, exerted a toxic effect upon gut cells when
compared to control animals. The more severe cell injuries
were observed in copepods exposed to higher metal doses
and to non-essential metals. Hg, Ag and Cd affected cells
more extensively and more drastically as a high number of
organelles appeared more seriously damaged suggesting that
animals have not evolved defense mechanisms efficient
enough to handle non-essential metals. Overall, cells,
exposed to either essential or non-essential metals, gave
evidence of their apoptosis, even at environmental exposure
concentration.
291
292
Fig. 1 TEM micrographs. Ultrastructure of gut epithelium of a
sublethal dose metal exposed copepod for 14 days. (a) exposed to
35 µg Zn.L−1. Note the electron-dense granules in the cytoplasm and
material into lysosomes (arrowhead). The basal lamina and the
intercellular plasmic membrane (small arrows) are invaginated and
vacuoles (asterisk) can be observed. 10000. (b) exposed to 15 µg Cu.
L−1. Note the numerous lysosomes (Ly) filled with electron-dense
material (large arrowheads). Mitochondria (M) appear in dumb-bell
shape (arrow) or swollen (small arrowhead). Note also the cluster of
Fig. 2 TEM micrographs. Ultrastructure of gut epithelium of a lethal
dose metal exposed copepod for 4 days. (a) exposed to 200 µg Ni.L−1.
Note the important vacuolization of the cytoplasm (asterisk) and dark
deposition on the membrane of a vesicle (arrow). 7000. (b) exposed
to 35 µg Hg.L−1. Note the myelin-like structures (mls) in the central V
(asterisk), a M showing dielectronic material (m) and the important
dilatation of Mv and the electron-dense deposits in the intercellular
junctions and along the cytoplasmic surface of the plasma membrane in
the apical part of the cell. 15000. (c) exposed to 47 µg Cd.L−1. The
cytoplasm appears disarranged and almost devoid of organelles.
The REG is mostly vesiculated and V is observed. Concentric whorls
of REG can be observed (large arrow). M appears impaired with a
4 Conclusion
Metal exposed copepod cytopathologies were not specific
to a given metal but they rather reflected a general
response to cell stress suggesting that the cell has a
limited repertoire of responses to cell injury. Because of
copepod’s high sensitivity to metals at the cellular level,
it may be worth exploring the feasibility of using these
animals, as an alternative model to mammals and fish, in
cell-based biosensing techniques as early warning system
for water quality assessment (Tan and Schirmer 2017).
S. Barka and C. Cuoc
transformed Golgi cisternae (asterisks). 20000. (c) exposed to
1.75 µg Hg.L−1. Note a mitochondrion engulfing another one. 20000.
(d) exposed to 1 µg Cd.L−1. Note the REG-derived vacuoles (V) but
also the well-preserved cytoplasm. Dilated perinuclear membrane and
different types of M can be observed: one enclosing portions of
cytoplasm (white arrow), one containing dielectronic material (black
arrow) and one swollen (arrowhead). Observe the vesiculation of REG
and the dilatation of its cisternae. 7000
portion of cytoplasm engulfed (small arrow) or in dumb-bell shape
(double arrowhead) if not totally destroyed (arrowhead). The N has
slightly condensed chromatin and a very dense, small peripheric
nucleolus (nu). 10000. (d) exposed to 75 µg Ag.L−1. Note the
important vacualization of the hyaloplasm (asterisk) and dark deposi-
tion in the intercellular spaces (arrow) and the apex of Mv. A M
enfulfing a V can be observed and another, in the basal central cell,
containing dielectronic material. Circularly arranged REG, mls and the
abnormal aspect of N can also be observed. The basal region (Lb) is
slightly invaginated. 10000. Lipid (L) Microvilli (Mv), Nucleus
(N) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (REG) Secretion vesicle (sv)
References
Barka S. Insoluble detoxification of trace metals in a marine copepod
Tigriopus brevicornis (Müller) exposed to copper, zinc, nickel,
cadmium, silver and mercury. Ecotoxicol. 2007;16(7):491–502.
Tan L, Schirmer K. Cell culture-based biosensing techniques for
detecting toxicity in water. Curr Op Biotech. 2017;45:59–68.
 Use of Response Surface Methodology
for the Biodegradation of Textile Industrial
Effluents by Coniophora puteana IEBL-1

Raja Tahir Mahmood, Muhammad Javaid Asad,

and Muhammad Asgher

Keywords
Coniophora puteana IEBL-1 Response surface methodology Lignolytic enzymes
Brown rot fungi

(RSM) and experiments were designed using central com-

1 Introduction
Currently almost all the textile industries use synthetic dyes
as coloring agents because these gave more colors and are
long lasting. Large proportion of these dyes released into
water in the form of effluent. Most of the synthetic dyes are
toxic and may cause certain diseases to human beings after
accessing the food chain from water bodies and might be
source of environmental pollution. Reducing the environ-
mental pollution is a great challenge for human beings and it
is also the main focus of scientists. The objectives of the
study were to explore biodegradation potential of C. puteana
IEBL-1. Study of enzymes involved in underlying process
and analyze the treated effluents by HPLC.
2 Materials and Methods
Coniophora puteana IEBL-1 was obtained from Industrial
and Environmental Biotechnology Laboratory, PMAS-Arid
Agriculture University Rawalpindi. It was isolated on malt
extract agar media having 5.5 pH. The biodegradation pro-
cess was optimized by response surface methodology
R. T. Mahmood (&)
Department of Biotechnology, Mirpur University of Science and
Technology (MUST), 10250 Mirpur, AJK, Pakistan
e-mail: raja.tahir@must.edu.pk
M. J. Asad
Department of Biochemistry, PMAS-Arid Agriculture University
Rawalpindi, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
M. Asgher
Department of Biochemistry, University of Agriculture
Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan
posite design with three central points. Lignolytic enzymes
like lignin peroxidase (Tien and Kirk 1988), manganese
peroxidase (Wariishi et al. 1992) and laccase (wolfeden and
Wilson 1982) were also studied during each experiment.
Treated effluents were subjected to study the biological
oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand (Greenberg et al.
1985) and HPLC analysis (Wang et al. 2007).
3 Results and Discussion
The biodegradation of three textile effluents i.e. Mihahid
Textiles (MT), Five Star Textiles (FST) and Sitara Textiles
(ST) was optimized at two different stages using Response
Surface Methodology (RSM). After initial culturing
conditions optimization there was 83.02 ± 1.43%,
75.02 ± 1.45% and 84 ± 1.32% biodegradation achieved
for the above three mentioned effluents (Fig. 1). In stage 2
different carbon and nitrogen sources were optimized and
biodegradation increased up to 93.21 ± 1.73% of MT,
86.81 ± 1.81% of FST, 95.03 ± 1.63% of ST (Table 1).
All the parameters studied showed positive interaction as
indicated by the statistical analysis. The study of lignolytic
enzymes i.e. lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase and
laccase showed that biodegradation depends on these
enzymes. Enzymatic activities increased with the biodegra-
dation increase after each optimization step. There was 90,
91 and 93% reduction in BOD after treatment of MT, FST,
and ST effluents. There was 82, 85 and 84% reduction in
COD of MT, FST and ST effluents after final optimization of
biodegradation. The analysis of untreated and treated efflu-
ents through HPLC confirmed the biodegradation of com-
plex dyes into less toxic, simpler secondary amines like

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 293

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_94
294 R. T. Mahmood et al.

Fig. 1 3D response surface graphs showing interaction between various parameters during biodegradation of effluents (a, b) Mujahid textiles (c,
d) Five Star textiles and (e, f) Sitara textiles

Table 1 Summary of biodegradation (%) after adding carbon and nitrogen sources
Brown rot fungi Biodegradation (%) of industrial effluents
Mujahid textile Five Star textile Sitara textile
C. puteana IEBL-1 93.21 ± 1.73 86.81 ± 1.81 95.03 ± 1.63

N-methylaniline and 3-Methyldiphenylamine (Fig. 2). These wastewater treatment and secretion of active lignolytic
results suggest the important role of indigenous fungus for enzymes for various industrial processes.
Use of Response Surface Methodology for the Biodegradation … 295

Fig. 2 HPLC analysis of (a) (a)

untreated effluent (b) treated mV
effluent and (c) diphenylamine Detector A:254nm

2
standard 50 tR= 3.662 min
tR= 3.371 min.

1
25

3
0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 min
(b)
mV
Detector A:254nm
400

3
300 tR= 3.690 min.

2
200

100

0
1

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 min

(c)
mV
Detector A:254nm

1
300

200 tR= 3.690 min.

100

0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 min

4 Conclusion 16th ed. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association;

From the current study, it can be concluded that Conio-
phora puteana IEBL-1 is a good brown rot fungi that can
be used for the biodegradation of textile effluents as well
as for the commercial production of lignolytic enzymes.
This fungi convert toxic textile dyes into less toxic or
non-toxic by-products. Further, toxicological studies are
necessary to monitor the by-products toxicity.
References
Greenberg AE, Trussell RR, Clesceri LS, Franson MAH, editors.
Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater.
1985.
Tien M, Kirk TK. Lignin peroxidases of Phanerochaete chrysospo-
rium. Meth Enzymol. 1988;161:238–49.
Wang W, Li S, Zhao X, Lin B and Du Y. Determination of six
secondary metabolites including chlorogenic acid in tobacco using
high performance liquid chromatography with coulometric array
detection. Se Pu. Nov 2007;25(6):848–52.
Wariishi H, Valli K, Gold MH. Manganese(II) oxidation by manganese
peroxidase from the basidiomycete Phanerochaete chrysosporium.
Kinetic mechanism and role of chelators. J Biol Chem. 1992;267
(33):23688–95.
Wolfenden BS, Willson RL. Radical-cations as reference chromogen in
kinetic studies of one-electron transfer reactions: pulse radiolysis
studies of 2,2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonate).
J Chem Soc. 1982;2:805–12.
 Phosphogypsum Effect on Soil and Rain
Water Incubated and Soil Respiration

Kaouther Ardhaoui and Mohamed Moussa

Keywords
Arid zone soil Phosphogypsum Soil respiration Water and soil incubation

1 Introduction
An arid zone is defined as an area of low precipitation, high
temperature, and high evaporation rate. The soil in this zone
is characterized by neutral, high salt content and low organic
matter. Therefore, its agronomic potential can be easily
deteriorated by erosion or overcultivation and consequently
amendments are added to enhance this soil physico-chemical
properties. These amendments have beneficial outcome on
agricultural productivity, but their effect on soil (microbio-
logical and physico-chemical aspects), water table and glo-
bal environment are to be investigated seriously. Mineral
amendments are known to ameliorate the quality of soil, but
their effect is not simultaneous, several weeks are required
and even months to notice this effect (FAO). In this pre-
liminary study on rain water, incubated with soil and also
with a (soil, PG) mixture, a period of about five weeks was
chosen (37 days) and the effect of adding PG on soil res-
piration, was monitored during 34 days.
2 Materials and Methods
varies depending on the source of the phosphate rock and the
phosphoric acid manufacturing process (Wright et al. 1998).
The common composition (Zairi et al. 1999) of PG is: cal-
cium sulfate dihydrate, orthophosphoric acid various salts
and trace metals.
The physico-chemical characterizations (electrical con-
ductivity CE, pH, (Ca2++Mg2+) chloride concentrations, and
soluble orthophosphate amount) in rain water were mea-
sured. The latter was incubated at room temperature with soil
and with a (soil, PG:10% by weight) mixture during 37 days,
according to the proportions (900 ml rain water, 500 g soil).
The concentration (Ca2++Mg2+) was determined according
to Dugain methods (Dugain et al. 1961).
In another set of experiments, the amount of carbon
dioxide released by soil respiration during 34 days was
captured by a (NaOH (1 M, 20 ml); BaCl2 (1 M, 5 ml))
mixture solution maintained during incubation with slightly
moisturized soil in a 1 L glass bottle at 28 °C. The remaining
soda concentration, after neuralization with the released
CO2, was obtained by titration with HCl (0.1 M) using
phenolphtalein indicator.

El Fje soil has a sandy texture with small amounts of silt 3 Results and Discussion
(4.92%) and clay (2.17%) which were determined by
Robinson pipette (Robinson 1922). The Kinetic study (Fig. 1) of the physico-chemical proper-
Phosphogypsum samples were furnished by the Tunisian ties of rainwater incubated with soil and (soil + PG) mixture
Chemical Groupe, Gabès, Tunisia. The composition of PG at room temperature showed a significant repercussion of the
introduction of PG on these properties. During the period of
K. Ardhaoui (&) study, PG amendment enhances CE, (Ca2++Mg2+) and P2O5
ISBAM, Gabes University, Gabes, Tunisia
concentrations. Chloride ion concentration remained rela-
e-mail: ardhaouikaouther@gmail.com
tively low and the pH decreased with the presence of PG.
M. Moussa
These facts were due to the gradual dissolution of PG and
IRA, Medenine, Tunisia
e-mail: mohamed.moussa@ira.rnrt.tn the impurities that accompany this industrial byproduct

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 297

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_95
298 K. Ardhaoui and M. Moussa

CE S/cm pH (Ca 2+,Mg 2+) mmol/l

3000 10 150
soil
2000 100
soil 5 PG+soil
soil
1000 50
PG+soil PG+soil
0 0 0
0 20 40 0 50 0 20 40
Days Days Days

Cl- mmol/l P2O5 mg/l

10 400
8 300
6
200
4 soil soil
2 100
PG+soil PG+soil
0 0
0 20 40 0 20 40
Days Days
Fig. 1 Kinetic evolution of physico-chemical properties of incubated rain water with soil and (soil + PG) mixture

(Zairi et al. 1999) in addition to the interaction with soil literature (FAO). Furthermore, PG facilitated the organic
components (Endovitsky et al., In Press). matter decomposition especially after one month of incu-
The investigation of the carbon oxide release rate (Fig. 2) bation at 28 °C.
from the soil and from a (soil + PG) mixture, revealed that The fitting of this mineralization kinetic according to an
this was the mineralization process of the carbon in soil. This exponential low (Ct = C0 (1 − e−kt)) (Annabi et al. 2009) led
reaction followed the first kinetic order, as described in to the determination of the amount of labile compartment in
soil C0 (Saidi et al. 2015).
Ct (mg C kg−1) is the total amount of mineralized carbon
1600
Soil at the duration of incubation t (day) per one kilogramme of
1400 soil, and k is the mineralization reaction rate constant
soil + phosphogypsum
1200 (day−1). The results are gathered in the following Table 1.
mg C02/kg of soil

1000 This result reveals that besides the utility of adding the
800 PG to ameliorate some physicochemical properties of soil, it
may alternate the reserve of carbon in soil by accelerating
600
the mineralization process.
400
200
0 Table 1 Kinetic parameters of the mineralization reaction
0 10 20 30 40 Soil PG + soil
days
C0 (mg C kg−1) 378.2 399.3
Fig. 2 Total amount of carbon dioxide released by soil and (soil + k (day−1) 0.048 0.055
PG) mixture
Phosphogypsum Effect on Soil and Rain Water …
4 Conclusion
This research was performed in order to investigate the
effect of PG on rain water incubated and on soil respi-
ration. The achieved results can help to better understand
the PG behaviour in the environment. Combined
amendments PG with manure or compost are planned to
be studied to reveal their global effect on the soil.
References
Annabi M, Bahri H, Latiri K. Biotechnol Agron Soc Environ. 2009;13
(3):401–8.
Dugain F, Arial G, Audry P, Jouga J. Les méthodes d’analyses
utilisées au laboratoire de physico-chimie des Sols. Dakar :
299
ORSTOM, multigr. 1961. p. 73 http://www.documentation.ird.fr/
hor/fdi:10754.
Endovitsky AP, Batukaev AA, Minkina TM, Kalinitchenko VP,
Mandzhieva SS, Sushkova SN, Mischenko NA, Bakoyev SY,
Zarmaev AA, Jusupov VU. J Geochem Explor. In Press, Corrected
Proof, Available online 31 Aug 2016.
Mise en valeur et amélioration des terres. Archives des documents de la
FAO. http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/S8500F/s8500f0i.htm.
Robinson GW. J Agr Sci. 1922;12:306.
Saidi N, Akef S, Bouzaiane O, Kallali H, Ben Aissa N, M’Hiri F,
Jedidi N, Downer J. Carbon and nitrogen mineralization in clay
loam soil amended with different composts. Adv Appl Agric Sci.
2015;3(02):20–34.
Wright RJ, Kemper WD, Millner PD, Power JF, Korcak RF. Agricul-
tural uses of municipal, animal, and industrial byproducts. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Conser-
vation Research Report 44 Chapter 7. 1998. p. 120.
Zairi M, Rouis MJ, Bulletin Des Laboratoires Des Ponts Et Chaussées
—219—Janvier-Février 1999—REF 4145 pp. 29–40.
 Short Term Treated Wastewater Reuse
Impact on Soil Microbial Biomass, Bacterial
Functional Diversity and Enzymatic
Activities in the Presence of Earthworms
Eisenia andrei

Marouane Mkhinini, Iteb Boughattas, Hamadi Boussetta,

Vanessa Alphonse, Alexandre Livet, Stéphanie Gıusti-Miller,
Mohamed Banni, and Noureddine Bousserrhine

Keywords
Treated wastewater Soils Biofertility Earthworms Toxicity Microorganism

1 Introduction
Tunisia, being arid to semi-arid country, is facing water
shortage of increasing severity. Water scarcity problems are
expected to intensify as a result of population growth, rising
living standards and accelerated urbanisation. These drivers
put significant pressure on available resources and on the
agricultural sector, leading to a significant increase in water
use and pollution (El Ayni et al. 2012; Awad et al. 2014;
Qadir et al. 2009). So the reuse of treated wastewater TWW
is an integral part of water management promoting the
protection of natural resources. and can have important
supplementary Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphate and Potassium
which have a favorable effect on the growth of certain crops
M. Mkhinini (&)
I. Boughattas
H. Boussetta
M. Banni
Laboratory of Biochemistry and Envirenmental Toxiologie,
Higher Institute of Agronomy Chott-Meriem, Sousse, Tunisia
e-mail: marouanemkhinini1990@yahoo.fr
I. Boughattas
e-mail: iteb.boughattas@yahoo.fr
H. Boussetta
e-mail: boussetta.hamadi@yahoo.fr
M. Banni
e-mail: m_banni@yahoo.fr
V. Alphonse
A. Livet
S. Gıusti-Miller
N. Bousserrhine
Institut D’Ecologie et des Sciences de L’environnement, Paris,
Université Paris-Est Créteil, Creteil, France
e-mail: vanessa.alphonse@u-pec.fr
A. Livet
e-mail: livet@u-pec.fr
S. Gıusti-Miller
e-mail: giusti@u-pec.fr
N. Bousserrhine
e-mail: bousserrhine@u-pec.fr
(Bahri and Houmane 1987; Bahri 1995). They can cause soil
quality modification (salinization, Heavy metal contamina-
tion, …) and soil pollution by minerals, organic and other
polluants content in TWW (Bahri and Houmane 1987; Bahri
1995). Moreover, these components contained in TWW can
also cause damage to soils macrofauna and microfauna.
Earthworms are among the important macrofauna organisms
in soils, commonly used in environmental and ecotoxico-
logical studies. Therefore, they are considered as bioindi-
cator of soil quality providing important information for the
assessment of environmental risks by many authors (e.g.
Lanno et al. 2004; Suthar et al. 2008; Boughattas et al.
2016). Soil microorganisms are partly influenced by soil
macrofauna (Aira et al. 2009; Liu et al. 2011). It has been
shown that earthworms strongly affect the composition,
distribution and activity of soil Microorganisms (Jusselme
et al. 2014). This study focused on the environmental risks
associated with short-run TWW irrigation on microbial
Biomass, soil enzymatic activities, and functional diversity
of microbial communities through 7, 14 and 28 days of
irrigation of biological soils with the presence or not of
earthworms.
2 Materials and Methods
The used soil consists of surface (0–20 cm) samples col-
lected from a biological parcel situated on the higher agro-
nomic institute of Chott-Meriem Sousse-Tunisia. Before use,
the soils were air-dried and crushed to pass a 2 mm-screen.
TWW was sampled from a wastewater treatment plant in
northern Sousse-Tunisia. E. andrei earthworms (Bouché
1977) were cultured essentially as described in the OECD
guidelines (OECD 2004a). Soil was irrigated with distilled

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 301

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_96
302
water DW, diluted TWW 50% (V:V), and TWW (100%) in
the presence or absence of earthworms, ten of which were
kept in 1 kg of soil placed in glass test containers (OECD
2004b). At least three replicates per condition were used.
The test containers were maintained in a climate-controlled
chamber at 20 ± 1 °C for a period of 7, 14 and 28 days. Soil
pH in each soil was measured in a 1:2 (sample:water) extract
after shaking for 30 min, using pH meter (MetrOhm 744).
The microbial biomass was determined by measuring the
initial rates of metabolization of carbon by the addition to the
carbon source in our case it was glucose according to
Anderson and Domsch (1978).
Phosphatase acid, Phosphatase alkaline, b-glucosidase
and Arylsulfatase activities were determined using
Para-Nitrophenol (PNP) as substrates, respectively (Tabtabai
et al. 1994). These assays are based on the release and
detection of p-nitrophenol (PNP) using specific McIlvain
buffer for every enzyme. The Fluorescein DiAcetate FDA
assay was performed according to the protocol of (Taylor
et al. 2002). The assays of those enzymatic activities were
carried out in microplates. The determination of urease
activity is based on the decomposition of urea into carbon
dioxide and ammonium which is quantified by a colorimetric
method at 690 nm, according to the protocol of (Kandeler
and Gerber 1988). Dehydrogenase activity is based on the
reduction of 2,3,5-triphenyl-tetrazoliumchloride (TTC) to
Triphenyl-Formazen (TPF), a red compound whose intensity
is measurable at a wavelength of 485 nm as cited by (Klein
et al. 1971). Functional diversity was followed using ECO-
LOG plates Biolog© including 96 wells divided on 31 car-
bon substrates, which will allow soil microorganisms to
catabolize them. The absorbance at 595 nm was measured
using a plate spectrophotometer (Biotek) during a week
(Harris-Hellal 2008). Catabolic or functional diversity was
calculated by determining the number of positive wells, a
well said positive (Garland 1997) from an absorbance of
0.125 upper than the value of blank (B). Average Well
Colour Development AWCD represents the total metabolic
activity of bacterial communities in soils.
3 Results and Discussion
Microbial biomass decreased significantly during 28 days in
control soils and soils irrigated with TWW even in the
presence of earthworms, an increase of 47.4 ± 6.1 mg CO2
g−1 h−1 was recorded in soils irrigated with 50% TWW after
28 days. Microbial biomass and enzyme activities are indi-
cators of the soil health as well as its fertility, and can also be
used as indicators of soil contamination (Edwards 2002;
Castaldi et al. 2009; Niemeyer et al. 2012). The presence of
heavy metals in the soil directly affects the soil microbial
population necessary for soil activity as well as fertility
M. Mkhinini et al.
(Gola et al. 2016). The activity of arylsulphatase is more or
less important in soils + earthworms. It was also remarkable
that the activity was affected even by application of diluted
TWW, except in soils irrigated with brute TWW where the
activity reached 40.5 ± 9.7 µmol PNP/g of dry soil. H-1
after 28 days in presence of earthworms. The passage of soil
particles through the digestive tract of earthworms promoted
an increase in microbial activities which subsequently
metabolize the compounds produced by worms, hence a
significant enzymatic activity (Aira et al. 2006; Griffith et al.
2001). In contrast to the previous findings, b-glucosidase
activity decreased in both control and 50% TWW irrigated
soils, with a significant recovery by applying 100% of TWW
during 28 days. It reached a maximum value of
195 ± 23.5 µmol PNP/g of dry soil. H-1, than enzymatic
activity was less important in S + E. Most of the variations
in b-glucosidase activity in the soils was explained by
microbial carbon and total carbon in soils, which appears
logical because b-glucosidase is synthesised by soil
microorganisms in response to the presence of suitable
substrate (Turner et al. 2002; Tejada et al. 2008). In our case
microbial biomass decreased in most of soils which may
explain this decrease in the activity. The phosphatase
activity decreased as the irrigation period progressed, with a
slight elevation of phosphatase acid at 28 days in soils
exposed to 100% TWW 40 ± 1.2. The activity was very
important in soils where the earthworms were placed
(S + E), which is not the case for phosphatase alkaline. Soil
enzyme activity was used as a sensitive indicator of the
effect of pollutants, including metals in soils (Giller et al.
1998). Heavy metals can reduce enzyme activity by inter-
acting with the enzyme–substrate complex, denaturing the
enzyme protein, interacting with its active sites (Nannipieri
2011) or by affecting the synthesis of the enzymes within the
microbial cells. So the variable composition of treated
wastewater contributed to the input of pollutants in agri-
cultural soils as reported by Belhaj et al. (2016), Chiou
(2007), Bedbabis et al. (2014), Klay et al. (2010). FDA
activity decreased significantly along with doses of TWW
and period of irrigation from 23.9 ± 0.95 in control to
9.5 ± 074 at 100% of TWW in soils + earthworms after 28
days, while the activity in soils alone was overall less sig-
nificant. The inhibition of soil enzyme activities by heavy
metals is a very complex issue, as there are many factors that
affect this inhibition. These factors can be divided into four
main classes: metal factors, enzyme factors, soil factors, and
plant factors. An enzyme inhibitor is an agent that reduces
enzyme activity (Karaca et al. 2010). For urease and dehy-
drogenase, the activity was not greatly affected. There was a
slight increase, but no significant effect of the TWW, irri-
gation period, or presence of earthworms. As reported by
Speir et al. (1999), Renella et al. (2005) the enzymatic
activity of urease may be unaffected even in the presence of
Short Term Treated Wastewater Reuse Impact …
the pollutants. Shen et al. (2005) indicated that Dehydro-
genase activity was more sensitive to combined pollution
than urease. Our results show that the functional activity
decreased in soils exposed to 100% TWW, after 28 days
0.19 ± 0.08 in soils + earthworms where activity was less
important. The ability of the microbial biomass of soils to
degrade the BIOLOG© substrate decreased as the TWW
concentration increased. These results are in concordance
with those revealed by Bhattacharyya et al. (2008), Khan
et al. (2010), Azarbad et al. (2013) who examined the effect
of sewage irrigation and metal contamination effect on
microbial biomass activity in soils.
4 Conclusion
In conclusion, our results showed that short-run irrigation
with TWW of biological soils affect significantly micro-
bial biomass and enzymatic activities. In addition,
earthworms could have detrimental effects on the
microbiological quality of agricultural soils.
References
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microbial activity of pig slurry during gut transit of epigeic and
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Azarbad H, Niklińska M, Van Gestel CAM, Van Straalen NM, Röling
WFM, Laskowski R. Microbial community structure and function-
ing along metal pollution gradients. Environ Toxicol Chem.
2013;32(9):1992–2002. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.2269.
Bahri A, Houmane B. Effet de l’épandage des eaux usées traitées et des
boues résiduaires sur les caractéristiques d’un sol sableux de
Tunisie. Science Du Sol. 1987;25(l):267–78. Retrieved from http://
94.247.178.43/afes/sds/SDS_25_4_p267_BAHRI.PDF.
Bedbabis S, Ben Rouina B, Boukhris M, Ferrara G. Effect of irrigation
with treated wastewater on soil chemical properties and infiltration
rate. J Environ Manage. 2014;133:45–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jenvman.2013.11.007.
Belhaj D, Jerbi B, Medhioub M, Zhou J, Kallel M, Ayadi H. Impact of
treated urban wastewater for reuse in agriculture on crop response
and soil ecotoxicity. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2016;23(16):15877–
87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5672-3.
Bhattacharyya P, Tripathy S, Chakrabarti K, Chakraborty A,
Banik P. Fractionation and bioavailability of metals and their
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Bouché MB. Stratégies lombriciennes. Soil organisms as components
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Boughattas I, Hattab S, Boussetta H, Sappin-Didier V, Viarengo A,
Banni M, Sforzini S. Biomarker responses of Eisenia andrei to a
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Castaldi P, Melis P, Silvetti M, Deiana P, Garau G. Influence of pea and
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50-0.
 Development of Electrochemical
Immunosensors for Endocrine Disrupting
Detection

Najet Belkhamssa, Teresa Rocha-Santos, and Mohamed Ksibi

Keywords
Electrochemical Immunosensor EDCs Real water Detection

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

A variety of hazardous environmental pollutants has been
identified in recent years as contaminants such as synthetic
compounds (e.g., pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and
anti-foulants), non-synthetic substances and compounds
(e.g., heavy metals and hydrocarbons), and radionuclides
(Justino et al. 2015). Alkylphenols are commonly deter-
mined by traditional analytical techniques such as high
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chro-
matography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). This
results in the consumption of large amounts of organic sol-
vents and laborious sample preparation, resulting in high
costs and time-consuming methodologies. Thus, sensors and
biosensors, mainly based on electrochemical principles, have
been reported for environmental monitoring of contaminants
and potentially toxic elements, as well as for clinical anal-
ysis, due to their fast response, simple operation, low cost,
and in situ analysis (Duarte et al. 2015; Justino et al. 2014;
Belkhamssa et al. 2016). Thus, the present study focused on
the evaluation of feasibility of using disposable electro-
chemical biosensors for sea water analysis with the aim of
detecting 4-Nonylphenol (4-NP) and atrazine (ATZ).
N. Belkhamssa (&)
M. Ksibi
Laboratory of Environmental Engineering and Ecotechnology,
National School of Engineers of Sfax (ENIS), University of Sfax,
Route de Soukra Km 3.5, Po. Box 11733038 Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: belkamssanajet@yahoo.fr
T. Rocha-Santos
Department of Chemistry & CESAM, University of Aveiro,
Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
A small volume of 2 µL of the anti-alkylphenols solution in
PBS were dropped in the surface of each biosensor, and after
overnight incubation, the biosensors were dried with N2 and
electrically characterized (through ID monitoring), in order to
obtain the analytical signal of anti-alkylphenols. Five stan-
dard solutions of 4-NP (5, 20, 50, 100, and 500 µg L−1)
were prepared from the 4-NP stock solution, and a small
volume of 2 µl of each 4-NP standard solution were dropped
into five individual biosensors and incubated for 15 min at
room temperature, and two analytical measurements were
performed in each biosensor (for repeatability estimation), in
order to obtain the analytical signal of 4-NP. For the con-
struction of the calibration curve, the analytical response
(DI 4-NP) was considered as the difference between the ID
obtained after 4-NP measurement (I 4-NP) and the ID obtained
after the anti-alkylphenols measurement (I antibodies).
3 Results and Discussion
As shown in Fig. 1, the electrical signal observed after
SWCNT deposition (194 ± 3.07 nA) decreases after anti-
body immobilization (95.1 ± 3.00 nA) in the surface of
biosensors. This decrease is associated to the direct charge
transfer that occurred when charged analytes were immobi-
lized at the surface of nanotubes, thus affecting their con-
ductance. Also from Fig. 1, it can be shown that the
electrical signal decreases with increasing the 4-NP con-
centrations from 5 to 500 µg L−1 which can be due to the
immunoreaction, that is, the formation of an immunocom-
plex between anti-alkylphenols and 4-NP.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 305

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_97
306 N. Belkhamssa et al.

4 Conclusion
The determination of 4-NP based on electrochemical
biosensing using FET with SWCNT has been demon-
strated. The biosensors showed high analytical perfor-
mance and they were successfully applied in the
determination of EDCs in seawater samples. A detection
limit of 5 µg L−1 was obtained, which is comparable or
lower than some other detection methods for 4-NP
reported in the literature.

Acknowledgements This work was funded by the Portuguese Science

Foundation (FCT) through scholarships (ref. SFRH/BPD/95961/2013
and SFRH/BPD/102452/2014) under POCH funds, co-financed by the
European Social Fund and Portuguese National Funds from MEC.
Najet Belkhamssa would like to express her sincere gratitude to the
financial support of the University of Sfax and the Minister of Higher
Education and Scientific Research of Tunisia.
Fig. 1 Variation of the analytical response obtained after SWCNT
deposition, antibody immobilization, and introduction of 4-NP
concentrations
References

Table 1 Recovery of the CNTFETs in sea water samples Belkhamssa N, Justino CIL, Santos PSM, Cardoso S, Lopes I,
Compounds Spiked Found Recovery Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos T, Ksibi M. Label-free disposable
concentration concentration (%) immunosensor for detection of atrazine. Talanta. 2016;146:430–4.
(µg L−1) (µg L−1) Duarte K, Justino CIL, Freitas AC, Gomes AMP, Duarte AC,
Rocha-Santos T. Disposable sensors for environmental monitoring
4-NP 6.0 6.0 100 of lead, cadmium and mercury. Trends Anal Chem. 2015;64:183–
ATZ 1.0 0.91 91 90.
Justino CIL, Duarte K, Lucas S, Chaves P, Bettencourt P, Freitas AC,
Pereira R, Cardoso S, Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos T. Assessment of
cardiovascular disease risk using immunosensors for determination
The detection limit was considered as 5 lg L−1, which is of C-reactive protein levels in serum and saliva: a pilot study.
Bioanalysis. 2014;6:1459–70.
the detectable minimum concentration. This is equivalent or Justino CIL, Freitas AC, Duarte K, Rocha-Santos T. Sensors and
lower than that of other methods for the AP detection biosensors for monitoring marine contaminants. Trends Environ
(Table 1). Anal Chem. 2015;6:21–30.
 The Effects of 15-Year Treated Municipal
Wastewater Irrigation on Biological
Parameters of Olive Cultivated Soil (Zaouit
Sousse Perimeter, Oriental Tunisia)

Yassine Hidri, Olfa Boussadia, Naceur Jedidi, and Abdennaceur Hassen

Keywords

Treated municipal wastewater Long-term effects Microbial biomass
Soil basal respiration Nitrogen mineralization

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Tunisia is one of the Mediterranean basin countries that have
serious shortage of water with available water resources of
about 480 m3/inhab/year (Al Atiri 2007). Water demand is
predominantly in the agricultural sector, representing about
80% of the total demand, while drinking sector consumes
14%, industry accounts for 4% and tourism 2% (Al Atiri
2007). The country is also facing water-quality problems
(salinization) and seawater intrusion in coastal areas due to
excessive groundwater pumping. Therefore, improved water
demand management and the development of new water
resources are desperately needed. Thus, treated municipal
wastewater reuse for irrigation can be a valuable alternative
to freshwater resources. Therefore, the objective of this work
was to study the long-run effects of TWMM irrigation on
(i) the soil microbial population, specifically heterotrophic
bacteria and filamentous fungi, (ii) the carbon and nitrogen
soil microbial biomass, and (iii) the microbial respiration and
soil nitrogen mineralization in seven experimental-Olive
cultivated fields. The period of irrigation varied between
zero as the control, and fifteen-year irrigation.
2.1 Experimental Site
The study was conducted in Zaouit Sousse, (a region of the
Tunisian Sahel) situated south of the city of Sousse
(Longitude: 35°47′, Latitude: 10°38′ and of altitude:
20 m N.G.T.). The experimentation was carried out in seven
olive (Var. Chemlali) cultivated plots. The site has been
irrigated since 1989 with treated wastewater, and the irri-
gation was completed by flooding through the furrows. The
mean annual irrigation rates vary between 1500 and
2200 mm depending on the variety of crops. To evaluate the
progress, the contamination and the cumulative effects of
15-year TMWW irrigation on biological parameters of olive
cultivated soil, we compared seven experimental fields. Six
fields were irrigated with TMWW, respectively, for 1, 2, 7,
9, 13 and 15 years. One field (non-irrigated with TMWW)
was used as a control.
2.2 Soil Analysis

Soil samples were analysed for pH, electrical conductivity

Y. Hidri (&) (EC), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), total organic matter,
Centre Régional des Recherches en Grandes Culture à Béja, Beja,
Tunisia
heavy metals content (Cu, Zn, Fe, Ni, Pb and Cd), soil
e-mail: hidyassine@yahoo.fr heterotrophic bacteria and filamentous fungi population,
O. Boussadia
carbon and nitrogen contents of the soil microbial biomass,
Institut de L’Olivier-Unité Spécialisée de Sousse, Sousse, Tunisia soil microbial respiration, and soil nitrogen mineralization.
e-mail: boussadia@yahoo.fr
N. Jedidi
A. Hassen
Centre des Recherches et des Technologie des Eaux Borj-Cedria
(CERTE), Soliman, Tunisia
e-mail: abdohas@gmail.com

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_98
308 Y. Hidri et al.

2.3 Statistical Analysis
The analysis of variance was carried out using SPSS soft-
ware (SPSS for Windows, version 13; SPSS Inc., Chicago,
IL, USA), and means were separated by the least significant
difference according to the Student-Newman-Keuls test. All
the results were the average of the three determinations.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Impact of Wastewater Irrigation on Soil
Characteristics
No significant variations in soil texture and calcareous level
were observed between soils originating from the different
sites. This absence of significant variations in soil properties
between the sites validated the choice of the experimental
grove in Sousse by demonstrating the absence of site-to-site
soil heterogeneity that might have masked the impact of
irrigation management.
C/N ratio that was around 22.75 as compared with the value
11.5 found in site 1 (control). The major soil modifications,
consecutive to the irrigation management, have already been
reported in other studies, resulting in increases in Corg and
Norg contents (Ramirez-Fuentes et al. 2002). In our study,
the soil organic C content increased significantly with the
increased number of years of TMWW irrigation (Table 1),
and it was directly indorsed to the input of organic com-
pounds in the TMWW. Although soil organic carbon con-
tents accumulated more in the upper soil horizon, the
significant high Corg contents at the deeper soil horizon (40–
60 cm) showed that the effect of irrigation was not limited to
the surface layer, and this could be explained by the sandy
texture of the soil, leading to a slight difference between the
soil horizons in depth (Ranjard et al. 2008).
In our case, the weak accumulation of metallic elements
was probably due to the sandy texture of the soil and the low
level of organic matter, leading to weak adsorption of
metallic and mineral cations on the matrix. Nevertheless, this
weak accumulation did not exclude the possibility of
recurrent chemical pollution which could lead to consider-
able modification of the soil biological component.

3.2 Wastewater Irrigation Impact on Soil

Physico-Chemical Characteristics
No significant variations in soil texture and calcareous level
were observed between soils originating from the different
sites. This absence of significant variations in soil properties
between the sites validated the choice of the experimental
grove in Sousse by demonstrating the absence of site-to-site
soil heterogeneity that might have masked the impact of
irrigation management.
Significantly higher Corg and Norg contents were detected
in the upper and the deeper soil horizon (0–20, 20–40 and
40–60 cm) in site 7 (15 years of TMWW irrigation). These
modifications in soil organic status led to an increase in the
3.3 Wastewater Irrigation Impact on Soil
Biological Characteristics
3.3.1 Soil Heterotrophic Bacteria
and Filamentous Fungi Counting
The average number of bacteria in the topsoil ranged from 4.2
(±0.3) x 104 to 6.89 (±0.8) x 105 Colony Forming Units
(CFU)/g dry soil, and from 3.3 (±0.4) x 104 to 6.1 (±0.1) x 105
at the 20–40 cm depth. Similar significant differences were
recorded for fungi, both between the different soils and among
the depths studied. Altogether, these data revealed that
long-term irrigation with wastewater induced a significant
increase in the soil microbial abundance. This microbial

Table 1 Microbial Biomass C (MBC) progress, Microbial Biomass N (MBN) (µg/g. d. soil) according to the duration of TMWW (Years) and soil
depths (0–20; 20–40 cm)
Duration of treatment municipal wastewater application (year)
Depth (cm) 0 1 2 7 9 13 15
MBC (µg/g. d. soil) 0–20 651.4 f 708.6 e 800.1 d 857.1 cd 834.3 dc 937.2 b 1005.7 a
20–40 549.3 e 662.8 d 742.9 c 731.4 c 800.1 b 868.5 a 902.8 a
MBN (µg/g. d. soil) 0–20 74.73 c 76.1 c 83 b 84.97 b 87.13 b 93.57 a 98.07 a
20–40 69.27 c 70.63 c 78.83 b 80.23 b 84.37 b 90.83 b 96.5 a
Means followed by the same letter (a, b, c …) in the same line are not significantly different according to the Student-Newman-Keuls test
(P = 0.05); MBC Microbial biomass carbon; MBN Microbial biomass nitrogen; (µg/g. d. soil) gram of dry soil
The Effects of 15-Year Treated Municipal …
Fig. 1 Soil microbial respiration
as affected by duration of
wastewater application (years).
(a): 0–20 cm, (b): 20–40 cm,
incubation period: days, CO2
evolution: milligrams CO2-C per
kilogram dewatered soil
growth might be explained by the ready source of easily
degradable compounds in the oligotrophic soil environment
brought and conditioned by the TMWW irrigation
(Ramirez-Fuenteset al. 2002).
3.3.2 Soil Microbial Biomass Carbone
(MBC) progress
The microbial biomass C was 1.5 times larger in soil irri-
gated for 15 years with treated TMWW than the one
recorded for the non irrigated soil (control). The test of
Student-Newman-Keuls significance for MBC contents at
the different studied sites showed that there was a significant
increase at 5% significance level (Table 1). This increase is
affected by the duration of TMWW application for each
same soil depth. In our study, a high positive relationship
(0.68  r  0.81, p  0.05) between the increase in
Corg contents and Soil MBC values was observed. Adrover
et al. (2012) obtained similar results.
3.3.3 Soil Microbial Respiration (CO2-C)
In general, (CO2-C) increased in proportion with the
TMWW irrigation period. The soil microbial respiration was
very active during the first 0–28 days, since the CO2 content
augmented strongly conditioned by sufficient prevailing
substrates (Fig. 1). The respiration rate slowed clearly from
the 28 days until the end of incubation due essentially to the
decrease in the energy source. Therefore, the continued
irrigation with the TMWW contributed to raise organic
309
matter and nutrient soil content that would stimulate
microbial activity (Johnsen et al. 2005).
4 Conclusion
Altogether, the results showed that wastewater irrigation
led to changes in physicochemical and microbiological
soil properties and the magnitude and specificity of these
changes being significantly correlated with the duration
of such practice. On the other hand, the clear microor-
ganism growth might be explained by the ready source of
easily degradable compounds in the oligotrophic soil
environment brought and conditioned by TMWW
irrigation.
References
Adrover M, Farrús E, Moyà G, Vadell J. Chemical properties and
biological activity in soils of Mallorca following twenty years of
treated wastewater irrigation. J Environ Manag. 2012;95:188–92.
Al Atiri R. Integration of wastewater reuse in the overall water
resources management (Tunisia experience). Proceedings of
MEDA WATER international conference. 2007. pp. 287–92.
Johnsen AR, Wick LY, Harms H. Principles of microbial
PAH-degradation in soil. Environ Pollut. 2005;133:71–84.
Ramirez-Fuentes E, Lucho-Constantino C, Escamilla-Silva E, Den-
dooven L. Characteristics, carbon and nitrogen dynamics in soil
irrigated with wastewater for different lengths of time. Bioresour
Technol. 2002;85:179–87.
 Impact of a Neonicotinoid Insecticide
Thiamethoxam on Metric Indexes
and Enzymatic Activity of Glutathione
S-Transferase in Adult Females
of a Mosquitofish Gambusia affinis

Salima Chouahda, Yasmine Cheghib, and Noureddine Soltani

Keywords
Neonicotinoids Thiamethoxam Gamubias affinis Metric indexes
Glutathione S-transferase

1 Introduction located at El Tarf city (Algeria). Exposed and control fish

The common use of insecticides in public health and agri-
cultural schedules has caused severe environmental pollution
and potential health hazards including different acute and
chronic cases of animal poisonings. Neonicotinoids are the
newest class of insecticides to be developed and represent
the only major new class of insecticides in the past three
decades. The contamination of water by insecticides is
mainly due to intensive agriculture combined with surface
runoff and subsurface drainage. Thiamethoxam is the only
active substance of the product for plant protection, Actara
25 WG. It is a second generation neonicotinoid insecticide,
which belongs to the thianicotinyl subclass. The fish are
particularly sensitive to pollution. They can be exposed to a
wide range of toxic substances, including insecticides during
their life cycle. Among the fish species, the mosquitofish,
Gambusia affinis was used to evaluate the quality of fresh-
water systems. (Poeciliidae, Cyprinodontiformes).
were reared in aquaria (80 L) under laboratory conditions.
Thiamethoxam is the only active substance of the product
for plant protection Actara 25 “WG”. It was added in rearing
water at three final concentrations (10, 20 and 40 mg L−1).
Adult females of G. affinis were exposed to continuous
treatment during 28 days. In each experiment, untreated
animals were also used as controls.
2.2 Metric Indexes and GST Activity
The weight and length of the fish as well as the weight of the
liver and ovary were determined at various times during
the experiment (0, 1, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days). The
gonado-somatic ratio (GSR) and the hepato-somatic ratio
(HSR) were also calculated according to (Bougis 1952),
while the condition index (CF) following the formula of (Le
Cren 1951). Analysis of GST was assessed following the
procedure of (Habig et al. 1974).

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Biological Materials and Treatments
Adult females mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis Baird and
Girard 1845) were sampled from a freshwater reservoir at
Chbaïta Mokhtar (36° 46′ 00.51″N and 7° 44′ 54.30″ E)
S. Chouahda (&)
Y. Cheghib
N. Soltani
Laboratory of Applied Animal Biology, Department of Biology,
Faculty of Sciences, Badji-Mokhtar University of Annaba, 23000
Annaba, Algeria
e-mail: chouahda_s@yahoo.fr
3 Results and Discussion
The statistical analysis by the Dunnett test showed a sig-
nificant increase in the enzymatic activity of GST on the
14th and 21st days (p < 0.001) (Table 1). The induction of
GST activities was on contrast with results obtained by (Yan
et al. 2015) or the GST activity only increased on 28th days
in zebrafish (Danio rerio) after treatment with thiamethox-
am. However, the results showed no significant differences
(p > 0.05) in metric indexes (CF, GSR and HSR) (Table 1).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 311

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_99
312 S. Chouahda et al.

Table 1 Effect of thiamethoxam Time Control Thiamethoxam Thiamethoxam Thiamethoxam

on glutathione S-transferase (day) 10 mg L−1 20 mg L−1 40 mg L−1
activity (µM/min/mg protein) in
females of G. affinis in continuous 0 2.03 ± 0.49 – – –
treatment (m ± SD, n = 4) 1 1.95 ± 0.40 2.21 ± 1.53 A 1.62 ± 0.60 A 1.32 ± 0.18 A
A
7 1.92 ± 1.22 1.65 ± 1.40 A 2.32 ± 0.17 A 1.99 ± 0.54 A
A
14 4.01 ± 1.93 3.72 ± 1.72 A 7.33 ± 1.71 A 33.11 ± 16.97 B
A
21 2.93 ± 0.55 9.57 ± 3.33 A 23.83 ± 8.96 B 39.36 ± 12.55 B
A
28 4.05 ± 3.70 6.85 ± 3.09 A 8.55 ± 3.67 A 3.29 ± 1.76 A
A
Different capital letters indicate a significant difference between control and treated series at the same time
(p < 0.05)

4 Conclusion
The results revealed that the effect of Thiamitoxam is
greater at the high concentration of 40 mg L−1 compared
to the others concerning the GST activity and no signif-
icant effect on metric indexes. We could conclude that
this insecticide has low secondary effects on this
non-target fish.
References
Boujis P. Recherche biométriques sur les Rougets (Mullus barbatus L.,
Mullus surmuletus L.). Arch Zool Expèr Gèn Fr. 1952; 89(2): 57–
174.
Habig WH, Pabst MJ, Jacobi WB. The first enzymatic step in
mercapturic acid formation. J Biol Chem. 1974;249:7130–9.
Le Cren ED. The length-weight relationship and seasonal cycle in goad
weight and condition in the perch. J Anim Ecol. 1951;20:201–19.
Yan SH, Wang JH, Zhu LS, Chen AM, Wang J. Thiamethoxam
induces oxidative stress and antioxidant response in zebrafish
(Danio Rerio) livers. Environ Toxicol. 2015;10:1002/tox.22201.
 Pseudomonas putida mt2; A Potential
Candidate for Cadmium Bioremediation

Saba Shamim

Keywords

Pseudomonas putida mt2 Cadmium Zinc Heavy metals
Bioremediation Biosorption

(b) Bacterial growth culture: Potassium morpholino-

1 Introduction
propane sulfonate (MOPS) milieu medium (pH 7.0) was
used as a growth medium. It was prepared by mixing
The use of heavy metals has increased due to the rapid pace
25 mM MOPS (5.23 gL−1) in 100 mL solution 1
of industrialization. These metals persist in the environment
[(NH4)2SO4 (5 gL−1), MgCl2
6H2O (1 gL−1), Ca
and pose health problems for all living forms. The envi-
(NO3)2
4H2O (0.5 gL−1)] and 5 mL trace elements (pH
ronmental microbiologists are making efforts to get rid of
6.0) [Na-EDTA (800 mgL−1), FeCl2 (300 mgL−1),
these metals in an eco-friendly way. One such way is
CoCl2
6H2O (4 mgL−1), MnCl2
4H2O (10 mgL−1),
bioremediation. Bioremediation involves the use of bacteria
CuSO4 (1 mgL−1), Na2MoO4
2H2O (3 mgL−1), ZnCl2
to clean up the environment. Cadmium (Cd) is one of the
(2 mgL−1), LiCl2 (0.5 mgL−1), SnCl2
2H2O (0.5
most toxic and carcinogenic heavy metals to organisms
mgL−1), H3BO3 (1 mgL−1), KBr (2 mgL−1), KI (2
including microbes, humans and plants. It is considered a
mgL−1), BaCl2 (0.5 mgL−1)]. Final volume was made up
priority pollutant by EPA and EEA. It is declared to be non
by the addition of 870 mL distilled water. Phosphate
biodegradable, carcinogenic and causes oxidative stress.
source was added in the MOPS medium separately
Pseudomonas species are found in various contaminated
whenever required. Phosphate was prepared by mixing
environments ranging from organic pollutants to heavy
5 mM K2HPO4 (0.87 gL−1), MgCl2
6H2O (1 gL−1) and
metals (Shamim 2014; Shamim et al. 2014; Shamim and
Ca(NO3)2
4H2O (0.5 gL−1). pH was adjusted to 6.8–7.0
Rehman 2015). The purpose of this study was to find the
with 2 N NaOH (or 5.3 with 2 N HCl, if required).
cadmium uptake potential of P. putida mt2.
Sodium succinate was used as a carbon source made by
dissolving 4 g sodium succinate in one litre of distilled
water (Shamim 2014).
2 Materials and Methods
(c) Cadmium stock solution: The Cd stock solution
(2 mM) was made by dissolving 0.804 gm CdCl2
H2O
in 20 mL distilled water. The stock solution was prop-
erly labelled as hazardous and toxic solution and kept at
(a) P. putida mt2 culture: P. putida mt2 was requested
room temperature (Shamim 2014).
from Dr. Lukas Y. Wick lab (Shaw and Harayama 1992;
(d) Bacteria culturing: MOPS milieu medium (pH 7.0)
Shamim 2014).
was prepared supplemented with 5 mM phosphate and 4
gL−1 Na succinate. Loopful inoculum was added in the
growth medium. The flask was incubated on shaker at
S. Shamim (&)
Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (IMBB), The
University of Lahore (UOL), Lahore, Pakistan
e-mail: sabashamimgenetics@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 313

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_100
314 S. Shamim

25 °C for 18–24 h and used as inoculum. Cd was not 14,000 rpm for 15 min. From each falcon tube, the
added in the growth medium when preparing inoculum supernatant was shifted to new sterilized falcon tubes.
for the experiments (Shamim 2014). The samples were stored at 4 °C for ICP-AES analysis.
(e) Bacteria culturing in the presence of Cd: The bacterial OD578 was taken every time when 15 mL samples were
culture was grown in the presence of Cd according to drawn from each flask (Shamim 2014).
Rehman and Anjum (2010). The bacterial inoculum (h) Estimation of Cd (extracellular/bisorbed and adsor-
(1%) was given in the growth medium. The flask was bed): The samples were analyzed by ICP-AES on
incubated on shaker at 150 rpm at 25 °C. When OD578 Spectro Ciros CCD from Spectro Analytical Instruments
became 0.3–0.4, 0.1 mM Cd was added to the growth (Germany) with emission line 214.438 nm. The detec-
medium and incubated on shaker for 10 min. After tion limit for cadmium was set at 0.05 mgL−1 (Shamim
10 min, OD578 was taken and this was considered as 2014).
first hour reading. The culture was continuously moni- (i) Cadmium accumulation in the presence of inhibitors:
tored for its OD578 up to 6 h. Control flask did not Cadmium uptake, adsorption, and intracellular amount
contain Cd. The readings were recorded and a growth were quantified by the method of Rehman and Anjum
curve was made (Shamim 2014). (2010) with slight modifications. The growth medium
(f) Cd biosorption experiments: Cadmium biosorption (100 mL) was prepared and inoculated with fresh bac-
was determined according to Rehman and Anjum (2010) terial culture (1%). The flasks were given shaking
with slight modification. Two sets of autoclaved flasks incubation at 150 rpm at 25 °C. When culture came in
were taken and labelled, one as P. putida mt2 and the the logarithmic phase (OD578 became 0.3–0.4), 1 mM
other as control. In each flask, 500 mL growth medium DNP and 100 µM DCCD were added. After 15 min,
was prepared and 1% of fresh bacterial culture was 0.1 mM Cd was added. The samples were drawn after 0,
added in mt2 flask followed by incubated on shaking 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 h in new sterilized falcon tubes and
incubator at 150 rpm at 25 °C. After 30 min, 0.1 mM absorbance was taken at 578 nm on UV visible spec-
Cd was added in each flask. The samples (15 mL) were trophotometer. The samples were centrifuged at
taken out from each flask after 0, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h in 14,000 rpm for 15 min. From each falcon tube, the
new sterilized falcon tubes. Samples were centrifuged at supernatant was taken in a new sterilized falcon tube and
14,000 rpm for 15 min. From each falcon tube, the stored at 4 °C for ICP-AES analysis. This supernatant
pellet was discarded and supernatant was shifted in new sample was meant for Cd uptake analysis. The pellet
sterilized falcon tubes. The samples were stored at 4 °C from each falcon tube was shifted to a new sterilized
for ICP-AES analysis. OD578 was taken every time eppendorf. The pellet was washed three times with
when 15 mL sample was drawn from each flask (Sha- double distilled water and 0.1 mM EDTA and collected
mim 2014). in tubes for estimation of Cd adsorption (sorbed on to
(g) Cadmium biosorption by dead cells: For experiment the outer bacterial surface) by ICP-AES. The samples
dealing with dead bacterial cells, in 500 mL growth were again harvested at 14,000 rpm for 5 min. For the
medium, 1% fresh bacterial inoculum was given. It was acid digestion, 0.2 N HNO3 (500 µL) was added in the
autoclaved under standard conditions of temperature and pellet and left overnight at room temperature. The next
pressure (121 °C at 15 psi). After autoclaving, the flask day, this sample was ready for intracellular Cd estima-
was cooled at room temperature and then placed on tion. Acid digested samples were analysed by atomic
shaking incubator at 150 rpm for 30 min followed by absorption spectrophotometry at 228.8 nm. In case the
addition of 0.1 mM cadmium. From each flask, 15 mL results gave higher values, the samples were analyzed by
samples were taken out after 0, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h in ICP-AES on Spectro Ciros CCD from Spectro Analyt-
new sterilized falcon tubes. Samples were centrifuged at ical Instruments (Germany) with emission line
Pseudomonas putida mt2; A Potential Candidate …
214.438 nm. The detection limit for Cd was set at 0.05
mgL−1 (Shamim 2014).
(j) Pilot scale studies: Three plastic containers were taken
and labelled properly. In the first container, 10 L tap
water was taken along with 1.5 L of bacterial culture
grown to log phase. In the second container, 10 L of
industrial effluent (temperature 31.5 °C, pH 7.5, dis-
solved oxygen 0.0153 ± 0.03 gL−1, and Cd
1.43 ± 0.043 gL−1) was taken along with 1.5 L of
bacterial culture. In the third container, only 10 L of
industrial effluent was taken. Cd stress (0.1 mM) was
maintained in each container. The experiment was car-
ried out at room temperature (30 ± 2 °C). Samples were
taken out after 4 and 8 days and centrifuged at
14,000 rpm for 10 min. Supernatants were used to
estimate the amount of Cd left in wastewater (Shamim
and Rehman 2012; Shamim 2014).
3 Results and Discussion
For P. putida mt2, optimum growth temperature was 25 °C.
P. putida mt2 preferred pH 7 for its optimum growth.
P. putida mt2 cells showed optimum growth at 8 h in the
presence of 2 mM Cd and 1 mM phosphate. The Cd resis-
tance mechanism in P. putida mt2 was CDF system. It
removed 68% after 4 days of incubation at room tempera-
ture, and 80% Cd after 8 days from the original industrial
effluent which was more than Cd removal by mt2 cells from
distilled water i.e., 77% after 8 days (Figs. 1 and 2).
Fig. 1 (a) ICP-AES analysis of
extracellular Cd concentration
12
(mgL−1) (b) ICP-AES analysis of
intracellular Cd (mgL−1) (c) AAS 10
analysis of Cd (mgL−1) attached
to outer surfaces in mt2 cells with
three different conditions (a–c).
8
Cd (mg/L)
mt2 means P. putida mt2. Each
point represents the mean ± S.D.
(n = 3) and p < 0.05 6
4
0
0 1
315
Cd ions are transported inside P. putida mt2 cells slowly
but steadily by way of active uptake to eliminate Cd toxicity
in the surroundings. Bacteria use different strategies to
combat the toxic effects of heavy metals. These strategies
include membrane homeostasis (non-specific attachment
with cell wall), sequestration via metallothioniens and efflux
from cells. In mt2 cells, Cd sorbed onto the cell walls. Then it
gets entry by Mn or Zn uptake systems. Once Cd gets inside
the cell, cell show its defensive mechanism by inducing
metallothioniens (MTs) (Miller et al. 2009). MTs are a family
of cysteine-rich, low molecular weight proteins ranging from
3.5 to 14 kDa. MTs have the property of binding to heavy
metals through thiol group of cysteine residues (Siegel et al.
2009; Enshaei et al. 2010). On exposure to Cd ions, mt2
expressed MT (14 kDa) (Fig. 3). Our results agree with the
previous study by Rani et al. (2010). An interesting result was
obtained in this experiment. Killed mt2 cells also showed
intracellular uptake. The question to answer was: how heat
killed dead mt2 cells can uptake Cd intracellularly? It can be
concluded that an unknown transport system in mt2 acted
more or less like a pump that works efficiently in the presence
of Cd and it is neither metabolically regulated nor deformed
by high temperature and pressure. If this unknown transport
mechanism is hypothesized to be a protein, then it would not
work after autoclaving because high temperature and pres-
sure deform protein. More work is still needed to study the
Cd uptake, -accumulation, and -efflux mechanism in mt2,
which may enhance its importance in bioremediation because
its metabolic versatility has already been acknowledged
(Shamim et al. 2014).
Extracellular
Control (Cd+inhibitor, no
bacteria)
Control (Cd, no bacteria)
mt2 (with inhibitor)
mt2 (Without inhibitor)
mt2 (Dead)
2 3 4 5
Time (h)
316 S. Shamim

Fig. 1 (continued) 5.00 On the Surface

4.50

4.00 Control (Cd+inhibitor, n

bacteria)
3.50 Control (Cd, no bacteria

Cd (mg/L)
3.00
mt2 (with inhibitor)
2.50

2.00 mt2 (Without inhibitor)

1.50 mt2 (Dead)

1.00

0.50

0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (h)

Fig. 1 (continued)
0.040000 Intracellular
0.035000
Control (Cd+inhibitor, n
0.030000 bacteria)
Control (Cd, no bacteria
0.025000
Cd (mg/L)

mt2 (with inhibitor)

0.020000
mt2 (Without inhibitor)
0.015000
mt2 (Dead)
0.010000

0.005000

0.000000
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (h)
Pseudomonas putida mt2; A Potential Candidate … 317

Fig. 2 (a) Biosorption of Cd by living (a)

cells of P. putida mt2. (b) Cd uptake 100 mt…
ability of P. putida mt2 from the
industrial effluent after 4 and 8 days of 80

Cd (mgL-1)
incubation at room temperature. Verti- 60
cal bars = standard error, S. E. (n = 4)
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (h)
(b) Distilled water + mt2
% Cd Removal (mgml-1) 100
Effluent + mt2
80 Effluent

60

40

20

0
4 8
Time (days)

References

Enshaei M, Khanafari A, Sepahey AA. Metallothionein induction in

Fig. 3 Coomassie brilliant blue stained SDS-PAGE of MT expressed
in mt2. Lane 1 = mt2 (without Cd), lane 2 = mt2 (with Cd), and
M = protein marker. The appearance of a 14-kDa band in lane
2 = (mt2 with Cd) confirmed MT induction in mt2 under Cd stress
(Shamim et al. 2014)
4 Conclusions
P. putida mt2 was found to be an effective agent for
bioremediating Cd from effluents. Its metal detoxification
ability could be further studied for its possible exploita-
tion in environmental clean-up operations.
two species of Pseudomonas exposed to cadmium and copper
contamination. Iran J Environ Health 2010;7(4):287–98.
Miller CD, Pettee B, Zhang C, Pabst M, et al. Copper and cadmium:
responses in Pseudomonas putida KT2440. Lett Appl Microbiol.
2009;49:775–83.
Rani MJ, Hemambika B, Hemapriya J, Kannan VR. Comparative
assessment of heavy metal removal by immobilized and dead
bacterial cells: a biosorption approach. Afr J Environ Sci Technol.
2010;4(2):77–83.
Rehman A, Anjum MS. Cadmium uptake by yeast, Candida tropicalis,
isolated from industrial effluents and its potential use in wastewater
clean-up operations. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2010;205:149–59.
Shamim S. PhD thesis. University of the Punjab. 2014.
Shamim S, Rehman A. Cadmium resistance and accumulation potential
of Klebsiella pneumoniae strain CBL-1 isolated from industrial
wastewater. Pakistan J Zool. 2012;44(1):203–8.
Shamim S, Rehman A, Qazi MH. Cadmium-resistance mechanism in
the bacteria Cupriavidus metallidurans CH34 and Pseudomonas
putida mt2. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol
2014;67(2):149–57.
Shamim S, Rehman A. Antioxidative enzyme profiling and biosorption
ability of Cupriavidus metallidurans CH34 and Pseudomonas
putida mt2 under cadmium stress. J Basic Microbiol 2015;55
(3):374–81.
Shaw JP, Harayama S. Purification and characterization of the
NADH-acceptor reductase component of xylene monooxygenase
encoded by the TOL plasmid pWW0 of Pseudomonas putida mt2.
Eur J Biochem. 1992;209:51–61.
Siegel A, Sigel H, Sigel, RKO. Metal ions in life sciences. vol. 5.
Cambridge: RSC Publishing; 2009. pp. 51–8.
 Filtration and Viability Rate Study
of Alexandrium catenella After Contact
with Clams Ruditapes decussates

Morsi Gdoura, Hanen Sellami, and Radhouane Gdoura

Keywords
Alexandrium catenella Filtration Ruditapes decussates

1 Introduction In order to know the microalgae concentrations in the

The accidental introduction of new phytoplankton species can
be accomplished by different means: transport by coastal cur-
rents, migratory bird faeces or by ballast water. However, the
transfer of shellfish from one water body to another may also be
responsible for this phenomenon. In the present study, we
targeted toxic micro-algae, A. catenella, to study the filtration
properties and the viability of dinoflagellate after intestinal
passage incubated in the presence of clam R. decussates.
crops and therefore the concentrations to which the clams
would be subjected, a count must be made. This technique
was used many times during these experiments and not just
for crop counts. We have adopted a simple counting tech-
nique which consists in taking 1 ml of the representative
sample of the culture using a Pasteur pipette and adding 2
drops of formalin (4%) (to retain the micro-Algae in an
immobile state). Then a drop was placed in the blade. The
counting was carried out under an optical microscope.

2 Materials and Methods 3 Results and Discussion

The studied toxic microalgae species was grown on a
medium called ENSW (Enriched Natural Sea Water). The
culture of microalgae was placed in a chamber thermostated
at 20 ± 1 °C. In addition, photoperiod was set to 16 h
light/8 h dark. Before the culture samples, a slight agitation
was carried out in order to homogenize the medium. Indeed,
the species of Alexandrium being very sensitive to the tur-
bulences, too strong agitation could disrupt them.
After 4 days of conditioning, four clams were placed
individually in four different crystallizers containing 500 ml
ENSW and 250 ml of A. catenella culture.
M. Gdoura (&)
H. Sellami
R. Gdoura
Laboratoire de Recherche Toxicologie Microbiologie
Environnementale et Santé (LR17ES06), Faculté des Sciences de
Sfax, Université de Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: morsi.gdoura@live.fr
H. Sellami
Laboratoire de Traitementet de Valorisation des Rejets Hydriques
(LTVRH), Water Researches and Technologies Center (CERTE),
University of Carthage, Tourist Route Soliman, BP 273-8020
Nabeul, Tunisia
The study of the evolution of the concentration of A. cate-
nella in the crystallizers made it possible to obtain the fol-
lowing graph (Fig. 1):
This graph clearly shows a decrease in the concentration
of A. catenella in crystallizers following filtration by clam.
This decrease was progressive for clams. For the four clams,
the number of cells in the crystallizer was zero after 26 h. No
literature exists for A. catenella concerning its filtration and
its viability following the passage through the digestive tract
of clam. This study was the first to tackle this dinoflagellate.
The incubation of R.decussatus with A. catenella shows that
these clams filter this dinoflagellate. At the end of 26 h of
contact, the concentration of A.catenella in the crystallizer
took place and the cells are either ingested or discarded as
pseudo-faces.
Indeed, Bardouil et al. (1993) observed intact cells in the
faeces of molluscs incubated in the presence of several
species of dinoflagellates. Shumway and Cucci (1987)
showed that Protogonyaulax tamarenseis filtered and then
rejected into pseudo-faces. Bricelj et al. (1993) showed that

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 319

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_101
320
Fig. 1 A. catenella concentration
evolution in the medium
(cells/ml)
Alexandrium fundyense cells ingested by Mytilus edulis are
intact and viable in faeces. Marasovic (1993) reported that
Gonyaulax polyedra could withstand adverse conditions due
to temporary cysts. This type of cyst appears in less than 15
species of dinoflagellate (Garcés et al. 2002). In the genus
Alexandrium, these cysts have the same organelles as the
vegetative cells with the same disposed in the cell. After
germination, they can be divided by successive mitoses.
Temporary cysts are less resistant to dormant cysts and do
not have any mandatory dormancy period (Kim 1991). It is
important to know whether these formed cysts remain viable
and have retained their germinate power. Our Results show
the ability of these cysts to germinate after passage through
the digestive tract of clam and confirm those published by
Laabir et al. (2007). Due to their ability to survive in the
digestive tract of clam and their power of reviviscence, there
could be Cells of A. Catenella from contaminated areas in
virgin areas through the introduction of individuals of R.
decussatus. Few scientific studies have been carried out on
the introduction of harmful species via molluscs, neverthe-
less Van den Bergh (2002) has shown that molluscs repre-
sent the first vector of introduction of harmful microalgae.
4 Conclusion
The clam R. decussatus plays a transmission vector role
of phytoplankton A. catenella.
M. Gdoura et al.
Clams 1
Clams 2
Clams 3
Clams 4
References
Bardouil M, Bohec M, Cormerais M, Bougrier S, Lassus P. Experimental
study of the effects of a toxic microalgal diet on feeding of the oyster
Crassostrea gigas Thunberg .J Shellfish Res1993;12: 417–22.
Bricelj VM, Greene M, Cembella AD. Growth of the blue mussel
Mytilus edulison toxic Alexandrium fundyense and effects of gut
passage on dinoflagellate cells. Toxic phytoplankton blooms in the
sea. Dev Mar Biol Elsevier publ, Amsterdam 1993; 3:371–6.
Garcés E, Masó M, Camp J. Role of temporary cysts in the population
dynamics of Alexandrium taylor I (Dinophyceae). J Plankton Res
2002; 24:681–6.
Kim HG. The distribution and role of benthic cysts on the dinoflagellate
bloom in Chinhae Bay. Recent approaches of red tides. In: Park JS,
Kim HG, éditors. Proceedings of 1990 Korean-French Seminar on
red tides, Korea, 1991; 99–120.
Laabir M, Amzil Z, Lassus P, Masseret E, Tapilatu Y, De Vargas R,
Grzebyk D. Viability, growth and toxicity of Alexandrium catenella
and Alexandrium minutum (Dinophyceae) following ingestion and
gut passage in the oyster Crassostrea gigas, Aqua Living Resour
2007; 20:51–7.
Marasovic I. Preliminary observations on the relationship between
temporary and resting cysts of Lingulodinium polyedra (Stein)
Dodge. Toxic phytoplankton blooms in the sea. Dev Mar Biol
Elsevier publ Amsterdam 1993; 3:139–42.
Shumway SE, Cucci TL. The effects of the toxic dinoflagellate
Protogonyaulax tamarensison the feeding and behavior of bivalve
mollusks. AquatToicol 1987; 10:9–27.
Van den Bergh JCJM, Numes PALD, Dotinga HM, Kooistra WHCF.,
Vrieling EG, Peperzak L. Exotic harmful algae in marine ecosys-
tems: an integrated biological economic-legal analysis of impacts
and policies. Marine Policy 2002; 26:59–74.
 Biological Control of Meloidogyne javanica
Associated with Cultivated Peach in Tunisia

Noura Chihani-Hammas, Hajer Regaeig, Lobna Hajji-Hadfi,

and Najet Horrigue-Raouani

Keywords

Biological control Meloidogyne javanica Verticillium leptobactrum
Novibiotec 7996 Vertimec Peach trees

1 Introduction The aim of this work was to investigate a strategy of bio-

Peach (Prunus persica) is one of the most important fruit
tree species in Tunisia, its cultivation surface and its pro-
duction are grown intensively.
Several species of plant parasitic nematodes have been
found associated with different species of peach inward. The
Root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne javanica) is the major
genera. The presence of Meloidogyne spp. in orchards may
cause a major yield loss (Lamberti 1981).
Root-knot nematodes (RKN), Meloidogyne spp., are still
considered as a significant problem to peach production in
Tunisia.
Root-knot nematodes (RKN), Meloidogyne spp., reduce
fruit and nut production in several economically important
Prunus species, including peach (P. persica), Currently,
RKNs are managed primarily by costly preplant nematicide
treatments; however, many of these pesticides are being
removed from the market because of their negative impacts
on the environment. One of the most economical and envi-
ronmentally safe methods for managing RKN in Prunus
spp. is the use of the nematophagous fungi.
N. Chihani-Hammas (&)
H. Regaeig
L. Hajji-Hadfi
N. Horrigue-Raouani
Departement of Biological Sciences and Plant Protection,
Higher Agronomic Institute of Chott-Meriem, Sousse University,
4042 Sousse, Tunisia
e-mail: noura.chihani@yahoo.com
H. Regaeig
e-mail: regaieghajer@yahoo.fr
L. Hajji-Hadfi
e-mail: elhajjilobna@yahoo.fr
N. Horrigue-Raouani
e-mail: nraouani@yahoo.com
logical control against Meloidogyne spp. in field conditions.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Experimental Design
This experiment was carried out to explore the nematicidal
effect of a Tunisian isolate of the nematophagous fungi
Verticillium leptobactrum (HR1) compared to two com-
mercial products: Vertimec (Abamectin B1) and Novibiotec
7996 (Bacillus) in peach orchard showing symptoms of
Root-knot nematodes infestation.
This orchard located in the region of Sbiba (Kasserine)
cultivated with the variety Plate de Chine and infested with
Meloidogyne javanica.
The treatments were applied per tree with the following
components: 0.5 ml of Vertimec, 30 ml of Novibiotec 7996
of water and Verticillium leptobactrum at 60  107
propagules and compared to a non treated control. Seven
repetitions were considered for each treatment, randomly
chosen. Nematodes population densities in roots were
determined (Coolen 1979) for each tree at the moment of
treatment, after six months and after one year to evaluate the
nematode multiplication.
2.2 Statistical Analysis
The data were subjected to analyses of variance (ANOVA)
using SPSS 18.0 for Windows. The treatment means were
compared by the Duncan’s multiple range test when the
F-tests were statistically significant at P < 0.05.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 321

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_102
322 N. Chihani-Hammas et al.

3 Results and Discussion experimental conditions. Mycelium of V. leptobactrum

3.1 Vertimec Efficacy Against M. javanica
The treatment with Vertimec showed reduction of
Meloidogyne javanica juvenile and eggs number on peach
roots by 57.47 and 52.22% respectively (Fig. 1) compared to
non treated control. Nordmeyer and Dickson (1980) have
also observed that exposure of egg masses of Meloidogyne
javanica, M. arenaria and M. incognita to 1 mg/l (1.2 fLM)
and 1/4, 1116, 1/64 of AVM B2 aqueous solution, at 28 °C
for 5 days, completely suppressed egg hatching.
proliferated rapidly in Meloidogyne eggs and induced
juvenile mortality and inhibited M. incognita egg hatching
(Regaieg et al. 2011).
In this study, The treatment with Verticillium leptobac-
trum reduced significantly the number of juvenile and eggs
of Meloidogyne javanica on peach roots by 58.12 and
55.22% respectively (Fig. 2) compared to non treated
control.
3.3 Novibiotec Efficacy Against M. Javanica

The treatment with Novibiotec reduced significantly the

3.2 Verticillium Leptobactrum Efficacy Against
M. javanica
Biological control of soil-borne pathogens by nematopha-
gous fungi was notoriously susceptible to alterations in
number of juvenile and eggs of Meloidogyne javanica on
peach roots by 67.34 and 71.16% respectively (Fig. 3)
compared to non treated control. Horrigue-Raouani et al.
(2003) showed the same effect of this biological treatment on
Meloidogyne eggs and larvae.

Fig. 1 Vertimec treatment effect

on the reproduction of
M. javanica on roots of peach
compared to control

Fig. 2 Verticillium leptobactrum

1400
treatment effect on the
reproduction of M. javanica on 1200
peach roots compared to control
1000
Verticillium
800 Leptobactrum
600 Control
400
200
0
MéL2 Œufs MéL2 Œufs MéL2 Œufs
Moment of after 6 after one
treatment months year
Biological Control of Meloidogyne javanica Associated … 323

Fig. 3 Novibiotec treatment effect on the reproduction of M. javanica on peach roots compared to control

Table 1 Effect of different treatments on percent of reduction of M. javanica

% reduction 6 months after % reduction one year after
Juvenile Eggs Juvenile Eggs
a b a
Vertimec 45.25 34.81 12.22 17.31a
a a a
V. Leptobactrum 47.18 42.08 10.94 23.03b
Novibiotec 46.25a 49.78a 21.02a 21.88a
a,b
Means followed by the same letter in each column are not significantly different (P < 0.05) in accordance with Duncan’s multiple range test

3.4 Treatments Effectiveness Against References

M. Javanica Evaluation
The results revealed that the nematophagous fungi V. Lep-
tobactrum enhanced significantly (P < 0.05) juvenile and
eggs reduction rate (57.27 and 95.11% respectively) and The
commercial Novibiotec treatment enhanced juvenile and
eggs reduction rate respectively by 67.27 and 71.66%
(Table 1).
4 Conclusion
Meloidogyne javanica is a major pest to peach trees. The
results of the present study indicated that the Novibiotec
and Verticillium leptobactrum could be used as promising
biological alternatives for the control of root-knot
nematode Meloidogyne javanica.
Coolen WA. Methods for extraction of Meloidogyne spp. and other
nematodes from roots and soil. In: Lamberti F, Taylor CE, editors.
Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne species). Systematics, biology
and control. New York: Academic Press; 1979. pp. 317–29.
Lamberti F. Plant nematode problems in the Mediterranean region.
Hellminthol, Abstr, Ser. B, Plant Nematol. 1981;50:145–66.
Nordmeyer D, Dickson D. Effect of oximecarbamates, organophos-
phates and one avermectin on the hatchability of three Meloidogyne
sp. Nematropica. 1980;10: 69.
Horrigue-Raouani N, Ghariani-Abdelwahed A, Jaziri A, Kallel S,
B’Chir MM. Comportement du porte-greffe Cadaman (“Prunus
persica” L. Batsch. x “Prunus davidiana” Carr. Franch.) vis-à-vis
d’un isolat à virulence partielle de “Meloidogyne javanica” (Treub.)
Chitwood. Cah Agric. 2003;12(2).
Regaieg H, Ciancio A, Horrigue-Raouani N, Rosso L. Detection and
biocontrol potential of Verticillium leptobactrumparasitizing
Meloidogyne spp. World J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2011;27:1615–23.
 Fluctuating Asymmetry in Acanthodactylus
boskianus Living in a Contaminated Area
Close to Gabès City (Southern Tunisia)

Intissar Nasri and Slaheddine Selmi

Keywords
Fluctuating asymmetry Pollution Acanthodactylus boskianus Gabès

levels of FA may indicate the inability of individuals to

1 Introduction
Environmental pollution can have significant detrimental
effects on animal populations (Hughes et al. 1997).
Anthropogenic pressures have been increasing in the past
decades in Gabès region, due to the installation of the
Gabès-Ghannouche factory complex of phosphate treatment
for fertilizer and acid production in the early 1970s. This
pollution has affected wildlife at all levels of biological
organization, from the molecular to the ecosystem levels. It
is therefore crucial for conservation biologists to have a
sensitive indicator, which can be implemented to detect
signs of population disturbance. In this context, a wide range
of indicators of stress have been used in animals to detect
disturbances by examining molecular, cellular, histological
and/or morphological traits, at the individual or population
level. However, many of these are costly, time consuming
and invasive. To enhance biomonitoring practice, there is,
instead, a need for efficient, easy to use, inexpensive and
noninvasive indicators. Fluctuating asymmetry (FA), defined
as small, random deviations from perfect bilateral symmetry,
has been widely accepted as a reliable indicator of devel-
opmental instability (Møller and Swaddle 1997). As the
same genome controls the development of both the left and
right side of bilaterally symmetrical traits and because both
sides are developing in the same environment, increased
I. Nasri (&)
S. Selmi
UR “Ecologie de la Faune Terrestre” (UR17ES44), Faculté Des
Sciences, Université de Gabès, Cité Erriadh Zrig, 6072 Gabès,
Tunisia
e-mail: intissarnasri88@gmail.com
undergo a precise development. FA has been implemented
as a sensitive indicator of stress levels in natural populations
(Beasley et al. 2013). The aim of this work was to determine
whether FA was elevated in a heavy metal contaminated
population compared to that in a reference population of the
Bosk’s fringe-toed lizard (Acanthodactylus boskianus), in
the coastal area close to Gabès city in southern Tunisia.
2 Materials and Methods
Fieldwork was carried out in two localities in the coastal area
of Gabès: Ghannouche locality is situated in the vicinity of
Gabès-Ghannouche factory complex of phosphate treatment
and is known to be contaminated by its emissions of mainly
heavy metal (Ayadi et al. 2015). Limaoua locality is situated
20 km to the south in an industry free area and is less
affected by pollution. Lizards were caught by hand and the
following morphological measurements were measured: the
lengths of the forelimb (LFL), hindlimb (LHL), femur (LF),
crus (LC), the shape of the frontal scale (FS) and the number
of supraciliary granules (GRAN). For each measured trait i,
we calculated the signed difference between the left and right
sides (l–r), the absolute difference between left and right (| l
– r|), and the average size [(l + r)/2]. Then, we calculated an
index of fluctuating asymmetry as: FAi = [(|L–R|)/((L + R)/
2)], with L = left side and R = right side (Palmer 1994).
Then a composite measure of fluctuating asymmetry was
P
obtained as: FA = FAi.
Data were examined for antisymmetry (Shapiro-Wilk
test) and directional symmetry (t-test) before preceding FA
analyses. ANOVAs were carried out to assess whether FA
differed significantly between sampled sites.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 325

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_103
326
0.1 F1,43 = 10.65; P = 0.002
Mean degree of FA (±SE)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
Ghannouche Limaoua
Fig. 1 Average FA scores (± SE) in the different sites samples
3 Results and Discussion
In total, 47 lizards were sampled: 24 from Ghannouche and
23 from Limaoua. Our results first showed that in all
investigated morphological traits (LFL, LHL, LF, LC, FS
and GRAN) there was no problem of directional asymmetry
(t-test, P > 0.05) or antisymmetry (Shapiro-Wilk test,
P > 0.05). The composite fluctuating asymmetry index
(FA), obtained by summing up the calculated size-corrected
fluctuating asymmetry values across these traits, ranged from
0.01 to 0.17, with a mean value (±SE) of 0.065 ± 0.006.
The highest levels of FA were found in Ghannouche site,
close to the factory complex of phosphate treatment (Fig. 1).
Elevated FA has been shown to occur in response to
environmental stresses on developing organisms, including
the presence of chemical pollutants (Hardersen 2000; Tull
and Brussard 2007). In line with this, our results showed
increased levels of FA at the site where a wide variety of
heavy metals have previously been demonstrated (Ayadi
et al. 2015). High concentrations of heavy metals, especially
cadmium, lead and zinc have also been found in the tissues
of lizards living in this site (Nasri et al. 2015). Under such
environmental conditions developmental stability of lizards
could be compromised as more energy is directed to the
physiological processes fighting pollution rather than to
maintain developmental precision. This is, therefore, a
I. Nasri and S. Selmi
reasonable explanation for the higher FA observed in the
population of Fringe-toed lizards in Ghannouche. Moreover,
indirect effects of pollution, such as food quality and quan-
tity, are likely to affect lizard health through nutritional
stress, which may in return increase the FA level.
4 Conclusion
Overall, our findings suggest that the pollution caused by
the Gabès-Ghannouche factory complex of phosphate
treatment resulted in negative effects on lizards living in
the surrounding area. They also stress the possibility to
use f Acanthodactylus boskianus as a reliable biomonitor
of polluted arid environments.
References
Ayadi N, Aloulou F, Bouzid J. Assessment of contaminated sediment
by phosphate fertilizer industrial waste using pollution indices and
statistical techniques in the Gulf of Gabes (Tunisia). Arab J Geosci.
2015;8:1755–67.
Beasley DAE, Bonisoli-Alquati A, Mousseau TA. The use of
fluctuating asymmetry as a measure of environmentally induced
developmental instability: A meta-analysis. Ecol Indic.
2013;30:218–26.
Hardersen S. The role of behavioural ecology of damselflies in the use
of fluctuating asymmetry as a bioindicator of water pollution. Ecol
Entomol. 2000;25:45–53.
Hughes JB, Daily GC, Ehrlich PR. Population diversity: its extent and
extinction. Science. 1997;278:689–6923.
Møller AP, Swaddle JP. Asymmetry, Developmental Stability, and
Evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1997.
Nasri I, Hammouda A, Hamza F, Zrig A, Selmi S. Heavy metal
accumulation in lizards living near a phosphate treatment plant:
possible transfer of contaminants from aquatic to terrestrial food
webs. Environ Sci Pollut Res 2015; https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-
015-5390-x.
Palmer AR. Fluctuating asymmetry analyses: A primer. In:
Markow TA, editor. Developmental stability: its Origins and
Evolutionary Implications. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publish-
ers; 1994. p. 335–64.
Tull JC, Brussard PF. Fluctuating Asymmetry as an Indicator of
Environmental Stress from Off-Highway Vehicles. J Wildl Manag.
2007;71:1944–8.
 Organic Compounds and Heavy Metals
Simultaneous Removal from a Tunisian
Landfill Leachate Using Dairy Rejects

Yasmin Cherni, Mariam Kasmi, Lobna Elleuch, and Ismail Trabelsi

Keywords
Landfill leachate Dairy releases Biological pre-treatment COD removal

1 Introduction pre-treatment and reuse of wasted dairy products with

Landfilling is one of the most widely used processes for the
disposal of municipal solid waste (MSW). It is designed to
dispose high quantities of waste at economical costs.
Landfill management may pose serious environmental
impacts through the discharge of highly polluted wastewater
also known as leachate. The treatment of landfill leachates
(LFL) is very complicated, expensive and requires various
combined process applications due to their high COD and
nitrogen levels. Thereby, several processes have already
been tested including biological, physicochemical, or a
combination of these processes aiming to promote the
degradation of the complex organic load of this effluent. The
biological processes are among the most environmental
friendly treatment processes and are often used for their
reliability, simplicity and high cost—effectiveness. Recently,
a few studies have highlighted the efficiency of lactic acid
bacteria as potential biosorbents of heavy metals. These
bacteria are currently used as starters in dairy products such
as yoghurts and fermented milks. In previous studies, the
Y. Cherni (&)
M. Kasmi
L. Elleuch
I. Trabelsi
Laboratory of Treatment and Valorization of Water Rejects
(LTVRH), Water Researches and Technologies Center (CERTE),
University of Carthage, Tourist Route Soliman, BP 273-8020
Nabeul, Tunisia
e-mail: yasmin.cherni@gmail.com
M. Kasmi
e-mail: kasmimariam@gmail.com
L. Elleuch
e-mail: elleuch_lobna@yahoo.fr
I. Trabelsi
e-mail: ismail.trabelsi@certe.rnrt.tn
combined physico-chemical and biological processes were
investigated for promoting the treated effluents reuse. In the
present study, a new approach for the reuse of the bactofu-
gate (B) and the expired industrial Lben (L) in the
pre-treatment of landfill leachate of Jebel Chakir was
proposed.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Batch Conditions
Inoculation with dairy releases: The bactofugate (B) and the
expired Lben (L) were assessed essentially for their COD
removal potential. The reactivation of (B) and (L) products
was carried out by incubation at 37 °C for 48 h. 90 ml of
leachate samples were separately inoculated with both raw
and reactivated (B) and (L) samples at 10% (v/v) in Erlen-
meyer flasks (250 ml) and incubated at 37 °C for 15 days.
Inoculation with Lactobacillus plantarum: Aseptic inoc-
ulation was achieved with Lb. plantarum seed cultures
prepared previously. Fermentations were performed in batch
into Erlenmeyer flasks (250 mL) containing 100 mL of
working volume. The basal culture conditions are: fermen-
tation time, 24 h; temperature, 37 °C; inoculum 10% (v/v).
The shaker incubator rotary speed was fixed to 150 rpm.
2.2 Analytical Methods
The pH, electrical conductivity (EC) (mS/cm) and total
dissolved solids (TDS) (g/L) of each sample was determined
using multi-parameters device Consort C860. After one-hour

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 327

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_104
328
decantation of the biologically treated leachate, supernatants
were filtrated using a 0.45 µm membrane filter. Fil-
trates COD values were measured by the potassium
dichromate colorimetric method using an opened reflex
system (Rodier and Legube 2009). Ammoniacal nitrogen
was determined according to the NF T90-15method
(AFNOR 1999). The Turbidity was measured using the
portable turbid meter Hach 2100p. Dry matter, volatile solid
(MVS), mineral matter were determined according to the NF
T12880 methods (AFNOR 2000). The concentrations of
heavy metals (Fe, Cd, Pb and Cr) were determined using
flame atomic absorption method (Analytic Jena AG Spec-
trometer AAS vario6).
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Leachate Pre-treatment Using Bactofugate
Leachate was inoculated using both raw (B) and reactivated
bactofugate (RB) samples. After incubation, pH, TDS and
COD values were measured. PH values showed a moderate
variation (8.38–8.20). The COD concentration was observed
to decrease considerably with an increase in contact time
0–3 d. However, from the 4th day a minor increase was
noticed to reach 20,200 mg O2/L by the end of the experi-
ment. It can be also observed that the TDS reduction during
treatment was negligible. Based on the complex composition
of bactofugate (spores, lactic acid bacteria, yeasts …), the
pH and COD evolutions may be related to the microbial
growth and the secretion of several families of enzymes
(Ledenbach and Marshall 2009). As reported by (Ghod-
hbane et al. 2016), several bacteria have been isolated and
identified from bactofugate including: Lactococcus lactis
subsp.lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp.cremoris, Lacto-
bacillus pentosus, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus
paracasei and Enterococcus facecalis. Besides, (Kasmi et al.
2016) investigated the performance of L. plantarum strain
for the treatment of dairy releases. The strain ensured COD
abatement rate exceeding 80%. Therefore, Lactobacillus
plantarum was selected to investigate its potential in the
treatment of leachate. As a result, a slight variation of pH
values was observed during the treatment. The recorded
COD removal rate value was 11.5% after three days and
reached 23% by the end of the treatment. Compared to the
bactofugate inoculation where the maximum abatement rate
(4%) was obtained during the three first days, the inoculation
of L. plantarum separately showed a better degradation
potential of the organic matter in the Jebel Chakir leachate.
Y. Cherni et al.
3.2 Leachate Pre-treatment Using Expired Lben
Leachate inoculation using expired Lben has been demon-
strated to be more effective for COD removal than its
inoculation using bactofugate. This could be attributed to the
indigenous microorganism of Lben samples as reported by
(Benkerroum and Tamime 2004) where yeasts and moulds
are predominating (such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and
Kluyveromyces marxianus). Further investigations were
performed to focus on leachate pollutants removal using the
expired fermented milk. Ammoniacal nitrogen content in
leachate was assessed during the biological treatment using
(L) samples. The results show an NH3-N decrease over 15
days of treatment to reach a removal rate of 80%. Thereby, a
reduction of 50% was recorded in COD values. Leachate
ammoniacal nitrogen was metabolized by the expired Lben
microorganism for the benefit of microbial growth
(Fudala-Ksiazek et al. 2014). In addition, the landfill lea-
chate is highly loaded with heavy metals. Whereas, the
recorded increase of pH values indicated a certain decrease
in metal solubility (Harmsen 1983). Thus, Cr3+ and
FeFe2+ contents were notably reduced (*90%).The dry
matter, volatile solid and minerals were also measured for
the treated leachate by expired Lben. The results showed an
increase of DM (from 3.72 to 4.15%), Mm (from 2.75 to
3%) and MVS (from 0.74 to 1.56%) concentrations. After
the biological treatment, leachate turbidity decreased sig-
nificantly from 900 NTU to reach 300 NTU. All the mea-
sured parameters confirm the biodegradability of leachate
using the expired Lben. Nevertheless, the obtained results
remain less interesting compared to (Kalcikova et al. 2014)
findings using a white rot fungus Dichomitus squalens
which was able to grow in the leachate resulting in a COD
removal rate of 60%.
4 Conclusion
The release of Jebel Chakir leachate to the environment is
one of the major environmental impacts related to dis-
posal of waste. High EC, TDS and various toxic heavy
metals values were detected and some of them were
present beyond the permissible limit. Thus, the generated
leachate was found unsuitable for disposal to the envi-
ronment and a range of treatment methods using
bactofugate, expired Lben and Lactobacillus plantarum
were used. The results show that the expired fermented
milk was the most effective for COD removal in landfill
leachate. COD and NH3-N removal exceeded 47.1 and
80%, respectively, after 15 days.
Organic Compounds and Heavy Metals Simultaneous …
References
AFNOR: N P 94-059. Détermination des masses volumiques minimale
et maximale des sols non cohérents, Reconnaissance et essais,
AFNOR; 2000.
AFNOR: N T90-210 Protocole d’évaluation d’une méthode alternative
d’analyse physicochimique quantitative par rapport aune méthode
de référence; 1999. p. 19.
Benkerroum N, Tamime A. Technology transfer of some Moroccan
traditional dairy products (lben, jben and smen) to small industrial scale.
Food Microbiol. 2004;21:399–413. doi:10.1016/j.fm.2003.08.006.
Fudala-Ksiazek S, Luczkiewicz A, Fitobor K, Olanczuk-Neyman K.
Nitrogen removal via the nitrite pathway during wastewater
co-treatment with ammonia-rich landfill leachates in a sequencing
batch reactor. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2014;21:7307–18. doi:10.
1007/s11356-014-2641-1.
Ghodhbane H, Alessandria V, Snoussi M, Elleuch L, Trabelsi I,
Abdelly C, Regaya I. Genetic Characterization of Lactic Acid
329
Bacteria Isolated from Tunisian Milk Waste and their Antimicrobial
Activity Against some Bacteria Implicated in Nosocomial Infec-
tions. Infect Disord-Drug Targets Former Curr Drug Targets-Infect
Disord. 2016;16:182–91.
Harmsen J. Identification of organic compounds in leachate from a
waste tip. Water Res. 1983;17:699–705. doi:10.1016/0043-1354
(83)90239-7.
Kalčíková G, Babič J, Pavko A, Gotvajn AŽ. Fungal and enzymatic
treatment of mature municipal landfill leachate. Waste Manag.
2014;34:798–803. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2013.12.017.
Kasmi M, Snoussi M, Dahmeni A, Ben Amor M, Hamdi M, Trabelsi I.
Use of thermal coagulation, separation, and fermentation processes
for dairy wastewater treatment. Desalination Water Treat.
2016;57:13166–74. doi:10.1080/19443994.2015.1056835.
Ledenbach LH, Marshall RT. Microbiological spoilage of dairy
products. In: Compend. Microbiol. Spoilage Foods Beverages.
Springer; 2009. pp. 41–67.
Rodier J, Legube B. L’analyse de l’eau. Paris: Dunod; 2009.
 Evaluation of the Potential Side-Effects
of Novaluron an Insect Growth Disruptor
on the Shrimp Palaemon adspersus: Cuticle
Secretion and Chitin Contents

Hinda Berghiche, Hamida Benradia, and Noureddine Soltani

Keywords
Toxicology Novaluron Palaemon adspersus Cuticle Chitin

1 Introduction each shrimp at different stages of molt cycle (A, B, C, and D)

Novaluron is a chitin synthesis inhibitor, belonging to the
class of benzoylurea insecticide with a high toxicity level
and effectiveness against several mosquito larvae. In the
present study, the impact of this compound was investigated
on a non-target organism, shrimp Palaemon adspersus
Rathke, 1837 (Decapoda, Palaemonidae) abundant in the
lagoon El-Mellah (Northeast Algeria) and a relatively
important for the local fishery industry. Its effects on cuticle
was examined.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Shrimps and Treatment
P. adspersus were collected from the lagoon El-Mellah
(Northeast Algeria) and reared in laboratory conditions.
Novaluron was added to the rearing sea water of
newly-ecdysed adult shrimps (0–8 h old) at two final con-
centrations (0.91 lg/L and 4.30 mg/L) corresponding
respectively to the LC50 and LC90 obtained with respect to
the fourth-stage larvae Culiseta longiareolata (Diptera,
Culicidae). Control shrimps were reared in sea water only.
Samples (cephalothorax and uropod) were collected from
H. Berghiche (&)
H. Benradia
N. Soltani
Laboratory of Applied Animal Biology, Department of Biology,
Faculty of Sciences, Badji-Mokhtar University of Annaba, 23000
Annaba, Algeria
e-mail: hindabentoubal@hotmail.ca
in control and treated series.
2.2 Histological Procedure
Uropods were sampled at different stages of moult cycle
(A–D), in control and novaluron-exposed series and fixed in
formol (10%). After dehydration in serial washes of graded
ethanol the samples were passed through three washes in
xylene before were embedded in paraffin as according to
Martoja and Martoja (1967). Transverse sections of uropod
(4 lm) were made using a Leica RM2125T (Leica
Microsystems Nussloch GmbH, Wetzlar, Germany) manual
rotary microtome and stained with hematoxylin-eosin.
Observations were made in a Leica DM500 microscope
equipped with a Leica ICC50 HD camera and the thickness
of different cuticles was measured with Las EZ Leica soft-
ware in each series.
2.3 Chitin Quantification
Chitin quantification in peripheral integument was per-
formed following the procedure of. It was determined by
quantification of glucosamine derivatives (Farnesi et al.
2012). Chitin content was determined at different stages
during the molting cycle in control and treated series by
quantification of glucosamine derivatives obtained by
deacetylation, depolymerisation and deamination of
N-acetyl-glucosamine polymer. Absorbance was read at
650 nm and chitin content was expressed as glucosamine
equivalents, according to a standard curve made with glu-
cosamine. The cuticle weight was determined, before chitin
quantification to normalize the results.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 331

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_105
332 H. Berghiche et al.

Table 1 Effect of novaluron Stages Control Novaluron (LC50) Novaluron (LC90)

(LC50, LC90) on the cuticle
thickness measurement (lm) of A A 2.43 ± 0.82a A 2.11 ± 0.4a A 1.71 ± 0.28a
old and new cuticle in B AC 3.97 ± 0.30a A 3.18 ± 0.61a A 2.05 ± 0.31a
P. adspersus during the molt
C B 8.06 ± 0.71 a
B 5.25 ± 2.14 b
A 3.58 ± 0.52c
cycle (m ± SD, n = 4–5)
D Old cuticle C 4.83 ± 0.28a A 3.58 ± 0.52b A 2.77 ± 0.11b
New cuticle 3.31 ± 0.28a 1.54 ± 0.48b –
Different capital letters indicate a significant difference between stages of the same series; different small
letters indicate a significant difference between control and treated series of the same stage (p > 0.05)

Table 2 Effect of novaluron Stages Control Novaluron (LC50) Novaluron (LC90)

(LC50, LC90) on the chitin content
(µg of glucosamine/mg tissue) A A 71.12 ± 1.92 a
A 73.03 ± 4.23 a
A 48.51 ± 10b
during the molt cycle of B B 101.71 ± 4.57 a
B 85.43 ± 2.10b
B 67.06 ± 1.90c
P. adspersus (mean ± SD,
C C 150.37 ± 6.02a C 97.82 ± 7.51b C 76.44 ± 4.63c
n = 4–7)
D B 104.22 ± 8.45 a
B 87.25 ± 8.88b
A 49.79 ± 4.38c

2.4 Statistical Analysis
Statistical analyses were performed using the Prism software
version 6.01 for Windows (GraphPad Software Inc., www.
graphpad.com). The results are represented as mean ±
standard deviation (SD). The homogeneity of variances was
checked by Bartlett’s test. The linear and non-linear
regression was used to establish the reference curves for
the determination of chitin and ecdysteroids contents,
respectively. Data were subjected to two-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA) followed by a post hoc HSD Tukey test
or to a Student’s t test at p < 0.05.
3 Results and Discussion
In control series, the thickness of P. adspersus cuticle
increased progressively during the three first stages (A, B, C)
and decreased at the end of the molt cycle (stage D). The
cuticle thickness measurement showed that treatment of the
two tested concentrations (LC50, LC90) with novaluron,
reduced significantly (p  0.0001) the thickness of the old
cuticle with a dose-response effect as compared to controls.
ANOVA indicated significant effects of concentration
(F2, 28 = 35.82; p < 0.0001), stage (F2, 28 = 47.3; p <
0.0001) and interaction concentration/stage (F4, 28 = 4.37;
p = 0.0035). The thickness of new cuticle was
3.31 ± 0.28 lm at stage D in the control series.
Novaluron-treatment decreased significantly (p  0.0001)
the thickness of this new cuticle (1.54 ± 0.48 lm) with
LC50 and inhibited completely the secretion of the new
cuticle with LC90 (Table 1). The histological sections
observations showed a reduction in the cuticles thickness
with both concentrations LC50 and LC90 without modifica-
tions in the appearance structure.
The measurement of chitin contents in the control series
showed a progressive increase from stage A until stage C to
reach a maximum of 150.37 ± 6.02 lg/mg and decreased
thereafter at stage D (104.22 ± 8.45 lg/mg). Novaluron treat-
ment (LC50 and LC90), resulted in a significant (p  0.0001)
decrease in the chitin content with a dose-response relationship
comparatively to controls. The values recorded with the LC50
were 97.82 ± 7.51 lg/mg at the stage C and 87.25 ± 8.88 at
stage D. For, the LC90 the values decreased to
76.44 ± 4.63 lg/mg and 49.79 ± 4.38 lg/mg, at stages C and
D, respectively (Table 2). ANOVA showed significant
effects of concentration (F2, 52 = 465.8; p < 0.0001), stage
(F3, 52 = 216.4; p < 0.0001) and interaction concentration/stage
(F6, 52 = 40.77; p < 0.0001).
4 Conclusion
In conclusion, the results obtained in this study were the
first to demonstrate that novaluron exerted negative
effects in a shrimp species. It can increase the amounts of
ecdysteroids and disrupt the chitin content causing inhi-
bition of cuticular secretion in a non-target organism
P. adspersus. These effects could be explained either by a
blockage of transport and incorporation of the biosyn-
thetic precursor of chitin, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine
(GlcNAc), or directly by inhibition of chitin synthesis.
However, these mechanisms of action remained unclear
and new experimental approaches are needed. Given the
biochemical composition of their cuticle, the crustaceans
can be the potential targets of these benzoylurea
derivatives.
Evaluation of the Potential Side-Effects of Novaluron …
References
Bouaziz A, Boudjelida H, Soltani N. Toxicity and perturbation of the
metabolite contents by a chitin synthesis inhibitor in the mosquito
larvae of Culiseta longiareolata. Ann Biol Res. 2011;2(3):134–42.
333
Farnesi LC, Brito JM, Linss JG, Pelajo-Machado M, Valle D,
Rezende GL. Physiological and morphological aspects of Aedes
aegypti developing larvae: effects of the chitin synthesis inhibitor
Novaluron. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:e30363.
Martoja R, Martoja M. Initiation aux techniques de l’histologie
animale. Masson; 1967. p. 345.
 Antioxidant Responses and Gene Level
Expressions of Sulla coronaria Inoculated
by Heavy Metals Resistant Plant Growth
Promoting Bacteria Under Cadmium Stress

Salwa Harzalli Jebara, Manel Chiboub, and Moez Jebara

Keywords
Antioxidants Cadmium Co-inoculation Enzymes Sulla coronaria

1 Introduction types of were performed at the flowering stage (100 and

Cadmium (Cd) is the most toxic contaminant for plants and
soil microorganisms. Generally, heavy metals cause oxida-
tive damage to plants through reactive oxygen species
(ROS), in response, plants developed defense systems by
different antioxidant such as superoxide dismutase (SOD),
peroxidase (POX), catalase (CAT) and Ascorbate peroxidase
(APX) (Jebara et al. 2010). The use of Rhizobium and PGPB
in symbiosis with legumes has been successfully used in
phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated soils. For
this purpose, we proposed to study response of Sulla coro-
naria co-inoculated by Cd resistant PGPB under Cd stress
on growth, metal accumulation, antioxidant activities and
relative expression of F-box and PCS genes, in order to
evaluate the potential use of this symbiosis in the phy-
tostabilization of Cd contaminated soil. PGPB used in this
work formed by two Rhizobium sullae, pseudomonas
fluorescens and Pseudomonas sp, were previously isolated
from nodules of Sulla coronaria cultivated in heavy metal
contaminated soil and characterized by Cd tolerances and
PGP traits (Chiboub et al. 2016).
2 Materials and Methods
Culture of Sulla Coronaria, (cv. Bikra 21) was achieved
hydroponically, control and co-inoculation treatments were
described by (Harzalli Jebara et al. 2015). The two treatment
S. H. Jebara (&)
M. Chiboub
M. Jebara
Laboratoire des Légumineuses, Centre Biotechnologie Borj
Cedria, BP901 CP 2050 H-Lif, Tunisia
e-mail: jebarasalwa@yahoo.fr
200 µM Cd,) for 30 days. Metal content was determined by
coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP–MS). Protein and
enzymatic extraction was performed according to (Harzalli
Jebara et al. 2015). Quantitative real-time polymerase chain
reaction (Q-RTPCR) and the relative gene expression was
achieved using the basic method (Schmittgent and Livak
2010).
3 Results and Discussion
In this study, Co-inoculated Sulla Coronaria had better
biomass either in shoots (8.26 ± 0.36 g Plant−1) or in roots
(1.39 ± 0.33 g Plant−1), nodulation was induced and
reached 45 nodules per plant. Co-inoculation enhanced plant
biomass up to two times in shoots of Sulla coronaria treated
by 200 µM Cd, in fact, PGPB used in this study have Plant
Growth Promoting (PGP) traits such as indol-3-acetic acid
(IAA) and siderophores production, P-solubilization, N2
fixation (Chiboub et al. 2016). In this work, Cd content in
plants increased with the increase of metal concentration, in
addition, Cd accumulation in roots was always significantly
higher than in shoots, similar results were found in lentil
co-inoculated by PGPB and treated by Pb, (Harzalli Jebara
et al. 2015). Co-inoculation of Cd treated Sulla coronaria
increased Cd uptake essentially in roots by 57% suggesting
the phytostabilization use of this symbiosis (Fig. 1).
This effect could be due to the restriction of metal uptake
by the bacteroides inside the nodules. In fact, the bioaccu-
mulation capacity of PGPB used in this work was demon-
strated in a previous work (Chiboub et al. 2016). The results
showed that SOD activity was significantly induced in roots
essentially by 200 µM Cd up to 5 times, the inoculation

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_106
336 S. H. Jebara et al.

(a) (b)
3.5
Cd accumulation (g g -1 )

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 100 Cd 200 Cd
Control Inoculated

Fig. 1 Effect of Cd treatment on shoot (a) and root (b) dry weight, Cd accumulation of Sulla coronaria. In control and inoculated plants. The
values are the average ± SD of ten repetitions in three independents pots

Table 1 Specific antioxidant enzyme activities, and relative expression of F-box, PCS genes in Sulla coronaria roots control and inoculated
plants: CAT mM H2O2 min−1 lg−1 protein, APX mM ascorbate min−1 lg−1 protein, POX mM H2O2 min−1 lg−1 protein, SOD USOD lg−1
protein. P < 0.05 according to Tukey test
Inoculation SOD APX POX CAT F-box PCS
Controls − 0.14 ± 0.01 d 0.80 ± 0.12 d 15.49 ± 0.20 d 0.12 ± 0.01 c 14.9 ± 1.10 b 146 ± 10.01 b
+ 0.64 ± 0.05 c 5.95 ± 0.89 a 11.22 ± 0.16 e 0.53 ± 0.07 b 0.63 ± 0.03 e 2.80 ± 0.36 d
100 µM Cd − 0.58 ± 0.07 c 4.24 ± 0.08 b 41.42 ± 2.14 a 0.67 ± 0.12 a 1.82 ± 0.03 c 7.90 ± 0.95 c
+ 1.49 ± 0.24 a 3.37 ± 0.45 c 32.8 ± 1.98 b 0.50 ± 0.04 b 1.53 ± 0.09 d 6.60 ± 0.71 c
200 µM Cd − 0.78 ± 0.10 b 4.16 ± 0.17 b 8.04 ± 0.44 f 0.75 ± 0.01 a 40.7 ± 0.10 a 319 ± 29.71 a
+ 0.58 ± 0.04 c 4.60 ± 0.10 b 27.32 ± 1.5 c 0.70 ± 0.14 a 1.36 ± 0.08 d 7.42 ± 0.51 c

enhanced only SOD activity in plants treated by 100 µM.
POX activity was induced by 100 µM Cd treatment and
inhibited by 200 µM Cd. Co-inoculation of plants treated by
100 µM Cd inhibited POX activity and enhanced signifi-
cantly in plants treated by 200 µM Cd. These results sug-
gested that SOD and POX are important antioxidant
enzymes involved in the response to environmental stresses
(Jebara et al. 2010). The exposure of Sulla coronaria to
100 µM and 200 µM Cd treatment enhanced APX and CAT
activities by 5 and 6 times respectively in the two Cd
treatments. Inoculation inhibited these activities in plants
treated by 100 µM Cd, and no differences were recorded in
those exposed to 200 µM Cd (Table 1). In other works
different responses of enzymatic antioxidant were recorded
in legumes treated by heavy metals and inoculated with
PGPB such as Vicia faba (Fatnassi et al. 2013); Lens culi-
naris (Harzalli Jebara et al. 2015). These results show that
inoculation plays a positive role in controlling cellular level
of ROS and/or repairing oxidative damage and illustrate
nodular antioxidant enzymes role in heavy metal plant tol-
erance. The characterization of gene level transcription of
plant genes which control responses to Cd stresses is an
essential step to elucidate the mechanisms of plant tolerance
to Cd. The results show that Cd effectively induced F-box
and PCS genes expression though only at much higher
exposure levels of Cd (200 µM Cd), whereas inoculation
inhibited them significantly (Table 1), suggesting that they
can be a Cd responsive gene which contributes to the heavy
metal tolerance in Sulla coronaria, essentially F-box pro-
teins involved in plant growth and development and phy-
tochelatin which chelates Cd ions and facilitates their
transport as complexes into the vacuole (Brunetti et al.
2011).
4 Conclusions
Sulla coronaria co-inoculated by Cd tolerant PGPB
respond to Cd toxicity by PGP traits, activation of SOD
and GPOX, enhancement of roots Cd uptake, chelation
by ligands, suggesting this symbiosis potential for phy-
tostabilzation of Cd contaminated soils. In response to Cd
stress plants developed defense mechanisms in order to
maintain cell metabolisms and homeostasis by reducing
metal uptake and metal translocation to the aerial parts
through its sequestration into vacuole and formation of
complexes using ligands such as phytochelatins and a
remarkable induction and regulation of certain genes such
as F-box and PCS.
Antioxidant Responses and Gene Level Expressions …
References
Brunetti P, Zanella L, Proi A, De Paoli A, et al. Cadmium tolerance and
phytochelatin content of Arabidopsis seedlings over-expressing the
phytochelatin synthase gene AtPCS1. J Exp Bot. 2011;62:5509–19.
Chiboub M, Saadani O, Fatnassi CI, Souhir A, Jebara M, Jebara SH.
Characterization of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria efficient
and resistant to cadmium isolated from Sulla coronaria. Comptes
Rendu Biologies 2016; 339:391–98.
Fatnassi CI, Chiboub M, Saadani O, Jebara M, Harzalli Jebara S.
Phytostabilization of moderate copper contaminated soils using
337
co-inoculation of Vicia faba with plant growth promoting bacteria.
J Basic Microbiol. 2013;53:1–9.
Harzalli Jebara S, Abdelkerim S, Challougui Fatnassi I, Chiboub M,
Saadani O, Jebara M. Identification of effective Pb resistant bacteria
isolated from Lens culinaris growing in lead contaminated soils.
J Basic Microbiol. 2015;55:346–53.
Jebara S, Drevon JJ, Jebara M. Modulation of symbiotic efficiency
and nodular antioxidant enzyme activities in two Phaseolus
vulgaris genotype under salinity. Acta Physiol Plant. 2010;32:
925–32.
Schmittgent TD, Livak KJ. Analyzing real-time PCR data by the
comparative CT method. Nat Protoc. 2010;3:1101–8.
 Growth and Responses of Biomarkers
in the Snail Helix aspersa (Mollusca,
Gastropoda) Used as Bioindicator of Soil
Pollution in Northeast of Algeria

Yousra Bairi, Karima Sifi, and Noureddine Soltani

Keywords
Helix aspersa Sol pollution Biomonitoring Growth Biomarkers

1 Introduction pollution source. The sites of El Tarf (36°46′2″ N; 8°18′50″

Among the terrestrial invertebrates to provide information on
soil functions, snails are a good model. Indeed, these species
used in numerous studies as bioindicators, integrate in a
diverse and complementary way the contaminations which
can affect the soil (Leomanni et al. 2015). Our study aims to
biomonitoring of soil quality in Northeast of Algeria where
previous work has shown that metallic pollution predominates
(Larba and Soltani 2014); using the snail Helix aspersa
(Mollusca, Gastropoda) as a bioindicator species. A study of
the growth and response of three biomarkers of environmental
stress; acetylcholinesterase, glutathione S-transferase and
metallothionein, was conducted in this species. Samples were
collected during the four seasons (winter, spring, summer,
autumn) of 2016 at four sites in Northeast of Algeria and
selected according to their level of exposure to pollution; El
Hadjar, site exposed to industrial pollution; El-Tarf and
Bouteldja, sites subject to urban and agricultural pollutions;
and finally El Kala, a site remote from any source of pollution.
2 Material and Methods
2.1 Presentation of Sites
The site of El Kala (36°53′44″ N; 8°26′36″ E), is located in
extreme east of Algeria close to the Tunisian border, It is
chosen as a reference site because it is distant from any
E) and Bouteldja (36°30′10″ N; 8°06′17″ E), are located near
urban and agricultural activities. El Hadjar (36°48′0″ N; 7°
43′60″ E), is a site submitted to industrial pollution because
is located near a steel complex.
2.2 Species Sampling and Biometric Analysis
Specimens of H. aspersa were collected during the four sea-
sons (winter, spring, summer, autumn) in 2016, from the
selected sites in the Northeast of Algeria. After sampling, H.
aspersa were transported alive to the laboratory, where the
biometric parameters were measured (height, diameter) as well
as the total weight and then each species was dissected and the
head and hepatopancreas were taken for biomarkers analysis.
2.3 Biomarkers Analysis
The activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) was determined
in the head as method described by Ellman et al. (1961). The
activity of glutathione S-transferase (GST) and the rates of
metallothionein (MT) were measured in hepatopancreas
according to Habig et al. (1974) and Viarengo et al. (1997)
respectively. The results of the biomarkers were expressed
relative to an amount of protein quantified according to the
method of Bradford (1976).
2.4 Statistical Analysis

Y. Bairi
K. Sifi (&)
N. Soltani
Laboratory of Applied Animal Biology, Department of Biology,
Faculty of Sciences, University Badji Mokhtar of Annaba, 23000
Annaba, Algeria
e-mail: karima.sifi@univ-annaba.dz; sifi_k23@yahoo.fr
The results were expressed as mean ± standard deviation
(SD) and data were tested for normality and homogeneity.
The variation of each parameter among sites and between
seasons was tested by a two-way analysis of variance

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 339

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_107
 340

Table 1 Seasonal responses of acetylcholinestease (mM.min−1.mg−1 protein), glutathione S-transferase (mM.min−1.mg−1 protein) and metallothionein (µg MT.mg−1 protein) in H. aspersa
sampled in four sites in the Northeast of Algeria: El Kala, El Tarf, Bouteldja, El Hadjar during 2016 (mean ± SD; n = 10)
Season AChE GST MT
Site
El Kala El Tarf Bouteldja El Hadjar EL Kala El Tarf Bouteldja El Hadjar El Kala El Tarf Bouteldja El Hadjar
Winter 1.926 ± 0.084 1.361 ± 0.082 1.448 ± 0.051 0.317 ± 0.085 0.113 ± 0.021 0.201 ± 0.061 0.173 ± 0.048 0.499 ± 0.055 0.170 ± 0.012 0.484 ± 0.01 0.424 ± 0.014 0.863 ± 0.061
aA bA cA dA aA bA bA cA aA bA bA cA
Spring 1.592 ± 0.089 1.024 ± 0.014 1.112 ± 0.005 0.122 ± 0.009 0.152 ± 0.002 0.230 ± 0.012 0.222 ± 0.004 0.558 ± 0.038 0.286 ± 0.015 0.547 ± 0.014 0.500 ± 0.018 1.376 ± 0.062
aB bB cB bB aA bA bB cB aB bA bA cB
Summer 1.275 ± 0.060 0.984 ± 0.004 1.028 ± 0.008 0.091 ± 0.002 0.192 ± 0.009 0.472 ± 0.056 0.319 ± 0.01 0.854 ± 0.072 0.477 ± 0.041 0.868 ± 0.053 0.755 ± 0.011 2.098 ± 0.290
aC bB bC cB a AB bB cC dC aC bB cB dC
Autumn 2.002 ± 0.015 1.051 ± 0.059 1.196 ± 0.069 0.296 ± 0.185 0.135 ± 0.008 0.416 ± 0.007 0.367 ± 0.04 0.805 ± 0.015 0.223 ± 0.006 0.512 ± 0.01 0.619 ± 0.017 0.941 ± 0.053
Aa bB cD dA aA bC cD dD a AB bA cC dA
Means followed by same letters in minuscule are not significantly different at p > 0.05 between sites within each season; while means followed by same letters in capital are not significantly different at p > 0.05 between seasons within
each site (Tukey’s post hoc test, p < 0.05)
Y. Bairi et al.
Growth and Responses of Biomarkers in the Snail …
(ANOVA), followed by Tukey’s post hoc test. All statistical
analysis was performed using GraphPad.Prism.v6. The sig-
nificant difference was defined at p < 0.05.
3 Results and Discussion
Seasonal variation in the growth of H. aspersa revealed that
individuals in the El Kala site are great in size and have
higher weights than individuals of polluted sites of El Tarf,
Bouteldja and El Hadjar where smaller individuals have
been observed in this site. The results of seasonal responses
of AChE, GST and MT showed a significantly inhibition
(p < 0.001) of AChE and a significantly increase
(p < 0.001) of GST and MT in H. aspersa from polluted
sites of El Hadjar, then El Tarf and Bouteldja as compared
with reference site of El Kala (Table 1). Furthermore, the
two-away ANOVA test showed significant effects
(p < 0.001) of both site and season. Our results are agree
with several studies conducted on H. aspersa whose Hispard
et al. (2008) and Larba and Soltani (2014). Indeed, the sites
of El Tarf and Bouteldja are subject to urban and agricultural
pollution, while the El Hadjar site is located near a steel
complex that brings a very important industrial pollution.
4 Conclusion
The results of the present investigation suggest that
H. aspersa is a suitable organism and a sensitive
non-target species that could be used in biomonitoring of
341
soil pollution based on biomarkers assays. The difference
recorded in the growth and responses of biomarkers
between the different sites located in the Northeast of
Algeria, is related to level of exposition these sites to
pollution.
References
Bradford M. A rapid and sensitive method for the quantification of
microgram quantities of protein utilizing the principle of
protein-dye binding. Anal Biochem. 1976;72:248–54.
Ellman GL, Courtney KD, Andres V, Featherstone RM. A new and
rapid colorimetric determination of acetylcholinesterase activity.
Biochem Pharmacol Physiol Pharm. 1961;38:84.
Habig WH, Pabst MJ, Jacobi WB. The first enzymatic step in
mercapturic acid formation. J Biol Chem. 1974;249:7130–9.
Hispard F, Schuler D, De Vaufleury A, Scheifler R, Badot PM,
Dallinger R. Metal distribution and Metallothionein induction after
cadmium exposure in the terrestrial snail Helix aspersa (Gas-
tropods, Pulmonata). Environ Toxicol Chem. 2008;27(7):1533–42.
Larba R, Soltani N. Use of the land snail Helix aspersa for monitoring
heavy metal soil contamination in Northeast Algeria. Environ Monit
Assess. 2014;186:4987–95.
Leomanni A, Schettino T, Calisi A, Gorbi S, Mezzelani M, Regoli F,
Lionetto MG. Antioxidant and oxidative stress related responses in
the Mediterranean land snail Cantareus apertus exposed to the
carbamate pesticide Carbaryl. Comp Biochem Physiol Part C.
2015;168:20–7.
Viarengo A, Ponzano E, Dondero F, Fabbri R. A simple spectropho-
tometric method for metallothionein evaluation in marine organ-
isms: an application to Mediterranean and Antarctic molluscs. Mar
Environ Res. 1997;44:69–84.
 Chemical Composition and Some Trace
Element Levels in the Surface Waters
of Three Coastal Marine Areas Under
Contrasted Pollution Influences in the Gulf
of Gabes, Tunisia

Zaher Drira, Samia Gharsallah, Houda Sahnoun, Marc Tedetti,

Marc Pagano, and Habib Ayadi

Keywords
Sfax Ghannouch Major ions Protein Carbohydrate Particulate matter Total
polyphenolic Flavonoid compounds Anthropogenic pressure

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

The Gulf of Gabes (southeastern - Tunisia), characterized by
a high abundance of halieutic resources, is nowadays facing
strong anthropogenic pressures. This paper aimed to assess
and compare the anthropogenic inputs of 30 stations
belonging to three coastal areas of the Gulf of Gabes (Gulf
of Gabes) i.e. the Southern and the Northern coastal areas of
Sfax and the Ghannouch area during October and November
2014. The first area covers the non restored and polluted area
of the southern coast of Sfax (stations 1–10), whereas the
northern coast of Sfax (stations 11–20), selected as a control
area, was the polluted northern restored area of Sfax. The
third zone was the coastline of Ghannouch area (stations
21–30).
Z. Drira (&)
S. Gharsallah
H. Ayadi
Biodiversity and Aquatic Ecosystems UR/11ES72 Research Unit,
Department of Life Sciences, Sfax Faculty of Sciences, University
of Sfax, Soukra Road Km 3.5, PO Box 3000, BP 1171 Sfax,
Tunisia
e-mail: zaherdrira@yahoo.fr
Z. Drira
S. Gharsallah
Department of Life Sciences, Gafsa Faculty of Sciences,
University of Gafsa, Campus University of Sidi Ahmed Zarrouk,
CP 2112 Gafsa, Tunisia
H. Sahnoun
Coastal and Urban Environment Unity, IPEIS, PC 3000 Sfax,
Tunisia
M. Tedetti
M. Pagano
Aix Marseille University, CNRS/INSU, University of Toulon,
IRD, Mediterranean Institute of Oceanography (MIO), UM 110,
13288 Marseille, France
Major anions concentrations were determined by gravimetric
(JIS K 0102. 41. 2.) and argentometric (Mohr) methods,
respectively. Bicarbonate (HCO3−) concentration was
determined by titration with 0.01 or 0.1 M HCl against
methyl orange and bromocresol green indicators according
to the French Association for Normalization (NFT 90-036).
Major cations, i.e. calcium (Ca2+), potassium (K+), magne-
sium (Mg2+), manganese (Mn2+) and iron (Fe2+ + Fe3+),
were measured by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS).
Concentrations in suspended particulate matter (SPM) were
determined by measuring the dry weight of the residue. The
total polyphenolic content was determined spectrometrically
using the Folin-Ciocalteu method, as suggested by Dewanto
et al. (2002). The total flavonoid content was determined
according to Akrout et al. (2011). COD was estimated
according to Rodier’s (1996) method using a VARIO pho-
tometer type HACH/HDR/2000, whereas BOD5 was asses-
sed according to the French standard AFNOR (2001).
3 Results and Discussion
Dissolved metals in surface waters are ranked according to
the order in the Southern (Pb > Ni > Fe > Cu > Cr >
Co > Mn > Cd > Zn) and Northen (Ni > Pb > Fe > Cu >
Cr > Zn > Mn > Co > Cd), coasts of Sfax and the Ghan-
nouch area (Ni > Fe > Pb > Cu > Cr > Zn > Co > Cd >
Mn). The protein reached the maximum rate in the Ghan-
nouch area compared to the other studied areas. This
parameter influenced the P/G (Protein/carbohydrate) ratio
which was more important in the Ghannouch area. The high

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_108
344
concentration of the protein in the particulate matter proved
that the planktonic micro-organisms were more impacted by
pollution in Ghannouch compared to the Southern and
Northern areas of Sfax (Michard et al. 1996).
In the present study, the major cations were classified as
follows: Mg2+ > Ca2+ > K+ > Fe2+ + Fe3+ > Mn2+. Mg2+
concentration recorded here (2071 ± 838 mg l−1) exceeded
the safety limits (50 mg l−1). In our study, the Ca2+/Mg2+
ratio was equal to 0.8, which is much higher than the typical
marine ratio (*0.2) (Ben Hamouda et al. 2013). The
industrial phosphogypsum wastes were the main source of
phosphates (PO43−), chloride (Cl−) and sulfates (SO42−). The
mean concentration of total polyphenolic and flavonoid
compounds were 33.77 ± 30.46 and 21.75 ± 14.54 mg l−1
with a maximum value recorded at stations 4 and 8, situated
in front of the olive oil wastes of the Southern coast of Sfax.
This relatively high phenol concentration raised a major
environmental problem because the value exceeded the
concentration allowed to be discharged in wastewaters in the
region of Sfax (<1 mg l−1) (JICA 1993).
4 Conclusion
The three ecosystems can be thus classified according to
their resistance degree to the anthropogenic inputs based
on the results of the biogeochemical and physical
parameters and the species diversity as follows: Southern
Z. Drira et al.
coast > Ghannouch area > Northern coast. These
anthropogenic inputs undoubtedly have substantial
impacts on the structure and functioning of marine
ecosystems in the Sfax coastal area.
References
Afnor. Qualité de l’eau. Analyses biochimiques et biologiques-
Analyses microbiologiques Tome 4. Paris, France:Agence Française
de Normalisation; 2001.
Akrout A, Gonzalez LA, El Jani H, Madrid PC. Antioxidant and
antitumor activities of Artemisia campestris and Thymelaea hirsuta
from southern Tunisia. Food Chem Toxicol. 2011;49:342–7.
Ben Hamouda MF, Mamou A, Bejaoui J, Froehlich K. Hydrochemical
and isotopic study of groundwater in the North Djeffara Aquifer,
Gulf of Gabès, Southern Tunisia. Int J Geosci. 2013;4: 1–10.
Dewanto V, Wu X, Adom KK, Liu RH. Thermal processing enhances
the nutritional value of tomatoes by increasing total antioxidant
activity. J Agric Food Chem. 2002;50:3010–4.
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). The study on waste
treatment recycling plan of selected industries in the region of Sfax
in the Republic of Tunisia. Tokyo: JICA; 1993. p. 4–41.
Michard M, Aleya L, Verneaux J. The mass occurrence of the
Cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa in the hypereutrophic Villerest
Reservoir (Roanne, FRANCE): usefulness of the biyearly examina-
tion of N/P (nitrogen/phosphorus) and P/C (protein/carbohydrate)
couplings. Arch Hydrobiol. 1996;135:337–59.
Rodier J. L’analyse de L’eau. Eaux naturelles—eaux résiduaires—eau
de mer. 8ème éd. Paris: Dunod; 1996.
 Antifungal Activity of Isolated Lactic Acid
Bacteria Strain from Wheat Against Some
Fusarium graminearum Strains

Souad Makhloufi, Serra Djaboub, Abdallah Moussaoui,

and Sliman Benouis

Keywords
Wheat Antifungal lactic strain Fusarium graminearum Biocontrol

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

In agriculture, Fusariosis spies is a disease that causes big
losses in industry. It affects not only the yield but also the
crop health quality because of the presence of toxins in
grains. However, there is no possibility of effective chemical
control with this fungal disease, which develops when a wet
period occurs at flowering (Saur and Morlais 1991). Thus,
the use of the decontamination process should destroy the
microorganism and its toxin, without generating toxic resi-
dues and should preserve the nutritive quality as well as the
technological properties of the food. Bio-control shows a
promising solution to this problem.
Lactic acid bacteria are microorganisms generally rec-
ognized as “Safe” (Axelsson 2004). They produce antimi-
crobial metabolites such as organic acids, hydrogen
peroxide, carbon dioxide, reuterine, diacetyl and
bacteriocins.
In this part of the study, we tested the capacity of the
autochthonous lactic acid bacteria present in wheat to inhibit
the fungal growth of some strains of Fusarium
graminearum.
S. Makhloufi (&)
S. Djaboub
A. Moussaoui
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Technologie,
Tahri Milloud University of Bechar, Bechar, Algeria
e-mail: makhloufi.souad1012@gmail.com
S. Benouis
Department of Biology, Mostaganem University, Mostaganem,
Algeria
2.1 Biological Material
2.1.1 Vegetable Material
Five samples of soft wheat grains imported from France and
stored in silos at the Bechar Cereals and Dry Legumes
Cooperative (CDLC) were collected in 2014 during the
months of February and April.
2.1.2 Fungal Material
The fungal strains used to test the antifungal activity of lactic
acid bacteria were isolated from wheat, purified and identi-
fied in a laboratory. There are three strains of Fusarium
graminearum.
2.1.3 Bacteriological Material
The lactic acid bacteria strains used in this work were iso-
lated from the same biotopes (imported soft wheat). They
were purified then preserved at −20 °C. In MRS broth
medium with glycerol.
2.1.4 Isolation and Identification of Fungal
Strains
The identification of the isolated molds is achieved by a
macroscopic observation and a microscopic study. The
macroscopic observation would be carried out by adopting
the technique of “single sporing” (Pitt and Hocking 2009).
The microscopic study was carried out by the “microculture”
technique (Haris 1989).

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_109
346
2.1.5 Isolation and Identification of Lactic Acid
Bacteria Strains
The isolation of the strains was done using the enrichment
technique (Doguiet 2010). This identification was made by a
Macroscopic study, a microscopic study, physical tests and
chemical tests.
2.1.6 Study of the Antifungal Activity of Isolated
Lactic Acid Bacteria
The antifungal activity of lactic acid bacteria was studied in
two steps. The first step was by using qualitative tests
(Magnusson and Schnurer 2001), and the second one was by
the means of quantitative tests (Magnusson and Schnurer
2001). The aim of the last tests was to confirm the results
obtained by the first tests. The experiments were carried out
in duplicate.
3 Results and Discussion
The isolation of wheat indigenous lactic strains was per-
formed by an isolation technique with enrichment.
Thirty-five bacterial colonies were obtained, of which twenty
were Gram positive and catalase negative, followed by
qualitative and quantitative tests to select the best perform-
ing strain, which inhibits radial growth of Fusarium
graminearum fungal strains in all tests.
The results showed that approximately 25% of the iso-
lates showed an antifungal activity, of which we selected too
strains as the most efficient ones in all the fungal species:
LB001 and LB003.
The qualitative tests reveal a remarkable antifungal
activity of the selected strain LB001. The Percentage of the
S. Makhloufi et al.
inhibition was estimated between 40 and 54%. The identi-
fication of the strain LB001 revealed that it is Enterococcus
faecium.
4 Conclusion
The existence of a microflora of lactic acid bacteria
indigenous to soft wheat, which can inhibit the prolifer-
ation of pathogenic fungal strains has been demonstrated
by qualitative and quantitative tests. The results obtained
by these tests helped to select the lactic strain which has
considerable antifungal effect.
Thus, the exploitation of this bio-preservation in the
field of agriculture carries many perspectives.
References
Axelsson L. 2004. Lactic acid bacteria: classification and physiology.
In: Salminen S, Wright A, Ouwehand A, editors. Lactic acid
bacteria: microbiological and functional aspects. 3ème ed. New
York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 2004. pp. 6–70.
Doguiet K. Biocontrôle des moisissures du genre Fusarium productri-
ces de fumonisines par sélection de bactéries lactiques autochtones
de maïs. Thèse de doctorat en Biologie, spécialité Alimentation et
Nutrition. France: Université de Bordeaux; 2010. 185p.
Haris C. Introduction to modern microbiology. Blackwell Scientific
Publication; 1989. pp. 179.
Magnusson J, Schnurer J. Lactobacillus coryniformis subsp. coryni-
formis strain Si3 produces a broad-spectrum proteinaceous antifun-
gal compound. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2001;67:1–5.
Pitt J, Hocking AD. Fungi and food spoilage. 3ème ed. USA: Springer;
2009. 500p.
Saur L, Morlais JY. Recherche de génieurs de résistance à la fusariose
de l’épi causée par Fusarium culmorum chez le blé et les espèces
voisines. Elsevier/INRA Agron. 1991;11:535–41.
 Thiamethoxam (Neonicotinoïd)
and Spinosad (Bioinsecticide) Affect
Hypopharyngeal Glands and Survival of Apis
mellifera intermissa (Hymenoptera: Apidae)
Hichem Ahmed Menail, Wided Fella Bouchema-Boutefnouchet,
Guy Smagghe, and Wahida Ayad-Loucif



Keywords
Thiamethoxam Spinosad
Apis mellifera intermissa
1 Introduction
To avoid contaminating non target animals and pollution
during pesticide treatments of crops, neonicotinoïds were
developed during the ninetees. These neurotoxics target
insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) making
them harmless to mammals. However, they proved to be
very toxic toward honeybees. Thiamethoxam is one of the
most commercialized neonicotinoïd. It converts to clothi-
anidin, a highly remnant neonicotinoïd. Thiamethoxam
impairs olfaction, orientation, locomotion, queens’ fitness,
survival and indirectly, harms the immune system of
honeybees (Brandt et al. 2016). It also alters hypopharyngeal
glands of honeybees, therefore threatening the supply of the
brood and the queen (Renzi et al. 2016).
Spinosad was developed to replace synthetic insecticides.
Despite the low environmental and toxicological risk of this
natural derivate of a soil bacteria, when liquid, it is highly
toxic to honeybees especially by ingestion (Mayes et al.
2003). The primary mode of action of spinosad is to act on
nAChRs. It also acts on GABA and chlorine channel
receptors.
A. H. Menail (&)
W. F. Bouchema-Boutefnouchet
W. Ayad-Loucif
Laboratory of Applied Animal Biology, Faculty of Science,
Badji Mokhtar University, Annaba, Algeria
e-mail: menail.hichem@yahoo.fr
G. Smagghe
Laboratory of Agrozoology, Department of Crop Protection,
Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent,
Belgium
W. Ayad-Loucif
Faculty of Medicine, Badji Mokhtar University, Annaba, Algeria
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_110



Hypopharyngeal glands Toxicity Survival
Hypopharyngeal glands which secrete royal jelly to feed
larvae and queen of honeybees play a key role in colony
development. Any disturbance in their functioning can
impair colony fitness and survival. Many insecticides among
which neonicotinoïds impair hypopharyngeal glands struc-
ture and functioning (Hatjina et al. 2013). Our study aimed
to assess and compare the effects of acute ingestion of LC50
and chronic ingestion of LC50/5 of thiamethoxam and spi-
nosad on hypopharyngeal glands development and survival
of native honeybee race Apis mellifera intermissa. We used
acini diameter and protein content of the head as parameters
to assess physiological status of hypopharyngeal glands.
2 Materials and Methods
The oral toxicity at 24 h of thiamethoxam and spinosad
(LC50 24 h) were determined on newly emerged honeybees
(Apis mellifera intermissa from non treated apiaries in
Annaba, Algeria). Afterwards, five groups of newly emerged
honeybees were set up. The first and second group were
exposed to continuous source of thiamethexam and spinosad
respectively through sugar syrup and pollen pastry at a
concentration of LC50/5. The two other groups were exposed
respectively to thiamethexam and spinosad, 24 h only, at a
concentration of LC50. The last one served as control. After
6, 9 and 14 days, two pools of honeybees were collected
from each group and their heads were removed. For the first
pool, the heads were dissected and the hypopharyngeal
glands (HPGs) collected. The diameter measurement of an
average of 20 acini per HPG was performed in order to
assess the HPG development (Hatjina et al. 2013). For the
second one, the heads were put in 1 ml Phosphate buffer
347
348
saline. Afterwards, proteins were extracted following Fortini
et al. (2009) and quantified following Hartfelder et al.
(2013). Protein content of the head served as a second
parameter to assess HPG development (Renzi et al. 2016). In
parallel, five other groups of newly emerged honeybees were
set up and exposed continuously to thiamethoxam and spi-
nosad respectively at LC50/5 for the first two groups and at
LC50/2 for the two others against control group. Each 24 h,
the number of dead bees was recorded during 60 days. For
both experiments, sugar syrup and pollen pastry were
changed twice a week.
3 Results and Discussion
The LC50 of thiamethexam and spinosad was 0.31 and
24 ng/µl respectively. This corresponds to LD50 of 2.48 and
192 ng/bee respectively.
Acute exposure to thiamethoxam decreases significantly
acini diameters only at 14 days when spinosad leads to
significant decrease at all ages (Fig. 1a). No significant dif-
ference is exhibited between both insecticides at any age.
Chronic exposure to thiamethoxam decreases acini diame-
ters at all ages (Fig. 1b). For spinosad, a significant decrease
is noticed at 9 and 14 days. Similarily, no significant dif-
ference is exhibited between both insecticides at any age. In
Fig. 1 Thiamethoxam and spinosad effect on acini diameter and
protein content of the head. (a): Effect of acute treatment on acini
diameter; (b): Effect of chronic treatment on acini diameter; (c): Effect
A. H. Menail et al.
addition, no significant difference of acini diameters is
observed between both acute and chronic treatment neither
after thiamethoxam nor after spinosad exposure.
The decrease of acini diameter after insecticide ingestion
is accompanied by the deterioration of acini which appear
with irregular shapes.
Protein content of the head is less sensitive to chronic
treatment and especially to acute one with both insecticides.
Indeed, protein content of the head decreases significantly
only at 9 days after acute exposure to thiamethoxam and
spinosad (Fig. 1c). However, after chronic exposure, we
noticed a significant decrease at 6 and 9 days for both
insecticides (Fig. 1d).
Both thiamethoxam and spinosad decrease honeybee
survival for both concentrations. However, only spinosad at
LC50/2 exhibits significant survival decrease compared to
control.
The impairment of HPG due to chronic exposure to thi-
amethoxam demonstrated by our study confirms previous
work (Renzi et al. 2016). The acute exposure to high thi-
amethoxam concentration has the same impact on HPG as
chronic one to a lower concentration. The bioinsecticide
spinosad also has negative effects on HPG and exhibits the
same impairment induced by thiamethoxam. In addition,
both acute and chronic exposure to spinosad are harmful to
HPG. Also, our study partially confirms that protein content
of acute treatment on protein content of the head; (d): Effect of chronic
treatment on protein content of the head
Thiamethoxam (Neonicotinoïd) and Spinosad (Bioinsecticide) …
of the head evolves following the acini diameter but with
some gaps, which was already mentioned by Renzi et al.
(2016).
The absence of a significant decrease of survival after
thiamethoxam exposure observed during our experiment
complies with Köhler et al. (2012) results when honeybees
were treated with nicotine. Also, our results reveal that
spinosad has a detrimental effect on survival when a high
concentration is ingested.
4 Conclusion
Acute (LC50) and chronic (LC50/5) exposures to thi-
amethoxam and spinosad impair hypopharyngeal glands
by reducing acini diameters and protein content of the
head of native honeybee Apis mellifera intermissa.
However, these two parameters are not affected in exactly
the same way. We conclude that even if it is a bioin-
secticide, spinosad harm hypopharyngeal glands like
thiamethoxam. In addition, spinosad shortens honeybee
survival more than thiamethoxam, probably due to the
multiple targets of this insecticide in the nervous system.
Therefore, our study proves that both thiamethoxam and
spinosad are harmful to honeybees.
349
References
Brandt A, Gorenflo A, Siede R, Meixner M, Büchler R. The
neonicotinoids thiacloprid, imidacloprid, and clothianidin affect
the immunocompetence of honey bees (Apis mellifera L.). J Insect
Physiol. 2016;86:40–7.
Fortini D, Michaud B, Aupinel P. Comparison of two methods to assess
effects of insecticides on hypopharyngeal gland development of
honey bee. Hazards of pesticides to bees—10th international
symposium of the ICP-Bee Protection Group 2009.
Hartfelder K, Bitondi MMG, Brent CS, Guidugli-Lazzarini KR, Simões
ZLP, Stabentheiner A, Tanaka ÉD, Wang Y. Standard methods for
physiology and biochemistry research in Apis mellifera. J Apic Res.
2013;52:1–48.
Hatjina F, Papaefthimiou C, Charistos L, Dogaroglu T, Bouga M,
Emmanouil C, Arnold G. Sublethal doses of imidacloprid decreased
size of hypopharyngeal glands and respiratory rhythm of honeybees
in vivo. Apidologie. 2013;44:467–80.
Köhler A, Pirk CWW, Nicolson SW. Honeybees and nectar nicotine:
Deterrence and reduced survival versus potential health benefits.
J Insect Physiol. 2012;58:286–92.
Mayes MA, Thompson GD, Husband B, Miles MM. Spinosad toxicity
to pollinators and associated risk. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol.
2003;179:37–71.
Renzi MT, Rodríguez-gasol N, Medrzycki P, Porrini C, Martini A,
Burgio G, Maini S, Sgolastra F. Combined effect of pollen quality
and thiamethoxam on hypopharyngeal gland development and
protein content in Apis mellifera. Apidologie. 2016;47:779–88.
 Bioremediation of Crude Oil Contaminated
Sea Water in Lab Microcosms

Zohra Chekroud, Mona Khameess Gouda, and Moussa Houhamdi

Keywords
Bacterial strains Bioremediation Immobilised cells Lab microcosms

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Sea water in Skikda (in the North East of Algeria) is under
great pressure because of industrial development (Boudelaa
and Medjram 2011) and the release of hydrocarbon pollu-
tants in the sea, which has affected the life quality in sea
water. Bioremediation processes, which take advantage of
microbial degradation of organic compounds, can be defined
as the use of microorganisms (especially bacteria) to
detoxify and remove environmental pollutants from soils,
waters and sediments. In this work the bioremediation of
crude oil polluted sea water using some bacterial strains was
studied in lab microcosms. Different treatments including
bioaugmentation, biostimulation and attenuation were tested.
2.1 Bioremediation Treatments
(Lab Microcosms)
Biostimulation and bioaugmentation treatments were pre-
pared in plastic pots (23 cm  17 cm  12 cm). Each pot
containing 1 L of filtered sea water was supplemented with
10 ml of crude oil. The biostimulated pots were supple-
mented with NH4NO3, 1 g; and 4 ml of a phosphate solution
containing (g/l) Na2HPO4, 25; NaH2PO4, 3.6. N/P ratio was
adjusted to 10/1. For the bioaugmentation treatments the
posts previously described received 80  105 cell/ml of
bacterial cells. The experiment was monitored for six weeks
under the laboratory temperature and samples were taken
each week to determine the residual crude oil.

2.2 Bacterial Cells Immobilisation

on Wheat Straw

Immobilised cells of bacterial strains used in bioaugmenta-

tion treatments were prepared according to the method of
Gouda et al. (2007) with some modifications. 20 g of rice
straw with immobilized cells were mixed with 1 L of crude
Z. Chekroud (&) oil contaminated sea water.
Department of Sciences of Nature and of Life, Faculty of Sciences,
University of 20 August 55, Skikda, Algeria
e-mail: Chekroudzohra@yahoo.fr
M. K. Gouda 2.3 Determination of Residual Crude Oil
Botanic Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University,
Alexandria, Egypt The residual crude oil was extracted according to the stan-
M. Houhamdi dard method for the determination of oils, grease and
Biology Department, Faculty of Sciences of Nature of Life, hydrocarbons in water as described by the American Society
of Earth and of the Universe, University of 8 Mai 1945, for Testing and Materials (D 3921-96) (1996).
Guelma, Algeria

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 351

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_111
352 Z. Chekroud et al.

Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6

120

% Degradation 100

80

60

40

20

C
M
.S

n
.S

io

io
-20
sp

m
m

sp

at

at
iu
iu
s

ul

nu
as
cu

rt
rt

im
so
on

te
so
oc

At
on

t
m
on

os
oc

do

Bi
C
od

eu
Rh

Ps
Treatments

Fig. 1 Bioremediation of crude oil contaminated sea water in lab microcosms

1 Week 2 Weeks 3 Weeks 4 Weeks 5 Weeks 6 Weeks

100
90
80
% Degradation

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
S

.S

.S
M

M
p.

p.
sp

sp
m

m
ss

ss
iu

iu
as

as
cu

cu
rt

rt
on

on
so

so
oc

oc
m

m
on

on
oc

oc
do

do
C

C
od

od
eu

eu
Rh

Rh
Ps

Ps

Free cells Immobilized cells

Treatment

Fig. 2 Biodegradation of crude oil using free and immobilized cells

3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Bioremediation of Crude Oil Contaminated
Sea Water in Lab Microcosms
After 6 weeks, the degradation rate was about 55.5–95%
with the lowest value in case of attenuation (55.5%) and the
highest value in case of consortium M (95%). The bios-
timulated treatments gave maximum degradation (70.5%)
after 6 weeks of incubation. The sterilized sample (control)
showed no change in its crude oil content after 6 weeks
(Fig. 1). Chromatographic analysis (Data not shown) indi-
cated that n-alkanes were easily degraded in comparison
with n-naphtenes and aromatics. According to some authors
bioaugmentation is more effective when the environment is
not nutrient deficient, but the indigenous microbial popula-
tion lacks the required activity or metabolic capability
(Yerushalmi et al. 2003). The population density of crude oil
Bioremediation of Crude Oil Contaminated Sea Water …
degrading bacteria increased with time. It reached 5.1 Log
CFU/ml in bioaugmentation treatment by consortium M
after six weeks of incubation.
3.2 Bioremediation of Crude Oil Using Free
and Immobilised Cells on Wheat Straw
The time needed for crude oil removal was reduced from six
weeks in case of bioaugmentation by free cells to four weeks
when contaminated sea water was bioaugmented by immo-
bilized cells (Fig. 2). Wheat straw absorbed 8-10% of crude
oil. The petroleum adsorbed products may be then degraded
in situ or ex situ (Quek et al. 2005).
4 Conclusion
Bioremediation using bacterial strains is an effective
technique for the decontamination of crude oil polluted
marine media, the use of wheat straw immobilised cells is
a cost effective technique. It accelerates the rate of oil
353
biodegradation and could be employed as a practical
technology for oil biodegradation in oil polluted sea.
References
American Society for Testing and Materials (D 3921-96). Standard test
methods for oil and grease petroleum hydrocarbons in water.
American Society for Testing and Materials. 100 Barr Harbor DR.,
West Conshohoken, 1996; PA 19428.
Boudelaa S, Medjram MS. Assessment of chemical and petrochemical
effluent:—case of hydrocarbon pole of Skikda, Algeria. Eur J Sci
Res. 2011; ISSN 1450-216X: 63(4):563–84.
Gouda MK, Omar SH, Chekroud ZA, Nour Eldin HM. Bioremediation
of kerosene I: a case study in liquid media, 2007; Chemosphere
69:1807–14.
Yerushalmi L, Rochleau S, Cimpoi R, Sarrazin M, Sunarah G,
Peisajovich A, Leclair G, Guiot S. Enhanced biodegradation of
petroleum hydrocarbons in contaminated soil. Bioremed J. 2003;7:
37–51.
Quek E, Ting Y-P, Tang HT. Rhodococcus sp.F92 immobilized on
polyurethane foam shows ability to degrade various petroleum
procucts, 2005. Biores Technol Biores Technol. 2005;97:32–8.
 Heavy Metals Assessment and Their Effects
on the Hepatopancreas in Orchestia
montagui (Amphipoda, Talitridae)

Raja Jelassi, Chedliya Ghemari, Hajer Khemaissia, Maryline Raimond,

Catherine Souty-Grosset, and Karima Nasri-Ammar

Keywords
Coastal lagoon Orchestia montagui Copper Zinc Bioaccumulation factor
Hepatopancreas

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Peracarid crustaceans have received special attention,
because many of them are important components of soft
sediment faunas and are considered good indicators of water
and sediment quality (Alfonso et al. 1998). Moreover, these
crustaceans notably terrestrial isopods have long been
known for their ability to accumulate significant amounts of
heavy metals and to survive even in heavily contaminated
areas (Longo et al. 2013). Furthermore, the main organ
where heavy metals are stored is the hepatopancreas that
contains 75–95% of the metals accumulated (Hopkin and
Martin 1982). This work aimed to assess the effect of heavy
metals on some physiological parameters in the crustacean
amphipod Orchestia montagui and to test their impacts on its
hepatopancreas.
R. Jelassi (&)
Institut National des Sciences, et Technologies de la Mer,
Salammbô Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: djelassi.raja@gmail.com
R. Jelassi
C. Ghemari
H. Khemaissia
K. Nasri-Ammar
Faculté des Sciences de Tunis, Unité de Recherche de
Bio-Ecologie et Systématique Evolutive El Manar II Tunis,
Université de Tunis El Manar, 2092 Tunis, Tunisie
M. Raimond
C. Souty-Grosset
Laboratoire Écologie et Biologie des Interactions, UMR CNRS
7267, équipe Écologie Évolution Symbios, Université de Poitiers,
5 rue Albert Turpain, TSA 51106, 86073 Poitiers Cedex 9, France
Adult specimens of O. montagui were collected from the
banks of Bizerte lagoon (37°13′8″N/09°55′1″E) and kept in
contaminated soils. The used heavy metals were copper
chloride (CuCl2) and zinc chloride (ZnCl2) according to
Köhler et al. (1996). Two replicates were prepared for each
concentration with 10 individuals per replicate. A control was
also prepared in which the soil was sprayed only with distilled
water. Then, specimens were maintained at 20 °C under LD
16:8 during 21 days of exposure. Specimens were weekly
weighed. At the end of the treatment, for each metal and for
each nominal concentration, an aliquot of both soils and
specimens was dried for 24 h in order to determine metals
concentrations using Atomic absorption Spectrometry by
flame (FAAS-6800, Shimadzu). The degree of accumulation
has been expressed as a bioaccumulation factor (BAF).
The BAF was calculated by dividing the concentration of the
chemical compound in the organism by its concentration in the
substrate on which it has been feeding (Mazzei et al. 2014). In
order to test body mass variations between concentrations and
between weeks, Kruskall Wallis and Friedman tests were
respectively applied using the Xlstat software.
3 Results and Discussion
The results showed that from the first week until the end of
the experiment, body mass fluctuations under the two metals
were observed. They also indicated that a highly significant
difference in body mass between nominal concentrations as
well as between weeks was noticed only when specimens
were exposed to Zn.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 355

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_112
356 R. Jelassi et al.

Table 1 Zn and Cu content (mg Kg−1, dry weight; means ± SD) in soils and in the whole body of O. montagui after exposure for 21 days to
various metal concentrations, and the bioaccumulation factor (BAF)
Groups O. montagui Soil BAF
Control 137.77 ± 0.00 25.24 ± 2.50 5.87
Zn 300 mg L−1 122.36 ± 11.62 21.03 ± 1.91 5.88
−1
Zn 400 mg L 107.17 ± 7.87 19.16 ± 2.62 5.62
Zn 500 mg L−1 210.52 ± 147.39 33.50 ± 1.70 6.18
Control 97.94 ± 0.00 18.85 ± 7.69 4.03
Cu 100 mg L−1 – 11.03 ± 1.62 –
Cu 150 mg L−1 116.1 ± 16.97 11.14 ± 1.68 10.42
Cu 200 mg L−1 328.22 ± 74.53 19.22 ± 6.89 19.00

C Zn Cu
MT BL

MV

S-cells Cu Cu Cu
ER
GA
B-cells N
ETM

Fig. 1 Control (C), zinc and copper, TEM, portion of the hepatopan- reticulum, N: nucleus, MTE: metal trace element, GA: golgi apparatus,
creas in Orchestia montagui, overview on a B- and S-cells. BL: basal g: B-type granules of S-cells, f: destroyed cells
lamina, MV: microvilli, MT: mitochondria, ER: endoplasmic

Zinc and copper metal contents in the body burden increase
proportionally to the nominal concentrations ranging
from 137.77 ± 0.00 mg Kg−1 in the control to
210.52 ± 147.39 mg Kg−1 at 500 mg L−1, and from 97.94 ±
0.00 mg Kg−1 in the control to 328.22 ± 74.53 mg Kg−1 at
200 mg L−1 respectively (Table 1).
Furthermore, to assess heavy metal bioaccumulation
capacity, the BAF was calculated. Globally, it was greater
than 2 whatever the metal and the nominal concentration. It
varied between 4.03 and 19.00 and between 5.62 and 6.18
for Cu and Zn respectively, showing that the talitrid O.
montagui could be considered as a macroconcentrator of the
studied metals (Dallinger 1993). This result could be
explained by the less effective Cu and Zn excretion mech-
anisms of this species as highlighted in other Crustacea
species (Witzel 1998) (Table 1).
The Transmission Electron Microscopy allowed us to
demonstrate the effect of these metals on the different cells of
the hepatopancreas (Fig. 1). Indeed, significant changes in
the ultrastructural organization of S- and B-cells in the
hepatopancreas induced by the different concentrations of
Cu and Zn were observed. Heavy metals granules and
mitochondria, already found in the control of O. montagui,
increased (Fig. 1). Moreover, the microvilli were destroyed
and cells were burst. Similar effects on the hepatopancreas
were observed in Porcellio scaber (Köhler et al. 1996), Ligia
oceanica (Storch and Lehnert-Moritz 1980), Armadillidium
granulatum, Armadillidium vulgare and Porcellio laevis
(Mazzei et al. 2014).
4 Conclusion
The talitrid, O. montagui, abundant species in the study
site, was a Cu and Zn macroconcentrator and presented a
good candidate bioindicator of these heavy metals pol-
lution. These findings suggest that O. montagui can
usefully be employed in biomonitoring programs.
Acknowledgements The study was supported by the Erasmus Mun-
dus Al Idrisi II Programme of the European Union for a stay at the
University of Poitiers and the Research Unit of Bio-ecology and
Heavy Metals Assessment and Their Effects on the Hepatopancreas …
Evolutionary Systematics (UR11ES11), Faculty of Science of Tunis,
University of Tunis El Manar.
References
Alfonso MI, Bandera ME, Lopez-Gonzalez PJ, Garcia-Gomez JC. The
Cumacean community associated with a seaweed as a bioindicator
of environmental conditions in the Algeciras Bay (Strait of
Gibraltor). Cah Biol Mar 1998; 39:197–205.
Dallinger R. Strategies of metal detoxification in terrestrial invertebrate.
In: Dallinger RAR, Rainbow PS, editors. Ecotoxicology of metals
in invertebrates. Lewis: Boca Raton; 1993. p. 245–90.
Hopkin SP, Martin MH. The distribution of zinc, cadmium, lead and
copper within the woodlouse Oniscus asellus (Crustacea, Isopoda).
Oecologia. 1982;54:227–32.
357
Köhler HR, Hüttenrauch K, Berkus M, Gräff S, Alberti G. Cellular
hepatopancreatic reactions in Porcellio scaber (Isopoda) as
biomarkers for the evaluation of heavy metal toxicity in soils. Appl
Soil Ecol. 1996; 1–15.
Longo G, Trovato M, Mazzei V, Ferrante M, Oliveri Conti G. Ligia
italica (Isopoda, Oniscidea) as bioindicator of mercury pollution of
marine rocky coasts. PLoS ONE. 2013;8(3):e58548.
Mazzei V, Longo G, Brundo MV, Sinatra F, Copat C, Oliveri Conti G,
Ferrante M. Bioaccumulation of cadmium and lead and its effects on
hepatopancreas morphology in three terrestrial isopod crustacean
species. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2014;110:269–79.
Storch V, Lehnert-Moritz K. The effects of starvation on the hepatopan-
creas of the isopod Ligia oceanica. Zool Anz. 1980;1980
(204):137–46.
Witzel B. Uptake, storage and loss of cadmium and lead in the
woodlouse Porcellio scaber (Crustacea, Isopoda). Water Air Soil
Pollut. 1998;108:51–68.
 Life Cycle Assessment of Di-Ammonium
Phosphate (DAP) Fertilizer Production
in Tunisia

Soumaya Aribi, Mohamed Razak Jday, and Noureddine Hajjaji

Keywords
Life cycle assessment DAP fertilizers Environmental impacts

1 Introduction 2 Methodology

The tremendous growth of the world population in recent
years, has caused a significant increase in the food con-
sumption. To meet this growing consumption, an improve-
ment of the crop production seems crucial and the use of
chemical fertilizers in this case is necessary. Although
chemical fertilizers have advantages for agricultural pro-
duction, they also generate negative impacts on the envi-
ronment. Therefore, the environmental impacts of the
fertilizer production and use need to be considered. Life
cycle assessment has become an increasingly common
approach for identifying, quantifying, and evaluating the
potential environmental impacts of processes. To provide the
inventory and the impacts related to the production of
phosphate fertilizers (DAP) the life cycle assessment was
used.
The “Cradle to Gate” approach has been considered in this
study. The inventory was developed for the Tunisian
Chemical Group (Gabes). The SimaPro and the ReCiPe
Midpoint method were used to assess the impacts. Accord-
ing to the ISO standards in LCA, the LCA framework is
described in four phases (ISO 14040 2006): (1) goal and
scope definitions, (2) inventory analysis, (3) impact assess-
ment and (4) interpretation.
2.1 Goal and Scope Definition
2.1.1 Goal and Scope
The main objectives of this study were: to evaluate the
environmental impacts of DAP fertilizers production and
compare the DAP production system with other systems in
order to determine the most effective.

2.1.2 Functional Unit

The chosen functional unit for this work is “to produce 1ton
of DAP fertilizer”.
S. Aribi (&)
M. R. Jday
URENE, Unité de Recherche Energétique et Environnement, 2.1.3 System Boundaries
Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Gabès, Avenue Omar Ibn El The system boundaries for the LCA calculations were
Khattab, Zrig, 6072 Gabès, Tunisia defined as: (1) Production of the raw materials, (2) DAP
e-mail: soumayaaribi90@gmail.com
fertilizer Process, (3) Utilities, (4) Production and distribu-
M. R. Jday tion of natural gaz, (5) Equipment, (6) Packaging (Fig. 1).
e-mail: raz.jday@yahoo.fr
N. Hajjaji
Faculté des Sciences de Gabès, URCMEP, Unité de Recherche
Catalyse et Matériaux pour l’Environnement et les Procédés,
Campus Universitaire, 6072 Gabès, Tunisia
e-mail: hajjaji.nour@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 359

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_113
360
Fig. 1 System boundaries of DAP fertilizers life cycle
2.2 Life Cycle Inventory
The LCA foreground data were collected from the Tunisian
Chemical Group (DAP fertilizer Process, Utilities, Equip-
ment) and the background data were obtained for Ecoinvent
3 database (phosphoric acid production, ammonia produc-
tion and sulfuric acid production).
2.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)
This phase assesses the impact of the product or process on
the environment in order to transform the LCI data into
impact category indicators. To achieve the goal and the
scope of this study, the SimaPro 8.3 and ReCiPe Midpoint
were used to assess the impacts.
ReCiPe Midpoint method assesses most of the impact
categories: Climate change, Ozone depletion, Acidification,
Eutrophication, Human toxicity, Photochemical oxidant
formation, Particulate matter, Ecotoxicity, Ionizing radia-
tion, Land use and Water, Mineral and Fossil depletion.
S. Aribi et al.
2.4 Results and Discussion
The characterization of emissions from DAP production in
“Cradle-to-Gate” approach has been shown in Fig. 2. It is
observed that the production of phosphoric acid is the main
contributor among other processes followed by the pro-
duction of ammonia and the production of DAP fertilizers.
The other subsystems (Equipment, Transport, Sulfuric Acid
Production, DAP Bagging, Utilities) have negligible
effects. On the basis of the results provided by the life
cycle assessment, it can be concluded that the major pro-
cess which affects the environment is the phosphoric acid
production—the pollutants emitted from this process are
SO2, HF, dust and phosphogypsum. These pollutants are
categorized into three major impact categories viz. Human
Toxicity, Freshwater Ecotoxicity and Natural Resource
Depletion.
On the other hand, the DAP (Tunisia) production system
was compared to other systems [India (Sampatrao and
Rajendra 2012) and China (Fangfang et al. 2016)] in order to
determine the most effective.
Life Cycle Assessment of Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) … 361

Fig. 2 Characterization of emissions from DAP production in cradle-to-gate approach (Tunisian Chemical Group-Gabes)

Fig. 3 Comparison of the different systems of production of phosphate fertilizers DAP (Tunisia, India and China)

Figure 3 shows that the Tunisian DAP production system to phosphogypsum being disposed of into the sea. While,
is the most polluting compared to other systems concerning 42.86% phosphogypsum was reused by making bricks in the
Eutrophication, Human toxicity and ecotoxicity. This is due DAP Chinese scenario. Concerning the climate change
362
category, The DAP production system in China emits GHGs
almost 2.5 times the quantity emitted by the Tunisian and
Indian systems. This is explained by the use of coal in
electricity production in China.
3 Conclusion
The environmental impact assessment of DAP fertilizer
production system of Tunisian Chemical Group has been
presented. This paper reported an LCA investigation of
DAP production system and identified the hot spots of the
production system. The obtained results could be used as
S. Aribi et al.
background data for LCA study of various agricultural
crops.
References
ISO 14040. Environemental management, ‘life cycle assessment—
principle and frame work’. International Organization of standards
National Standard Authority of Ireland, Ireland, 2006.
Sampatrao M, Rajendra M. Application life cycle assessment to
diammonium phosphate production. 2012.
Fangfang Z et al. Life cycle assessment of diammonium- and
monoammonium-phosphate fertilizer production in China. 2016.
 Growth and Yield of Triticale Plants Amended
with Sewage Sludge Under Sub-humid
Mediterranean Conditions
Rajia Kchaou, Rim Baccar, Yassine Hidri, Kalthoum Harbaoui,
Jalel Bouzid, and Saloua Rejeb



Keywords
Triticale Sewage sludge
1 Introduction
Triticale (X Triticosecale Wittmack) is one of the most
important crops in the development of forage systems,
because of its high yield, good mineral balance and better
tolerance to biotic and abiotic stress (Heger and Eggum
1991). In Tunisia, it was introduced as cultivated species
for experimental purposes in the 1970s (cited by Gharbi
et al. 2003). Since the beginning of its cultivation, mainly
in the northern part of Tunisia, triticale areas have
increased substantially. The grain production increased
consecutively from 56 in 2006 to 281 thousand q in 2015.
Seed cost showed also significant increases attaining 48
TND.q−1 in 2015 compared to 18 TND.q−1 in 2006
(Tunisian Ministry of Agriculture 2016). Rising fertilizer
prices is considered as one of the major factors in such
Kchaou R. and Baccar R. contributed equally to this work.
R. Kchaou (&)
Y. Hidri
K. Harbaoui
Regional Field Crop Research Center, Beja, Tunisia
e-mail: rajiakm@yahoo.fr
R. Baccar
J. Bouzid
Laboratory of Environmental Engineering and Eco Technology,
ENIS, University of Sfax-Tunisia, Sfax, Tunisia
S. Rejeb
National Research Institute of Rural Engineering, Water and
Forest, Ariana, Tunisia
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_114



Ammonium nitrate Growth Production
evolution. A wide range of organic amendments might be
proposed as an alternative to reduce the need for a com-
mercial fertilizer. It includes green manure, farmyard
manure, compost and waste product such as sewage sludge
(Alvarengaa et al. 2015).
In this context, the objective of this study was to evaluate
the response of triticale (X Triticosecale Wittmack) to sew-
age sludge application compared to the mineral nitrogen
fertilization under sub-humid conditions.
2 Materials and Methods
The field experiment was carried out in the regional Field
Crop Research Center, Beja, Tunisia. Five treatments were
applied with 4 replications: a control (unamended soil), a
treatment fertilized with 100 kg N.ha−1 as ammonium
nitrate (A) and 3 sewage sludge rates, SS1:6, SS2:12 and
SS3: 18 t.ha−1, were applied 15 days before sowing. Tow
harvests were conducted at 60 and 90 days after sowing
(DAS). One linear meter was selected randomly from each
treatment and hand harvested for growth analyses (shoot
length, number of tillers, leaf area, etc.) and biomass
determination.
The obtained results were assessed using ANOVA sta-
tistical analysis from the Statistical Analysis System (SPSS
20.0 for Windows).
3 Results and Discussion
Shoot length, leaf area and number of tillers increased at all
SS rates compared to unamanded soil and ammonium nitrate
(A). Maximum increase was observed with the highest rate
363
364 R. Kchaou et al.

control A SS1 SS2 SS3

60 DAS 90 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS

60 DAS 90 DAS 90 DAS

Fig. 1 Shoot length, leaf area, number of tillers and nodes of triticale plants grown at different SS rates “DAS: Days after sowing”. (Average
values followed by the same letter are not significantly different at p > 0.05)

Table 1 Above ground biomass Biomass accumulation (kg.ha−1)

(kg ha−1) of triticale plants grown
at different SS rates (Average Treatments 60 DAS 90 DAS
values followed by the same letter Control 835 b 7758 c
are not significantly different at
A 1031 b 11,040 cb
p > 0.05)
SS1 1772 a 12,101 b
SS2 1754 a 14,464 ba
SS3 2193 a 17,338 a

of SS. Leaf area, number of tillers and nodes also increased
significantly due to SS application. The increment was in the
maximum at 18 t.ha−1 (Fig. 1).
Above the ground, the plant biomass was significantly
higher in plants grown at different SS rates as compared to
unamended soil. The maximum increase was observed with
18 t.ha−1 at 90 DAS (Table 1).
Sludge leads to higher crop growth and production than
commercial fertilization suggesting a higher efficiency of
sewage sludge as N fertilizer (Kchaou et al. 2010, 2017).
4 Conclusion
The results of this study indicated that a sewage sludge
application on triticale, forage crop, might be an attractive
option to increase crop yield, and reduce production cost
by reducing the commercial fertilizer use.
References
Alvarengaa P, Mourinhaa C, Fartoa M, Santosa T, Palmaa P, Sengod J,
Moraisd MC, Cunha-Quedab C. Sewage sludge, compost and other
representative organic wastes as agricultural soil amendments:
Benefits versuslimiting factors. Waste Manag. 2015;40:44–52.
Gharbi F, Thebet B, Gharbi MS. Illustration d’une approche type de
valorisation d’un nouveau produit. Biotechnol Agron Soc Environ.
2003;7:127–35.
Heger J, Eggum BO. The nutritional values of some high-yielding
cultivars of triticale. J Cereal Sci. 1991;14:63–71.
Kchaou R, Khelil MN, Gharbi F, Rejeb S, Henchi B, Hernandez T,
Destain JP. Isotopic evaluations of dynamic and plant uptake of N
in soil amended with 15N-labelled sewage sludge. Polish J Environ
Stud. 2010;19(2):363–70.
Kchaou R, Khelil MN, Gharbi F, Rejeb S, Henchi B, Destain JP. Direct
and residual effect of sewage sludge in a sudangrass-barley cropping
system. In Ouessar et al, editors. Water and land Security in Drylands.
Tunisia: Springer International Publishing AG; 2017:111–7.
 Assessment of Trace Metals in Marine
Magnoliophyta in Port El Kantaoui
(Sousse, Tunisia)

Rym Zakhama-Sraieb, Yassine Ramzi Sghaier, Ahmed Ben Hmida,

and Faouzia Charfi

Keywords
Trace metals Seagrass Port Mediterranean Sea

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Trace metals (TMs) are considered hazardous pollutants of
aquatic environment since they are persistent, toxic, and
could be concentrated in marine organisms (Ikem and
Egiebor 2005). Sediment and water associated metals pose a
direct risk to marine seagrass through their accumulation in
plant tissues. TMs environmental concentration has to be
accurately monitored in order to guarantee appropriate
environmental management of coastal areas (Richir and
Gobert 2014). Magnoliophyta are widely distributed in the
Tunisian coasts. They are a good bioindicator, sensitive to
different types of polluants particularly Posidonia oceanica
and Cymodocea nodosa (Bonanno and Di martino 2016).
The present study aimed to investigate the bioaccumulation
patterns of five TMs Zn, Ni, Cu, Pb and Cd in two Mag-
noliophyta, P. oceanica and C. nodosa around port El
Kantaoui located in the southern coast of Tunisia.
R. Zakhama-Sraieb (&)
High Institute of Biotechnology of Sidi Thabet, University of
Manouba, BiotechPôlet, BP-66, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Ariana, Tunisia
e-mail: zakhamarym@yahoo.fr
R. Zakhama-Sraieb
Y. R. Sghaier
A. Ben Hmida
F. Charfi
Département de Biologie Animale, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis,
University of Tunis El Manar, ES11UR11 Bio-Ecologie et
Systématique Evolutive, 2092 Manar II, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: yassineramzi.sghaier@rac-spa.org
F. Charfi
e-mail: f.charfi@fst.rnu.tn
Y. R. Sghaier
Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas
(RAC/SPA), Boulevard du Leader Yasser Arafat, BP 337,
1080 Tunis Cedex, Tunisia
Port El Kantaoui is located south of the Gulf of Hammamet,
about 8 km northwest of the port of Sousse (35°53′N–10°36′E).
The sampling was carried out in Port of El Kantaoui at
eleven stations, three stations located inside the marina
(S1-3) and eight stations (S4-11) located outside the marina.
Seagrass, sediment and seawater were sampled over four
seasons. Analyses of TMs in seawater and sediment samples
were measured using Inductively Coupled Plasma spec-
trometry (ICP-OES, Perkin Elmer Optima DV 7000). For
Magnoliophyta samples, the biometric analysis was per-
formed according to Giraud (1977). Then, TMs analyses
were performed on the adults leaves by Inductively Coupled
Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES, OPTIMA
2100 DV and PERKIN ELMER 8000).
The statistical analysis was performed using R Statistical
Software. Significant differences between seasons were tes-
ted using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Prior to
ANOVA, normality of data was tested using Shapiro-Wilk
test and heterogeneity of variance was tested with Cochran’s
C-test.
3 Results and Discussion
Samples of sediment and water from the stations inside the
port (without Magnoliophyta meadow) and outside the port
(with Magnoliophyta meadow) were analysed. In both
environments, TMs levels in the water column were low and
mostly lower than the detection limit. However sediments
from the stations located inside the port (S1, S2 and in less
degree S3) were much more contaminated by TMs than those
outside the port. The Pb levels recorded from the sediment of

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 365

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_115
366
Port El Kantaoui were lower than those reported from the
main ports of Sidi Mansour and Gabès in Tunisia by Chouba
and Mzoughi-Aguir 2006, and from other Mediterranean
sites such as the Antikrya Gulf in Greece (Malea et al. 1994)
and Livorno in Italy (Lafabrie et al. 2007).
Pollution by TMs in coastal meadows is essentially due to
coastal cities, industries, harbours and rivers. The existence
of TMs in the water and sediment of the port of El Kantaoui
could be explained by the presence of (i) sewage outfall in the
regions bordering port El Kantaoui such Hammem Sousse
and may be a source of Cd and Zn, (ii) boats in the marina
that have antifouling paints and ship rustproof enamel,
probably a source of Zn, Cu and Pb and (iii) a fuel pump, a
source of Ni which is a major constituent of gasoline and a
fishing sinker. Cu, Pb and particularly Ni are important
constituents of fuel oil. Trace of Pb in sediment, could also be
the results of previous contamination by gasoline enriched
with lead before its prohibition as additive in gasoline.
Mean levels of TMs in the leaves of Magnoliophyta
decreased in the following order: Zn > Ni > Cu > Pb > Cd.
A significant seasonal variation of TM levels was shown
(p < 0.001). Levels of Cd and Cu in Magnoliophyta leaves
further showed a seasonal pattern: levels of Cd decreased
from spring to winter as opposite of levels of Cu.
Leaves of Magnoliophyta had high levels of the five
studied TMs, compared to sediment and seawater, indicating
the strong ability of this plant to bioaccumulate these metals
as reported in previous studies (Bonanno and Di martino
2016). Furthermore, the overall TMs level in Magnoliophyta
was relatively similar to those in the environment (Zn >
Cu > Cd). The present results indicated that seagrass
meadows play an important role as a “reservoir” through the
assimilation and the TMs storage from the surroundings.
4 Conclusion
This survey allowed to highlight the annual variation of
TM accumulation in Magnoliophyta leaves. Therefore,
this study reinforced the usefulness and the relevance of
R. Zakhama-Sraieb et al.
Magnoliophyta such as P. oceanica and C. nodosa as a
bioindicator of Zn, Ni, Cd and Pb contamination in
Tunisian coasts.
Acknowledgements This study was conducted within the framework
of the project “MAnagement of Port areas in the MEDiterranean Sea
Basin (MAPMED)” funded by ENPI CBC MED Cross-Border Coop-
eration. This publication has been produced with the financial assis-
tance of the European Union under the ENPI CBC Mediterranean Sea
Basin Programme. The contents of this document are the sole respon-
sibility of FST and can under no circumstances be regarded as
reflecting the position of the European Union or of the Programme’s
management structures.
References
Bonanno G, Di Martino V. Seagrass Cymodocea nodosa as a trace
element biomonitor: Bioaccumulation patterns and biomonitoring
uses. J Geochem Explor. 2016;169:43–9.
Chouba L, Mzoughi-Aguir N. Les métaux traces (Cd, Pb et Hg) et les
hydrocarbures totaux des sédiments superficiels de la frange côtière
du golfe de Gabès. Bull Inst Natn Scien Tech Mer de Salammbô.
2006;33:93–100.
Giraud G. Essai de classement des herbiers de Posidonia oceanica
(Linné) Delile. Bot Mar. 1977;20(8):487–91.
Ikem A, Egiebor NO. Assessment of trace elements in canned fishes
(Mackerel, Tuna, Salmon, Sardines and Herrings) marketed in
Georgia and Alabama (United States of America). J Food Comp
Anal. 2005;18(8):771–87.
Lafabrie C, Pergent G, Kantin R, Pergent-Martini C, Gonzalez JL.
Trace metals assessment in water, sediment, mussel and seagrass
species—validation of the use of Posidonia oceanica as a metal
biomonitor. Chemosphere. 2007;68(11):2033–9.
Malea P, Haritonidis S, Kevrekidis T. Seasonal and local variation of
metal concentrations in the seagrass Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile
in the Antikyra Gulf, Greece. Sci Total Environ. 1994;153(3):
225–35.
Richir J, Gobert S. A reassessment of the use of Posidonia oceanica
and Mytilus galloprovincialis to biomonitor the coastal pollution of
trace elements: new tools and tips. Mar Pollut Bull. 2014;89:
390–406.
 Exogenous Proline Improves Olive Plant
Performance Against Cadmium Stress

Mohamed Zouari, Nada Elloumi, Salma Mseddi, Pascal Labrousse,

Bechir Ben Rouina, Ferjani Abdallah, and Chedlyia Ben Ahmed

Keywords
Olea europaea Cadmium stress Exogenous proline Osmotic regulation
Antioxidant defense

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Among heavy metals, cadmium (Cd) when released in soil,
is harmful as it can easily penetrate the root system and reach
plant photosynthetic tissues (Islam et al. 2009). To cope with
Cd stress, Cadmium tolerant plants present several resistance
mechanisms like osmoregulation and antioxidant defense
(Nowak et al. 2014). To improve plant metal tolerance,
exogenous application of osmoprotectants represent an
alternative way (Ashraf and Foolad 2007). The ameliorative
and osmoprotective role of proline has been extensively
demonstrated during experimental exogenous proline treat-
ments. The aims of this study were (i) to investigate the
effects of Cd on young Chemlali olive plants grown on
cadmium contaminated soils and (ii) to examine the effec-
tiveness of exogenous proline application to counteract
deleterious effects of cadmium stress.
M. Zouari (&)
B. B. Rouina
Laboratory of Improvement of Olive Productivity and Fruit Trees,
Olive Tree Institute of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: mohamedzouari2@gmail.com
N. Elloumi
S. Mseddi
Laboratory of Environment Engineering and Ecotechnology,
Higher Institute of Biotechnology of Sfax, University of Sfax,
Sfax, Tunisia
P. Labrousse
Laboratory of Botany and Cryptogamy, Faculty of Pharmacy of
Limoges, University of Limoges, Limoges, France
F. Abdallah
C. B. Ahmed
Laboratory of Biodiversity and Dynamics of Ecosystems in Arid
Area, Faculty of Sciences of Sfax, University of Sfax, Sfax,
Tunisia
Trials were conducted at the Olive Tree Institute of Sfax,
Tunisia (34°43′N, 10°41′E). Uniform 2-years-old olive trees
(Olea europaea L. cv Chemlali) were transplanted into 5-L
pots filled with 5 kg soil (88.5% sand, 3% clay, and 8.5%
silt). The pots were kept under ambient environmental
conditions with natural sunlight and temperature. Plants
were subjected to the following treatments during five
months (August–December 2012): (i) Cp: control plants
untreated with CdCl2 and irrigated with tap water; (ii) Cd1:
plants treated with 10 mg CdCl2 kg−1 soil and irrigated with
tap water; (iv) Cd1+Pr: plants treated with 10 mg CdCl2
kg−1 soil and irrigated with tap water containing 20 mM
proline; (v) Cd2: plants treated with 30 mg CdCl2 kg−1 soil
and irrigated with tap water; (vii) Cd2+Pr: plants treated
with 30 mg CdCl2 kg−1 soil and irrigated with tap water
containing 20 mM proline. The different measurements and
analyses were made at the end of the experimental period.
We were interested in studying (i) plant growth: plant height
(ii) osmoticum accumulation: proline and soluble sugar
contents, (iii) water status: leaf relative water content,
(iv) non-enzymatic antioxidant system: polyphenols,
(v) chlorophyll fluorescence measurements: maximum
quantum yield of PhotosystemlI (PSII) photochemistry
(Fv/Fm).
3 Results and Discussion
Our results indicate that both Cd levels (Cd1 and Cd2)
significantly (p  0.05) reduce the olive tree growth
(Table 1). A similar observation was reported in different

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 367

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_116
368 M. Zouari et al.

Table 1 Effects of exogenous proline application on plant height, Leaf relative water content, polyphenols, maximum quantum yield of PSII
photochemistry in leaves of young olive plants grown under Cd stress
Parameters Cp Cd1 Cd1+pr Cd2 Cd2+pr
Plant height (cm) 12.81 ± 0.92 b
10.50 ± 1.34 c
14.45 ± 1.12 a
7.86 ± 0.91 d
11.17 ± 1.16c
Leaf relative water content (%) 93.95 ± 1.94 a
84.55 ± 2.18 b
85.42 ± 2.06 b
71.37 ± 2.38 d
80.66 ± 1.35c
polyphenols (mg GAE g−1DW) 14.22 ± 1.23d 18.47 ± 0.98c 23.08 ± 2.14b 22.44 ± 1.77b 27.55 ± 1.85a
Maximum quantum yield of PSII 0.79 ± 0.03 a
0.71 ± 0.03 b
0.74 ± 0.05 ab
0.57 ± 0.04 c
0.68 ± 0.08b
photochemistry (Fv/Fm)
a–d
Values with different superscript letters in the same line indicate a significant difference (p < 0.05)

Fig. 1 Effect of exogenous proline application on proline content treatment ± SD. Different letters indicate significant differences
(a) and soluble sugar content (b) in leaves of young olive plants grown between treatments (p  0.05, Duncan test)
under Cd stress. Values represent the means of 3 replications per

plant species subjected to Cd stress, such as cucumber
(Cucumis sativus) (Nowak et al. 2014). As in cucumber, the
decrease of the plant height in both Cd stressed olive plants
can be explained by the decrease in leaf water content and
the photosystem alteration (Table 1).
Exogenous application of proline induced a further increase
in soluble sugars and proline contents (Fig. 1). This accumu-
lation of osmotic regulators is a common phenomenon
observed in plants under abiotic stress (Ashraf and Foolad
2007). In our experiment, proline treatment increased
polyphenols content in Cd stressed young olive plants. Similar
to the findings of Aggarwal et al. (2011), our results suggest that
proline stimulated the biosynthesis of phenolic compounds
which are potent antioxidant. In addition to its function as an
efficient osmolyte and antioxidant, proline application led to a
slight enhancement of photosynthetic function in Cd1 and
Cd2-treated olive plants suggesting that chloroplast structures
are protected from toxic effects of Cd stress by proline.
4 Conclusion
Toxic effects including growth reduction, leaf water
content and photosynthetic activity were observed on
young olive plants grown under both Cd contaminated
soil levels. The exogenous proline application alleviated
the negative effects of cadmium stress. In fact, plant
growth, water status, photosynthetic activity, osmotic
regulators and non-enzymatic antioxidants levels were
improved by proline. The increased endogenous proline
and the antioxidant activities under proline supplemen-
tation suggest an important role of proline as an antiox-
idant molecule beside its osmo-protectant function.
References
Ashraf M, Foolad MR. Role of glycine betaine and proline in
improving plantabiotic stress resistance. Environ Exp Bot.
2007;59:206–16.
Aggarwal M, Sharma S, Kaur N, Pathania D, Bhandhari K, Kaushal N,
Kaur R, Singh K, Srivastava A, Nayyar H. Exogenous proline
application reduces phytotoxic effects of selenium by minimising
oxidative stress and improves growth in bean Phaseolus vulgaris L.
seedlings. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2011;3:354–67.
Islam MM, Hoque MA, Okuma E, Banu MNA, Shimoishi Y,
Nakamura Y, Murata Y. Exogenous proline and glycine betaine
increase antioxidant enzyme activities and confer tolerance to
cadmium stress in cultured tobacco cells. J Plant Physiol.
2009;166:1587–97.
Nowak BH, Dresler S, Wójcik M. Selenium affects physiological
parame-ters and phytochelatins accumulation in cucumber (Cucu-
mis sativus L.) plantsgrownunder cadmium exposure. Sci Hortic.
2014;172:10–8.
 DDT-Induced Hypothyroidism Mechanisms
in Rats

Olfa Tebourbi, Neila Marouani, Dorsaf Hallègue,

Mohamed Tahar Yacoubi, Mohsen Sakly, and Khémais Ben Rhouma

Keywords
p,p′-DDT Thyroid 5′ deiodinases UDP-glucuronyltransferase Goiter Rats

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

DDT and many of its metabolites have been linked to
endocrine disruptions because of their capacity for mim-
icking or interfering with endogenous hormones and other
signaling chemicals of the endocrine system. The thyroid
system is a major target of the so-called endocrine disrupting
chemicals. Such disruption may have severe consequences
as thyroid hormones play an important role in the mainte-
nance of a normal physiological status in vertebrates
(Dellovade et al. 1995). The current study was designed to
assess the effects of subacute administration of p,p′-DDT on
the thyroid histopathology and the thyroid hormone meta-
bolism by measuring T4 5′ D-I activity in liver, kidney and
thyroid and 5′ D-II activity in BAT. The roles of T4
UDP-GT in the metabolic clearance of thyroid hormones
were also investigated.
O. Tebourbi (&)
N. Marouani
D. Hallègue
M. Sakly
K.B. Rhouma
Laboratory of Integrated Physiology, Faculty of Sciences,
7021 Bizerte, Jarzouna, Tunisia
e-mail: tebourbi.olfa@gmail.com
N. Marouani
e-mail: neila_fatnassi@yahoo.fr
D. Hallègue
e-mail: dorsafhallegue@yahoo.fr
M. Sakly
e-mail: mohsensakly@gmail.com
K. B. Rhouma
e-mail: k.benrhouma2015@gmail.com
M. T. Yacoubi
Laboratory of Pathologic Anatomy, Farhat Hached Hospital,
Sousse, Tunisia
e-mail: taharyacoubi@yahoo.fr
Rats were randomized into three experimental groups
(n = 8) as follows: (1) Animals received daily intraperi-
toneal injections (i.p) of DDT diluted with corn oil at doses
of 50 mg/kg body weight (b.wt/day) during 10 days,
(2) Animals were administered 10 daily injections of 100 mg
DDT/kg.b.wt, (3) The control group received equal daily
volumes of vehicle during the treatment period. Rats were
fed and observed daily. Body weights were recorded daily
throughout the study. Histopathological and histomorpho-
logical studies were conducted. Serum TSH level was
determined in duplicate using an enzyme immunoassay
system (enzyme- linked immunosorbent assay, ELISA)
Total T3 and total T4 levels were determined using a
radioimmunoassay (RIA) kit (Immunotech, France). Hepatic
UDP-glucuronyltransferase (UDP-GT) activity was deter-
mined and tissue samples were assayed for 5′-deiodinases.
Data were analysed using Statistica for Windows version 5.0
Software. The results were expressed as means ± standard
errors of the mean (SEM). Differences between means were
evaluated by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) fol-
lowed by Tukey’s multiple comparison as the post hoc test.
All statistical tests were two-tailed and a p value of 0.05 or
less was considered significant.
3 Results and Discussion
The present study was carried out to investigate the effect of p,
p′-DDT on rat thyroid endocrine system. There were no dif-
ferences between control and DDT-treated rat body weights
throughout the course of the study. The average body weights
prior to treatment were 232.9 ± 0.99 and 233.6 ± 1.25 g,

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 369

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_117
370
Fig. 1 a Control Thyroid (a)
photomicrograph.
b Photomicrograph of the thyroid
from a DDT-treated rat
(100 mg/kg)
respectively for 50 and 100 mg/kg.b.wt, versus
233.9 ± 0.99 g, for the control group. Data indicate that i.p
injection of DDT for 10 consecutive days caused a significant
increase in the thyroid relative weights. Gland relative weights
were 153.9% (p = 0.0001) and 87.38% (p = 0.0001) greater
than that of the control group, respectively for 50 and 100 mg
DDT/kg. Administration of DDT induced a dose-dependent
decrease in the serum level of total T4 from 4.26 ± 0.27 to
2.95 ± 0.30 (p = 0.0149) and 1.57 ± 0.32 µg/dL
(p = 0.0001), respectively for 50 and 100 mg/kg. UDP-GT
activity towards T4 was significantly and dose-dependently
elevated in animals exposed to DDT by 88.88% (p = 0.0031)
and 171% of control, respectively for 50 and 100 mg/kg. This
result is consistent with previous reports showing an important
increase in T4-glucuronyl transferase activity in hepatic
microsomes from rats following a single dose of 2, 3, 7, 8
tetrachloro-p-dioxin (TCDD) (Visser et al. 1993). Like DDT,
several other xenobiotics known as microsomal enzyme
inducers, were reported to increase T4 UDP-GT activity and to
decrease serum T4 concentrations, such as
3-methylchloranthrene, pregnenolone-16a-carbonitrile (PCN),
phenobarbital, PCBs and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) (Pandey
and Mohanty 2017). One possible explanation of the
decreased levels of circulating T4 is that DDT could accelerate
liver clearance of T4 in bile through induction of UDP-GT
and/or could have a direct toxicity on the thyroid gland.
Moreover, an alternative pathway that could contribute to
changes in T4 is the displacement of the hormone from its
respective binding protein by DDT and its metabolites. Indeed,
a shift in the dynamic equilibrium between T4 and binding
sites of the carrier proteins could increase the clearance of this
hormone. In contrast to the observation of diminished T4 in
response to DDT, the effects on T3, the most potent thyroid
hormone, are less consistent. In fact, the serum level of T3 was
not affected in the 50 mg DDT/kg/day group
(67.66 ± 7.37 ng/dL versus 68.93 ± 5.79 ng/dL) (p =
0.9987) but was significantly decreased in 100 mg
O. Tebourbi et al.
(b)
X400 X400
DDT/kg/day group (p = 0.0002). TSH levels were increased
after DDT administration at the two doses used (p = 0.0019
and p = 0.0001, respectively for 50 and 100 mg DDT/kg).
The hepatic 5′ deiodinase type I (5′D-I) activity was main-
tained at a value comparable to that of control animals after
exposure to 50 mg DDT/kg and was reduced by 42.92% in
rats exposed to the dose of 100 mg/kg. The basal activity of 5′
D-I in kidney was 55.84 ± 2.35 pmol min−1 mg protein−1
and decreased by 22.56 and 58.18% for 50 and 100 mg
DDT/Kg, respectively. In contrast with liver and kidney,
thyroid 5′ D-I activity was significantly elevated with 50 mg
DDT/Kg (212.10 pmol min−1 mg protein−1 versus
−1 −1
151.3 pmol min mg protein for control group) and it
decreased with 100 mg DDT/kg to reach 89.14 pmol.
min−1 mg protein−1. The basal activity of 5′ deiodinase type II
(5′D-II) in BAT was 23.88 ± 2.63 pmol min−1 mg protein−1,
and it increased by 95.47% to a value of
46.68 pmol min−1 Mg protein−1 (p = 0.0185), only after
exposure to 50 mg DDT/kg. However, BAT 5′ D-II activity in
rats treated with 100 mg DDT/kg was comparable to that of
control (23.89 ± 4.41 pmol min−1). The maintenance of T3
levels with 50 mg DDT/kg could be due to the absence of
DDT effect on hepatic 5′ D-I activity in rats treated and/or to
the difference between T3 and T4 glucuronidation enzymes.
Chanoine et al. (1993) have reported that intrathyroidal T4 to
T3 conversion may account for most of the T3 released by the
thyroid in the rat. In the present study, a significant increase in
thyroid 5′ D-I was observed after treatment with 50 mg
DDT/kg, suggesting that the thyroid is contributing to the
maintenance of serum T3. Thyroid 5′ D-I activity is greatly
increased by TSH. As in the present study, DDT increased
blood TSH. It seemed likely, therefore, that 5′ D-I activity
would also be elevated offering an additional mechanism for
increasing thyroid T3 secretion and maintaining its serum
level. TSH secretion has been shown to be increased by a
reduction in the concentration of T4, independently of alter-
ation in T3 levels. Thus, the decrease in serum levels of T4
DDT-Induced Hypothyroidism Mechanisms in Rats
attenuates the negative feedback on the pituitary and the
hypothalamus. Increased conversion of T4 to T3, catalyzed by
liver, thyroid 5′ D-I and BAT 5′ D-II deiodinases may explain
why serum T3 concentration was maintained in the hypothy-
roxinemia induced by 50 mg DDT/Kg. Such a result may be
also related to T3 positive associations with p,p′-DDT and p,p′-
DDE serum levels found in populations with low exposures
(Meeker et al. 2007). These hormonal changes were accom-
panied by striking changes in thyroid gland morphology
characterised by a diffuse follicular hyperplasia and squamous
metaplasia with anisomorphic and hyperchromatic nuclei
(Fig. 1b represented by arrows), when compared to control
thyroid sections (Fig. 1a).
Total number of follicles increased with the dose of
50 mg/kg (120.66 ± 1.48 vs. 71.95 ± 2.99 for the control
group) and declined with the highest dose (57.18 ± 4.33).
The follicle section area was smaller by 54.93% and by
63.66% in rats treated respectively with 50 and 100 mg/kg
of the pesticide as compared with the control
(1797.33 ± 43.42 µm2). These histomorphometric changes
are consistent with thyroid hyperplasia in DDT-treated rats
leading to a colloid goiter as demonstrated by the sharp
decrease of epithelial cell height (from 11.12 ± 0.36 to
5.80 ± 0.15 µm and to 5.23 ± 0.22 µm, respectively for 50
and 100 mg/kg) and thyroid activation index (from
1.81 ± 0.07 to 0.80 ± 0.07 and to 0.74 ± 0.06, respec-
tively for 50 and 100 mg/kg).
4 Conclusion
Our data indicate that the mechanism of action of DDT
on thyroid homeostasis is complex and tissue-specific.
We propose that p,p′-DDT enhanced the glucuronidation
371
and subsequent biliary excretion of T4, thereby reducing
hormone circulating levels. It is likely that the elevated
TSH resulting from decreased negative feedback con-
tributed to the observed morphological alterations of the
thyroid. Higher thyroid 5′ D-I, higher BAT 5′ D-II
activities and maintained hepatic 5′ D-I activity may
account for most of the circulating T3 in rats treated with
50 mg DDT/kg.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Tunisian Min-
istry of Higher Education, Scientific Research and Technology. The
authors gratefully acknowledge the technical assistance of Béchir Azib.
The authors also thank Abdelwahed Azib for his valuable review of the
manuscript.
References
Chanoine JP, Braverman LE, Farwell AP, Safran M, Alex S, Dubord S,
Leonard JL. The thyroid gland is a major source of circulating T3 in
the rat. J Clin Invest. 1993;91:2709–13.
Dellovade TL, Zhu Y, Pfaff DW. Potential interactions between
estrogen receptor and thyroid receptors relevant for neuroendocrine
systems. J Ster Biochem. 1995;53:27–31.
Meeker JD, Altshul L, Hauser R. Serum PCBs, p, p′-DDE and HCB
predict thyroid hormone levels in men. Environ Res. 2007;104:296–
304.
Pandey SP, Mohanty B. Disruption of the hypothalamic-pituitary-
thyroid axis on co-exposures to dithiocarbamate and neonicotinoid
pesticides: study in a wildlife bird, Amandava amandava.
Neurotoxicology. 2017;60:16–22.
Visser TJ, Kaptein E, Van Toor H, Van Raaij JA, Van der Berg KJ,
Joe CT, Van Engelen JG, Brouwer A. Glucuronidation of thyroid
hormone in rat liver: effects of in vivo treatment with microsomal
enzyme inducers and in vitro assay conditions. Endocrinology.
1993;133:2177–86.
 Rotifers of Foum El Ghis Dam
Nassima Doukhandji, Somia Hamil, and Abdeslem Arab



Keywords
Fresh water Keratella
1 Introduction
Rotifers are microscopic organisms that could be present in
fresh as in brackish water. Some species are widely tolerant
of the environmental conditions, while others are charac-
teristic of fresh water (Brummett 2000). Knowledge of
rotifer fauna in Algeria is very limited. For this purpose the
main objective of this work was to update the list of rotifers
species in Algeria. The study area is Foum El Ghis dam
characterized by a maximum depth that does not exceed 2 m
and a transparency of less than 0.5 m, as well as the presence
of emerging aquatic vegetation.
2 Materials and Methods
Plankton samples were collected seasonally between spring
2014 and winter 2015, using a 50-lm mesh net. Samples
were fixed in 5% formalin solution. Rotifers were identified
using conventional light microscopy and appropriate iden-
tification keys. We used a bottle with a capacity of 1 L. Six
physico-chemical variables were measured in situ (temper-
ature, pH, conductivity, salinity and dissolved oxygen by a
N. Doukhandji (&)
A. Arab
Laboratory Dynamics and Biodiversity, University of Science and
Technology Houari Boumediene, Bab Ezzouar, Algeria
e-mail: nassi.meriem@yahoo.fr
A. Arab
e-mail: abdeslama@yahoo.fr
S. Hamil
Upper Normal School of Kouba Bachir El Ibrahimi, Algiers,
Algeria
e-mail: dj.soumia@hotmail.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_118




Lecane Lacustrine system Rotifer Algeria
multiparameters analyser of the type WTW 340i and trans-
parency by a Secchi disk).
3 Results and Discussion
The temperature values of the water are high in summer
22.6 °C and low in winter 12.9 °C. (The high value was
related to the time of collection which was at 6:10 Am) but
generally follows a seasonal trend. The minimum concen-
tration of dissolved oxygen was 4.9 mg/l. The very low
values of this latter recorded during the summer season are
related to the increase in water temperature (Arrignon 1998).
Salinity varied between 0 and 0.2 psu, and conductivity
between 520 and 844 ls cm−1. The average pH value was
7.59. The depth is 0.5 in summer and 5 m in spring.
Transparency values varied between 0.1 m during summer
season and 0.2 m in spring.
The faunistic census of the rotifer species shows the
presence of 23 species, two are mentioned for the first time
in Algeria. These species are Lecane stenroosi (Meissner
1908) and Trichocerca lophoessa (Gosse 1886). Their
distribution in each season is shown in Table 1.
The total absence of rotifer species during spring is
related to the high turbidity of the water (depth: 5 m and
transparency: 0.2 m). The decline in specific richness in
winter is due to floods. K. tecta is the most abundant species
in our study site, despite the presence of its predator As.
priodonta. According to (Gopko and Telesh 2013), this
species has the ability to reproduce under favorable condi-
tions despite their predator which is present in low density,
reflecting that our environment is favorable for its develop-
ment. The second species K. tropica is abundant especially
in summer. This species is widespread in tropical fresh
373
374 N. Doukhandji et al.

Table 1 Temporal distribution Summer Autumn Winter

of rotifer species in the Foum El
Ghis dam Keratella tropica
Filinia terminalis
Filinia longiseta
Asplanchna priodonta
Lecane stenroosi
Trichocerca sp.
Cephalodella gibba Cephalodella sp.
Anuraeopsis fissa Lecane punctata
Keratella tecta Notholca squamula
Polyarthra remata Testudinella patina
Polyarthra sp. Trichocerca bicristata
Asplanchna priodonta Colurella uncinata
Synchaeta pectinata Trichotria pocillum
Brachionus angularis angularis
Lecane hamata
Keratella tropica
Filinia terminalis
Filinia longiseta
Trichocerca lophoessa
adineta sp.

waters, extending into sub-tropical areas in the summer References

(Green 1980). It has the capacity to tolerate high tempera-
tures (Khalifa et al. 2015). The two species Lecane stenroosi
and Trichocerca lophoessa have a wide distribution. They
are present in Afrotropical, Australian, Nearctic, Neotropi-
cal, Oriental and Palearctic regions (Segers 2007). Most of
the studied species develop in similar intervals of tempera-
ture and pH to those described by De manuel (2000). Some
species such as K. tropica, F. terminalis, F. longiseta, As.
priodonta, L. stenroosi and Trichocerca sp. can develop at
low oxygen values.
4 Conclusion
This study allowed us to better our knowledge about the
richness of rotifer species in the Algerian fresh waters and
also to discover Two new species for the Algerian fauna.
The temporal evolution of the rotifers community
depended on several environmental factors, some of them
are tolerant of anoxic conditions, whereas others require
high concentrations of oxygen. Other factors (e.g. floods)
can also influence the species composition.
Arrignon J. Aménagement écologique et piscicole des eaux douces. 5th
ed. Paris: Gauthier-Villars; 1998.
Brummett RE. Food organism availability and resource partitioning in
organically and inorganically fertilized Tilapia rendalli ponds.
Aquaculture. 2000;183:51–71.
De Manuel Barrabin J. The rotifers of Spanish reservoirs: ecological,
systematical and zoogeographical remarks. Limnetica. 2000;19:
91–167.
Gopko ML, Telesh IV. Estuarine trophic state assessment: new
plankton index based on morphology of Keratella rotifers. Coast
Shelf Sci. 2013;130:222–30.
Green J. Asymmetry and variation in Keratella tropica. Hydrobiologia.
1980;73:241–8.
Khalifa N, El-Damhogy KA, Reda Fishar M, Nasef AM, Hegab MH.
Vertical distribution of zooplankton in Lake Nasser. Egypt J Aquat
Res. 2015;41:177–85.
Segers H. Annotated checklist of the rotifers (Phylum Rotifera), with
notes on nomenclature, taxonomy and distribution. Zootaxa.
2007;1564:1–104.
 Sources and Distributions of Dissolved
and Particulate Hydrocarbons in Surface
Coastal Waters from the Gulf of Gabès
(Tunisia, Southern Mediterranean Sea)

Rania Fourati, Marc Tedetti, Catherine Guigue, Madeleine Goutx,

Hatem Zaghden, Sami Sayadi, and Boubaker Elleuch

Keywords
Hydrocarbons Dissolved phase Partiulate phase Gulf of Gabès

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Hydrocarbons, including aliphatic hydrocarbons (AHs) and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are among the
most ubiquitous organic contaminants in the marine envi-
ronment. Although numerous studies have reported the
levels of hydrocarbons in surficial sediments of the Gulf of
Gabès (Louati et al. 2001; Aloulou et al. 2010; Amorri et al.
2011; Zaghden et al. 2005, 2007), to our knowledge, no data
on the distribution of dissolved and particulate hydrocarbons
in surface waters of this ecosystem has been achieved so far.
Nonetheless, the simultaneous analysis of particulate and
dissolved hydrocarbons in the water column should provide
a better view of the dynamics and sources of these com-
pounds in the Gulf of Gabès. Therefore, the overall objective
of this work was to evaluate, for the first time, the spatial
distribution of dissolved and particulate AHs and PAHs
along with biogeochemical parameters in surface waters of
Sfax and Gabès coastal areas, and investigate their main
origins.
R. Fourati (&)
B. Elleuch
Laboratoire Eau, Energie et Environnement, Ecole Nationale
d’Ingénieurs de Sfax (ENIS), Université de Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: rania_fourati@yahoo.fr
M. Tedetti
C. Guigue
M. Goutx
Aix Marseille Université, CNRS/INSU, Université de Toulon,
IRD, Mediterranean Institute of Oceanography (MIO), UM 110,
13288 Marseille, France
H. Zaghden
S. Sayadi
Laboratoire des Bioprocédés Environnementaux, Centre de
Biotechnologie de Sfax, Route de Sidi Mansour km 6, PO
Box 11773018 Sfax, Tunisia
Fifty one samples were collected from Sfax and Gabès
coastal area (Fig. 1). Back to the laboratory, the seawater
samples were filtered through pre-combusted GF/F
(*0.7 µm) glass fiber filters using glassware filtration sys-
tems. The filters were used for particulate hydrocarbon
analyses. Dissolved hydrocarbons in the fraction <0.7 µm
were extracted from seawater by liquid-liquid extraction
with CH2Cl2 (2  50 mL per liter). Particulate hydrocar-
bons were extracted under Bligh and Dyer (1959) method
and by Accelerate Solvent Extraction (Dionex ASE 350)
technique. Then extracts were concentrated using a rotary
evaporator and then fractionated on a 500 mg silica column.
AHs and PAHs were eluted successively using 2 mL of
n-hexane and 3 mL of n-hexane/CH2Cl2 mixture, respec-
tively. Purified hydrocarbon fractions (AHs and PAHs) were
analysed by gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer
(GC-MS). For AHs, we determined the concentration of
resolved compounds (R), i.e. n-alkanes from n-C15 to n-C40
including Pristane (Pr) and Phytane (Phy), and the concen-
tration of the unresolved complex mixture (UCM). As for
P
PAHs, 29 compounds have been quantified ( 29 PAHs−P
+A): 19 parent PAHs (PAHs−P) as well as 10 alkylated
homologues (PAHs-A). Several ratios were used to dis-
criminate biogenic from petrogenic AHs and petrogenic
from pyrogenic PAHs.
3 Results and Discussion
P
Total particulate AH ( n-C15–n-C40) concentrations ran-
P
ged from 0.03 to 3.2 µg L−1 and 29 PAHs−P+A (par-
ents + alkylated) concentrations ranged from 0.07 to

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 375

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_119
376
Fig. 1 Location of the study stations in the coastal areas of Sfax and Gabès cities, in the Gulf of Gabès
108.6 ng L−1. While the total dissolved AH and PAH
concentrations ranged from 0.02 to 6.3 µg L−1 and from
8.9 to 197.8 ng L−1, respectively. These data indicated that
hydrocarbons in the dissolved phase are higher than those
recorded in the particulate phase (up to 10 times higher).
This area is considered as moderate-to-highly impacted by
hydrocarbons compared to other coastal environments. The
highest particulate AH and PAH concentrations were
recorded in the most coastal stations of Southern Sfax near
the Sidi Salem channel (M8 and M8-AR), while the
Gabès-Ghannouch area displayed more homogeneous
hydrocarbon concentrations. For the dissolved hydrocar-
bons, the highest AH concentrations were measured off of
the Sfax Northern coast (S1-S5) (near Ezzit wadi) and in
the Gabès-Ghannouch area (S27-S36). However, the
highest dissolved PAH concentrations were recorded in the
Sfax Southern coast (S14, S15 and S19) (near commercial
and fishing harbours and the Sidi Salem channel). The
molecular distributions analysis indicated that particulate
AHs were mainly from biogenic (phytoplankton, algae and
higher plants) origin with odd n-alkane predominance (n-
R. Fourati et al.
C15, n-C17, n-C29 and n-C31), although an anthropogenic
contribution was also present (abundance of n-C15–n-C23)
for stations subjected to maritime traffic, domestic and
industrial effluents. The particulate PAH molecular patterns
revealed a mixed origin with the presence of low molec-
ular weight (LMW) and alkylated compounds (naphthalene
and phenanthrene), characteristic of uncombusted
oil-derived products or further natural sources of PAHs,
and the presence of high molecular weight (HMW) com-
pounds (fluoranthene, pyrene, chrysene, benzo(a)an-
thracene), typical of combustion phenomenon residues.
The analysis of the dissolved AH molecular patterns
revealed that LMW compounds in all the samples were
dominated by n-C16, n-C17 and n-C18, which suggests that
these samples feature high biogenic activity (in the form of
bacteria or algae), and that HMW compounds displayed
monomodal distributions centred on n-C25 and n-C26,
which could be attributed to petrogenic inputs. The dis-
solved PAH molecular patterns are characterized by the
dominance of LMW (2–3 rings) compounds and their
alkylated homologues, which accounts for 90 ± 7% of
Sources and Distributions of Dissolved and Particulate …
total PAHs, indicating the presence of a major petrogenic
contamination.
4 Conclusion
This study reports for the first time the spatial distribution
of particulate and dissolved hydrocarbons in the surface
waters of the Gulf of Gabès. The highest hydrocarbon
concentrations were observed in the vicinity of harbours,
channels, wadis and petrochemical activities indicating
recent petrogenic sources. Nevertheless, the obvious AH
biogenic fingerprints very likely related to the high pri-
mary production in this area. Moreover, the emergence of
pyrogenic (HMW) for particulate-bound PAHs is attrib-
uted to anthropogenic combustion. The partitioning of
PAHs between the dissolved and particulate phases in the
Gulf of Gabès seems to be controlled by hydrophobicity.
377
References
Aloulou F, Kallel M, Dammak M, Elleuch B, Saliot A.
Even-Numbered N-Alkanes/n-Alkenes Predominance in Surface
Sediments of Gabes Gulf in Tunisia. Environ Earth Sci. 2010;61
(1):1–10.
Amorri J, Geffroy-Rodier C, Boufahja F, Mahmoudi E, Aïssa P,
Ksibi M, Amblès A. Organic Matter Compounds as Source
Indicators and Tracers for Marine Pollution in a Western Mediter-
ranean Coastal Zone. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2011;18(9):1606–16.
Louati A, Elleuch B, Kallel M, Saliot A, Dagaut J, Oudot J. Hydrocar-
bon Contamination of Coastal Sediments from the Sfax Area
(Tunisia), Mediterranean Sea. Mar Pollut Bull. 2001;42(6):444–51.
Zaghden H, Kallel M, Elleuch B, Oudot J, Saliot A. Sources and
Distribution of Aliphatic and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons in
Sediments of Sfax, Tunisia, Mediterranean Sea. Mar Chem.
2007;105(1–2):70–89.
Zaghden H, Kallel M, Louati A, Elleuch B, Oudot J, Saliot A.
Hydrocarbons in Surface Sediments from the Sfax Coastal Zone,
(Tunisia) Mediterranean Sea. Mar Pollut Bull. 2005;50(11):1287–94.
 Biodegradation of Liquid Sludges
Hydrocarbons Issued from Oil Refining
by a Soil Bacterial Consortium

Nadia Khelifi, Ichrak Ben Hriz, Intidhar Jbali, Ayed Halleb,

Issam Smaali, and Moktar Hamdi

Keywords
Hydrocarbon sludges Aerobic cultures Biodegradation Bacterial consortium Gas
chromatography IR-spectroscopy

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Hydrocarbon sludges derived from oil refining industry 2.1 Sampling

represent both an economic and an environmental problem.
Their remediation represents a challenge aimed at finding the
most profitable eco-friendly processes. Actually, the bio-
logical treatment of the petroleum pollution by a microor-
ganism consortia or isolated bacteria is an innovative way
compared to the chemical one.
Since 1970, many studies have shown the hydrocarbon
oxidation on aerobic conditions either by the bacterial con-
sortium or the isolated strains (Bailey et al. 1973; Jobson
et al. 1972; Milner et al. 1977). Often, in aerobic conditions,
it was demonstrated that n-alkanes were the first to be oxi-
dized followed by iso, anteiso paraffines and acyclic
isopernoides (Singer and Finnerty 1984). In addition to that,
longer-chain alkanes (C10–C20) were easier oxidized than
middle-chain ones (C5–C10).
In this context, we focus our studies on the hydrocarbon
biodegradation occurring in the sludge co-products provided
by the Tunisian Company of the Refining Industries (STIR
—Bizerte, Tunisia) and issued from the refining process.
N. Khelifi (&)
I. Smaali
Laboratoire LIP-MB LR11ES24-INSAT, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: khelifi.nad@gmail.com
I.B. Hriz
A. Halleb
Société Tunisienne Des Industries de Raffinage, Bizerte, Tunisia
N. Khelifi
Institut Supérieur de Pêche et D’aquaculture de Bizerte, Bizerte,
Tunisia
I. Jbali
M. Hamdi
Laboratoire D’écologie et Technologies Microbienne
LR05ES08-INSAT, Tunis, Tunisia
The bacterial consortium used for this study is obtained from
contaminated soil taken from storage park of STIR Bizerte
refinery. It corresponds to a sandy soil contaminated by oil.
Biodegradation of hydrocarbons was tested in the case of
liquid sludges which are rich in both the aliphatic and cyclic
hydrocarbons, obtained from the API separator (American
petroleum Institute).
Samples were collected in glass containers and stored at a
room temperature in the laboratory until use.
2.2 Enrichment Medium
Biodegradation, and therefore decontamination of these
sludges were assayed in submerged liquid cultures in aerobic
conditions. For the enrichment culture, 4 g of
oil-contaminated soil (OCS) was used to incubate 100 mL of
enrichment medium containing (g L−1 unless otherwise
indicated): azote, phosphore, potassium (NPK), 2; yeast
extract, 0.1. Prior to sterilization, the pH was adjusted to 7.
Different cultures were prepared by varying the concentra-
tion of the liquid sludges (ranging from 1.5 to 6%, v/v). In
addition to that, either biotic control cultures (inoculated by
OCS without sludge) or abiotic ones (not inoculated with
sludges) were prepared. The enrichment cultures were
incubated at 30 °C for 4 weeks.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 379

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_120
380
Fig. 1 a Suspended particles matters evolution after 4 weeks incuba-
tion (30 °C) in both cultures (containing sludges ranging from 1.5 to
6%) and controls. Control 1 corresponding to abiotic (not inoculated
with 1.5% sludges), and control 2 is biotic culture (inoculated without
2.3 Experimental Methods
Quantitative assays for biodegradation were carried out in
tubes containing 10 ml of medium issued from the different
concentrations of sludges. The biodegradation of hydrocar-
bons was assessed by gas chromatography coupled to mass
spectrometry GC-MS after extraction with hexane (5 ml).
Three replicate assays together and three abiotic (with
hydrocarbon but not inoculated) controls were incubated for
4 weeks under the same temperature condition before anal-
ysis. Biodegradation was also quantitatively monitored by
infrared spectroscopy at 3420 nm.
3 Results and Discussion
The assessment of biodegradation activities of hydrocarbons
were first evaluated and validated compared to controls
either biotic (inoculated) or abiotic (not inoculated).
Fig. 2 Chromatograms of hydrocarbons in extracts from culture with 1.5% sludge before incubation a, and after 4 weeks of incubation at 30 °C b
N. Khelifi et al.
sludges). Cultures and controls were prepared in duplicata. b Isolated
bacteria from inoculated cultures containing 1.5% sludges
Monitoring of suspended particles matters and dry matter
indicated bioactivity due to microorganism consortium. Both
the microscopic observations and the enumeration in solid
media showed the occurrence of the bacterial strains. Fig-
ure 1 showed that the value of the suspended paticules
matters appeared clearly higher in cultures with the sludges
than in biotic and biotic controls incubated in the same
conditions.
Secondly, in order to prove the bacterial activities of
the hydrocarbons biodegradation, hexane extracted from
these cultures were analyzed by GC/MS chromatography
that showed significant variations in the total ions
chromatograms (TIC) between initial and final states of
cultures (Fig. 2). Mass spectrometry identification of the
main molecules showed a degradation of aliphatic
hydrocarbons such as dodecane (C12H26), tetradecane
(C14H30), eicosane (C20H42). More optimization of GC
chromatography seems necessary to assess the identifica-
tion of other products.
Biodegradation of Liquid Sludges Hydrocarbons Issued …
These findings were also supported by quantifying the
hydrocarbon degradation using infrared spectroscopy anal-
ysis at 3420 nm, which showed a whole percentage of
degradation varying from 6.85 to 38.73% depending on the
sludges concentrations in different cultures taking into
account the controls.
4 Conclusion
Based on the physiological and quantitative results, we
here provide the proof for the concept of hydrocarbon
biodegradation sludges by a soil bacterial consortium,
and the more significant one accured at concentration of
1.5%. These results need more investigations to optimize
the degradation parameters and to implement a
bacterial-based process aimed at hydrocarbons sludges
381
bioremediation. The microbial ecology of the isolated
consortium should also be assessed to complete the data
related to this process.
References
Bailey NJL, Jobson AM, Rogers MA. Bacterial degradation of crude
oil: comparison of field and experimental data. Chem Geol.
1973;11:203–11.
Jobson AM, Cook FD, Westlake DWS. Microbial utilization of crude
oil. App Microbiol. 1972;23:1082–9.
Milner CWD, Rogers MA, Evans CR. Petroleum transformation in
reservoirs. J Geochem Explor. 1977;7:101–53.
Singer ME, Finnerty WR. Petroleum microbiology. In: Atlas RM,
editor. Microbial metabolism of straight-chain and branched
alkanes. Macmillan Publishers: New York; 1984. p. 1–9.
 Excess Fluoride Ion Removal from Saharan
Groundwater Using Local Clay Adsorbent:
Adsorption Conditions Optimization

Nouria Nabbou, Meriem Belhachemi, Mustapha Boumelik,

Yahia Harek, Touhami Merzougui, and Ikram Mokadam

Keywords
Groundwater Fluoride Tindouf region Water quality Hydrochemical facies
Contamination

1 Introduction hydroxyapatite have been investigated as adsorbents to

Groundwater quality is very essential in a sense of practical
utility for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes and
plays significant role in the living organism that exist in the
water world. Many defluoridation technologies have been
studied, such as electrocoagulation, chemical precipitation,
adsorption, ion exchange, and membrane technology
(Brindha et al. 2016). Above all, the adsorption technique
has been approved as an effective and simple method for
fluoride ion removal treatment. It has been found to be
superior to the other techniques in terms of initial cost,
flexibility, simplicity of design and ease of operation.
Therefore, adsorption is becoming more appropriate in
various studies. Accordingly, various adsorptive natural
materials such as quicklime, kaolinites, red mud, and
N. Nabbou (&)
M. Belhachemi
M. Boumelik
I. Mokadam
Chemistry and Environmental Sciences Laboratory, University of
TAHRI Mohammed Bechar, Bechar, Algeria
e-mail: nabbounouria@yahoo.fr
M. Belhachemi
e-mail: bel_meriem@yahoo.fr
M. Boumelik
e-mail: boumelik08@gmail.com
I. Mokadam
e-mail: ikram.mokadam@gmail.com
Y. Harek
Inorganic and Environmental Chemistry Research Laboratory,
University of Tlemcen, Tlemcen, Algeria
e-mail: yahiaharek@yahoo.fr
T. Merzougui
Department of Hydraulics, Faculty of Technology, University of
TAHRI Mohammed Bechar, Bechar, Algeria
e-mail: touhamime@yahoo.fr
remove fluoride ion from water. In general, adsorption
mechanism could be physical or chemical adsorption,
depending on the physical and chemical structural properties
of the adsorbent (Mourabet et al. 2015; Addoun et al. 2014).
The main aim of this study was to characterize an Algerian
clay and to evaluate its adsorption behavior of fluoride from
groundwater. For this purpose, the effect of clay dosage,
initial concentration, pH solution, contact time, temperature
and the presence of competing anions on fluoride adsorption
were investigated.
2 Materials and Methods
The natural clay used in this study was obtained from
Tebelbala, Bechar province in Algeria. It is in the form of
white rocks. Natural clay was used without thermal or
chemical treatment. It was crushed and sieved to obtain
fractions of particles smaller than 2 lm. Then it was washed
several times with distilled water and dried at 105 °C for
24 h. The material was cooled to room temperature and
transferred to airtight glass bottle ready for experimentation.
The developed optimized natural clay adsorbent was ana-
lyzed in order to determine its physicochemical properties,
specific surface area by Algerian standard NA 5288 and
physicochemical characteristics by FTIR spectroscopy,
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray diffraction analysis.
Fluoride analysis was performed by ICP. In order to study
the effect of different controlling parameters like contact time
(10–360 min), pH (2–12) and adsorbent dose (1–10 g/L),
several adsorption experiments were carried out by adding
an accurate amount of local clay in 100 mL of fluoride
solution with initial concentrations 5 mg/L. Adsorption

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_121
384 N. Nabbou et al.

isotherms are important in determining maximum capacities qe ¼ KCe1=n ð4Þ

and the identification of the adsorption type. The fluoride
adsorbed on natural clay was calculated by the following The Langmuir model, which deals with the monolayer
equation: coverage is given below:

V bq0 Ce
qe ¼ ðC0  Ce Þ ð1Þ qe ¼ ð5Þ
m ð1 þ bCe Þ

where C0 and Ce (both in mg/g) are the initial and equi-

librium fluoride concentrations, respectively, V (L) is the
volume of the aqueous solution and m (g) is the mass of the
adsorbent. The thermodynamic data can be analyzed using
the following equations (Goswami and Purkait 2011):
Logða qe =Ce Þ ¼ ðDS =2:303 RÞ þ ðDH =2:303 RTÞ ð2Þ
DG ¼ DH  TDS
The applicability of Freundlich and Langmuir models that
deal with the physicochemical adsorption on heterogeneous
surfaces and monolayer coverage and constant adsorption
energy respectively, was studied. The Freundlich isotherm,
which is indicative of surface heterogeneity of the adsorbent,
is given by:
3 Results and Discussion
In this study, the removal of fluoride by local clay of Bechar
was examined. The results demonstrated that the surface area
of local clay was estimated as 10.60 m2/g. The major
chemical compounds of natural clay are SiO2: 53.83 and
ð3Þ
Al2O3: 39.81. The removal of fluoride is maximum at the pH
between 5.5 and 7. The equilibrium time for fluoride
removal was determined to be 120 min (Table 1). The
results of the thermodynamic data show that fluoride
adsorption increased from 0.45 mg/g (90%) to 0.48 mg/g
(96%) with the increase of temperature from 30 to 55 °C,
The positive value of DH0 indicated the endothermic nature

Table 1 Chemical composition of the clay used in the experiment (wt%, from XRF data)
Chemical coumpond (%) SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO MnO Na2O K2O P2O5 TiO2 SO3 TOT
53.83 39.81 1.150 0.15 0.46 0.01 0.67 2.39 0.18 1.27 <0.01 99.92

Table 2 Thermodynamic parameters for fluoride adsorption to natural clay

T (°C) DH° (KJ/mole) DS° (KJ/K mole) DG° (KJ/mole)
30 27.466 91.4 −0.227
45 −1.60
55 −2.97

0,5

0,4
qt (mg/g)

0,3

0,2

0,1

0,0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time (min)
Fig. 1 Kinetic data for fluoride adsorption to local clay
Excess Fluoride Ion Removal from Saharan Groundwater … 385

3,5 Table 3 Parameters of the Freundlich and Langmuir equations for

fluoride adsorption isotherms on Tabalala clay
3,0
Freundlich model Langmuir model
Adsorbed amount (mg/g)

2,5
K (mg/g.(mg/L) n
1/n R 2
q0 (mg/g) b (L/mg) R2
0.548 0.419 0.984 3.74 0.064 0.938
2,0

1,5
Experimental data The adsorption followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic
Langmuir model
1,0 Freundlich model
model and the adsorption of fluoride on natural clay in batch
systems can be described by the Freundlich isotherm, and
0,5 the adsorption capacity is 0.548 mg/g according to Lang-
muir method (Figs. 1 and 2, Table 3).
0,0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Ce (mg/l) 4 Conclusion
Fig. 2 Effect of Initial fluoride concentration on fluoride removal by
The results of the present investigation reveal important
clay
characterization of fluoride adsorption mechanism inside
the groundwater of the Tindouf city. The adsorbent
exhibits and increase in the adsorption rate at higher
temperature and this confirms the endothermic nature of
the process. Although the adsorption process follows
both Langmuir and Freundlich models, the preferred
mode of isotherm seems to be the Freundlich model.
From these studies, it may be concluded that the clay of
Tabelbala, Bechar province in Algeria is an efficient and
economical adsorbent for excess fluoride removal from
groundwater.

Fig. 3 Effect of different concentrations of competing anions on

fluoride adsorption by the clay adsorbent References

Addoun A, Bencheikh W, Temdrara L, Belhachemi M, Khelifi A.

of fluoride adsorption. The positive value of DS0 showed that
randomness increased at the interface between solid and
solution during the adsorption process. The negative value of
DG0 indicated that the adsorption process was spontaneous
(Table 2). The fluoride-contaminated ground water of Tin-
douf area is associated with other co-ions like nitrate,
chloride, sulfate and bicarbonate, which can compete with
fluoride ions during the adsorption process for active sites on
natural clay (Fig. 3). They could be due to an increase in the
ionic strength of the solution or a weakening of lateral
repulsion between adsorbed fluoride ions. Similar observa-
tions have been reported by Eskandarpour et al. 2008.
Adsorption behavior of phenol on activated carbons prepared from
Algerian coals, Desalination and Water Treatment; 2014:1–9.
Brindha K, Jagadeshan G, Kalpana L, Elango L. Fluoride in weathered
rock aquifers of southern India: managed aquifer recharge for
mitigation. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2016;23:8302–16.
Eskandarpour A, Onyango MS, Ochieng A. Removal of fluoride ions
from aqueoussolution at low pH using schwertmannite. J Hazard
Mater. 2008;152:571–9.
Goswami A, Purkait MK. Kinetic and equilibrium study for the fluoride
adsorption using pyrophyllite. Sep Sci Technol. 2011;46:1797–807.
Mourabet M, El Rhilassi A, El Boujaady H, Bennani-Ziatni M, El
Hamri R, Taitai A. Removal of fluoride from aqueous solution by
adsorption on hydroxyapatite (HAp) using response surface
methodology. J Saudi Chem Soc. 2015;19:603–15.
 Environmental Fate of the Insecticide
Chlorpyrifos in Soil Microcosms and Its
Impact on Soil Microbial Communities

Asma Ben Salem, Nadine Rouard, Marion Devers, Jérémie Béguet,

Fabrice Martin-Laurent, Pierluigi Caboni, Hanene Chaabane,
and Sami Fattouch

Keywords
Chlorpyrifos Dissipation Mineralisation mpd gene opd gene Microbial community

1 Introduction methods for assessment of the ecotoxicity of chlorpyrifos on

Pesticides, especially chlorpyrifos which is a broad-spectrum
insecticide used extensively in agriculture worldwide, are
applied as a low-cost and effective possibility to ensure and
increase crop yields. Only a small percentage of sprayed
pesticides is effective against target organisms while large
amounts contaminate the environment and impact non-target
organisms such as soil microbial communities important for
the ecosystemic functioning (Zhang et al. 2011). On the one
hand, pesticides can be stimulating for some soil microbes
able to use pesticides as energy source and thus decontam-
inating environments by pesticide degradation. Contrariwise,
pesticides can negatively impact soil microbes via toxic
effects. So far, the evaluation of pesticide impacts on soil
microbes for pesticide registration exclusively relies on
simple carbon and nitrogen mineralization tests which are
often not sufficient to comprehensively assess the ecotoxicity
of pesticides. The aim of this study was to establish novel
A. B. Salem (&)
S. Fattouch
Laboratory of Protein Engineering and Bioactive Molecules
(INSAT), Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: bensalemasma@yahoo.fr
S. Fattouch
e-mail: sami.fattouch@insat.rnu.tn
N. Rouard
M. Devers
J. Béguet
F. Martin-Laurent
INRA, UMR 1347 AgroÉcologie, Dijon, France
e-mail: fabrice.martin@dijon.inra.fr
P. Caboni
Laboratory of Toxicology, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
e-mail: caboni@unica.it
H. Chaabane
Department of Plant Protection and Post-Harvest Diseases, INAT,
Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: phytiatrie_pro@yahoo.fr
soil microorganisms. Bearing in mind such a purpose, the
environmental fate and impact of the insecticide chlorpyrifos
on soil microbes were investigated.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Environmental Fate
Microcosms were established with soil from a
North-Tunisian agricultural field treated for at least 5 years
with chlorpyrifos. Topsoil samples (0–20 cm) were collected
from this field site. Dissipation experiments were conducted
in sterile soil (SS) and non-sterile soil (NS). The subsamples
were treated with chlropyriphos. Then, chlorpyrifos dissi-
pation was investigated at a dose of 10 mg/kg soil dwt in
time intervals of 25 days by quantification of chlorpyrifos by
GC-MS. For mineralization, mineralization of 14C-CPat x1
dose was monitored in intervals in soil samples by analysis
of evolved 14CO2. 14CO2 was trapped in NaOH and then
quantified by liquid scintillation counting.
2.2 Impact on Soil Microbes
Regarding chlorpyrifos’ impact on microorganisms, the
abundance of soil microbial groups was assessed by qPCR
(ISO/DIS170601) performed on soil DNA extracts (ISO
11063). A specific qPCR for the recently discovered mpd
genes and opd genes responsible for the chlorpyrifos
degradation (Yang et al. 2006) was established for rapid
quantification of chlorpyrifos degraders in agricultural soils.
The abundance of the opd and mpd sequences was estimated
by qPCR.

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_122
388
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Environmental Fate
Chlorpyrifos dissipation in soil microcosms at a concen-
tration of 10 mg/kg soil dwt within 25 days after applica-
tion is presented in Fig. 1. The t1/2 in SS was 11.5 d and in
the NS the t1/2 was 10.7 d. No significant difference was
observed indicating that abiotic degradation was predomi-
nant in the degradation of chlorpyrifos in the selected
Tunisian soil.
3.2 Mineralization of 14C-Chlorpyrifos
at a Concentration of 60 Mg L−1 Within 25
Days After Application
Mineralization of 14C-chlorpyrifos was monitored after 25
days of incubation. The results show that the chlorpyrifos
Fig. 1 Dissipation of chlorpyrifos in sterilized and non–sterilized soil on the top (0–20 cm)
Fig. 2 Mineralization of
14C-chlorpyrifos within 25 days
after application
A. B. Salem et al.
treatment significantly enhanced the capacity of the soil to
mineralize chlorpyrifos indicating the adaptation of
chlorpyrifos-degrading microorganisms. After 25 days, the
mineralized radioactivity 14CO2 was low. Only 30% of
applied 14C-chlorpyrifos were mineralized (Fig. 2).
3.3 Impact on Soil Microbes
The quantification of pesticide-degrading microorganisms
by qPCR of catabolic genes may be used as bioindicator for
the pesticide-degrading potential of a soil. To test this
hypothesis, we quantified: the mpd and opd genes involved
in the first step of the bacterial degradation. The results show
that chlorpyrifos did not have a significant impact on the
abundance of the tested microbial groups. Neither mpd
sequences nor opd sequences were found in the soil.
Quantification of mpd and opd sequences was not possible
due to the low number of amplified sequences. Thus,
Environmental Fate of the Insecticide Chlorpyrifos …
chlorpyrifos-degrading genetic potential was initially present
in the soil and seemed not to be promoted by chlorpyrifos
(60 mg/L−1) application.
4 Conclusion
In the present study, we evaluated the environmental fate
of chlorpyrifos in soil microcosms and its impact on soil
communities. Chlorpyrifos was almost entirely dissipated
within 25 days in both sterile and non sterile soil. How-
ever; only 30% of the applied 14C-chlorpyrifos were
mineralized (degraded to 14CO2).
389
Overall, chlorpyrifos was neither found to impact the
abundance of the tested soil microbial groups nor to
promote the chlorpyrifos degrading potential in the soil.
References
Yang C, Liu N, Guo X, Qiao C. Cloning of mpd gene from a
chlorpyrifos-degrading bacterium and use of this strain in bioreme-
diaiton of contaminated soil. 2006;265:118–25.
Zhang W, Jiang F, Ou J. Global pesticide consumption and pollution:
with China as a focus. Proc Int Acad Ecol Environ Sci. 2011;1(2):
125–44.
 Impact of Carbon Nanotubes
on the Germination of the Phaseolus
Vulgaris Seeds

Messaouda Boulmaali and Amel Zafour Hadj-Ziane

Keywords
Ecotoxicity of carbon nanotubes Common bean Phaseolus Vulgaris
Morphological parameters Germination step

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Today, nanosciences and nanotechnologies have promised
remarkable progress in the areas of health, environment and
energy. In recent years, the scientific community has shown
a growing interest in these “new sciences” and human and
financial resources are being used for their development.
However, nanotechnology has raised many concerns about
its possible negative impact on the environment and human
health (Khodakovskaya et al. 2009; Daohui and Baoshan
2007; Cañas et al. 2008; Lin et al. 2009).
Carbon nanotubes were discovered a decade ago. Since
then, the development of applications has been considerable
and research has been applied to different fields (medicine,
industry, etc.) Very little knowledge is currently available on
the toxicity of carbon nanotubes to humans since most
toxicological data from studies were carried out in vitro or
in vivo on animals (Mouchet et al. 2009).
The objective of this study was to demonstrate the
influence of carbon nanotube agglomerates and dispersed on
the germination of a plant species, the common bean. The
dispersion of carbon nanotubes were studied at different
concentrations levels ranging between 0.5, 2 and 5 mg/l and
then subsequently used for the germination of common bean
seeds. The morphological parameters of the plant were
studied after germination.
M. Boulmaali (&)
Laboratory of Mechanics, Physics and Mathematical Modeling,
University of Medea, Medea, Algeria
e-mail: maria-tasnim@hotmail.fr
A. Zafour Hadj-Ziane
Chemical Engineering Laboratory, University of Blia I Algeria,
Blida, Algeria
2.1 Preparation of Carbon Nanotubes
Suspensions
In order to suspend the carbon nanotubes, we used a natural
dispersant carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), which does not
cause a nuisance to plant matter or soil, its non-toxicity has
been proved by previous works of Florence et al. (2008).
The CMC was used for ecotoxicity tests on the emphibians,
Takahashi et al. (2004) succeeded in stabilizing 250 mg/L of
single-wall carbon nanotubes in water using CMC at 1 g/L.
The dispersion was carried out using an ultrasonic tank.
The Measurement of the suspensions optical density were
performed for a wavelength equal to 850 nm (Fig. 1a). Petri
dishes covered with cotton weted by the various suspensions
were used (Table 1).
Petri dishes were placed in an oven for 3 days at T = 25 °C
and the germination rate was calculated (Fig. 1b).
The radicles fresh biomass was weighed (Fig. 2a) and
their length was measured (Fig. 2b).
3 Results and Discussion
The results in Fig. 1a shows that the absorbances are prac-
ticalarly constant after 72 h, confirming the absence of any
sedimentation or aggregation at this time interval.
In Fig. 1b the germination rate showed an increase of
34% compared to the control which gave a lower value.
The seed exposure of the studied plant (Phaseolus
Vulgaris) at different concentrations of NTC resulted in
remarkable changes across the parameters studied. The seed

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_123
392 M. Boulmaali and A. Zafour Hadj-Ziane

(a) (b)
CMC 5mg/l CMC 2mg/l CMC 0,5 mg/l
0.6
absorbance

0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (hours)

Fig. 1 a Variation of optical densities, b the germination rate

Table 1 The different concentrations of the suspensions injected into cotton

NTC’s Concentration (mg/L)
N0(0 mg/L) N1(0.5 mg/L) N2(2 mg/L) N3(5 mg/L)
Concentration of CMC (mg/L) C0(0 mg/L) N0C0=T- N1C0 N2C0 N3C0
C1(10 mg/L) N0C1 N1C1 N2C1 N3C1

Fig. 2 a The fresh biomass of radicles, b length of radicles

germination of Phaseolus vulgaris was favored in the
presence of CNT without and with CMC compared with
control. Even the radicles fresh biomass exhibited much
higher values in the presence of NTC treatments alone.
Similarly for the th radicles length which also increased as a
function of the CNT concentration. These results were
demonstrated by (Wild and Jones 2009) where Carbon
nanotubes penetrated the thick skin of the seeds and
improved the water supply to the interior and consequently
the germination step was much more obvious for the seeds
cultivated in a field enriched in nanotubes compared to
control.
4 Conclusion
This study of germination using different concentrations
of carbon nanotubes showed the positive effect of these
suspensions on the three parameters studied, there was a
34% increase in the germination rate and 62.56% of
increase in the radicles fresh biomass.
Impact of Carbon Nanotubes on the Germination …
References
Cañas JE, Long M, Nations S, et al. Effects of functionalized and
nonfunctionalized single-walled carbon nanotubes on root elonga-
tion of select crop species. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2008;27(9):
1922–31.
Daohui L, Baoshan X. Phytotoxicity of nanoparticles: inhibition of seed
germination and root growth. Environ Pollut. 2007;150(2):243–50.
Florence M, Perine L, Elodie Sarremejean, Guillaume Bernard, et al.
Characterisation and in vivo ecotoxicity evaluation of double-wall
carbon nanotubes in larvae of the amphibian Xenopus laevis. Aquat
Toxicol. 2008;87:127–37.
Khodakovskaya M, Dervishi E, Mahmood M, et al. Carbon nanotubes
are able to penetrate plant seed coat and dramatically affect seed
germination and plant growth. ACS Nano. 2009;3(10):3221–7.
393
Lin C, Fugetsu B, Su Y, Watari F. Studies on toxicity of multi-walled
carbon nanotubes on Arabidopsis T87 suspension cells. J Hazard
Mater. (2009);170(2–3):578–83.
Mouchet F, Landois P, Datsyuk V, Puech P, Pinelli E, Flahaut E,
Gauthier L. Use of the international amphibian micronucleus
standardised procedure (ISO 21427-1) for in vivo evaluation of
double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWNTs) toxicity and genotoxi-
city in water. Environ Toxicol. 2009;. doi:10.1002/tox.20537.
Takahashi T, Tsunoda K, Yajima H, Ishii T. Dispersion and purification
of single-wall carbon nanotubes using carboxymethylcellulose.
Jpn J Appl Phys. 2004;43:3636–9.
Wild E, Jones KC. Novel method for the direct visualization of in vivo
nanomaterials and chemical interactions in plants. Environ Sci
Technol. 2009;43(14):5290–4.
 Isolation and Characterization
of Lecanicillium sp. for Antagonistic Activity
Against Meloidogyne Javanica

Lobna Hajji-Hedfi, Asma Larayedh, Laura Tormo, Hajer Regaieg,

and Najet Horrigue-Raouani

Keywords
Biocontrol agent Lecanicillium Meloidogyne javanica Egg parasitism
Lytic enzymes

1 Introduction The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of

The root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne javanica, globally
distributed and infecting more than 2000 plant species cau-
ses serious economic loss to tomato crop worldwide and in
Tunisia (Anwar and McKenry 2012; Park et al. 2014).
The management of plant parasitic nematodes relies
mainly on the use of chemical nematicide. However, pesti-
cides require high cost, induce toxic effect to human health,
disturb the ecosystem equilibrium and probably generate
nematode virulent populations (Castagnone-Sereno et al.
1993). Pests biological control using microorganisms such
fungi is an efficient alternative to chemical nematicides and
hold a great promise within the increase of environmental
concern. Their increasing importance is attributed to their
providing safe food without harmful effects on humans
health and environment (Stirling 1991; Nicola et al. 2014).
L. Hajji-Hedfi (&)
A. Larayedh
H. Regaieg

N. Horrigue-Raouani
Higher Agronomic Institute of Chatt-Mariem, Sousse University,
Sousse, Tunisia
e-mail: elhajjilobna@yahoo.fr
A. Larayedh
e-mail: oussaymalarayedh@gmail.com
H. Regaieg
e-mail: regaieghajer@yahoo.fr
N. Horrigue-Raouani
e-mail: nraouani@yahoo.com
L. Tormo
Laboratorio de Técnicas no Destructivas: Espectroscopías,
Microscopías Y Tomografía Computerizada-Ct Scan, Museo
Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
e-mail: ltormo@mncn.csic.es
Lecanicilium sp. species isolated from parasitized female of
M. javanica against this plant parasitic nematodes. Under
laboratory conditions, the potential of fungal colonies (direct
parasitism) and filtrates (possible secretion of nematicidal
substances or enzymes) on eggs were explored. Subse-
quently, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) used to better
understand the potential action mode of this antagonistic
fungus.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Nematode Inoculums Preparation
Monoxenic populations of Meloidogyne javanica were
maintained on tomato cv. Riogrande in a glasshouse at
Higher Agronomic Institute of Chatt-Mariem, Tunisia. The
extracted eggs from 2 month-old galled roots with
hypochlorite sodium (0.5%) were kept for 3 min as descri-
bed by Hussey and Barker (1973) and collected on sus-
pension as nematode inoculums.
2.2 Isolation, Identification of Fungi
Pure culture of Lecanicillium sp. isolated from parasitized
female of Meloidogyne javanica infecting tomato crop
located in the center of Tunisia. The fungus was maintained
on PDA (Potato dextrose agar) for 10 days at 25 ± 2 °C.
The morphological characterization by macroscopic and
microscopic observation according to the revised Keys of
Zare and Gams (2001) followed by a molecular identifica-
tion were used to confirm species. The total genomic DNA

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 395

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_124
396
was extracted from mycelia scraped from the surface of pure
culture. Partial 28S rDNA was amplified using primers
ITS1/ITS4 (White et al. 1990). Phylogenetic analysis was
carried out to determine its systematic placement and rela-
tionships with other closely related taxa.
2.3 Screening Egg Parasitism
These antagonistic fungus with 5 additional fungal isolates
(Penicillium digitatum, Paecilomyces sp., Epiccocum sp.,
Cladosporium sp., Pochonia chlamydosporia) were
screened for nematicidal activity using in vitro test of eggs
parasitism. Each fungal isolate (6 isolates) was inoculated
onto the center of Petri dish (9 cm) containing PDA. One ml
(containing 100 eggs) was replicated on plates containing
the previously prepared ten-day aged tested fungi. The plates
were replicated 5 times, incubated at 25 ± 2 °C for 72 h and
other treatments where eggs were maintained without fungi
as control. The eggs were examined each day and the par-
asitized and healthy eggs were counted under stereomicro-
scope (Al-Qasim et al. 2009).
2.4 Effect of Culture Filtrates on Egg Hatching
Larval Mortality (J2)
The pure culture of 10-day old Lecanicillium isolate was
inoculated in a liquid medium PDB (potato dextrose broth)
contained in 100 ml flask. The flask was incubated for fif-
teen days at 25 ± 3 °C on an incubator-agitator. At the end
of incubation, the concentrated culture filtrate (S) was passed
through Whatman filter paper No. 1 coupled with 0.45 µm
filter to remove the mycelia mats. The obtained solution was
used (100%) for diluted concentrations preparation (25; 50;
75% v/v) by adding distilled water. All filtrates concentra-
tions were kept at 4 °C until use. Liquid suspension of
approximately 100 eggs (200 µl) and ±20 juveniles (100 µl)
were placed onto Petri plates added by 1 ml of various
concentrations of fungus filtrate cultures and distilled water
as control. The plates were incubated in obscurity at 25 °C
for seven days for the egg hatching test and three days for
larval mortality. Each treatment was replicated 5 times. At
juveniles assay, the immobile and mobile nematodes were
counted under stereomicroscope. Then, the juveniles were
transferred to distilled water for 24 h to confirm death. The
net calculated mortality according Abott’s formula (1925).
At ovicidal assay, the number of hatched juveniles counted
under binocular microscope and the relative egg hatching
were determined. All the bio-tests were repeated twice and
L. Hajji-Hedfi et al.
the mean of the two experiments was subjected to a statis-
tical analysis by SPSS package (version 20).
2.5 SEM Observation of Filtrates Effect
Seven-day old exposed eggs and juveniles to filtrate cultures
of Lecanicillium were prepared for scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) according Karnovsky protocol (1965).
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Fungal Identification
The morphological studies coupled with the phylogenetic
analyses of 28S rDNA sequences supported that the fungus
isolate has close affinity to the genus Lecanicillium (96%)
with NCBI accession (LT548277; Hubka,V., 2016).
3.2 Nematicidal Activity
In terms of egg parasitism rate, all fungal isolates showed
parasitism potential of M. javanica eggs at seven days post
exposure. Among the tested fungal isolates, Lecanicillium
sp. was the most effective egg parasite by 81% of egg parasitism
rate followed by Pochonia chlamydosporia and Paecilomyces
lilacinus. Cladosporium cladosproides and Epicoccum sp.
showed moderate effect on egg infection (Fig. 1).
Epiccocum sp.
a
Pochonia chlamydosporium
e
Fungal Isolate
Paecilomyces lilacinus d
Cladosporium cladosporoides
b
Penicillium digitatum
c
Lecanicillium sp
f
0.00 50.00 100.00
Egg parasiƟsm (%)
Fig. 1 Egg parasitism percentages at 72 h post exposure of M.
javanica to fungal isolates cultures on PDA
Isolation and Characterization of Lecanicillium sp. … 397

Table 1 Effect of culture filtrate of Lecanicillium sp. on egg hatching and larval mortality of M. javanica
Fungus filtrate Juveniles mortality Net mortality Egg hatching rate
Control 13.82 ± 4.78a 98.48 ± 1.01e
10% 71.35 ± 7.07b 66.88 ± 6.97a 93.24 ± 1.63d
25% 73.04 ± 8.15 b
68.56 ± 9.99 a
70.57 ± 3.52c
50% 91.85 ± 6.43c 90.68 ± 7.06b 51.42 ± 3.79b
75% 90.82 ± 4.80 c
89.36 ± 5.49 b
47.06 ± 2.67a
100% 91.55 ± 4.23c 90.21 ± 4.84b 47.05 ± 3.27a
Means within each column having the same letters are not significantly different (Duncan 5%)

Fig. 2 Scanning electron micrographs of eggs (a, b) and juveniles (c) of Meloidogyne javanica treated with Lecanicillium sp.; scale bar: 50 µm
for eggs; 100 µm for J2

3.3 Effect of Filtrates Concentrations
on Egg Hatching
Lecanicillium sp. culture filtrate of concentrations 100, 75
and 50% showed similar effect on reducing nematode egg
hatching. The egg hatching rate increased with time expo-
sure to fungal culture filtrate. Adverse effect of culture fil-
trate dilution and net mortality of M. javanica juveniles after
72 h of nematode exposure are displayed in Table 1.
degrading enzymes. This finding corroborated with that of
Hussain et al. (2017a) who reported that this nematophagous
fungus reduces the hatching level and increases J2 mortality.
The high degree of nematophagous potential of Lecanicil-
lium sp. could be due to toxins and enzymes of lyses pro-
duction (Sugimoto et al. 2003; Hussain et al. 2017b). Other
nematopahgous fungi had a considerable potential against
nematodes due to the lytic enzymes such as Trichoderma
spp. (Sharon et al. 2007, 2009) or Purpureocillium lilacinus
(Cayrol et al. 1989).

3.4 SEM Observation

The SEM observation of M. javanica eggs and juveniles
treated with the culture filtrate of Lecanicillium sp. at seven
days post exposure showed the antagonistic hyphae adhering
and colonizing eggs and inhibit egg hatching. The second
SEM micrograph showed that Lecanicillium could broke egg
barrier and reproduce inside eggs by spore production and
germination (Fig. 2a, b). Furthermore, the antagonistic fun-
gus coiled the juveniles and inhibited their mobility and
consequently causing their death (Fig. 2c).
The Lecanicillium sp. was the most effective egg parasite
and could break the egg cuticule probably by cell-wall
4 Conclusion
To conclude, our study of the Lecanicillium sp. was
found to be a potential biological control agent and could
be involved in integrated pest management strategies.
Otherwise, further studies are still needed to reveal the
cell-wall degrading enzymes (like protease, chitinase and
glucanase) and specific toxins produced by this fungus to
warranty its better efficiency against plant parasitic
nematodes.
398
References
Abbott WS. A method of computing the effectiveness of an insecticide.
J Econ Entomol. 1925;18:265–7.
Al-Qasim M, Abo-Gharbieh W, Assas K. Nematophagal ability of
Jordan Isolates of Paecilomyces variotii on the Root-Knot Nema-
tode Meloidogyne javanica. Nematol medit. Jordan 2009; 37: 53–7.
Anwar SA, McKenry MV. Incidence and population density of plant
parasitic nematodes infecting vegetable crops and associated yield
losses. Pak J Zool. 2012;44:327–33.
Castagnone-Sereno P, Bongiovanni M, Dalmasso A. Stable virulence
against tomato resistance Mi gene in the parthenogenetic root-knot
nematode Meloidogyne incognita. Phytopathology. 1993;83:803–5.
Cayrol JC, Djian C, Pijarowski L. Study of the Nematocidal properties
of the culture filtrate of the nematophagus fungus Paecilomyces
lilacinus. Revue de Nematologie. 1989;12:331–6.
Hussain M, Zouhar M, Ryšánek P. Potential of some nematophagous
fungi against Meloidogynehapla infection in Czech Republic. Pak J
Zool. (2017a); 49(1): 35–43.
Hussain M, Zouhar M, Ryšánek P. Effects of nematophagous fungi on
viability of eggs and juveniles of Meloidogyne incognita. J Anim
Plant Sci. (2017b); 27(1):252–8.
Hussey RS, Barker KR. A comparison of methods of collecting inocula
of Meloidogyne spp., including a new technique. Plant Dis
Reporter. 1973;57:1025–8.
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osmolarity for use in electron microscopy. J Cell Biol. 1965;27:
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L. Hajji-Hedfi et al.
Nicola L, Tosi S, Savini D. In vitro evaluation of nematophagous
activity of fungal isolates. J Basic Microbiol. 2014;54:1–5.
Park J, Seo Y, Kim YH. Biological control of Meloidogyne hapla using
an antagonistic bacterium. Plant Pathol J. 2014; 30:288–98.
Sharon E, Chet I, Viterbo A, Bar-Eyal M, Naganand H,
Samuels GJ. Parasitism of Trichoderma on Meloidogyne javanica
and role of the gelatinous matrix. Eur J Plant Pathol. 2007;118:
247–58.
Sharon E, Chetandand I, Spiegel Y. Improved attachment and
parasitism of Trichoderma on Meloidogyne javanica in-vitro.
Eur J Plant Pathol. 2009;123:291–9.
Stirling GR. Biological control of plant parasitic nematodes. Progress,
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Sugimoto M, Koike M, Hiyamaand N, Nagao H. Genetic, morpholog-
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Verticilliumlecanii. J Invertbr Pathol. 2003;82:176–87.
White TJ, Bruns T, Lee S, Taylor J. Amplification and direct
sequencing of fungal ribosomal RNA genes for phylogenetics. In:
Innis MA, Gelfand DH, Sninsky JJ, White TJ, editors. PCR
Protocols: A guide to Methods and Applications, San Diego, U.S.A.:
Academic Press; 1990. p. 315–22.
Zare R, Gams W. A revision of Verticillium section Prostrata. IV. The
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2001;73:1–50.
 Fumigant Toxicity and Repellent Effect
of Azadirachtin Against the Lesser Grain
Beetle, Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Col.:
Bostrichidae)

Samir Tine, Ahlem Halaimia, Jihene Chechoui, and Fouzia Tine-Djebbar

Keywords
Rhyzopertha dominica Azadirachtin Fumigant toxicity Repellent effect
Biochemistry

1 Introduction rearing. For ventilation, the containers were covered by lace

Although stored grains can be destroyed by insects, fungi,
and vertebrate pests, insect pests are often the most impor-
tant devastators because of the favorable environmental
conditions that promote their development. Among the most
serious economic insect pests of grains, internal feeders such
as lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica F., are primary
insect pests. R. dominica is a destructive insect pest of stored
grains (Aref and Valizadegan 2015). Protection of agricul-
tural products from pest infestation is in the concern of
scientists and the agrochemical industries worldwide.
However, the disruptive effects of the synthetic insecticides
tend to develop botanicals as crop protection agents that will
be environment-friendly and of no harm to non-target
organisms. Pesticides based on plant essential oils are con-
sidered relatively safe and their efficacy has been demon-
strated against different insect species. This research aimed
at contributing to the collation and organization of baseline
data on natural insect repelling and insecticidal agents.
2 Materials and Methods
Insect rearing: The insect species used in this study is R.
dominica. The insects were not affected by any material
primarily. 1 kg wheat in cube containers was used for insect
S. Tine (&)
A. Halaimia
J. Chechoui
F. Tine-Djebbar
Laboratory of Water and Environment, Larbi Tébessi University,
Tébessa, Algeria
e-mail: tinesamir23@gmail.com
S. Tine
F. Tine-Djebbar
Laboratory of Applied Animal Biology, University of Annaba,
Annaba, Algeria
cloth. In order to remove any probable contamination to
other insects, the applied wheat was stored in refrigerator for
72 h at −10 °C. The incubators with 27 ± 1 °C and relative
humidity of 65 ± 5% were used for insect rearing and
experiments. In all experiments adult insects aged 1–7 days
were used.
Fumigant toxicity: The tests were run in glass cylinder
containers having shield with volume of 60 ml as fumigant
chambers. Twenty adult insects were posited in the glass.
Concentrations of 10, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100 ll/l air of aza-
dirachtine (1%) were chosen. Then, they were put on filter
paper using sampler. Immediately, the glasses were recap-
ped, the sides of the cap were covered with strips so as to
prevent the outlet of essential oil. The number of died insects
were counted after 24, 48 and 72 h. In these experiments,
those insects incapable of moving their heads, antennae and
body were considered as dead. This test was repeated four
times with control groups.
Repellent activity: The repellent effect of azadirachtin
against adults of R. dominica was evaluated using the
method of the preferred area on filter papers as described by
Mc Donald et al. (1970). Thus, the filter paper discs of 9 cm
in diameter used for this purpose have been cut into two
equal parts. Four doses were prepared (2, 4, 8 and
10 lL/mL) and diluted with acetone. Then, 0.5 mL of each
solution thus prepared was spread evenly over one half of
the disc. After 15 min, the time required for completing
evaporation of the solvent dilution, the two halves of the
discs were glued together using adhesive tape. The filter
paper disc was restored and placed in a box and kneaded a
batch of 20 adult insects was placed in the center of each
disk. Four repetitions were performed for each dose. After
15 min, 30 min, 1 h, 2 h and 24 h, the number of insects on

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 399

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_125
400
the part of filter paper treated with essential oil (Nt) and the
number of those present on the treated only with acetone
(Nc) part were identified. The percentage of repulsion
(RP) was calculated using the following formula:
PR = (Nc − Nt)/(Nc + Nt)  100
Protein Determination: The whole body of R. dominica
adult was homogenized in 1 ml of TCA (20%). Protein
concentration was determined by Bradford dye-binding
method (Bradford 1976). The experiment was conducted
in three replicates.
Carbohydrate Determination: carbohydrate content in
whole body of R. dominica adult was measured using
anthrone reagent according to the method of Duchateau and
Florkin (1959).
Lipid Determination: Lipid of whole body of R. dominica
adult was measured according to the method of Goldsworthy
(1972).
3 Results and Discussion
Fumigant toxicity: The results showed that the product
exhibits a high toxicity level with a dose-response relation-
ship. These results show that azad offers an interesting
potential insecticide that could be studied more deeply to
isolate and identify the active substances to study their
physiological impact on other insects.
Repellent activity: The repellent activity is a physiological
phenomenon that occurs in insects as a defense mechanism
against toxins secreted by plants. Studying this phenomenon
allows us to identify potential repellents in azadirachtin.
These repellents can be used to fight against this
insect-grains damage. In this study, this test was applied on
R. dominica adult. The maximum repellency rate is 95%
with a dose of 10 lL. According to McDonald et al.
(McDonald et al. 1970), this plant belongs to the repulsive
class V. AZAD significantly repelled the insect species after
various periods of treatment.
Sublethal Effects of AZAD on Energy Contents of R.
dominica: Metabolic changes in insects during development
may be related to different physiological states (moult,
pupation and diapause) (Nowosielski and Patton 1965).
Similar results have been reported after exposition of Gly-
phodes pyloalis to extract of Artemisia annua (Khosravi
et al. 2010; Yazdani et al. 2013). In another study, Zamani
et al. (2011) found that A. annua essential oils induced
negative effects on energy contents compared with control
insects of P. interpunctella. Exposure to sublethal concen-
tration of Artemisia khorassanica negatively affected the
protein, lipid, and glycogen contents of Plodia inter-
punctella larvae that came from treated adults (Borzoui et al.
S. Tine et al.
2016). AZAD derivatives also lead to a decrease in the
concentration of carbohydrates in Ctenoparyngodon idella
(Hassanein and Okail 2008). The studies of Tine et al.
(2011) show a significant decrease in ovarian protein, lipid
and carbohydrate contents. To explain these results, different
hypotheses can be postulated. Treatment may have caused
possible disturbance in the vitellogenesis process via the
nervous, neuroendocrine and/or endocrine system. AZ
induced several effects in the treated insects. According to
Mordue et al. (2005), AZ alters or prevents the formation of
new assemblages of organelles or cytoskeleton resulting in
the disruption of cell division, blocked transport and release
of neurosecretory peptides. It also inhibits protein synthesis
in cells that are metabolically active.
4 Conclusion
Results of the present and earlier studies demonstrated
that AZAD has had toxic properties on the insect pests.
The compounds investigated in the present study are used
as pharmaceuticals and in flavoring and are therefore
considered less harmful to humans than most conven-
tional insecticides and they can be used as safe fumigants
for controlling R. Dominica. Also, we need some addi-
tional studies to formulate and improve, new application
methods.
References
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Iranian Eucalyptus species against the lesser grain beetle, Rhyzop-
ertha Dominica (F.) (Col.: Bostrichidae). J Entomol Zool Stud.
2015; 3(2):198–202.
Borzoui E, Naseri B, Abedi Z, Karimi-Pormehr MS. Lethal and
Sublethal Effects of Essential Oils From Artemisia khorassanica
and Vitex pseudo-negundo Against Plodia interpunctella (Lepi-
doptera: Pyralidae). Environ. Entomol. 2016:1–7.
Bradford MM. A rapid and sensitive method for the quantitation of
microgram quantities of proteins utilizing the principle of
protein-dyebinding. Anal Biochem. 1976;72:248–54.
Duchateau G, Florkin M. Sur la tréhalosémie des insects et sa
signication. Arch Insect Biochem Physiol. 1959;67:306–14.
Goldsworthy AC, Mordue W, Guthkelch J. Studies on insect adipoki-
netic hormones. Gen Comp Endocrinol. 1972;18:306–14.
Hassanein Hamdy MA, Okail HA. Toxic impacts of the biopesticide
(Triology®) on some histological and biochemical aspects of body
organs in grass carp “Ctenopharyngodon idella”.1-Liver J Egypt
Ger Soc Zool. 2008;56(A):157–79.
Khosravi A, Ghayoomi M, McCartney JS, Ko HY. Impact of effective
stress on the dynamic shear modulus of unsaturated sands.
GeoFlorida (GSP 199). Feb. 20–24. ASCE. 2010:410–9.
McDonald LL, Guy RH, Speirs RD. Preliminary evaluation of new
candidate materials as toxicants, repellents and attractants against
stored product insects. Washington, D.C.: Agricultural Research
Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture; 1970.
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Mordue LAJ, Morgan ED, Nusbet AJ. Azadiraktin, a natural product in
insect control. In: Gillbert LI, latrou k, Gill SS, editors. Compre-
hensive molecular insect science, vol. 6, Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
2005. p. 117–35.
Nowosielski JW, Patton RL. Variation in the hameotymph protein,
amino acid, and lipid levels in adult house crickets, Acheta
domesticus L., of different ages. J Insect Physiol. 1965;11:263–70.
Tine S, Aribi N, Soltani N. Laboratory evaluation of azadiracktin
against the oriantal cockoroach, Blatta orientalis L. (Dictyoptera,
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Blattellidae): Insecticidal activity and reproductive effects. Afr J
Biotechnol. 2011;10(85):19816–24.
Yazdani Y, Keyhanvar N, Kalhor HR, Rezaei A. Functional analyses of
recombinant mouse hepcidin-1 in cell culture and animal model.
Biotechnol Lett. 2013;35(8):1191–7.
Zamani Z, Bahar M, Jacques MA, Lak MR, Akhavan A. Genetic
diversity of the common bacterial blight pathogen of bean,
Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli, in Iran revealed by
rep-PCR and PCR–RFLP analyses. World J Microb Biot.
2011;27:2371–8.
 Physical Factors Influence
on Phytomediation Processes
Natalia Politaeva, Lubov Olshanskaya, Ulia Smyatskaya,
and Ulia Bazarnova



Keywords
Phytoremediation
1 Introduction
Intensive work is under way throughout the world to clean
contaminated and saline soils and surface waters with higher
aquatic plants (Kravets et al. 1999). The advantages of this
method, called phytoremediation [from the Greek “phyton”
(plant) and Latin “remedium” (restore)], is the water purifi-
cation possibility from heavy metals, organic compounds,
detergents, various poisons and radionuclides. In the phy-
tomass of higher aquatic vegetation the accumulated green
mass after harvesting can be used for animal feed, poultry,
paper and biofertilizers, processing for gas and liquid top Ivo
(Tarushkina Yu et al. 2006). Soil and water purification
using higher vegetation (VVR) can be considered an effec-
tive and cheap method, as experts estimate that phytoreme-
diation costs do not usually exceed 20% of the cost of
alternative technologies (Ol’shanskaya and Sobgayda 2012).
The main drawback of the Phytoremediation method is the
duration of the process and the small sorption capacity.
The purpose of this work was to study the possibility of
accelerating the processes of phytoremediation (extraction of
copper cations from water) with the help of a higher aquatic
plant of eichornia due to the action of physical factors (laser
radiation, ultraviolet radiation, infrared radiation, magnetic
field).
N. A.Politaeva (&)
L. N.Olshanskaya

Y. A.Smyatskaya
Y. G.Bazarnova
St. Petersburg State Polytechnic University of Peter the Great,
Saint Petersburg, Russia
e-mail: conata07@list.ru
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_126


Water purification Eichornia Copper cations
2 Materials and Methods
A plant of an equal age and similar mass (in the amount of
20 g/l) was planted in solutions containing copper cations at
a concentration of 5 mg/l and held for various times without
physical impacts and under the impact of physical influ-
ences. Determination of the residual concentrations of cop-
per ions was carried out relying on a voltammetric method
using a robotic “Expertise VA-2D” complex with an “3 in 1”
electrode.
3 Results and Discussion
When comparing the influence of all the studied physical
factors (Fig. 1), it was found that the greatest positive effect
was observed when laser radiation was applied. UV expo-
sure is advisable for no more than 1 h during the phytore-
mediation processes. IR radiation accelerated the sorption of
copper by the plant cell only in the first hours of exposure,
and then the process of phytoremediation slowed down.
Thus, all the types of electromagnetic radiation studied
influenced, to some extent, the copper sorption processes by
the plant cell. The impact on the bioobject of any external
physical factor causes, first of all, a change in the electrical
status of biomolecules and cells in the field of action due to
pyroelectric, photoelectric, piezoelectric effects. To obtain
the maximum effect on the bioobject, it is necessary to know
the optimal parameters of physical impact (time and power).
The basic rule for physical impacts: “All in moderation!”.
403
404
Fig. 1 Comparative data on the extraction of Cu2+ by eichornia, under
the influence of various factors: 1—laser radiation; 2—infrared
radiation; 3—ultraviolet radiation; 4—without physical influences; 5
—magnetic field
4 Conclusion
An analysis of the obtained data on the efficiency of water
purification from copper ions made it possible to establish
that the effect of PV decreases in a series: laser
N. A. Politaeva et al.
radiation > magnetic field, ultraviolet radiation > mag-
netic field > without physical effects > infrared radiation.
The best parameters for the extraction of metals were
achieved with the use of laser radiation, lower results
were achieved when exposed to infrared radiation.
References
Kravets VV, Accountant LB, Akolzin AP. Higher aquatic vegetation as
an element of wastewater treatment. Ecology and industry of
Russia. 1999. p. 20–3.
Ol’shanskaya LN, Sobgayda NA. Phytoremediation of metals from
water. The influence of external physical fields on the acceleration
of phytoremediation processes: monograph. Berlin: LAP
LAMBERT Academic Pablishing, 2012. 156p.
Tarushkina Yu A, Olshanskaya LN, Mecheva OE, Lazutkina AN.
The highest aquatic plants for the purification of highly concen-
trated sewage. Ecology and industry of Russia. 2006. № 5 (May).
p. 36–9.
 Deriviation of Terrestrial Predicted No-Effect
Concentration (PNEC) for Cobalt Oxide
Nanomaterial

Sirine Bouguerra, Ana Gavina, Maria da Graça Rasteiro,

Teresa Rocha-Santos, Mohamed Ksibi, and Ruth Pereira

Keywords
Plant growth Reproduction Eisenia andrei Folsomia candida Oxidative stress
biomarkers Soil enzymes activities

1 Introduction (Raman et al. 2016). Quite recently, considerable attention

Cobalt oxide nanomaterial (nano-Co3O4) is among the least
investigated NMs in terms of environmental ecotoxicity.
However, nano-Co3O4 was widely used for pigments,
catalysis, sensors, electrochemistry, magnetism and energy
storage (Liu et al. 2005). For instance, its efficacy was shown
for the application in electrodes for lithium batteries, fabri-
cation of gas sensors, solar energy absorption and as
potential catalysts in environmental remediation and chem-
ical engineering (Jamal et al. 2012; Karami 2013; Man et al.
2011; Wang et al. 2002). Previously, several researchers
have documented these materials toxicity in human cells
(e.g. Papis et al. 2009). In aquatic environment, nano-Co3O4
revealed harmful effect for the zebrafish (Danio rerio)
S. Bouguerra (&)
A. Gavina
R. Pereira
Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto
& GreeUP, Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
e-mail: Sirine.bouguerra@yahoo.fr
S. Bouguerra
M. Ksibi
Engineering Laboratory of Environment and Ecotechnology,
GEET-LR16ES19, National School of Engineering of Sfax,
University of Sfax-Tunisia, Street Soukra km 3.5, BP 1173,
CP 3038 Sfax, Tunisia
S. Bouguerra
A. Gavina
R. Pereira
CIIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine & Environmental
Research, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General
Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
M. da Graça Rasteiro
Department of Chemical Engineering & CIEPQPF,
University of Coimbra, 3030-290 Coimbra, Portugal
T. Rocha-Santos
Department of Chemistry & CESAM, University of Aveiro,
Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
has been paid to the terrestrial ecosystem regarding the
important and multiple functions performed by soils (e.g. the
supply of agriculture crop). The release of nano-Co3O4 into
the soil may be achieved through direct disposal of
nano-products, or contaminated wastes and/or indirect dis-
posal due to biosolids application. The phytotoxic effect of
nano-Co3O4 was evaluated by assessing the impact on ger-
mination and root elongation of lettuce, radish and cucumber
seeds and no significant effects was reported (Wu et al.
2012). Oppositely, a significant reduction of root length of
A. cepa was reported (Ghodake et al. 2011). Various mitotic
perturbations and anomalies in meristematic cells of rooted
S. cannabina seeds to nano-Co3O4 were also reoprted
(Pandey et al. 2015; Srivastava 2015). For soil invertebrates,
a significant accumulation of cobalt in earthworm L. rubellus
tissues obtained from food contaminated with based cobalt
NMs and reduction in the degree of unsaturated fatty acids in
the tissues of fed worms was observed (Antisari et al. 2014).
Besides, the authors evaluated the effects on soil microbial
biomass and recorded a significant reduction (Antisari et al.
2014). However, for the nano-cobalt toxicity to soil biota
and fauna, the effects are still poorly investigated. Thus, the
main aims of this work were: (i) to assess the phytotoxicity
of nano-Co3O4 on seeds germination and seedling growth;
(ii) to determine effects of nano-Co3O4 on the behavior and
reproductive output of soil earthworms and arthropods;
(iii) to assess the effects on some oxidative stress biomarkers
for exposed earthworms; (iv) to state the effects on soil
microbial communities through measuring soil enzymes
activities related to C, P, N, and S cycles; (v) to use the
ecotoxicological data obtained to propose a PNEC value,

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 405

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_127
406
integrating data from different species and endpoints at dif-
ferent levels of the biological organization.
2 Materials and Methods
See Fig. 1.
3 Results and Discussion
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis of
nanopowder demonstrated that nano-Co3O4 was able to form
aggregates with spherical shape and size up to 500 nm.
Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and Electrophoretic Light
Scattering (ELS) analysis data showed that as the concen-
tration of nano-Co3O4 in water suspensions increases, bigger
aggregates could be formed and aggregations instability also
increases.
Ecotoxicological tests demonstrated that, nano-Co3O4 can
significantly affect the emergence of tomato (L. Lycoper-
sicum) at the highest tested concentration, and inhibit the
growth of corn (Z. mays) at all tested concentrations. Further,
soil invertebrates like E. andrei can notice their presence in
soils and start avoiding them. Moreover, long-term exposure
can affect the metabolic activity of these invertebrate species
and significantly inhibit the glutathione-S-transferase activity
in earthworms exposed to the highest tested concentration,
although without compromising their reproductive activity.
In addition, a significant effect was observed in soil enzymes
Fig. 1 Experimental design
S. Bouguerra et al.
activities, reflecting the adverse effect mainly on phpsphorus
and sulfur cycles and hence the involved soil microbial
communities. The recorded negative effects in all tests could
be mainly related to the direct uptake of the smallest
nano-Co3O4 aggregates and/or to the release of Co ions in
soil leading to chemical stress. Whereas, the non significant
observed effects was likely related to the high aggregation
level of this metal oxide NM that has compromised metal
bioavailability and uptake by plants. This is in agreement
with some previous studies, proving that, at least in some
conditions, the formation of aggregates with micrometric size
may decrease the toxic effect of such NMs (Lin and Xing
2007; Yang and Watts 2005).
Overall, the ecotoxicological data reported in the present
work, allowed us to propose a low PNEC soil value for
nano-Co3O4.
4 Conclusion
In summary, more data are still necessary to evaluate the
environmental effects of nano-Co3O4 for other soil
organisms and in soil suspenssion, in order to reduce the
uncertainty of the PNEC soil value estimated. Biochemical
endpoints, could be extremely important in the first tier of
environmental risk assessment, when few data are avail-
able, to guarantee an adequate level of protection. The
significant inhibition observed in soil enzymes activities
related to P and S cycles may be the indirect cause
for inhibiting seedling growth of corn (Zea mays L.).
Thus, special attention should be given for the effect of
Deriviation of Terrestrial Predicted No-Effect Concentration …
this NM in agricultural soils, since the use of biosolids for
fertilization is one of the most relevant pathways for the
entrance of these emergent contaminants in terrestrial
compartments.
References
Antisari LV, Laudicina VA, Gatti A, Carbone S, Badalucco L,
Vianello G. Soil microbial biomass carbon and fatty acid compo-
sition of earthworm Lumbricus rubellus after exposure to engi-
neered nanoparticles. Biol Fertil Soils. 2014;51:261–9. doi:10.1007/
s00374-014-0972-1.
Ghodake G, Seo YD, Lee DS. Hazardous phytotoxic nature of cobalt
and zinc oxide nanoparticles assessed using Allium cepa. J Hazard
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Jamal A, Rahman MM, Khan SB, Faisal M, Akhtar K, Rub MA,
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Karami H. Heavy metal removal from water by magnetite nanorods.
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 Effects of UV-C Radiation on Viability,
Outer Membrane Proteins
and Lipopolysaccharides of Shigella
Kalthoum Chourabi, Susana Campoy, Jesus Rodriguez,
Ahmed Landoulsi, and Abdelwaheb Chatti



Keywords
UV irradiation Shigella
1 Introduction
The annual incidence of shigellosis throughout the world is
estimated at 164.7 million cases and 1.1 million of those
infected die with 69% of all deaths involving children less
than 5 years old (Kotloff et al. 1999). This pathogen transits
through the human gastrointestinal tract and may be present
in human and animal feces. So a current public health
concern about the wastewater effluents has arisen due to the
probable transmission of this infectious agent. To provide
public health protection, disinfection, as practised in water
and wastewater treatment, is a process by which pathogenic
microorganisms as Shigella are inactivated. Disinfection by
UV light is being increasingly applied in water treatment. It
is characterized by a short contact time (seconds to minutes)
and a more efficient antiviral action. Many studies showed
that bacterial sensitivity to UV radiation depends on strain,
growth medium and stage of the culture (Ben Said et al.
2011).
Since germicidal ultraviolet radiation is widely used as a
method of water treatment, the present study was undertaken
K. Chourabi (&)
A. Chatti
Laboratory of Wastewater Treatment, Water Research and
Technology Center, Technopole of Borj Cédria, BP 901,
2050, Hammam-Lif, Tunisia
e-mail: chourabi.kalthoum@gmail.com
S. Campoy
J. Rodriguez
Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Autonomous
University of Barcelona, 08290 Barcelona, Spain
e-mail: susana.campoy@uab.cat
A. Landoulsi
Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,
Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, Bizerte, Tunisia
e-mail: ahmed_landoulsi@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_128


Viability Outer membrane
to determine the sensitivity of Shigella to ultraviolet radia-
tions and to analyze the effect of UV-C on the viability, outer
membrane proteins (OMPs) and lipopolysaccharides
(LPS) profiles of irradiated cells.
2 Materials and Methods
The UV-C treatment was carried out in a laboratory UV
device (Hassen et al. 2000). Shigella subcultures were pre-
pared by transferring one isolated colony from the Nutrient
Agar plate culture into 10 ml of TSB and incubated for 18 h
at 37 °C and then centrifuged. The bacterial suspension were
washed then centrifuged with NaCl (0.9%) and resuspended
in the same solution to a final concentration of approxi-
mately 107 cfu/ml. 20 ml of the suspended culture was
transferred into a glass Petri dish and exposed to increasing
UV-C doses ranging from 40 to 720 mW s/cm2. After
exposure to UV-C rays, the number of viable cells was
determined and the OMPs and LPS profiles were analyzed
by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel elec-
trophoresis (SDS-PAGE).
3 Results and Discussion
The results revealed that UV-C radiation caused a reduction
of Shigella cells according to a correlation between (N/N0).
The very low UV dose 120 mW s/cm2 appeared as a deci-
sive factor in bacteria mortality which caused a reduction of
Shigella sp1 by 69.5% and Shigella sp2 by 70.5%. The
inactivation kinetics demonstrated that the process was
effective against both Shigella strains and led to modifica-
tions in OMPs and LPS synthesis.
409
410
The analysis of OMPs profiles treated by UVC radiations
revealed changes of certain proteins. The observed alter-
ations in the OMPs profiles of UV-C irradiated Shigella
strains were manifested by the appearance of one band as
well as by modifications in the expression level of already
existing proteins which were intensified in response to a
higher dose. These results are in accordance with those
reported by Ben Abdallah et al. (2012) who demonstrated
that UV radiation induced the synthesis of new proteins in
Vibrio alginolyticus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. In addi-
tion, after UV-C radiation by lower doses, different alter-
ations occurred in the LPS profiles depending on the strains
and coordinated with the kinetic studies. Previous studies
have shown both decreases and increases in lipid content
during starvation of Shigella (Ellafi et al. 2011).
4 Conclusion
This work demonstrated that UV-C is efficient to inacti-
vate Shigella strains accompanied by modifications in
OMPs and LPS profiles. It appears that these changes are
a response of Shigella against UV radiation. Therefore,
when treated with the appropriate doses, UVC light
sanitation can be used to provide Shigella-free
K. Chourabi et al.
food-contact surfaces and water supplies. So the disin-
fection system process needs to be effective using accu-
rate and reliable techniques.
References
Ben Abdallah F, Lagha R, Ellafi A, Namane A, Rousselle JC,
Lenormand P, Kallel H. Identification of Outer Membrane Proteins
Altered in Response to UVC-Radiation in Vibrio parahaemolyticus
and Vibrio alginolyticu. Ind J Microbiol. 2012;52:660–5.
Ben Said M, Khefacha S, Maalej L, Daly I, Hassen A. Effect of
ultraviolet, electromagnetic radiation subtype C (UV-C) dose on
biofilm formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Afr J Microbiol
Res. 2011;5:4353–8.
Ellafi A, Ben Abdallah F, Lagha R, Bakhrouf A. Outer membrane
proteins and morphological alterations of Shigella spp. under
starvation in seawater. Afr J Microbiol Res. 2011;5:904–9.
Hassen A, Mahrouk M, Ouzari H, Cherif M, Boudabous A, Damelin-
court JJ. UV disinfection of treated wastewater in a large-scale pilot
plant and inactivation of selected bacteria in a laboratory UV
device. Bioresource Technol. 2000;74:141–50.
Kotloff KL, Winickoff JP, Ivanoff B, Clemens JD, Swerdlow DL,
Sansonetti PJ, Adak GK, Levine MM. Global burden of Shigella
infections: implications for vaccine development and implementa-
tion of control strategies. Bull World Health Organ. 1999;77:
651–66.
 Titanium Dioxide Nanomaterial and Copper
Binary Mixture Phytotoxicity in Maize Plants
(Zea mays. L)

Sirine Bouguerra, Yosra Frikha, Ruth Pereira, Mohamed Ksibi,

and Olfa Hentati

Keywords
Nano-TiO2 Seed emergence Plants growth Chlorophyll content Metals bioaccu-
mulation

1 Introduction as “administered dose” in water suspensions prepared to spike

Nanomaterials (NMs) are emergent compounds that have
started to appear in soils already stressed by other commonly
used chemicals, such metals. In this context, our concerns
should be focused not only on the individual toxicity of NMs,
but also on their binary toxicity. Nowadays, titanium dioxide
NMs (nano-TiO2) showed to be the most manufactured and
used NM all over the world. In 2010, the worldwide total
estimation of nano-TiO2 production was around 88,000
metric tons/year with 45 and 35% of the total amount used for
coating, paints, pigment application and cosmetic industry,
respectively (Keller et al. 2013). This emerging compound is
increasingly released into agricultural fields, mainly via bio-
solids application (Gottschalk et al. 2009). Their individual
impacts on soil and its function were widely investigated; yet
there is still a great lack of information on their toxicity when
mixed with other common contaminants. In this work we
chose to assess the toxicity of natural soil spiked with
mixtures of nano-TiO2 and copper salt to maize plant. Thus,
the main aims of this study were to: (i) characterize nano-TiO2
S. Bouguerra
Y. Frikha
M. Ksibi
O. Hentati (&)
Engineering Laboratory of Environment and Ecotechnology,
GEET-LR16ES19, National School of Engineering of Sfax,
University of Sfax-Tunisia, Road of Soukra km 3.5,
Po Box 1173, 3038 Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: olfa_hentati@yahoo.fr
S. Bouguerra
R. Pereira
Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto
& Gree uP, Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
S. Bouguerra
R. Pereira
CIIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine & Environmental
Research, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General
Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
soils for plant tests; (ii) evaluate the phytotoxicity after
applying a range of concentration of a nano-TiO2 in soils
spiked with copper concentrations ([Cu] below to EC20 val-
ues for Z. mays in soil (Caetano et al. 2016) through observing
effects on seed germination, plant growth, and chlorophyll
content, (iii) assess the extent of the Ti and Cu accumulation
in soil matrix, Z. mays roots and aerial biomass by carrying
out the elemental analysis of those elements using ICP-MS.
2 Materials and Methods
A natural uncontaminated soil with Cu concentration was
prepared by adding 100 mg Cu kgdw1 (in the form of an
aqueous solution of (CuSO4,5H2O) followed by a 48-h
incubation at room temperature in dark. Aqueous suspen-
sions of nano-TiO2 (degussa P25, size < 21 nm) with an
increasing order of concentrations up to 1000 mg kgdw1 were
used to spike Cu-treated soil. (Nano-TiO2)-Cu contaminated
soils thus obtained were used for test plants following
standard procedures described by the ISO guideline 11269-2
(2012). After 20 exposure days, the effect on germination,
fresh and dry biomass of the aerial part and leaf chlorophyll
content were measured using SPAD-502 leaf chlorophyll
meter. At the same time, Ti and Cu metal levels in con-
taminated soils, roots and Z. mays aerial biomass were
measured by ICP-MS in order to evaluate their bioaccu-
mulation in the plant tissues. Data were compared with those
observed for Z. mays grown in uncontaminated soils and in
soils contaminated with nano-TiO2 and Cu salt individually.
Prepared aqueous suspensions of nano-TiO2 (covering the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 411

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_129
412
Fig. 1 Growth of maize in
uncontaminated soils (CTL, DW),
soils contaminated with Cu (CTL,
Cu), with nano-TiO2(CTL,
nano-TiO2) and with binary
mixture ([nano-TiO2]-Cu) (CTL:
control, DW: distilled water)
CTL CTL
(DW) (nano-TiO2)
range of tested concentrations) were characterized for their
average size, the size distribution, and for zeta potential (f)
by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and Electrophoretic
Light Scattering (ELS), using a Zeta Sizer Nano ZS, Zen
3500, equipped with a 532 nm laser.
3 Results and Discussion
The reported data showed no significant effect on seed
germination and fresh and dry biomass of maize plants in all
treated soils. However, a significant reduction in chlorophyll
content in Cu spiked soils and in (nano-TiO2)-Cu spiked
soils compared to uncontaminated ones was observed
(Fig. 1). The recorded negative effect was rather related to
Cu than nano-TiO2 since even in soils spiked only with
nano-TiO2 at the maximum tested concentration
(1000 mg kgdw1 ), no significant effect was observed. Thus,
the nano-TiO2 showed to be non toxic to Z. mays when
added to natural soil without any additional contaminant.
This may be due to surface charge of nanoparticles and the
formation of aggregates larger than the primary manufac-
tured size which are demonstrated through DLS and ELS
analysis.
The ICP-MS analysis demonstrated that both metals (Ti
and Cu) could be accumulated by Z. mays. This may be
related to the implication of nano-TiO2 in the process of
accumulation and mobility of copper in plant tissues. This
data is in accordance with the study of (Fang et al. 2011), who
demonstrated that mobility of Cu in soils could be stimulated
or inhibited in presence of nano-TiO2 depending on NM
physicochemical characteristics (Fang et al. 2011).
S. Bouguerra et al.
CTL
(Cu) Cu + increasing concentraƟon of nano-TiO2
4 Conclusion
In conclusion, the results obtained, suggest that a mixture
effect is occurring, or nano-TiO2 is likely to interfere with
the uptake of copper by the test plants. However, the
present evaluation of risks of NMs for the terrestrial
ecosystem must take into account the historical contam-
ination of this compartment with chemicals. Such inter-
actions between NMs and these contaminants will
determine their effects on soil biota.
Further, special attention should be paid to the effect
of such mixtures of NM-metals on agricultural soils,
since they can be accumulated in exposed plants and
consequently enter the food chain causing risk to terres-
trial biota and human health.
References
Caetano AL, Marques CR, Gonçalves F, da Silva EF, Pereira R. Copper
toxicity in a natural reference soil: ecotoxicological data for the
derivation of preliminary soil screening values. Ecotoxicology.
2016;25:163–77.
Fang J, et al. Transport of copper as affected by titania nanoparticles in
soil columns. Environ Pollut. 2011;159:1248–56.
Gottschalk F, Sonderer T, Scholz RW, Nowack B. Modeled environ-
mental concentrations of engineered nanomaterials (TiO2, ZnO, Ag,
CNT, fullerenes) for different regions. Environ Sci Technol.
2009;43:9216–22.
ISO. Guideline 11269-2: Soil quality—Determination of the effects of
pollutants on soil flora—Part 2: effects of contaminated soil on the
emergence and early growth of higher plants. Geneve, Switzerland.
Int Organ Stand Geneve, Switzerland. 2012.
Keller AA, McFerran S, Lazareva A, Suh S. Global life cycle releases
of engineered nanomaterials. J Nanoparticle Res. 2013; 15.
 Biochemical and Enzymatic Characterization
of a Gram-negative Fish Pathogen Isolated
in Morocco from Rainbow Trout
and Comparison with Isolates
of Other Countries and Sources

Assia Kritihi, Khadija Ouaissa, Abdel Aziz Maychal,

Youness Oumessaoud, Mustapha Barakate, and Mustapha Hasnaoui

Keywords
Flavobacterium psychrophilum Rainbow trout Characterization Fish disease
Isolation

1 Introduction Flavobacterium psychrophilum is common in freshwater

Some bacteria play a considerable role in the pathology of
fish, they may infect fish with one or more other bacterial
species, which makes them true pathogens, capable of
infecting most healthy animals. However, only opportunistic
pathogens whose infectivity is expressed by a decline in the
fish condition and of its natural defenses, are linked to dis-
turbances of the environment or livestock practices, creating
the most favorable context for the development of bacterial
pathologies. Many bacterial species are pathogenic for fish
(Noga 1996; Austin and Austin 1999; Woo and Bruno
1999). The most serious infections in our latitudes are
Aeromonadaceae, Vibrionaceae, Enterobacteriaceae and
Flavobacteriaceae. Cold water flavobacteriosis with
A. Kritihi (&)
K. Ouaissa
M. Hasnaoui
Laboratory of Management and Development of Natural
Resources, Faculty Science and Technology, Sultan Moulay
Slimane University, BP 524. M’Ghila, 23000 Beni Mellal,
Morocco
e-mail: assiakritihi@gmail.com
M. Hasnaoui
e-mail: must_hasnaoui@yahoo.com
A. Kritihi
Abdel AzizMaychal
Y. Oumessaoud
Ain Aghbal Pisciculture Farm, Azrou, Morocco
e-mail: aziz.maychal@lesaromesdumaroc.ma
Y. Oumessaoud
e-mail: y.oumessaoud@lesaromesdumaroc.ma
A. Kritihi
M. Barakate
Laboratory of Biology and Biotechnology of Microorganisms,
Faculty Semlalia Sciences, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech,
Morocco
e-mail: mbarakate@uca.ac.ma
aquaculture and causes very heavy losses in Salmon farms
and Severe mortalities of salmonid fry throughout the world.
The aim of this study was to isolate, identify and bio-
chemically characterize the pathological agent causing sev-
ere mortalities in Moroccan hatcheries.
1.1 Flavobacterium Genus Description
Flavobacterium genus was described for the first time in
1923 by Bergey et al. (1923). Bacteria of the genus
Flavobacterium now have a number of common character-
istics. They are Gram negative, rods with straight, parallel
sides and rounded ends; their size is from 0.5 by 1.0–
3.0 µm, with gleeding motility and slow growth on solid
media. Their colonies are typically translucent and pig-
mented yellow to orange. Usually 1–2 µm in diameter, they
are convex or low convex, smooth and shiny with entire
edges. Non-pigmented and occasionally opaque strains
occur. They are Aerobic, having a strictly respiratory type of
metabolism. Chemoorganotrophic acid, but no gases are
produced from carbohydrates. Most do not ferment sugar or
glucose and are Catalase-positive. They are Oxidase and
Phosphatase positive, Urease and DNase negative (Naka-
gawa and Yamasato 1996).
Widely distributed in soil and water; Flavobacteria were
isolated from a wide range of habitats. Since they are
chemoorganotrophic bacteria, a number of them colonize fish
in which they exert pathogenicity. This is particularly the case
for Flavobacterium branchiophilum, F. columnare, F. john-
soniae, or F.psychrophilum. Others, such as F. hydatis, or
F. succinicans, have been found and isolated from diseased

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 413

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_130
414
fish, although their pathogenicity has not been demonstrated
(Bernardet et al. 1996).
2 Materials and Methods
Fertilized eggs of Rainbow Trout (Onchorynkus Mykiss) are
imported from France and in the hatchery, they achieved half
the incubation.
The problem first apparition was after a serious number of
mortalities at the fry, and the losses are estimated to be more
than 80%. The events had been observed previously and no
scientific study had been achieved.
Samples were collected in aseptic conditions. Diseased
Rainbow trout fertilized eggs and fry were obtained from a
fish hatchery in azrou - Morocco, operating with flow
through tanks fed with source water. Fish had a body weight
between 20 and 100 g and were held at a stocking density of
23–25 kg m−3. At the time of sampling, the water temper-
ature was 10 °C. Routine grading for size 15 days prior to
sampling and low water temperatures were the only identi-
fiable stress factors preceding evidence of disease (Elliot
1981). A total of 30 fish with and without eroded fins and/or
tails were examined per season and taken for microbiolog-
ical analyses.
a. Isolation and identification
The growing economic importance of aquaculture in the
world has led to increase interest in the rapid and reliable
methods for detection and identification of bacterial fish
pathogens (Nilsson and Strom 2002). The detection of
Flavobacterium psychrophilum by conventional techniques
is difficult and time-consuming. Bacteria from Flavobac-
terium genus are responsible for significant economic losses
in salmonid culture (Nematollahi et al. 2003).
Water samples were collected in sterile flacons and fish
samples taken from the hatchery were stoked in 4 °C and
transported directly to the laboratory.
In the laboratory, water samples were filtered in sterile
conditions and the filters were put in petri dishes. Fish
samples taken from internal organs (liver, kidney, rate and
spleen), damaged gill tissue and, if present, skin lesions of
fish body surface were streaked onto Cytophaga agar (CA,
0.05% tryptone, 0.05% yeast extract, 0.02% sodium acetate,
0.02% beef extract with 0.9% agar, pH 7.2–7.4) (Anacker
and Ordal 1959) plates using sterile loops and aseptic
techniques were directly streaked onto CA plates and incu-
bated at 14 °C for up to 10 days.
A. Kritihi et al.
Eroded fins and tails were sampled by scraping the
margin of the lesion with a sterile scalpel blade; the collected
material was then inoculated onto Cytophaga agar plates and
incubated at 14 °C for up to 10 days. After the incubation
period, yellow-pigmented colonies were chosen and
restreaked on the CA to obtain pure isolates. Colonies were
tested for Gram staining, presence of flexirubin type pig-
ment, cytochrome oxidase activity, catalase production and
motility (Lorenzen et al. 1997). Gram negative rod shaped,
gliding motility, production of flexirubin type pigment were
taken for identification and further characterization.
a. Biochemical characterization
Catalase activity was determined by the coverslip method
of Taylor and Achanzar (1972) and by adding several drops
of 3% (v/v); oxidase reaction was determined by DrySlide
Oxidase (Difco Laboratories, Detroit, MI, USA). Other
biochemical tests were achieved using the API 20E system®
(BioMereux Vitek Hazelwood, MO). Congo red reaction
was tested by the method of McCurdy (1969) using 0.001%
(w/v).
b. Antibiotic susceptibility test
Antibiotic susceptibility test was performed to determine
the antibiotic resistant profiles of the isolates using the Kirby
Bauer disc diffusion method (Bauer et al. 1966). Antibiotic
discs (Oxoid, England) of neomycin (30 lg), oxytetracy-
cline (30 lg), chloramphenicol, (30 lg), amoxicillin
(10 lg), ampicillin (10 lg), were used to determine the
resistance profiles. Briefly, Cytophaga Broth (CB) was used
to prepare bacterial suspensions. The turbidity of suspen-
sions was adjusted as Mac Farland 0.5 and 100 ll of aliquots
were spread over CA surface. Antibiotic disks were placed
on the surface of the inoculated agar plates and the plates
were incubated at 14 °C for 7–10 days. After incubation
period, the antibiotic inhibition zone diameters were mea-
sured and the results were evaluated and noted.
3 Results and Discussion
A total of 73 gram negative, long and thin bacilli showing
gliding movement and flexirubin type pigment production
were isolated from the samples. These isolates were then
tested by some biochemical tests such as catalase, cyto-
chrome oxidase, ONPG, H2S and glucides fermentation
tests. A total of 36 (49.31%) isolates were found as positive
Biochemical and Enzymatic Characterization of a Gram-negative …
for catalase and weakly positive for cytochrome oxidase,
negative for ONPG, H2S and glucides fermentation were
identified as suspicious for being as Flavobacterium.
Our isolates have too many different characteristics,
besides the sampling origins and seasons, we fond hetero-
geneity in some biochemical characters. So to confirm which
Flavobacterium specie or species are responsible of the huge
losses in our hatchery a PCR analysis had to be conducted.
Michel et al. (1999) have reported that in some cases,
isolation was not possible from infected tissues due to the
presence of viable but non-cultivable cells. Furthermore, it
should not be ignored that unconscious use of antibiotics in
fish farms may lead to inhibit the bacterial growth. Several
studies have been performed to determine the antibiotic
resistance profiles of Flavobacterium bacteria in various
regions all over the world and quite variable profiles have
been observed. The results in the present study also showed
that all strains are sensitive to oxytetracycline and chlo-
ramphenicol, but resistant to ampicillin, amoxicillin and
neomycin.
4 Conclusion
Bacteria from the Flavobacterium genus were isolated for
the first time in a semi-arid country, in North Africa—
Morocco. We could identify them biochemically and we
still need to identify them by PCR and ARN16S.
All strains were found to be sensitive to oxytetracy-
cline and chloramphenicol, but resistant to ampicillin,
amoxicillin and neomycin.
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Nematollahı A, Decostere A, Pasmans F, Haesebrouck F. Flavobac-
terium psychrophilum infections in salmonid fish. J Fish Dis.
2003;26:563–74.
Nilsson WB, Strom MS. Detection and identification of bacterial
pathogens of fish in kidney tissue using terminal restriction
fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis of 16S rRNA
genes. Dis Aquat Organ. 2002;48:175–85.
Noga EJ. Fish disease, diagnosis and treatment. St Louis, Missouri:
Mosby; 1996.
Taylor WI, Achanzar D. Catalase test as an aid to the identification of
Enterobacteriaceae. Appl Microbiol. 1972;24:58–61.
Woo PTK, Bruno DW. Fish diseases and disorders; volume 3: viral,
bacterial and fungal infections. CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK, 1999.
 Effects of Boron Distribution on Sugar Beet
Crop Yield in Two Soils of Dour Ismail
Irrigated Perimeter (Béja-Goubellat-North
Tunisia)

Ahlem Tlili, Imene Dridi, Salma Fatnassi, Hédi Hamrouni,

and Moncef Gueddari

Keywords
Boron Soil Dynamic Sugar beet Arid and semi-arid regions

1 Introduction B is continuously required for the growth of most plants

Boron (B) is one of the seven essential micronutrients
required for the normal crop growth and yield of most plants
(Ali et al. 2015). It plays a major role in sugar transport as well
as in formation and maintenance of cell wall and cell mem-
brane integrity (Kabu and Akosman 2013). Indeed, adequate
B nutrition is critical for high yields and quality of crops.
B enters the environment mainly from the weathering of
B-containing rocks, from seawater in the form of boric acid
vapor and from volcanic and other geothermal activities. B is
also released, though to a lesser extent, from human activities.
In soils, total B concentration (10 ppm up to 300 ppm)
evolves and must be frequently monitored, because B defi-
ciency or toxicity impairs plant growth and reduces yield
severely. B content in soil depends on the type of soil, the
amount of Organic Matter (OM), which contains B, and the
volume of rainfall, which can remove B from the soil.
Indeed, coarse-textured acid soils of humid regions and
those with low OM content are more prone to B deficiency
(Niaz et al. 2016). On the contrary, B toxicity is reported
mainly in calcareous soils of arid and semi-arid areas owing
to B high levels and addition of B through irrigation water.
Indeed, B availability in soil decreases with increasing pH
levels. A small quantity of B is gradually complexes within
OM or adsorbs on clays, and to some extent precipitates with
CaCO3 and therefore unavailable for plant growing.
A. Tlili (&)
I. Dridi
S. Fatnassi
M. Gueddari
Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, University
of Tunis El Manar, 2092 El Manar, Tunisia
e-mail: ahlemtlili@hotmail.fr
H. Hamrouni
Soil Resources Department, Ministry of Agriculture, El Manar,
Tunisia
otherwise; plants grow in low B media exhibit B deficiency
symptoms of various forms. For instance, in the case of the
sugar beet, B deficiency symptoms first occur as a white
netted chapping of the upper blade surfaces or wilting of
crops. Later, if the deficiency becomes severe, transverse
cracking of the petioles develops and the new leaves in the
growing point may turn black (Armin and Asgharipour
2012). Correcting or preventing the deficiency can improve
yield and sugar content. In Tunisia, sugar beet production
followed a neat growth from 2007 to 2015. The output
amounted to 113.3 thousand tons in 2015, rising by +45.3%
against the previous years’ yields. Spending a lot of money
on sugar imports during the previous years, a great deal of
governmental efforts were deployed to increase sugar beet
production by persuading farmers to grow the crop in rota-
tion with cereals. Recently, the area under sugar beet culti-
vation rose from 600 ha in 2012/2013 to 4500 ha in
2015/2016.
Sugar beets are generally considered to have relatively
high requirements of B as compared to other commodities.
Some of the B may be applied (through soil or early foliar
applications) in response to low B content, which can often
be found in Tunisian soils under sugar beet crops. B defi-
ciency conditions provided some disturbing results leading to
yield reductions. Therefore, detailed knowledge on B avail-
ability in the soil is required to understand and address a
range of agricultural problems mainly for Tunisian sugar beet
production, which has never been studied previously. It is
within this framework that our study focused on the effect of
B distribution and dynamics on sugar beet crop yield in two
soils of Dour Ismail irrigated perimeter of Béja-Goubellat
region (North Tunisia).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 417

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_131
418
2 Materials and Methods
In this study, two soil profiles (P1 and P2: the same soil type
“Fulvisol” with different B content) were dug. For both sites,
soil samples were taken from different horizons of the profile
and according to three stages: before sowing, in the middle
of the crop cycle and after harvesting the sugar beet. Then,
soil samples were characterized for the main physicochem-
ical analysis according to international norms: The Total
Organic Carbon (TOC) was estimated by the sulfochromic
oxidation method (NF EN ISO 14235). The soil texture was
determined using the Robinson pipette (NF X31-107). The
soils were characterized for lime (CaCO3) contents with the
volumetric method (NF EN ISO 10693), electrical conduc-
tivity (EC) (NF EN ISO 11265) and pH (NF EN ISO 10390).
Irrigation water samples were collected from several valves
of the farmer and over time during the experimental period
(2016–2017). Temperature and dissolved oxygen content
were measured in situ. Samples were kept at 4 °C for the
chemical analysis according to international norms. pH (NF
T90-008) and EC (NF EN 27-888) were measured by
Electrochemistry method. Cations (Mg2+, Ca2+, Na+, K+)
and anions (Cl−, SO42−) were measured by ionic chro-
matography (NF EN ISO 14911). Alkalinity attributed to
bicarbonate (HCO3−) was estimated by Titrimetry method
(NF EN ISO 9963-1). The precision of chemical analysis
was checked by calculating the ionic balance, accepting
error lower than 5%. The determination of B in soil and
water samples were determined by the azomethine H method
by molecular absorption spectrometry (PR NF T90-041).
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Water Characteristics
The water used for irrigation comes from Oued Medjerda
River. It was, on average, alkaline with a basic pH value of
7.6 (±0.2) and presented a Ca-SO4 hydrochemical facies
(data not shown). Salinity measured as EC was about 1.68
mS/cm, which could present a feeble risk of soil salinization
and therefore no risk of soil sodication since the Sodium
Adsorption Ratio (SAR) was inferior to 10. B concentration
was about 2 mg/l in the applied water. It recorded acceptable
values with no risk of B excess for the sugar beet, which
accepts a range of 4 to 6 ppm of B contents in the irrigation
water.
3.2 Soil Characteristics and B Distribution
Table 1 shows the main physicochemical properties of the
studied soils. The pH of the two soils was slightly basic with
A. Tlili et al.
values that declined from surface horizons to depth. The EC
values increased as we moved from the surface horizons to
the deep horizons for both studied soils. We noticed
important salinity at the bottom especially for P2 (EC  7.4
mS/cm) due to the accumulation of salts resulting from
evaporation and capillary rise. The increase in salinity was
also amplified by a low internal drainage of the soil due to
heavy clay texture, which renders these soils more vulner-
able to salinization. Indeed, soil texture was slightly finer
with the abundance of the clay fraction throughout the two
soil profiles. The T CaCO3 distribution was relatively
homogeneous through the profile of both studied soils.
The TOC levels were relatively low, because our study area
belongs to semi-arid zones characterized by low OM levels.
These low values seem to be preferentially localized on the
surface horizons of the two studied soils. In the case of P2,
the TOC recorded an increase in depth. This may be due to
the high salinity, which contributes to inhibit the microbio-
logical activity that was responsible for OM mineralization.
Besides, the presence of hydromorphic conditions in this
irrigated area prevents OM degradation and promotes
humification. Inherent soil properties such as clay and OM
contents have been constantly shown (Niaz et al. 2016; Dey
et al. 2013) to influence B distribution in soil. Other soil
characteristics, such as pH level, CaCO3 content and salin-
ity, may also affect B dynamic and are expected to give an
indication on its availability mainly in Tunisian soils.
B distribution differs from one horizon to another in the
studied soils. In general, the highest values were recorded in
surface layers. These amounts decreased with depth fol-
lowing different patterns according to the stages of the sugar
beet crop cycle (Fig. 1, each value is the mean of three
replicates). The B vertical distribution has the same behavior
as the TOC. Indeed, most of the available B is located in the
plow layers, where OM is highest. In 1999, Kelling showed
that soils low in OM are more often deficient in B than soils
with high OM content. B values varied from 24.37 ppm top
to 0.98 ppm bottom in P1. However, we noticed very low
values in P2 (<0.5 ppm) with a significant increase in B
concentration in deep horizons before sowing (18.05 ppm).
These great B amounts correspond to an enrichment in TOC
(2.35%), to a high EC solution (7.4 mS/cm) and to a high
CaCO3 percentage of (12%) and clay-silt fractions
(80%). Our results are in perfect agreement with some
previous studies (Dey et al. 2013), which have shown that
the B partitioning between soil solution and soil surfaces is
affected by soil clay content. Moreover, some of these
investigations pointed out that B adsorption was greater for
the high EC solution. B values in P2 were smaller compared
with those in P1. This may be explained by the slight
decrease in pH level in P2 although it recorded a higher OM
content (Table 1). Therefore, the lower the soil pH is, the
smaller the B adsorption in soil is, as soluble B at low pH
Effects of Boron Distribution on Sugar Beet … 419

Table 1 Selected physicochemical properties of the studied soils

Depth (cm) pH EC (mS/cm) Clay% Silt% Sand% T CaCO3% TOC%
P1 0–25 8.9 ± 0.1 1.4 ± 0.2 47 ± 0.8 26 ± 0.2 24 ± 1.0 9.2 ± 0.2 0.62 ± 0.01
25–50 8.5 ± 0.1 1.9 ± 0.0 51 ± 0.6 21 ± 0.1 25 ± 1.1 8.7 ± 0.2 0.63 ± 0.01
50–75 7.5 ± 0.2 2.0 ± 0.1 51 ± 1.0 17 ± 0.0 29 ± 1.2 7.5 ± 0.2 0.43 ± 0.00
75–100 7.5 ± 0.0 2.0 ± 0.1 49 ± 1.2 19 ± 0.2 29 ± 1.2 6.2 ± 0.1 0.33 ± 0.00
P2 0–25 8.3 ± 0.2 1.5 ± 0.1 53 ± 0.9 31 ± 0.5 14 ± 0.9 12.3 ± 0.3 1.01 ± 0.02
25–50 8.3 ± 0.1 1.5 ± 0.2 56 ± 1.0 34 ± 0.6 7 ± 0.5 13.1 ± 0.5 1.02 ± 0.02
50–75 7.7 ± 0.1 7.4 ± 0.1 23 ± 0.3 63 ± 0.4 11 ± 0.7 8.4 ± 0.3 2.35 ± 0.04
75–100 8.0 ± 0.3 2.4 ± 0.3 64 ± 1.2 27 ± 0.3 5 ± 0.4 12.3 ± 0.4 0.5 ± 0.00
EC Electrical Conductivity, TCaCO3 Total lime, TOC Total Organic Carbon

values exists mainly as boric acid, which is easily lost by
leaching resulting in B deficiency in surface horizons and B
accumulation in the depths. This fact maybe due to the very
harsh climatic conditions; i.e., high temperature and low
rainfall mainly in semi-arid areas, so a little amount of B is
gradually mixed with the soil OM. Further, it has been
revealed that B is somewhat precipitated with CaCO3 and is
quite unavailable for plant growth especially that used for
irrigation a water, which presented a Ca-SO4 hydro chemical
facies.
The follow-up on the field of B dynamic evolution as well
as its depth distribution showed a significant decrease in B
content in the middle of the sugar beet crop cycle mainly in
surface horizons of P1 (Fig. 1). After the harvest, we noticed
an increase, which is probably due to the uprooting of the
crop and consequently an increase in soil B content (close to
the initial values). However, P2 showed unexpected results.
Indeed, it recorded a progressive increase during the crop
cycle and reached a maximum value of B concentration
post-harvest of sugar beet although it had not received any B
fertilization.
The yield of the sugar beet crop in 2016/2017 season was
healthy in both soils. We harvested 114 t/ha in P1 and 105
t/ha in P2. The yield of the sugar beet in P1 was more
intensive compared to P2. This can be probably explained by
the B deficiency found in P2 mostly in the beginning and in

Fig. 1 Depth B distribution 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25

according to stages of sugar beet 0 0
crop cycle B (ppm)
B (ppm)

25 25

50 50

75 75

100 Soil P1 100 Soil P2

Before sowing Before sowing
depth depth
Middle of the cycle (cm) Middle of the cycle
(cm)
After harvesting After harvesting
125 125
420
the middle of the crop cycle of sugar beet. B concentration
was in fact, below the critical level of B deficiency
(<0.5 ppm) in surface and accumulated in the deep horizons
under the root zone of the sugar beet.
4 Conclusion
Our results show that the highest B values were
recorded in surface horizons of the two studied soils.
These amounts decreased with depth following different
patterns according to the stages of sugar beet crop
cycle. The vertical distribution of B has the same
behavior as the TOC and clay content and was greatly
affected by some soil properties such as pH, T CaCO3
and EC. The highest yield of sugar beet was obtained in
P1, which did not present any problems of B
deficiency.
A. Tlili et al.
References
Ali F, Ali A, Gul H, Sharif M, Sadiq A, Ansaar Ahmed A, Ullah A,
Mahar A, Kalhoro SA. Effect of boron soil application on nutrients
efficiency in tobacco leaf. Am J Plant Sci. 2015;6:1391–400.
Armin M, Asgharipour M. Effect of time and concentration of boron
foliar application on yield and quality of sugar beet.
American-Eurasian J Agric Environ Sci. 2012;12(4):444–8.
Dey A, Dwivedi BS, Meena MC, Datta SP. Adsorption-desorption of
boron in major soils of India. J Indian Soc Soil Sci. 2013;61
(3):179–87.
Kabu M, Akosman MS. Biological effects of boron. Rev Environ
Contam Toxicol. 2013;225:57–75.
Kelling KA. Soil and applied boron. Understanding plant nutrients
A2522. 1999.
Niaz A, Nawaz A, Ehsan S, Saleem I, Ilyas M, Abdul Majeed,
Muhmood A, Ranjha AM, Rahmatullah, Ahmed N. Impacts of
residual boron on wheat applied to previous cotton crop under
alkaline calcareous soils of Punjab. Sci Lett. 2016;4(1):33–39.
 Hydrocarbon Pollution of Kuwait Bay:
Differentiation of Petrogenic,
Anthropogenic and Biogenic Hydrocarbons

Talat Saeed, Hassan AlShimmari, Nisar Ahmad, Ahmad Al-Mutairi,

and Hameeda Abdullah

Keywords
Hydrocarbon analysis GC/FID GC/MS Hotspots Source appropriation

1 Introduction zone as well as from off shore locations were subjected to

Among the pollutants entering Kuwait’s coastal areas,
hydrocarbons (generally referred to as petroleum hydrocar-
bons) constitute the bulk and are considered to be a major
environmental stress Lyons et al. 2015). However, the
studies have not made any distinction regarding the sources
of hydrocarbons so far. All hydrocarbons have generally
been assumed to be of petroleum origin. Hydrocarbons are
found in sediments as complex mixtures derived from many
different sources. These include petrogenic, anthropogenic,
diagenetic and biogenic sources. It is important to differen-
tiate the sources to assess the relative contribution of each
source to the total impacts on aquatic and benthic ecosys-
tems. The PAHs originating from petroleum sources may be
more bioavailable than the pyrogenic PAHs (McGroddy and
Farrington 1995; Gustafsson et al. 1997). The primary
objective of this study was to differentiate between the
sources of hydrocarbons in the sediments of Kuwait’s
coastal areas. Sediment samples collected from intertidal
T. Saeed (&)
H. AlShimmari
N. Ahmad
A. Al-Mutairi

H. Abdullah
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Environment and Life
Sciences Research Center, Safat-13109, P. O. Box 24885, Kuwait,
Kuwait
e-mail: tsaeed@kisr.edu.kw
H. AlShimmari
e-mail: hshamari@kisr.edu.kw
N. Ahmad
e-mail: amutairi@kisr.edu.kw
A. Al-Mutairi
e-mail: nahmad@kisr.edu.kw
H. Abdullah
e-mail: habdalah@kisr.edu.kw
detailed analysis to identify the sources.
2 Materials and Methods
Sediment samples were collected from 28 stations in Kuwait
Bay (Fig. 1). Freeze dried samples were extracted by ultra-
sonication. The extract was concentrated and fractionated by
employing silica solid-phase extraction cartridge to obtain
aliphatic and aromatic fractions. The aliphatic fraction was
analyzed by GC/FID for n-alkane profile and for the unre-
solved complex mixture UCM). Biomarkers (hopanes and
steranes) were analyzed by GC/MS in selective-ion moni-
toring mode. Parent as well as methylated PAHs in aromatic
fraction were analyzed by GC/MS in selective-ion moni-
toring mode. The Internal standard method was used for
quantitation (using deutrated surrogates).
3 Results and Discussion
The results showed that all samples contained petrogenic
aliphatic hydrocarbons (n-alkanes) in varying amounts. The
levels ranged from 2 to 97,210 ug/kg. Sulaibikhat area was
the most contaminated due to discharges emitted from
sewage outlets. There was no evidence of biogenic aliphatic
compounds in Kuwait bay. Aliphatic (n-alkanes) in Kuwait
Bay ranged from 8 ug/kg to 73,574 ug/kg. The UCM levels
varied from 18 ug/kg to 1,104,511 ug/kg. Biomarkers were
also present in most of the locations (ranging from 0 to 2894
ug/kg). The n-alkane levels in the samples from northern
areas (Bubiyan and Failaka) were variable ranging from 204
to 1018 ug/kg. The UCM levels at two locations near south

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 421

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_132
422
Fig. 1 Kuwait Bay map showing
sampling locations
Bubiyan Island were relatively high. A sample collected
from north Failaka contained higher levels of n-alkanes
when compared to the sample from southern Failaka.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were also
detected in all the locations with varying amounts, ranging
from 3.6 ug/kg to 20030 ug/kg. In Kuwait Bay most of the
stations contained relatively low levels of PAHs. However,
two samples contained high enough PAHs to be regarded as
being polluted while one sample contained more than 1000
ug/kg near Ghazali outlet (Fig. 2) and was classified as being
Fig. 2 Distribution of PAHs in
the samples from Ghazali outlet
T. Saeed et al.
heavily polluted. There was some evidence for the presence
of biogenic PAHs (unusual high levels of perylene) in 13
locations. Most of the locations contained PAHs originating
from mixed sources (petrogenic and pyrogenic). However,
seven locations were identified with petrogenic PAHs
(almost exclusively).
The PAH levels were generally low in the samples
collected from offshore location in Kuwait Bay. None of
these locations could be considered to be polluted. Some
samples contained possible biogenic perylene. The northern
Hydrocarbon Pollution of Kuwait Bay: Differentiation …
area samples were generally lightly contaminated except for
two stations situated in south Bubiyan. Failaka island
samples were low in PAHs but contained biogenic
perylene.
4 Conclusion
This study showed that Kuwait Bay, which is the most
biologically productive coastal area was contaminated
with hydrocarbons from mostly two sources, i.e. petro-
genic and anthropogenic. Highly contaminated areas
were located in the southern coast of the Bay. The hot
spots were located in the areas close to the sewage dis-
charge points. These outlets drained sewage that con-
tained petroleum products as well as anthropogenic
423
hydrocarbons. The PAHs in all samples were from mixed
sources.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the partial
funding for this study provided by Kuwait Foundation for the
Advancement of Sciences (KFAS).
References
Gustafsson O, Haghseta F, Chan C, Macfarlane J, Geshwend PM.
Environ Sci Technol. 1997;31:203–9.
Lyons BP, Devlin MJ, Hamid SA, Otaibi AF, Al-Enezi M, Massoud MS,
Al-Sarawi HA. Mar Pollut Bull. 2015;100:629–35.
MacGroddy SE, Farrington JW. Environ Sci Technol. 1995;29:
1542–50.
 Effects of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers
and the Benzo[a]Pyrene on Survival
and Settlement of Moon Jellyfish (Aurelia
solida) Planulae

Cherif Ensibi, Fatma Bouzidi, and Mohamed Nejib Daly Yahia

Keywords
Aurelia solida Schyphozoan jellyfish PBDE47 BaP Survival rate
Settlement success

1 Introduction preliminary investigation seems imposed to deal with the

Owing to the continuously-increasing quick pace of indus-
trialization, the aquatic ecosystems turn out to be subjected
to the release of a wide range of contaminants, resulting in
remarkable stresses being incurred on organisms living in
such environments (Phillips and Rainbow 1993). In this
respect, the use of aquatic organisms, as biological sentinels,
has proved to stand as an effective means whereby envi-
ronmental monitoring can be implemented. As it is the case
with anemones, jellies and hydra, marine cnidarians do not
figure as part of the standard toxicity test protocols, despite
their remarkable sensitivity to a range of contaminants, along
with their wide distribution in tropical marine waters (Howe
et al. 2014). Hence, a greater understanding of the effects of
an increasing array of contaminants’ effects on this keystone
group of organisms souds critically important. The jellyfish,
regarding which the medusae phase stands as the predomi-
nant part of the life cycle, comprise the smallest cnidarians
group, encompassing less than 250 species, represent wholly
about 2–3% of the Cnidaria phylum (Purcell et al. 2007).
Actually, Jellyfish play a very important role in the ocean
ecosystem, as they prey on planktonic organisms like crus-
taceans, copepods, and fish larvae. In turn, some species of
sea turtles, fish and sea birds feed on jellyfish. Noteworthy,
however, is that data pertaining to the use of jellyfish as an
ecotoxicological model appear to be very scarce in the rel-
evant literature. It is actually for this reason that a
C. Ensibi (&)
F. Bouzidi
M. N. Daly Yahia
UR Marine Biology, Research Group: Biodiversity and
Functioning of Aquatic Systems, Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte,
Carthage University, 7021 Bizerte, Tunisia
e-mail: cherif.ensibi@fsb.rnu.tn
possibility of using early life stage of the Scyphozoan jel-
lyfish Aurelia solida, one of the most common gelatinous
coastal zooplankton species, as an innovative marine eco-
toxicology pertaining model organism. It is in this context
that the present study can be set, with the aim of determining
the Aurelia solida planulae relating survival scope and set-
tlement success rate during exposure to several modes of
concentration (0, 1, 5, 10, 200, 400, 800 ng l−1) as well as
(0, 1, 5, 10, 100, 200, 400 ng l−1), respectively, for BDE47
and B(a)P. To our knowledge, this modest work represents a
pioneering initial attempt designed to understand the effects
of intensive exposure to Polybrominated diphenyl ethers
(PBDE47) and Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) on the Aurelia solida
jellyfish early life stage.
2 Materials and Methods
Chemicals for Exposure BaP (>95% purity), PBDE47
(>98% purity) and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) were pur-
chased from Sigma Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, U.S.A.)
Animals Aurelia solida medusae with planulae larvae,
observed in brood sacs of the oral arms, were collected from
the Bizerte Channel (37° 14′N, and 9° 56′E), located in north
east Tunisia, by means of a hand net attached to a vinyl sheet
for the purpose of obtaining undamaged specimens. The
Medusae were immediately transferred in individual plastic
bowls (20 L) filled with filtered seawater (0.45 lm sieve) and
transported to the Laboratory, where they were preserved in a
controlled room temperature (24 °C). In the next day, the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 425

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_133
426
medusae incubation water was filtered by means of a 315 lm
sieve to remove mucus and gelatinous tissue, and the plan-
ulae were then concentrated in a 37 lm plankton net. The
planulae were pipet-collected in 500 mL glass tanks, filled
with filtered seawater, and used in the experiments.
Toxicity tests were carried out in conformity with the
protocol advanced by Lucas and Horton (2014). Bioassays
were performed via planulae of A. Solida, with an amount of
4 mL of filtered seawater being added to Petri dishes (of
0.5 cm height  3 cm diameter). An average of 25 planulae
were carefully taken and placed in each Petri dish. Working
solutions: PBDE47 and B(a)P were then added to the
medium (nominal concentrations). Both of the control and
treatment processes were performed in triplicates. The
bioassays lasted for 72 h under no-feeding and no-light
exposure conditions. Periodically (within 12 h intervals), the
following parameters were examined through a dissecting
microscope, with respect to each replicate: (1) the number of
surviving planulae, and (2) the number of settled planulae. It
took three days for the experiment to be over.
Data processing and statistical analysis All data were
expressed under mean ± standard deviation (SD) of the
triplicates. The results reached following each single
experiment were compared by calculating the larvae related
mortality rate and settlement success percentage. Data were
analysed via a one-way ANOVA, identifying the significant
differences recorded between larval mortality and settlement
success among treatments. As variance among data was
homogenous, they were analyzed by means of establishing
post hoc ‘Tukey’ comparisons undertaken via the STATIS-
TICA 6.0 software. As for the 24–48—and 72 h median
Fig. 1 Aurelia solida larvae related mortality data, as exposed to different BaP and PBDE 47 concentrations
C. Ensibi et al.
lethal concentrations (LC50), they were computed via
trimmed Spearman–Karber analysis (Finney 1978).
3 Results and Discussion
While no mortality was registered within the control groups
throughout the experimental period, mortality of exposed
larvae correlated with increasing pollutant concentration in
the culture medium (Fig. 1). The median lethal concentrations
(LC50) were extrapolated from the time response-toxicity
curves, as indicated on Table 1. It is worth noting that the
effects of such pollutants as pesticides and heavy metals on
some biological and physiological aspects are generally gra-
ded proportionately to their concentration and incubation time
(Ensibi et al. 2014). Our attained results appeared to indicate
well that both of the PBDE47 and B(a)P prove to significantly
affect larvae survival of the jellyfish A. solida. As actually
demonstrated, Larval stages appear to stand as rather sensitive
to xenobiotic than adults with respect to the marine inverte-
brates’ cases (Azad Mohammed 2013), which are, in some
species, due to size rather than to the developmental stage
(Kwok and Ang 2013). During the settlement tests of A.
solida, the number of settled planulae proved to decrease
gradually, with increasing PBDE47 and B(a)P concentration
(Fig. 2). Settlement is a critical stage in the life-cycle of many
marine invertebrates and a range of environmental and other
factors have already been demonstrated to influence such a
process with regard to marine invertebrates. Indeed, very few
are those available documented data helping to establish
useful comparisons between the effects of xenobiotics on the
larval settlement of A. solida with other jellyfish.
Effects of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers …
Table 1 Median lethal concentration (LC50), as computed via trimmed Spearman–Karber analysis, concerning each time point
Time exposure BaP (µg/ml)
24 h 46,387
48 h 8,048
72 h 5,715
Fig. 2 Aurelia solida larval settlement, as exposed to different BaP and PBDE 47concentrations. Box plots depicting the settlement rate in control
group %. (mean ± SE). * P < 0.05 (one-way ANOVA)
4 Conclusion
In the light of the present investigation, one might well deduce
that applying the larvae forms of the jellyfish Aurelia solida in
toxicity test proved to be a prominent experiment. Addi-
tionally, the achieved results turn out to be remarkably useful
for assessing the PBDE47 and B(a)P potential in restricting
the A.solida larvae survival and settlement processes.
Acknowledgements The present work is sustained by the Tunisian
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, through the joint
bilateral cooperation program established between the Governments of
Tunisia and France (LMI COSYS-med laboratory). Anonymous
reviewers are also acknowledged for their constructive valuable
remarks leading to significant improvements of this modest study.
References
Azad Mohammed. Why are early life stages of aquatic organisms more
sensitive to toxicants than adults? In: Sivakumar G, editor. New
insights into toxicity and drug testing. InTech. 2013. ISBN:
978-953-51 0946-4. doi:10.5772/55187.
427
PBDE 47 (µg/ml)
0,714
0,343
0,273
Ensibi Cherif, Hernandez-Moreno David, Mıguez-Santiyan Maria
Prado, Daly-Yahya Mohamed Nejib, Soler-Rodrıguez Francisco
and Perez-Lopez Marcos. Effects of carbofuran and deltamethrin on
acetylcholinesterase activity in brain and muscle of the common
carp. Environ Toxicol. 2014;29(4):386–93. doi:10.1002/tox.21765.
Finney, DJ. Statistical method in biological assay. New York:
Macmillan Co., Inc. 1978.
Howe PL, Reichelt-Brushett AJ, Clark MW. Effects of Cd, Co, Cu, Ni and
Zn on asexual reproduction and early development of the tropical sea
anemone Aiptasia pulchella. Ecotoxicology 2014;23:1593–1606.
Kwok CK, Ang PO Jr. Inhibition of larval swimming activity of the
coral (Platygyra acuta) by interactive thermal and chemical stresses.
Mar Poll Bull. 2013;74:264–73.
Lucas Cathy H, Horton Alice A. Short-term effects of the heavy metals,
Silver and copper, on polyps of the common jellyfish, Aurelia
aurita. J Ex Mar Biol Ecol. 2014;461:154–61.
Phillips D, Rainbow P. Biomonitoring of trace aquatic contaminants.
London, New York: Elsevier Applied Science; 1993. p. 371.
Purcell JE, Uye S, Lo W. Anthropogenic causes of jellyfish blooms and
their direct consequences for humans: a review. Mar Ecol Prog Ser.
2007;350:153–74.
 Phytoremediation of Metal Industry
Wastewaters: A Review

Sukru Dursun and Zeynep Cansu Ayturan

Keywords
Wastewater Heavy metals Lepidium sativum Lemna minor Treatment

1 Introduction phytotoxicity tests are made for understanding the plants

ability against different heavy metal solutions concentra-
Metals are found in the environment in many forms and tions. These two aquatic plants work together because they
extracted in several different countries. Especially chromium are completing each other (American Public Health Asso-
IV is considered as carcinogenic and may lead to health ciation 1992).
problems such as allergic reactions, nose irritations and In this review, the reaction of Lepidium Sativum and
nosebleed, weakened immune system, genetic material Lemna Minor species against the polluted wastewaters with
alteration, stomach ulcer, kidney and liver function disorders heavy metals was studied. Therefore, metal industry
and death. Huge amounts of polluted wastewaters containing wastewaters including high heavy metals concentrations
heavy metals are produced annually from mining activities should be cleaned and treated.
and metal industry. With the help of metal industry, machine
equipment and tools which are important for economy are
produced. The main processes of metal manufacturing are 2 Materials and Methods
casting, welding, smelting, refining, cutting and shaping of
metals. Smelting and refining operations during metal Several methods are present to conduct phytotoxicity test for
manufacturing industry result in several pollutants such as understanding the tolerance of plant species against different
particulate matter, SO2, CO, wastewaters, sludge and slag toxic materials. With this test, the ability of toxic materials
containing heavy metals. The harmful effects of these pol- producing the permanent or temporary damage to plants is
lutants may be transported to the other areas with the help of revealed (European and Mediterranean Plant Protection
meteorological activities and runoff (URL 1).
Understanding the some plant species tolerance of against
the heavy metals is of great interst in order to offer more
efficient treatment techniques and reduce the negative
impacts. The mostly used plants for these purposes are
Lepidium Sativum and Lemna Minor. They are considered
as the aquatic plants which have an ability to live more
depressive environments (Rahmani and Stenberg 1999). The

S. Dursun (&)
Z. C. Ayturan

Environmental Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty,
Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
e-mail: sdursun@selcuk.edu.tr
Z. C. Ayturan Fig. 1 Response of Lepidium sativum against toxic substances
e-mail: zcozturk@selcuk.edu.tr (Piotrowicz-Cieślak and Adomas 2012)

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 429

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_134
430
Table 1 Comparison between L. Plant Species Heavy
sativum and L. minor reactions metals
against different heavy metals
Lepidium Hg
sativum (Mercury)
As
(Arsenic)
Pb (Lead)
Cd
(Cadmium)
Lemna minor Cu (Copper)
Cd
(Cadmium)
Pb (Lead)
Zn (Zinc)
Organization 2014). There are several standard methods
developed by different countries with respect to regulatory
requirements (Baumgarten et al. 2004). Furthermore, most of
the tests developed for Lemna Minor depend on the counting
of plant species left after seven days of toxic material addition.
In tests of Lepidium Sativum, the plant body and root growth
is measured after seven days of toxic material addition. For
both tests one control group and several test groups were
prepared to understand the effects of different concentrations.
An example response of lepidium sativum species against
different concentrations of toxic substances is given in Fig. 1.
3 Results and Discussion
In Table 1, comparison of Lepidium Sativum and Lemna
Minor plant species reactions against different types of heavy
metals present in wastewaters is given. Their reaction may
give information about the possibility of their usage for
bioaccumulation purposes. If they have high tolerance against
heavy metals, it is possible to use them for treatment. Espe-
cially both species show a similar response against heavy
metals like lead and cadmium. Further evaluation and inves-
tigation is necessary for other heavy metals. These species
may be used together for better treatment applications.
4 Conclusion
Metal industry wastewaters have significant effects on
human and other livings. Treatment of metal industry
wastewaters with the help of the plants is the easiest and
most cost-effective way. The phytotoxicity test are used
for understanding the reactions of plants species against
toxics which could be hamrful for humans and other
living beings. This study proved that both Lepidium
S. Dursun and Z. C. Ayturan
Evaluation criteria Response
100 mg/kg (in soil) Moderate tolerance (Smolinska and
Szczodrowska 2016)
3.36% remediation Moderate tolerance (Gunduz et al. 2012)
factor
11.03% remediation High tolerance (Gunduz et al. 2012)
Factor
0.37% remediation Low tolerance (Gunduz et al. 2012)
factor
10 mg/L (in water) Moderate tolerance (Hou et al. 2007)
0.5 mg/L (in water) Low tolerance (Hou et al. 2007)
<50 mg/L (in water) High tolerance (Axtell et al. 2003)
15 mg/L (in water) High tolerance (Khellaf and Zerdaoui 2009)
Sativum and Lemna Minor are good candidates for the
treatment of wastewaters containing Pb.
References
American Public Health Association, American Water Works Associ-
ation, Water Environ ment Federation. Standard methods for
examination of water and wastewater, Section 8211, Toxicity Test
Procedures Using Common Duckweed, Lemna minor. 18th ed.
Washington DC; 1992.
Axtell NR, Sternberg SPK, Claussen K. Lead and nickel removal using
Microspora and Lemna minor. Biores Technol. 2003;89(1):41–8.
Baumgarten A, Spiegel H. Phytotoxicity (Plant tolerance), horizontal
acknowledgement, web page: https://www.ecn.nl/docs/society/
horizontal/hor8_phytotoxicity.pdf. Retrieval date: 06 May 2017.
European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. Phytotox-
icity assessment. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin. 2014;44(3):265–73.
Gunduz S, Uygur FN, Kahramanoğlu İ. Heavy metal Phytoremediation
potentials of Lepidum sativum L., Lactuca sativa L., Spinacia
oleracea L. and Raphanus sativus L, Herald J Agric Food Sci Res.
2012;1(1):001–005.
Hou W, Chen X, Song G, Wang Q, Chang CC. Effects of copper and
cadmium on heavy metal polluted waterbody restoration by
duckweed (Lemna minor). Plant Physiol Biochem. 2007;45(1):62–9.
Khellaf N, Zerdaoui M. Growth Response of The Duckweed Lemna
Minor to Heavy Metal Pollution. J Environ Health Sci Eng. 2009;6
(3):161–6.
Piotrowicz-Cieślak AI, Adomas B. Herbicide phytotoxicity and
resistance to herbicides in Legume plants, herbicides—environmen-
tal impact studies and management approaches; 2012. pp. 19–44.
Rahmani GNH, Sternberg SPK. Bioremoval of lead from water using
Lemna minor. Biores Technol. 1999;70:225–30.
Smolinska B, Szczodrowska A. Antioxidative response of Lepidium
Sativum L. during assisted phytoremediation of Hg contaminated
soil. New Biotechnol (article in press).
URL 1, Chapter 82—Metal Processing and Metal Working Industry,
web page: http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt82e.htm. Retrieval
date: 06 May 2017.
 Assessment of Heavy Metal Concentrations
in the Muscles of Ten Commercially
Important Fish Species from Lagos Lagoon,
Nigeria

Iyabode O. Taiwo, Mabel O. Ipinmoroti, Olaniyi A. Olopade,

Bashir T. Adeniyi, and Nathanael A. Bamidele

Keywords
Heavy metals Lagoon Fish muscles Pollution Shell fish Toxicity

1 Introduction
The concentration of heavy metals in fish is influenced by
several factors, in particular, the biological differences (e.g.
species, size, age, gender, sexual maturity, diet) and the
environmental ones (e.g. water chemistry, salinity, temper-
ature, and levels of contamination) (Carvalho et al. 2005).
Numerous studies have shown that heavy metal accumula-
tion in fish is strongly influenced by environmental con-
centrations, that is, their levels in the water and sediments.
However, metal accumulation has been found to vary
markedly between species in the same area, as a result of
differences in feeding habits (Calta and Canpolat 2006).
Heavy metals have a particular significance in ecotoxicol-
ogy, since they are highly persistent and they all have the
potential to be toxic to living organisms. Studies on heavy
metals in rivers, fish and sediments (Ozturk et al. 2008),
have been a major environmental focus especially during the
last decade. Sediments are important sinks for various
pollutants like pesticides and heavy metals and also play a
significant role in the remobilization of contaminants in
aquatic systems under favourable conditions and in inter-
actions between water and sediment. As a consequence,
fishes are often used as indicators of heavy metals contam-
ination in the aquatic ecosystem because they occupy high
trophic levels and are important food source (Agah et al.
2009).
This study was carried out to assess the levels of five
heavy metals (zinc, lead, copper, iron and manganese) in the
muscles of nine fin fish species and one shell fish, T. zilli, H.
fiscalis, P. humile, C. hippo, C. acaudatus, Letjanus sp., C.
nigrodigitatus, Sphyraena sp., S. maderensis and P. validus
caught from Lagos Lagoon and landed at Makoko landing
site, Lagos State, Nigeria. This study aimed at determining
whether to the concentration of heavy metals in the tissues of
the fish were within the permissible limits for human
consumption.

I. O. Taiwo (&) 2 Materials and Methods

Environmental Resources and Agricultural Research, Federal
University of Agriculture, Institute of Food Security, Abeokut, The analysed fish muscles were collected in triplicates from
Nigeria
different parts of the fish body. The fish samples were oven
e-mail: iomtai@yahoo.com
dried at 105 °C for about 12 h. The sediment samples were
M. O. Ipinmoroti
air dried. Dried fish samples were homogenized using a
Osun State University, Osogbo, Nigeria
e-mail: wumsco@yahoo.com ceramic mortar and pestle. The fish and sediment samples
were digested using the wet digestion procedure (Asegbe-
O. A. Olopade
B. T. Adeniyi
N. A. Bamidele
University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria loyin et al. 2010). Muscle tissues were digested using the
e-mail: oaolopade@yahoo.com Kjeldahl digestion procedure (2003). The Atomic absorption
B. T. Adeniyi spectrometer (AAS) (Analyst 200, Perkin Elmer) was then
e-mail: adeniyibt@yahoo.com used to determine the concentrations of Lead, Manganese,
N. A. Bamidele Copper, Iron and Zinc in the fish samples. Laboratory blanks
e-mail: bamnath01@yahoo.com were prepared in order to ensure that the used samples and

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 431

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_135
432 I.O. Taiwo et al.

chemicals were not contaminated. They were analysed by
atomic absorption spectrophotometry before sampling and
their values were subtracted to ensure that the equipment
read only the exact values of heavy metals. Each set of
digestion has its own acid blank and was corrected by using
its blank. The data were subjected to Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) using IBM SPSS version 20 after the logarithmic
transformation was performed on the data to improve
normality. The mean differences were separated at P < 0.05
levels of significance.
3 Results and Discussion
The Concentrations of Zn, Pb, Cu, Fe and Mn in the muscles
of nine finfish species and one shellfish species analysed from
Lagos Lagoon are shown in Table 1. The concentration of
zinc was the highest though it was within or less than the
WHO acceptable limits for this metal in the muscles of fish.
None of the sampled fish species had a consistently high or
low level for all the five metals analysed. The overall average
concentrations of Zn, Pb, Cu, Fe, and Mn in the muscles of
the nine finfish species gave a ranking of: Zn > Fe > Pb >
Cu > Mn. The metal levels in the muscles of each organism
gave a similar ranking. Metal concentrations of lead, iron and
manganese exceeded the maximum permissible levels for
human consumption by (FAO/WHO 2017).
P. validus had a significantly higher (P < 0.05) mean
concentration of Zn (14.45 ± 0.08) than the other species.
These levels of Zn concentration were much higher than the
tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) of 7 mg/kg body weight
equivalent to 490 mg/week for a 70 kg adult (FAO/WHO
2017). The concentrations of Pb were not significantly
(P > 0.05) different from each other in five of the organisms
as shown in Table 1. The mean concentration of Pb was in
the following order Letjanus sp. > Sphyraena sp. >
P. validus > S. maderensis > C. acaudatus > P. humile >
T. zilli > C. hippo > C. nigrodigitatus > H. fiscalis. The
provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) for lead is
0.3 mg/kg body weight (FAO/WHO 2017). Lead has no
biological role and is toxic to humans and other living
organisms at very low concentrations. Other studies carried
out on in Calabar River, Nigeria on Sphyraena sp. also
revealed lead concentrations above acceptable limits.
Cu concentration was not significantly (P > 0.05) differ-
ent among three of the organisms. The mean concentration
of Fe was above the acceptable limit similar to Epe Lagoon
(Taiwo et al. 2016). The maximum limit recommended by
IAEA-407 (2003) is 146 mg/kg indicating that the concen-
trations of iron in the muscle of the fish species were far
above the acceptable limits. The high level of Fe in the
muscle of the fishes analysed are similar to the previous
findings by Taiwo et al. (2016) who assessed heavy metals
concentration in muscles and bones of organisms from Epe
lagoon where the concentration of Fe was over the maxi-
mum recommended level by WHO.
Mean concentration of Mn was in the following
order: Sphyraena sp. > Letjanus sp. > C. acaudatus > S.
maderensis > C. nigrodigitatus > P. humile > P. validus
= H. fiscalis > T. zilli > C. hippo. There were significant
(P < 0.05) differences in manganese concentrations among
fish species. The results of this study differ from those
obtained by Taiwo et al. (2016) about the concentration of
Mn from Epe Lagoon. Heavy metals in excess of the body
needs of fish or human may constitute a major pollution
source and pose serious health risks.

Table 1 Heavy metal concentration of fish species sampled from Lagos Lagoon at Makoko fish landing site
Fish species Zinc Lead Copper Iron Manganese
Tilapia zillii 9.31 ± 0.08 d
4.82 ± 0.02 c
3.07 ± 0.03 cd
7.10 ± 0.02 c
1.02 ± 0.00f
Hydrocynus fiscalis 9.50 ± 0.03 d
4.41 ± 0.01 d
3.20 ± 0.01bc
7.14 ± 0.01 c
1.13 ± 0.01e
Parapristipoma humile 9.77 ± 0.06c 5.15 ± 0.04b 2.80 ± 0.09e 6.87 ± 0.05d 1.36 ± 0.02b
Caranx hippo 10.21 ± 0.05 b
4.75 ± 0.12 c
3.33 ± 0.11b
8.22 ± 0.05 a
1.18 ± 0.01d
Cynoglossus acaudatus 12.05 ± 0.07a 5.96 ± 0.03a 4.08 ± 0.06a 7.58 ± 0.02b 1.71 ± 0.01a
Letjanus sp. 12.79 ± 0.07 c
6.56 ± 0.08 a
4.04 ± 0.05b
8.05 ± 0.07 a
1.80 ± 0.02b
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus 14.03 ± 0.07b 4.60 ± 0.01b 3.43 ± 0.01c 8.10 ± 0.05a 1.41 ± 0.01d
Sphyraena sp. 11.08 ± 0.07 d
6.52 ± 0.03 a
4.33 ± 0.02a
7.69 ± 0.12 b
1.93 ± 0.03a
Sardinella maderensis 14.11 ± 0.08b 6.39 ± 0.01a 4.22 ± 0.06a 7.99 ± 0.06a 1.69 ± 0.01c
Portunus validus 14.45 ± 0.08 a
6.40 ± 0.01 a
3.98 ± 0.04b
7.28 ± 0.02 c
1.13 ± 0.03c
*Means with different superscript along the same column are significantly different (P < 0.05)
Assessment of Heavy Metal Concentrations …
4 Conclusion
Heavy metals are toxic to both humans and fish, there-
fore, these compounds should be monitored regularly in
the Lagoons. Zn, Fe, Cu, Pb and Mn are essential in
human diet (Watts 1990), (National Research Council
(US) 1993), their consumption should not exceed the
limits set by FEPA, WHO and FAO. The high concen-
tration of these metals in the fish species studied could
render the fish dangerous for consumption. However, all
the fishes had high lead content in excess of the provi-
sional weekly table intake PWTI. Fish with high lead
content should be avoided as much as possible. The level
of pollution in Nigeria’s water bodies is quite high due to
industrialisation and inadequate monitoring of dumping
into the water bodies.
References
Agah H, Leermakers M, Elskens M, Fatemi SMR, Baeyens W.
Accumulation of trace metals in the muscles and liver tissues of five
fish species from the Persian Gulf. Environ Monit Assess.
2009;157:499–514.
433
Asegbeloyin IN, Onyimonyi AE, Ujam OT, Ukwueze NN, Ukoha PO.
The presence of some heavy toxic trace metals in selected fish
species and parts of domestic animals. Pak J Nutr. 2010;9(3):213–5.
Blamire J. Kjeldahl method. Science @ Direct. 2003 http://www.
brooklyn.cuny.edu/bc/ahp/SDKC/Chem/SD_KjeldahlMethod.html.
Calta M, Canpolat O. The comparison of three cyprinid species in terms
of heavy metals accumulation in some tissues. Water Environ Res.
2006;78:548–51.
Carvalho ML, Santiago S, Nunes ML. Assessment of the essential
element and heavy metal content of edible fish muscle. Anal
Bioanal Chem. 2005;382:426–32.
FAO/WHO. Evaluation of certain contaminants in food (Eighty-third
report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food
Additives) WHO Technical Report Series, No.1002; 2017.
IAEA-407. Trace elements and methylmercury in fish tissue. Reference
sheet. Int Atomic Energy Agency. 2003:4p.
National Research Council (US). Diet and health implications for
reducing chronic disease risks. The Natl Acad Science.
1993:367–412.
Ozturk M, Ozozen G, Minareci O, Minareci E. Determination of heavy
metals in issues of fishes, water and sediment from the Demirkopru
Dam Lake (Turkey. J Appl Biol Sci. 2008;2(3):99–104.
Taiwo IO, Adeosun FI, Adeniyi BT, Bamidele NA. Assessment of
heavy metals in muscles and bones of fish and shell fish from Epe
Lagoon. Niger Res. 2016;10(4):257–63.
Watts DL. The Nutritional Relationships of Manganese. J Orthomolec-
ular Med. 1990;5(4):219–22.
 Field and Laboratory Study of Nitrogen
Mineralization Dynamics in Four Tunisian
Soils

Imene Dridi

Abstract
Prediction of Nitrogen (N) mineralization from soil Organic Matter (OM) is important
when we try to optimize N fertilization and assess adverse N impacts on the environment.
The focus of this research study was to investigate throughout a field and laboratory
approach, the influence of the pedoclimate and some soil properties on N mineralization
dynamics in four non-amended soils of a semi-arid zone in North Tunisia. The aim was also
to propose a classification according to their potential N mineralization and kinetics.

Keywords
Nitrogen Mineralization Fertilization Potential nitrogen mineralization
Semi-arid region

1 Introduction and on chemical and microbial biomass soil properties. Other

Nitrogen (N) is the most limiting nutrient in crop production
and one of the most commonly applied fertilizers in greatest
amounts (Perroni-Ventura et al. 2010), especially in arid and
semi-arid regions. There, soils are already poor to very poor
in N because of the naturally feeble organic restitutions,
principal source of N in soil. Therefore, mineral nitrogenous
fertilizers should be supplemented particularly in cultivated
crops in these regions. Underestimation of mineral N
released from soil Organic Matter (OM) mineralization
results in the application of excess N fertilizer, leading to the
potential for environmental contamination due to leaching as
well as surface runoff losses (Mulvaney et al. 2001).
In arid and semi-arid regions, less is known about N min-
eralization dynamic as well as N availability. In northern
Tunisia, for instance, some few laboratory studies were carried
out on soil sampled from surface horizon of alluvial plain and
amended with different organic residues (manure, com-
posts…) (Saidi et al. 2015). These studies investigated the
effects of different amendments on mineralization of N in soil
I. Dridi (&)
Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, University
of Tunis El Manar, 2092 El Manar, Tunisia
e-mail: imene_dridi@yahoo.fr
works from other regions have reported differences in N
transformations when the same organic residues were incor-
porated into different soils collected from surface layers of
Ruston (Sistani et al. 2008) and Alabama soils (USA)
(Kpomblekou-A and Genus 2012). Observed differences may
be attributed to adsorption capacity of the soil to bind organic
N, increased aeration in sandier soil and different C:N ratios.
Although these studies were important to complete an
understanding of N mineralization, they were conducted under
laboratory conditions, which often overestimate mineraliza-
tion patterns occurring under normal field conditions. Indeed,
the N mineralization process is often regulated by several
factors such as the quantity and the quality of soil OM, soil
temperature and water content, drying and rewetting events,
soil texture, soil pH level and other soil characteristics
(Bechtold and Naiman 2006). Thus, understanding N miner-
alization dynamic under different pedogenitic and bio-climate
conditions could be important in managing N more efficiently.
In this context, the present study aims to better investigate
throughout a fieldwork in a semi-arid zone, the influence of
the pedo-climate conditions (soil temperature, soil moisture)
and some physicochemical properties specific to the soil type
on N mineralization rates in four non-amended Tunisian
soils developed under contrasted pedogenetic conditions.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 435

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_136
436
The aim is also to propose throughout a laboratory incuba-
tion approach, a classification according to the potential N
mineralization and kinetics of the different studied soils.
2 Material and Methods
In this study, we selected four non-amended soils developed
under contrasted pedogenetic and bioclimatic conditions in
North Tunisia (Fig. 1). We sampled a Luvisol (P1) in the Aïn
Draham forest area (Quercus ilex and Quercus suber). The
region has a humid bio-climate with tempered winter. We
collected a Vertisol (P2) and a Fersialsol (P3) (Oued Zarga
region) both from the Béja Governorate agricultural area. It is
a very narrow zone with a significant bioclimatic variability
ranging from a sub-humid bio-climate to a middle semi-arid
bio-climate. The Vertisol and the Fersialsol were both culti-
vated (cereal crops). They were collected from agricultural
field plots that had not received N fertilization during a long
period. Finally, we sampled a Calcisol developed under
forest species (Pinus halepensis and Quercus ilex) in the Kef
area, which correspond to an upper semi-arid to middle
semi-arid bio-climate. For all sites, we took soil samples from
each horizon of the profile (from top to bottom).
All samples were analysed, according to international
standards, for pH (ISO 10390), electrical conductivity
(EC) (ISO 11265), soil texture (NF X31-107), Total Nitro-
gen (TN) (NF EN ISO 11261), Total Organic Carbon
(TOC) (ISO 14235) and for lime (CaCO3) contents (NF
Fig. 1 Localization of the study sites according to bioclimatic stages (P1: Luvisol (Aïn Draham), P2: Vertisol (Béja), P3: Fersialsol (Oued Zarga),
P4: Calsisol (Kef))
I. Dridi
EN ISO 10693). The extraction of mineral N forms as
ammonium (NH4-N) and nitrate (NO3-N) was with KCl
(1 M) according to ISO standards (ISO/TS 14256-1). In the
field, we followed, under natural conditions, the dynamic of
mineral N evolution in the studied soils, as well as its depth
distribution according to soil temperature and soil moisture
variation during the experimental period from January to
June 2015. We measured every month (with equal intervals)
the mineral N forms (NH4–N and NO3–N), the soil tem-
perature and moisture for soil samples taken from each
horizon of the profile. In the laboratory, we followed, under
controlled conditions (Temperature = 22 °C, Mois-
ture = 2/3 field capacity), the quantity of mineral N evolu-
tion of the surface horizons of the studied soils according to
the incubation time (six weeks).
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Physicochemical Properties of Studied Soils
We present the main physicochemical properties of the
studied soils in Table 1. Data show an important variability
among horizons and soils. For instance, large differences in
soil richness in OM were recorded as shown by TOC and TN
contents, which ranged respectively from 0.17% in the Fer-
sialsol (Oued Zarga) to 3.71% in the Calcisol (Kef) and from
0.24% in the Vertisol (Béja) to 3.4% in the Calcisol (Kef).
Moreover, the various studied soils showed comparable
Field and Laboratory Study of Nitrogen Mineralization Dynamics … 437

discontinuities between surface and deep horizons. This

14.46 ± 0.09
10.61 ± 1.23

12.07 ± 0.52

11.03 ± 1.51
11.77 ± 0.23
10.42 ± 0.02
clearly appears in the vertical profile of OM characterized by

6.06 ± 0.21
6.09 ± 0.72

8.27 ± 0.21
6.65 ± 0.28
9.62 ± 0.45
4.24 ± 0.14
3.15 ± 0.12
4.88 ± 0.38
a decrease in TOC and TN contents as soil depth increases.
Similar to OM distribution, the highest values of C:N ratio
C:N

were recorded in surface horizons and decreased with depth

in the majority of studied cases. Soil C:N ratio determines the
decomposability of soil OM, therefore has an important
2.43 ± 0.03
1.00 ± 0.01
0.69 ± 0.00
0.41 ± 0.00
2.58 ± 0.01
1.52 ± 0.02
0.24 ± 0.03
1.43 ± 0.02
0.50 ± 0.00
0.17 ± 0.00
0.19 ± 0.01
3.71 ± 0.07
3.30 ± 0.30
2.50 ± 0.10
impact on N deposition in soil. The pH values were around 8
TOC%

in most studied soils. This is mainly due to the high lime

content. Indeed, soil enrichment in calcium carbonate marked
all studied soils from top to bottom of the soil profile. In the
case of the Luvisol (Aïn Draham), pH values were feeble and
1.68 ± 0.01
0.95 ± 0.10
1.14 ± 0.04
0.68 ± 0.08
2.14 ± 0.10
1.84 ± 0.07
0.36 ± 0.03
1.49 ± 0.09
1.18 ± 0.04
0.54 ± 0.02
0.39 ± 0.01
3.40 ± 0.40
2.80 ± 0.20
2.40 ± 0.10
decreased quickly with depth. The soil texture was dominated
by silt and clay content (>60%) throughout the profile. These
TN‰

size fractions showed the highest quantities in almost all

studied soils except the Luvisol, which recorded a big amount
of sand fraction (63%) especially in surface horizons. The
30.5 ± 0.8
28.2 ± 0.0
77.6 ± 1.5

36.4 ± 0.4
51.7 ± 0.7

22.0 ± 0.5
1.0 ± 0.0
6.5 ± 0.3
1.0 ± 0.1
3.2 ± 0.1

2.3 ± 0.1
0.0 ± 0.0

7.0 ± 0.1
8.1 ± 0.1
CaCO3%

electrical conductivity (EC) values were very low and

increased as we move from the surface horizons to the deep
horizons for most studied soils. We noticed important EC
values in depth particularly for the Fersialsol. EC varied from
0.2 mS/cm top to 1.3 mS/cm bottom.
21.00 ± 1.2
18.00 ± 0.1
68.00 ± 2.4
33.00 ± 1.4
29.00 ± 0.6
23.00 ± 0.3
20.00 ± 0.5
17.00 ± 0.2
60.00 ± 3.1
24.00 ± 0.8
24.00 ± 1.1
36.90 ± 0.1
44.23 ± 1.5
39.40 ± 0.8

Inherent soil properties such as clay content and OM

Clay%

content have been constantly shown to influence the process

of N mineralization and N immobilization in the soil. Other
soil characteristics, such as pH level, C:N ratio and salinity,
may also affect soil OM decomposition and are expected to
17.00 ± 0.2
21.01 ± 0.4
10.00 ± 0.1

42.00 ± 0.1
49.00 ± 0.7
53.00 ± 0.2
37.00 ± 0.2
21.00 ± 0.0
34.00 ± 0.4
33.00 ± 0.5
45.37 ± 0.1
36.59 ± 0.1
32.80 ± 0.1
2.00 ± 0.0

give an indication on N mineralization dynamics mainly in

EC Electrical conductivity, CaCO3 Lime, TN Total Nitrogen, TOC Total Organic Carbon
Silt%

arid and semi-arid soils.

3.2 Field and Laboratory Study of N

62.00 ± 1.4
63.00 ± 1.5
19.00 ± 1.0
63.00 ± 1.3
26.00 ± 1.2
29.00 ± 1.1
28.00 ± 1.0
47.00 ± 1.3
18.00 ± 1.3
42.00 ± 1.0
41.00 ± 1.1
19.17 ± 1.0
20.00 ± 1.4
25.32 ± 1.2

Mineralization
Sand%

Our field results showed an enrichment in mineral N values

Table 1 Selected physicochemical properties of the studied soils

in surface horizons of all studied soils. These amounts

decreased with depth following different patterns according
(mS cm−1)
0.2 ± 0.1
0.1 ± 0.0
0.1 ± 0.0
0.1 ± 0.0
0.3 ± 0.1
0.3 ± 0.1
0.9 ± 0.2
0.2 ± 0.1
0.1 ± 0.1
0.2 ± 0.0
1.3 ± 0.2
0.3 ± 0.0
0.2 ± 0.1
0.3 ± 0.0

to soil type. The highest mean rate of mineralized N was

recorded in the Calcisol (232.09 mg kg−1 dry soil) due to the
EC

high Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and Total N (TN) content

and low C:N ratio. The lower concentration was recorded in
the case of the Luvisol (<30 mg kg−1 throughout the profile)
6.1 ± 0.1
6.7 ± 0.2
4.8 ± 0.1
5.1 ± 0.4
8.3 ± 0.3
8.2 ± 0.1
8.1 ± 0.2
7.9 ± 0.1
7.8 ± 0.1
8.2 ± 0.0
7.9 ± 0.2
7.9 ± 0.1
8.2 ± 0.2
8.4 ± 0.0

because of a high clay-silt content (>40%) and a low pH

pH

levels especially in depth (pH = 4.8).

Ammoniacal (NH4–N) and nitric (NO3–N) N production
according to the depth showed marked monthly variations.
Depth
(cm)
20
60

30
54

26

20
45
130
230

122

102
222
326

115

During winter months (January, February), the decrease in

inorganic N concentrations was attributed to lower soil
temperature and higher water volumes causing the N to be
(Aïn Draham)

(Oued Zarga)

more leached. Accordingly, the Calcisol and the Vertisol

recorded respectively 203 and 66.19 mg kg−1 of NO3–N in
Fersialsol

Calcisol
Vertisol
Luvisol

(Béja)

(Kef)

deep layers. Mineral N values reached their maximum in

Soil

March, mainly in surface horizons of all studied soils due to

438
higher temperature and greater soil moisture. In April, these
values started to decrease gradually and regressed in May
and June except the Vertisol, which recorded relatively
high-mineralized N contents (20 mg kg−1).
Data from the laboratory study showed wide dispersion of
values concerning potential N mineralization and Kinetics.
They presented the following decreasing order: Cal-
cisol > Vertisol > Fersialsol > Luvisol. Two fractions con-
stituting organic nitrogenous supplies were distinguished.
An active fraction with high mineralization rate and a larger
passive fraction slowed down by clays and resistant to
microbial biodegradation.
Exploring our results help to understand the rate of N
availability in relation with N requirement of the crops and
thereby reduce the N fertilizer cost and loss to the environment.
4 Conclusion
Based on our field and laboratory results, N fertilization
can be carefully managed in order to reduce harmful
environmental impacts such as nitrate leaching mainly by
avoiding excessive or unnecessary N fertilization. We
believe that effort should continue to gain a better
understanding of the complex process of N mineraliza-
tion, which supplies a substantial, and in some cases most
I. Dridi
of the N need by crops. Further efforts to improve our
ability to predict N mineralized essentially under field
conditions will help to increase the efficiency of use of N
fertilizers to achieve economically and environmentally
sound crop production.
References
Bechtold JS, Naiman RJ. Soil texture and nitrogen mineralization
potential across a riparian toposequence in a semi-arid savanna. Soil
Biol Biochem. 2006;38(6):1325–33.
Kpomblekou-A K, Genus A. Nitrogen transformations in broiler
litter-amended soils. Int J Agron. 2012;2012:1–12.
Mulvaney RL, Khan SA, Hoeft RG, Brown. A soil organic nitrogen
fraction that reduces the need for nitrogen fertilization. Soil Sci Soc
Am J. 2001;65:1164–72.
Perroni-Ventura Y, Montana C, Garcia-Oliva F. Carbon-nitrogen
interactions in fertility island soil from a tropical semi-arid
ecosystem. Funct Ecol. 2010;24:233–42.
Saidi N, Akef S, Bouzaiane O, Kallali H, Ben Aissa N, M’Hiri F,
Jedidi N, Downer J. Carbon and nitrogen mineralization in clay
loam soil amended with different composts. Adv Appl Agri Sci.
2015;3(2):20–34.
Sistani KR, Adeli A, McGowen SL, Tewolde H, Brink GE. Laboratory
and field evaluation of broiler litter nitrogen mineralization.
Bioresour Technol. 2008;99:2603–11.
 Mercury Bioaccumulation via Genus Baetis
(Ephemeroptera, Macroinvertebrates)
Djaouida Bouchelouche, Imane Saal, Mouna Hafiane,
and Abdeslem Arab



Keywords
Wadi Mercury Baetis
1 Introduction
The increasing development of industrial activity and
domestic behaviors have resulted in a diversification of the
types of pollution. The heavy metals’ related pollution,
especially in the water-source areas, represents a serious threat
to both aquatic fauna as well as human beings. In this regard,
the present study is designed to highlight the rate of Mercury
bioacumulation through genus Baetis (Ephemeroptera,
macroinvertebrates) along the “El Harrach Wadi” river. This
genus (Baetis) has been opted for in a bid to ensure whether it
helps provide interesting information as to the identity and
bio-available quantity of polluting substances in the envi-
ronment, namely Mercury, and it can be used as a biological
indicator.
2 Materials and Methods
The El Harrach Wadi is one of the important rivers that cross
the Mitidja lowland, in Centre-North Algeria; it starts
flowing from the Atlas Blidiéen, crosses the Mitidja lowland
and pours in the sea, along a 67 km long course. Ten stations
were selected along the Wadi’s upper to downstream. Three
D. Bouchelouche (&)
I. Saal
M. Hafiane
A. Arab
Laboratory of Dynamics and Biodiversity, FSB, USTHB, LP 32
El Alia, Bab Ezzouar, Algiers, Algeria
e-mail: bouchelouche_djaouida@hotmail.com
I. Saal
e-mail: saal.imane@hotmail.com
M. Hafiane
e-mail: mounahafiane@yahoo.fr
A. Arab
e-mail: abdeslama@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_137



Bioaccumulation Bioindicator
sampling campaigns were accomplished: the first during the
spring season (Mai), the second in summer (July) and the
third in autumn (September). The sampling of the macro
invertebrates responds to a standard protocol Afnor (1992),
which consists in using a net with stitches of 0.25 mm
allowing a sampling in an area of 0.1 m2. The entirety of the
Surber collected macro invertebrates were stocked in bottles
and transported to laboratories inside refrigerated compart-
ments in which they were sorted, identified and weighed.
Each sample undergoes a freezing and freeze-drying. The
samples’ treatment with benthic macro fauna was performed
in terms of the aqua regia method. The concentrations were
read by means of atomic absorption spectrometry (SAA).
3 Results and Discussion
There was also some bioaccumulation of mercury during
July and September, though with low concentrations of no
more than 0.7 mg/kg (dry weight) (July) and 0.9 mg/kg (dry
weight) (September), in respect of the month of May
(Fig. 1).
There was also some bioaccumulation of mercury
during July and September, though with low concentra-
tions of no more than 0.7 mg/kg (dry weight) (July) and
0.9 mg/kg (dry weight) (September), in respect of the
month of May.
Regarding the third station, sampling was not carried out
during the months of May and July, due to the Wadi’s bed
conversion to bathing basins by the local inhabitants (touritic
area). Noteworthy, also, is that the sampling was not carried
out at the level of the other stations due mainly to the
absence of benthic macro fauna because of pollution.
439
440
Fig. 1. Hg concentration in
genus Baetis in terms of stations
and seasons
The existence of mercury in the first station of the wadi’s
upstream, despite the absence of any pollution source,
relates mainly to the region’s geologic nature (sea rocks)
and to a military camp rejection. As for its presence (Hg) at
the downstream levels (stations 5 and 6), it has its expla-
nation in the predominance of industrial and home
rejections.
D. Bouchelouche et al.
4 Conclusion
To sum it up, one could well state that the genus Baetis
(Ephemeroptera, macroinvertebrates) can actually be
applied as pollution bio-indicators of toxic substances in
the aquatic ecosystem, owing mainly to their ability to
concentrate a range of pollutants in their tissue, above all
Mercury metal.
 Soils Characterization Around Erstwhile
Oyem Electrical Station and Sediments
and Water of Neighboring Lake in Northern
Region of Gabon

Jean Bernard Mombo, Mesmin Edou,

and Jean Aurelien Moukana Libongui

Keywords
Geostatistics Hydrocarbons pollutants Water Sediments Soils Oyem

1 Introduction accumulation content and recovering processing were

Gabon is located on the West Coast of Central Africa under
Earth Equator line. Its economy is tighted to oil industry.
Oyem capital city of Wolew-Ntem province, is situated at 1°
35′ 58″ north and longitude 11° 35′ 45″ east in nothern
region of Gabon. Petroleum hydrocarbons products are used
as fuel for electric power stations causing environmental
pollution issues. Understanding spatial variability as well as
concentration of petroleum hydrocarbons pollutants in soils,
shallow water, and sediments a study was carried out
between 2010 and 2013 around erstwhile Oyem electrical
station. Descriptive and spatial statistics were used. The
previous considered three parameters variance, kurtosis and
skewness to characterize petroleum hydrocarbons pollutants
patterns at twenty measured points. The later relied on
sequential gaussian simulation (SGS) and ordinary kriging
(OK) estimation through omnidirectional variogram. Corre-
lation coefficients obtained through both methods showed a
declining factor which might be seen as reduction of
hydrocarbons concentration and spatial varability of
J. B. Mombo
Laboratoire LANASPET, Département de Géographie, Faculté
des Lettres et Sciences Humaines, Université Omar Bongo, BP
10117, Libreville, Gabon
e-mail: jb.mombo@yahoo.fr
M. Edou
J. A. Moukana Libongui (&)
Laboratoire LANASPET, Département de Géographie, Faculté
des Lettres et Sciences Humaines, Université Omar Bongo, BP
17043, Libreville, Gabon
e-mail: jalebremouke_7@hotmail.com
M. Edou
e-mail: ebolofr@yahoo.fr
determined efficiently.
2 Material and Methods
2.1 Material
2.1.1 Samples (Soils, Sediments and Shallow
Water)
The erstwhile central power station is located in eastern part
of Oyem city. It is an area of 8000 m2. Electricity production
started in 1972 and was closed in 2004. Several impacts on
soils, vegetation and shallow water, sediments occurred
during this period. Recovering process started in 2009.
A total of 20 soil samples at surface soil (0–2 m in depth)
were collected and located using GPS. Soils sampling pro-
cess was based on required standard soils particles analysis.
Soil samples should be entire, compact and big enough. Soil
samples were retained in sterilized plastic bags and protected
for reducing analysis errors. Six sediments measuring and
five biotop stations were also collected within same period
and submitted to ISO 17603 standard for data reliability
analysis in this study.
2.1.2 Acquisition Data and Analyses
ISO 17603ISO 16703: 2004 is a method of quantitative
determination by gas chromatography of petroleum hydro-
carbons pollutants contained in raw soil samples. The
method is applicable to mineral oil (mass fraction) contents
of between 100 mg/kg and 10 000 mg/kg soil, expressed as
dry matter, and may be adapted to lower detection limits.
ISO 16703: 2004 is applicable to the determination of all
hydrocarbons having a boiling range between 175°C and

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 441

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_138
442 J. B. Mombo et al.

(   3 
525°C, n-alkanes between C10H22 and C40H82, isoalkanes,
C0 1:5 ha  0:5 ha if ha
cycloalkanes, alkylbenzenes, alkylnaphthalenes and poly- c ð hÞ ¼ ð2aÞ
cyclic aromatic compounds, provided that they are not C0 otherwise
absorbed onto the specified column during the purification Pn
i¼1 jPi  Oi j
step. ISO 16703: 2004 is not applicable to the quantitative MAE ¼ ; ð2bÞ
determination of hydrocarbons < C10 from gasolines, thus n
removing gasoline hydrocarbon and four hydrocarbons were Pn
ABSðPi 
i¼1 P Oi Þ
identified as illustrated in Fig. 2. Analyses have been made NAE ¼ n ð2cÞ
i¼1 Oi
by AL control Laboratories in GRS Valtech – Veolia Lyon
France. Equation 2a is speherical model where cðhÞ is the semi-
variogram model, h is the euclidean distance between two
points, a is the range and C0 is the nugget. Equation 2b is
2.2 Methods mean absolute error (MAE) and Eq. 2c is normalized
absolute error (NAE) were given by Lu (2002) and are used
Descriptive and spatial statistics were applied to apprehend for assessing fitting error.
petroleum hydrocarbons pollutants behaviors between 2010 Kriging is a linear-weighted average interpolation tech-
and 2013. Three parameters flatness, displacement coeffi- nique used to estimate unknown points, surfaces or volumes,
cients and small variance values were determined and from surrounding sampling units Fig. 1. The estimation of a
proved effectiveness of petroleum hydrocarbons pollutants variable z(x0) at location x0 is carried out from a combina-
in the study area and results are shown in Table 1. tion of the values observed in the surrounding neighborhood
In Geostatics semivariogram is the basic tool for the (z(x1), … z(xi), … z(xn)):
estimation and mapping of regionalized variables. It reveals
X
n
the randomness and the structured aspects of the spatial z  ð ui Þ ¼ wi zðui Þ ð3Þ
dispersion. Several geostatistical methods have been devel- i¼1
oped to compute the confidence interval of an estimate
(Journel and Huijbregts 1978; Cressie 1991). The experi- where wi are the weighting coefficients associated with the
mental semivariogram is defined as: sampling values z(ui) which sum to 1 to ensure unbiased
results (E[z*(u0)–z(u0)] = 0). The wi are estimated in such a
1 X
N ðhÞ way as to minimize the variance of errors of estimates.
c ð hÞ ¼ ¼ ½zðum Þ  zðum þ hÞ2 ð1Þ Ordinary kriging results are in Fig. 2a. Whilst gaussian
2N ðhÞ m¼0
sequential simulation is the conditional distribution of the
where are: cðhÞ is the semivariogram value; N ðhÞ number of observed variable can be used for the simulation of subse-
data pairs compared with distance h; ðum Þ variable value on quent grid points. The SGS is based on multi-Gaussianary
location m; zðum þ hÞ variable value on a location on dis- assumption of a random function model (Goovaerts 1999).
tance h from observed location m (Journel 1978; Lark 2000). The data requires then a prior normal score transformation to
From analysis of experimental variograms, a suitable model ensure the normality of at least the univariate distribution of
is then fitted, usually by weighted least squares, and the data. The normal score transformation for a continuous
parameters (e.g. range, nugget and sill) are then used in variable z at location ua, a = 1,…, n, is given as:
interpolation and mapping process applied in kriging. Six
yðua Þ ¼ G1 ½F  ðzðua ÞÞ ð4Þ
expermiental semivariograms. Three for hydrocarbons pol-
lutant total mass (hctm)and three others for normalized hctm with a = 1,…,n, and where G−1(.) is the inverse Gaussian
data for 2010 and 2013 and one of 2010–2013 were fitted by cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the random
spherical model as in Eq. 2: function y(x), and F* is the sample CDF of z. A back

Table 1 Summary of descriptive statistics of hydrocarbons total mass pollutants estimated at each sample point
Years Data Maxval Minval Mean STD Variance Kurtosis Skewness Var. coef Reg coef Mode Range Median
2010 20 3,505 0,602 2,799 0,631 0,400 7,432 -2,320 0,220 0,040 2,414 2,903 2,880
2013 20 3,235 0,477 2,457 0,626 0,392 4,405 -1,858 0,250 0,030 2,531 2,758 2,602
Soils Characterization Around Erstwhile Oyem Electrical … 443

Fig. 1 Experimental (black

points) and model ( blue dotted
line) semivariograms used in
kriging and SGS estmation

Fig. 2 Spatial variability

distribution of hydrocarbons
pollutants patterns by means of
Ordinary Kriging OK (a) and
Sequential Gaussian
Simulation SGS (b)

transformation of the normal scores to the original space was
achieved by applying the inverse of the normal score
transform introduced in Eq. (4). Sequential gaussian simu-
lation results are in Fig. 2b.
process. Semivariograms modeling showed in both (normal-
ized and non-normalized data) variation of range. Ordinary
kriging (OK) interpolation and Sequential Gaussian Simulation
(SGS) provided information of effective changes (dimunition
and remediation) occurred in study area from 2010 to 2013.

3 Results and Discussion 4 Conclusion

The results of the three parameters (variance, kurtosis and
skewness) obtained from descriptive statistics were used to
understand the behavior of each type of pollutants (2010 and
2013). The three parameters values decreased variance, flatness
and skewness showed tendancy of soils concentration varia-
tions (from high to low levels) indicating the recovering
Analysis of the different samples at well-defined periods
revealed the presence of petroleum hydrocarbons pollu-
tants in the medium. These relatively small contents have
low growth and rate of accumulation. A consideration for
the rehabilitation of the site is necessary. This cleans the
site, avoiding various contaminations and preserving the
environment.
444 J. B. Mombo et al.

References Journel AG, Huijbregts CJ. Mining Geostatistics. London: Academic

Press; 1978.
Lark RM. Estimating variograms of soil properties by the method of
Cressie NAC. Statistics for spatial data. New York: J Wiley; 1991. moments and maximum likelihood. Eur J Soil Sci. 2000; 51:
Goovaerts P. Geostatistics in soil science: state-of-the-art and perspec- 717–28.
tives. Geoderma. 1999; 89:1–45.
Journel AG. Mining geostatistics. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Aca-
demic; 1978.
 Pesticides Used in Tunisian Vineyards:
What’s the Risk for the Environment
and the Human Health?

Ala Bouagga, Hanene Chaabane, Wiém Chtioui,

Amira Mougou Hamdane, and Bouzid Nasraoui

Keywords
Assessment Environment Human health Indicator Pesticide Risk

1 Introduction The main objective of this study was to evaluate the

The excessive and unreasonable use of Plant Protection
Products (PPP) in agriculture can cause side effects on the
environment and human health. In this context, some risk
indicators were developped to evaluate and manage the risk
related to these chemical products. The definition of risk
indicator of pesticide, according to directive 2009/128/UE of
the European Council, is “a result of a calculation method
that is used to evaluate risk of pesticides to human health
and/or environment”. Among the list of pesticide indicators
used to assess the risk of these products, we have chosen the
QPRI (Quebec Pesticide Risk Indicator), created in 2007, as
an aggregation indicator, determined by adding scores rela-
ted to critical variables. It is a diagnostic and decision
making tool designed to optimize pesticide management
(Samuel et al. 2012). This indicator presents two risk indi-
ces: the Environment Risk Index (ERI) and the Health Risk
Index (HRI). The choice of QPRI model was made by
considering the availabilty of this tool and its ease to use
depending on data accessibility for the active ingredients and
formulations.
A. Bouagga (&)
H. Chaabane
W. Chtioui

A. Mougou Hamdane
B. Nasraoui
National Institute Agronomy of Tunisia, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: bouaggaaloula1989@gmail.com
H. Chaabane
e-mail: phytiatrie_pro@yahoo.fr
W. Chtioui
e-mail: wiem-chtioui@hotmail.fr
A. Mougou Hamdane
e-mail: amira.mougou@gmail.com
B. Nasraoui
e-mail: nasrouibouzid2012@gmail.com
potential risks of pesticides, especially those used by farmers
in Tunisian vineyards, and determine their side effects on the
health and the environment.
2 Materials and Methods
Our study was conducted in the vineyards located in dif-
ferent regions of Tunisia (Grombalia, Mornag, Zaghouan,
Boussalem, Beja and Mannouba), to have some knowledge
about the nature of pesticide used and phytosanitary prac-
tices during two agricultural seasons: 2014–2015 and 2015–
2016.
The parameters used to follow each calculation were
obtained from different sources like: the registration file of
each formulation, international databases like: Agritox,
EXTOXNET (Extension Toxicology Network), PAN
(Pesticide Action Network) and PPDB (Pesticides Properties
DataBase).
2.1 Health Risk Index (HRI)
The computation of the HRI considers all toxicological
properties of the active ingredient (acute and chronic toxic-
ity) and some properties of the formulations as maximum
amount recommended per hectare (FCP) and the type of
formulation (FPF) (Samuel et al. 2012).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 445

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_139
446 A. Bouagga et al.

HRIActive Ingredient ¼ ðTRI  FCP  FPFÞ=10

with: 3 Results and Discussion

TRI : Toxicological
X Risk IndexX
During the survey, we noticed that most of the applications
¼½ acute toxicity þ ð chronic toxicity on vineyards were preventive. Whatever the agricultural
season (2014–2015 or 2015–2016), the total of treatment is
 FperÞ2
an average of 35 applications per vineyard. Plant Protection
X Products used by farmers belong to two main classes:
HRIformulation ¼ HRIActive Ingredient Fungicides (68%) and insecticides (32%). The fungicides
used belong to chemical families of triazoles, dithiocarba-
mates, carbamates and strobilurines. The insecticides
2.2 Environment Risk Index (ERI) chemical families were particulary organophosphates and
synthetic pyrethroids.
This index integrates the eco-toxicological impact of active
ingredients, particularly on terrestrial invertebrates and birds,
and some physico-chemical properties (bioaccumulation,
persistence in the ground and mobility). Others properties 3.1 HRI Calculation
related to the commercial product like the recommended
amount per hectare, the type of product and type of culture, A census of the use of pesticides in Tunisian Citrus orchards
were considered in the calculation of this index (Samuel was conducted among farmers, the results showed that the
et al. 2012). class of insecticides presented the highest risk for the human
ERIActive Ingredient ¼ ½1; 75  ðT þ OÞ þ M þ P þ B þ 12 health, compared to fungicides (Bouagga and Chaabane
2015; Bouagga et al. 2016). However, a difference was
with: observed in this study.
T: impact on terrestrial invertebrates; O: impact on birds; M: The HRI values of the different products varied from 36
Mobility; P: Persistance; B: Bioaccumulation to 1037 (Table 1). The formulation Ipromise®, fungicide
X based on thiophanate méthyl and iprodione, used against the
ERIformulation ¼ ERIActive Ingredient grey rot, presented the highest risk to the human health
(HRI = 1037).

Table 1 Determination of TRI, Formulations Active ingredients TRI HRI ERI

HRI and ERI associated to ®
different Plant Protection Ipromise Thiophanate methyl 1225 1037 94
Products Iprodione 1369
Anteor Flash® Folpel 2352 998 5
Fosethyl-Al 144
Eperon mix peppitte® Mefenoxam 2304 931
Folpel 2352
Aviso DF® Cymoxanil 324 599 2
Metiram zinc 1521
Lebaycid® Fenthion 2450 796 19
Robust® Chlorpyriphos ethyl 144 36 217
Biomat® Dimethoate 289 72 75
Karate Zeon® Lambda-cyalothrin 420 84 144
Melody DUO® Propineb 361 346 5
Iprovalicarbe 506
Driza® Procymidone 729 236 2
Pesticides Used in Tunisian Vineyards: What’s the Risk …
Other formulations, frequently used by farmers like
Anteor Flash® (HRI = 998), Eperon mix pepitte® (HRI =
931) and Aviso DF® (HRI = 599) and applied as fungicides
against the powedry mildew and mildew, also presented
considerable risk for human health.
Regarding the insecticides, Lebaycid®, rarely used by
farmers, they presented the highest risk for human health
with an index HRI = 796. This product has been removed
from the list since 2009. On the other hand, for the insec-
ticides frequently used by farmers like: Robust® (against
budworms and leafhoppers), Biomat® (against aphids) and
karate Zeon® (against thrips), the risk toward human health
is low with indexes equal to 36, 72 and 84 respectively to
Robust®, Biomat® and Karate Zeon®.
3.2 ERI Calculation
The ERI values were lower than HRI. They varied from 1 to
392. The formulations used as fungicides presented the
lowest risk for the environment, for example, Driza®
(ERI = 1), Mikal flash (ERI = 2) and Melody Duo (ERI =
5) (Table 1).
In contrast, Borey® used as insecticide, while having
HRI, presented the highest risk for the environment with an
447
index equal to 392). in the same context, Lebaycid formu-
lation had the highest HRI and ERI (377). The environ-
mental risk of the insecticide is mostly related to their effects
on honey bees and/or terrestrial invertebrates.
4 Conclusion
The classification of PPP used by farmers, according to
their health and environment indexes, could allow them
to choose the appropriate formulation having the lowest
HRI and ERI, in order to limit the exposure and reduce
the impact on environment and on human health.
References
Bouagga A, Chaabane H. Résidus de pesticides dans les oranges et
calcul des indices de risque. Editions Universitaires Européennes;
2015. 121p.
Bouagga A, Chaabane H, Bahrouni H, Hassine K. The use of IRPeQ
model as indicator to estimate the risk of some pesticides on Human
Health and environment. Tunisian J Plant Prot. 2016;11:133–41.
Samuel O, Dion S, Laurent LST, April MH. Indicateur de risque des
pesticides du Québec-IRPeQ. 2ème édition. Santé environnement,
Québec; 2012. 48p.
 Using an Eco-System for Frightening
Fish-Eating Birds
Mohamed A. Al-Rajhi



Keywords
Frighten Aquaculture
1 Introduction
Fish is an important source of food and income for many
poor households in Egypt. Populations of fish-eating birds
like Common Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis), Blue-winged Teal
(Anas discors), Great Egret (Ardea alba), Great Bittern
(Botaurus stellaris), Black-crowned Night-Heron (Nyctico-
rax nycticorax), Pied Kingfisher (Ceryle rudis), Great
Black-headed Gull (Larus ichthyaetus), Great Cormorant
(Phalacrocorax carbo), Common Moorhen, (Gallinula
chloropus), Common Coot (Fulica atra), and even ducks
and geese have increased dramatically and caused substan-
tial economic impacts to aquaculture production. According
to Alberta agriculture, food and rural development (1999)
one Black crowned Night Heron consumes fish at a rate of
0.15 kg/day; Great Cormorant can consume roughly 0.23–
0.45 kg of fish per day; Great Black-headed Gull con-
sumption rates are estimated at 0.10–0.15 kg/day and the
Kingfisher is capable of consuming fish at a rate of
0.10 kg/day. Gulls have been found to carry a range of
pathogens, harmful for both humans and livestock, such as
Salmonella (Palmgren et al. 2006), the avian flu virus H5N1
(Ellis et al. 2004), Esherichia coli 0157 (Wallace et al.
1997), and the infectious bursal disease virus (Hollmen et al.
2000). Many birds species prey on aquaculture products
causing significant losses, which led to the development of
several strategies to reduce predation (Littauer et al. 1997).
Attempts to reduce bird predation at aquaculture facilities
often include the use of bird scaring devices, as described by
littauer (1990), include both auditory and visual stimuli.
Pyrotechnics consisting of exploding and whistling
M. A. Al-Rajhi (&)
Ag. Eng. Res. Institute, AEnRI, ARC. El-Dokki, Giza, Egypt
e-mail: moh.elrajhi@yahoo.com
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_140


Impact Fish-eating birds and predation
projectiles are fired from handheld pistols or shotguns.
Automatic propane gas exploders emit loud explosions
similar to a shotgun blast at controllable intervals. Distress
calls of Double-crested Cormorants, electronically generated
noises, and sirens have been used to frighten cormorants
with varying degrees of success. Replicated testing of this
device at catfish raising facilities showed dramatic reduc-
tions (for the 10–19 day duration of the tests) in cormorant
numbers. However, some cormorants, only single birds or
small groups, usually appeared to get used to the device over
time. Other methods like water spray devices, ultrasonics,
raptor models and mirrors were used. Water spray from
rotating sprinklers placed at strategic locations in or around
ponds or raceways will repel certain birds, particularly gulls
(Svensson 1976). Also birds do not hear in the ultrasonic
range and fish eating birds have not been shown to be
repelled by ultrasonics. Bird predation, though detrimental to
aquaculture can also be beneficial to the farmers as a pre-
dation on weak or sick fish (Roy and Chattopadhyay 2005).
Many studies have shown that killing predators is ineffec-
tive. The shooting of cormorants, for example, primarily
kills migratory birds that are rapidly replaced by newly
arriving individuals (Keller et al. 1998). Moreover, it is
usually illegal. Estimates of losses to predators at aquacul-
ture facilities vary from as low as 8% to as high as 75% of
total fish production. Exploders at production sites causes
harassment of other wildlife, the usage of reflective tapes
streamers hung from wires may be more effective because it
depends on the presence of wind in open farms to move and
flashes when it reflects sunlight. Depending on wind speed,
the tape also pulsates and produce a low volume humming
or crackling noise when it moves. Reflecting tapes appear to
have limited efficacy in most circumstances. Bird-scaring
reflecting tape is marketed in Japan and used by rice growers
449
450
to protect fields from depredations by Java sparrows (Padda
oryzivora) (Bruggers et al. 1986). Summers and Hillman
(1990) tested a red fluorescent tape (20 mm wide) in fields
of winter wheat in the United Kingdom to deter brant. The
tape proved more successful than the cannon and scarecrows
in repelling brant. Compared with control fields, a 1%
reduction in grain yield in the taped field was found com-
pared to a 6% reduction in the untaped field. Reflectors have
also been found to be inexpensive but effective against
waterfowl, gulls and some herons (Greer and O’Connor
1994). Therefore, the objectives of the present study were to
dilute bird-inflicted losses and disease problems to some
extent by using a new cheap and eco-friendly system
(reflective tape) that can be deployed near populated areas
where noise is of concern and avoids injuring or killing
birds. Evaluate a new system that is affordable by fish
breeder and provide guidance to aquaculture owners
throughout Egypt.
2 Materials and Methods
The study was conducted at a private fresh water fish farm
located near El-Noras village, Port Saied Governert, Egypt
during late winter and early spring. There were 14 rectan-
gular fish farms. Only 6 fish farms were involved in the
Golden Grey Mullet (Bory) (Liza aurata) and Thinlip Mullet
(Tobar) (Liza ramada) production during the study period
and were stocked with fish at densities of 2500 Golden Grey
Mullet fingerling and 2000 Thinlip Mullet fingerling per
feddan. All farms were earthen farms with an average depth
of 2 m. The periphery of fish farm was surrounded by grass
and reeds with several meters tall. Some parts of fish farm
were carpeted with floating water plants. Fish were hand fed
twice a day, in the morning at 9 am and in the afternoon at
3 pm. Fish-eating birds like Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis),
Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors), Great Egret (Ardea alba),
Great Bittern (Botaurus stellaris), Black-crowned
Night-Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), Great Black-headed
Gull (Larus ichthyaetus), Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax
carbo), Common Moorhen, (Gallinula chloropus) and
Common Coot (Fulica atra) were observed at fish farm.
27 treatments were studied and data were collected over a
twelve hour period each day from 06:00 to 18:00 h. The
used reflective tape is usually silver on one side and red on
the other and available in 90-m long, 20-mm wide and
0.025-mm thick rolls. It has a metal coating on one side that
reflects sunlight. It moves in the wind and flashes when it
reflects sunlight. Depending on wind speed, the tape also
produced a low humming volume or crackling noise when it
moves. Strips of reflective tape were often hung from wires
that were stretched across the fish farm to make the wires
M. A. Al-Rajhi
more visible and increase their effectiveness as deterrents.
They are relatively cheap, available, light, easily transported,
carried and deployed in the pond. Also stakes can be armed
with wires ahead of time and can be deployed near populated
areas where noise is of concern. Wires generally require little
maintenance other than maintaining proper wire tension and
replacing an occasional broken wire. It was placed at vari-
able studied heights and spaces on removable posts. The
wires were attached to S hooks so they could be removed as
needed. Variable factors include three heights of wires above
the water (0.5, 1.5 and 2.5 m); three intervals between
reflective streamers bundles (2.5, 5 and 7.5 m); and three a
parts between parallel wires (5, 10 and 15 m). Tapes are
usually deployed by hanging them from a wire strung
between two stakes. Bamboo poles were used as stakes. The
wires were attached to the two stakes at intervals of 2.5–
7.5 m along the wire. Six pieces of 1.5 m long reflective
tapes were tied to the wire creating bundles of reflective
streamers. The loosely hanging bundles of tapes move and
flash in the wind creating a denser pattern of flashes. Wires
have been placed in parallel with variable spacing and
heights above the water. Parallel lines should be positioned
perpendicular to the prevailing wind. Visible streamers have
been used to increase effectiveness of this system. This
system has been installed on a small pond about 2 feddans.
Wires would probably have to be unfastened from at least
one side of the pond to facilitate fish harvest. The experi-
mental procedure that was carried out on the new system
was the number of total success attacks, number of total
attacks and success attack rate, %. Attacks were grouped into
attack attempts without a capture and success attack and
capture. From this data set the success rate was calculated by
multiplying the average number of birds that recorded suc-
cess attack and capture with the number of treatment days.
Total Success attacks
Success attack rate; % ¼  100
Total attacks
3 Results and Discussion
Two categories of water birds were present on the farm:
residents, including the Moorhens (Gallinula chloropus) and
visitors, which included all the fish predators. A total of 6
species of water birds were observed on the farm during the
study period, (Table 1). The most abundant bird species
present on the farm was the Great Black-headed Gull (Larus
ichthyaetus), which accounted for over 57.33% of the total
number of birds sighted on the farm for the entire period. On
the other hand, the Blue-winged Tea was seldom seen on the
farm accounting for less than 0.4% of the total number of
birds sighted. The nocturnal Black-crowned Night Herons
Using an Eco-System for Frightening … 451

Table 1 Bird species list and Bird species Scientific name Numbers of birds in fish farm
numbers on the fish farm
Common kingfisher Alcedo atthis 103
Blue-winged teal Anas discors 3
Great bittern Botaurus stellaris 93
Black-crowned Night-Heron Nycticorax nycticorax 26
Great black-headed Gull Larus ichthyaetus 434
Common moorhen Gallinula chloropus 98
Total 757

and Bittern were only observed on the farm in the early

mornings at the start of the data collection period. This
accounted for infrequent sightings and overall low percent-
age of these birds during the day; however; large numbers
were observed at night.
It was observed that the mean numbers of attacks under
all treatment levels were the lowest in the early morning and
between 12:00 and 13:30 h, and highest between 14:00 and
17:00 h. This reduction in the number of attacks early
morning and mid-day coincided with a very low success rate
for these periods. This was observed over the entire study
period and could indicate a pattern in the birds foraging
habits. There was a dramatic increase in the total number of
attacks between 15:00 and 17:00 h with the highest number
of attacks occurring daily at 16:00 h. This may be a foraging
strategy to maximize foraging effort just before the birds
leave the farm. All the visiting diurnal birds left the farm
between 17:30 and 19:00 h each day (Fig. 1).
Data illustrated in Figs. (2, 3 and 4) show the compara-
tive magnitude of mean number of total success attacks,
number of total attacks and success attack rate, %. The
relationships between wires heights above the water (H, m);
intervals between reflective streamers bundles (I, m) and
spacing between parallel wires (S, m) on number of total
success attacks, number of total attacks and success attack
rate, % can be represented by the following equations,
respectively:
Fig. 2 Effect of wires heights above the water, m on mean number of
success attacks, mean number of total attacks and success attack rate, %

Number of total
success attacks ¼ 51:7  24:7 H þ 3:96 I þ 0:689 S; R2 ¼ 98:7%
Number of
total attacks ¼ 106  44:2 H þ 5:93 I þ 0:956 S; R2 ¼ 99:2%
Success
attack rate; % ¼ 46:8  3:38 H þ 1:24 I þ 0:259 S; R2 ¼ 88:9%

The mean number of total success attacks, number of

total attacks and success attack rate, % (Fig. 2) decreased by
Fig. 1 The mean numbers of attacks under all treatments levels 74.6, 70.4 and 12.6%, respectively by increasing height to
452
Fig. 3 Effect of intervals between reflective streamers bundles, m on
mem number of success attacks, mean number of total attacks and
success attack rate, %
2.5 m above the water surface due to wind speed increase, so
the loosely hanging reflective streamer bundles move more
in the wind creating a denser pattern of flashes and crackles
noise. Of a total of 37 attacks only 17 successful captures
were observed (46.3% success rate) over the study period
with Common Kingfisher and Great Black-headed Gull at
2.5 m heights. There was a fluctuation in the number of
attacks on the ponds throughout the day for the entire period.
The mean number (Fig. 3) decreased by 37.3, 30.9 and
11.6%, respectively at intervals 2.5 m due to the effect of
closer spacing between reflective streamers bundles. The
mean number (Fig. 4) decreased by 15.6, 10.7 and 5%,
respectively at 5 m space due to the m effect of closer
spacing between parallel wires that make decrease in losses
caused by the birds.
4 Conclusion
The minimum numbers of total and success attacks and
subsequently the success attack rate, % was achieved at a
wires height 2.50 m, intervals between reflective
M. A. Al-Rajhi
Fig. 4 Effect of spacing between parallel wires, m on mean number of
success attacks, mean number of total attacks and success attack rate, %
streamers 2.5 m and a parts between parallel wires 5 m.
This system also prevents mammal predators from eaten
the fish. It is effective for controlling birds attack agri-
cultural crops. The system is advantageous as it is inex-
pensive, available, very portable, easily deployed, stakes
can be armed with tapes ahead of time and can be
deployed near populated areas where noise is of concern.
The disadvantages of this system are habituation, inef-
fectiveness in windless conditions and at night so we can
use a revolving light unit similar to those used on
ambulance and police cars for frightening night feeding
Birds like Black-crowned Night-Heron.
References
Alberta agriculture, food and rural development. Predator damage
control in cultured fish. Agdex 485/685-1; Dec 1999.
Bruggers RL, Brooks JE, Dolbeer RA, Woronecki PP, Pandid RK,
Tarimo T, Hoque M. Responses of pest birds to reflecting tape in
agriculture. Wildl Soc Bull. 1986;14:161–70.
Ellis TM, Bousfield RB, Bissett LA, Dyrting KC, Luk GSM, Tsim ST,
Sturm-Ramirez K, Webster RG, Guan Y, Peiris JSM. Investigation
Using an Eco-System for Frightening …
of outbreaks of highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza in
waterfowl and wild birds in Hong Kong in late 2002. Avian Pathol.
2004;33:492–505.
Greer RD, O’Connor DJ. Waterbird deterrent techniques. Marine spill
response corporation, Washington, DC. MSRC Technical Report
Series 94-003; 1994. p. 44.
Hollmen T, Franson JC, Docherty DE, Kilpi M, Hario M, Creek-
more LH, Peterson MR. Infectious bursal disease antibodies in elder
ducks and herring gulls. Condor. 2000;102:688–91.
Keller T, von Lindeiner A, Lanz U. Cormorant management in Bavaria,
Southern Germany—shooting as a proper management tool? CRG
Bull. 1998;3:11–4.
Littauer GA. Avian predators: frightening techniques for reducing bird
damage at aquaculture facilities. Southern regional aquaculture
center publication No. 401. Cooperative State Extension Service,
Mississippi State, Mississippi; 1990a.
453
Littauer GA, Glahn JF, Reinhold DS, Brunson MW. Control of bird
predation at aquaculture facilities: strategies and cost estimates.
Southern regional aquaculture center publication No. 402; 1997.
Palmgren H, Aspan A, Broman T, Bengtsson K, Blomquist L,
Bergstrom S, Sellin M, Wollin R, Olsen B. Salmonella in
Black-headed gulls (Larus ridibundus); prevalence, genotypes and
influence on Salmonella epidemiology. Epidemiol Infect.
2006;134:635–44.
Roy S, Chattopadhyay J. Disease-selective predation may lead to prey
extinction. Math Methods Appl Sci. 2005;28:1257–67.
Summers RW, Hillman G. Scaring brent geese (branta bernicla) from
fields of winter wheat with tape. Crop Prot. 1990; 9(6):459–462.
Svensson KM. Rotator for protecting circular fish ponds against
predatory birds. Progressive Fish Cult. 1976;38:152–4.
Wallace JS, Cheasty T, Jones K. Isolation of Vero cytotoxinproducing
Escherichia coli O157 from wild birds. J Appl Microbiol.
1997;82:399–404.
 Estrogenic Potency Assessments in a Context
of Treated Wastewater Reuse for Artificial
Groundwater Recharge

Selma Etteieb, Atsuchi Kawachi, Jamila Tarhouni, and Hiroko Isoda

Keywords
In vitro bioassay Estrogenic activity EDCs Recharge
Groundwater Treated wastewater

1 Introduction response to the direct interaction of agonists with the

Korba aquifer recharge targeted to decrease the decline of
the groundwater levels and the seawater intrusion. However,
the reuse of treated wastewater has been associated with
several types of potential risks mainly health and environ-
mental risks (Aertgeerts and Angelakis 2003). Actually,
numerous chemical contaminants present in TWW such as
endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) may threaten
groundwater quality through recharge. These EDCs have
been reported to interfere with the estrogenic, androgenic or
thyroidal systems, and to disturb the normal function of
tissues and organs (Fatta-Kassinos et al. 2011). Therefore,
there is a pressing need to use biological techniques and
especially in vitro bioassay as initial screening tools for
environmental samples to detect the presence of chemicals
based on their biological activity. A number of assays such
as the E-screen assay have been developed to detect estro-
genic activity of complex environmental matrices. Such
biological assay has the major advantage of determining the
overall endocrine activity of a water mixture based on the
proliferation of human breast cancer cells (MCF-7) as a
S. Etteieb (&)
J. Tarhouni
Water Science and Technology Laboratory (LSTE), National
Agronomic Institute of Tunisia INAT, 43 Charles Nicolles Street,
1082 Mahrajène, Tunisia
e-mail: selmaetteieb@yahoo.fr
A. Kawachi
H. Isoda
Graduate School of Life and Environmental Science, University of
Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Ibaraki, Tsukuba City, 305-8572, Japan
A. Kawachi
H. Isoda
Alliance for Research on North Africa, University of Tsukuba,
1-1-1 Tennodai, Ibaraki, Tsukuba City, 305-8572, Japan
estrogen receptor (ER) (Shapell 2006). Thus, In vitro assays
have advantages of being rapid, cost effective for the iden-
tification of biologically active chemicals in water sample.
The current study put the emphasis on the necessity to
conduct an environmental risk assessment of groundwater
quality and the reuse of TWW in Korba artificial aquifer
recharge system. To achieve this target, E-screen assay was
implemented to assess the estrogenic potencies and the
occurrence of EDCs in Korba groundwater and TWW in
order to evaluate the safety of TWW reuse in aquifer arti-
ficial recharge.
2 Materials and Methods
1
*Modified E-screen assay MCF-7 cells were plated
into 96-well plates at 104 cells/mL in 100 lL of medium and
allowed to attach for 24 h. The filter sterilized groundwater
samples were added to the cells at concentrations of 1%,
0.1%, 0.01% and 0.001%, while concentrations of 10%, 5%,
1% and 0.1% were used for TWW. Also, 17-b-estradiol at a
29 nM final concentration was used as a positive control
while phenol red free medium only was used as a negative
control. The cells were incubated in a 5% CO2 incubator at
37°C for 3 days before changing medium and incubation for
1
Statistical analysis of the results was performed using Student’s t-test
to determine the significance of results versus that of the control.
A value of P < 0.05 was considered significant (*) and P < 0.01 as
highly significant (**).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 455

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_141
456
Fig. 1 Relative estrogenic activities of groundwater samples. Medium
and 17-b-estradiol (29 nM) were used as negative and positive control
respectively. The results are expressed as mean ± SD (n = 3), *P <
another 3 days. Then 10 µl of 5 mg/mL of 3-
(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bro-
mide (MTT) was added to each well. After incubation for 24
h, 100 µl of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) was added to
each well to completely dissolve the formazan crystals. The
cells were then incubated for another 18 h. Finally, absor-
bance was determined at 570 nm using a multidetection
microplate reader (Powerscan HT; Dainippon Pharmaceuti-
cals USA Corporation, NJ, USA)..
3 Results and Discussion
Results showed that all groundwater samples including the
two piezometers and the surrounding wells registered a
dose-dependent estrogenic activity in MCF-7 cells which
was very significant (p < 0.01) at 1%, 0.1%, 0.01% and
0.001%. As shown in Fig. 1, groundwater samples at 1%
concentration was able to induce 1.4 to 1.8 times the
non-treated cell activity, close to that of the positive control
17-b-estradiol (1.9-times). Similarly, TWW showed very
significant dose-dependent proliferative response in MCF-7
cells reaching an optimal level of almost 1.7 fold increase of
estrogenic activity at a concentration of 10% (Fig. 2).
Currently only limited data are available on the estrogenic
contamination of aquatic systems in Tunisia. However, pre-
vious findings supported the presence of estrogenic activity
in Tunisian wastewater samples (Gammarth, pilot and Mor-
nag WWTP) depending on the adopted treatment technology
and the plant’s capacity to reduce total organic carbon con-
centration, chemical and biological oxygen demand (Limam
et al. 2007). In fact, due to their physico-chemical properties
and partial resistance to biotransformation, EDCs have been
detected not only in wastewater effluents, but also at low
concentrations in groundwaters used as a source for water
supply (Stumpf et al. 1996; Sonzogni et al. 2006). In fact, the
conventional treatment systems remove only biodegradable
chemicals, microbial agents, suspended particulate matter but
it has many limitations for removal of EDCs. In spite of the
S. Etteieb et al.
0.05, **P < 0.01 and they are presented as a percentage of control
(100% i.e., medium only)
Fig. 2 Relative estrogenic activities of TWW sample collected from
Korba WWTP. Medium and 17-b-estradiol (29 nM) were used as
negative and positive control respectively. The results are expressed as
mean ± SD (n = 3), *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01 and they are presented as a
percentage of control (100 % i.e., medium only)
lack of data on groundwater screening for estrogenicity in
Tunisia, previous studies conducted at the international scale
confirmed the presence of estrogenic activity in groundwater.
In fact, estrogenic activity was detected by Bradbury and
Bahr (2011) in the Silurian groundwater collected from four
northeast Wisconsin counties between summer 2008 and
spring 2009. The Silurian aquifer was selected as vulnerable
to nonpoint source contamination due to the existence of
shallow soils, dolomite bedrock, and karst features, which
combine to facilitate the transport of surface runoff to
groundwater. Land application of manure containing syn-
thetic and endogenous hormones may be a significant source
of nonpoint source pollutants as well. Moreover, according to
Koci et al. (2009), Cennoman groundwater showed sec-
ondary contamination with PCBs and pesticides. Then, the
results of a study done in South Africa in November 2001
reported estrogenic activity in various groundwater sites
(Aneck et al. 2009). Indeed, groundwater can be contami-
nated with EDCs through infiltration of domestic effluents,
raw sewage or leachates from municipal solid waste landfills.
Also, agricultural runoff resulting from farming activity
presents a risk of contamination as well. Foster and Chilton
Estrogenic Potency Assessments in a Context of Treated …
(2004) reported that trace levels of organic chemicals
potentially harmful to human health could originate from the
chemical oxygen demand which consists mainly of humic
like acids, sterols, phthalates, phenols, non-ionic detergents
and other compounds. In addition, in European groundwater,
a range of organic micropollutants have been detected such as
bisphenol A, caffeine, carbamazepine, DEET, galaxolide,
ibuprofen, iopamidol, phthalates, phenyl ethoxylates, and
sulfamethoxazole.
4 Conclusion
Bioanalytical screening revealed the presence of estro-
genic activity and estrogens like substances in TWW
reused for Korba aquifer artificial recharge as well as in
groundwater. Since the conventional treatment systems
are unable to remove EDCs, the groundwater quality
through recharge depends on the infiltration process and
the efficiency of the vadose zone in terms of additional
removal of organic pollutants using soil aquifer treatment
process. The finding presents an urgent need to reinforce
the monitoring of TWW and groundwater quality and to
improve the wastewater treatment technology to avoid
serious degradation of underlying groundwater quality
and to ensure the safety of aquifer artificial recharge using
non-conventional water resources.
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Estrogenic Endocrine Disruptors in Groundwater, Final report to
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Stumpf M, Ternes TA, Haberer K, Baumann W. Determination of
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Vom Wasser 1996;87:251–261.
 Bioecology of Culicidae (Diptera;
Nematocera) of the Tizi-Ouzou Wetlands
(Algeria)
Zohra Lounaci, Salaheddine Doumandji,
and Bahia B. Doumandji-Mitiche



Keywords
Bioecology Culicidae
1 Introduction
In Algeria, Culicidae form the most harmful biting insects to
populations, among which some species may transmit
infectious diseases (particularly malaria). Regular
anti-mosquito campaigns are being conducted against these
insects to reduce their nuisance at level of urban and rural
centres. Efficiency of such struggle whether chemical or
biological, depends on ecological knowledge of these
insects. It is a fact that undeniable success has been achieved
against numerous outbreaks of malaria. However, it should
be emphasised that malaria has not vanished from
Mediterranean Africa, which remains at hypo-endemic status
and may reoccur at any time under its epidemic form under
the impact of climatic circumstances favouring anopheline
development (Schaffner et al. 2001). Furthermore, it would
be appropriate to monitor not only the possible arrival of
new vectors as Aedes albopictus which has been recently
established in Europe and in the major countries of the
Mediterranean Basin (Senevet and Andarelli 1960) including
Algeria in North-Africa (Macan 1981). It should also be
pointed out the introduction of new pathogenic agents such
as West Nile virus, which is regularly circulating on the
Mediterranean littoral with C. pipiens as one of its potential
Z. Lounaci (&)
Department of Agronomy, University of Mouloud Mammeri, Tizi
Ouzou, Algeria
e-mail: lounaci_zohra@yahoo.fr
S. Doumandji
B.B. Doumandji-Mitiche
Department of Agricultural and Forest Zoology, Upper
Agronomical National School, El Harrach, Algeria
e-mail: doumandjised@yahoo.fr
B.B. Doumandji-Mitiche
e-mail: doumandjimitiche@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_142


Taksebt dam Population’s dynamics
vectors (Becker et al. 2010). It is within this context that an
initiation of a mosquito survey in the region is a necessary
prerequisite towards a more general study. In Algeria, the
ecological studies on Culicidae remain fragmentary (Ber-
rouane et al. 2016; Hassaine 2002) because it concerns
above all systematics and morphometrics (France and
CD-Rom collection didactique 2016), biology and chemical
struggle (Bouabida et al. 2012). Thus, the objective of our
study on Culicidae of Taksebt’s dam constituting an
ecosystem was to take an inventory of Culicidae species
present in this humid area; to study seasonal dynamics of
preimaginal population (larvae and nymphs) of the main C.
hortensis.s’ species.
2 Materials and Methods
The present study took place in 2014 in Taksebt’s dam
(36° 24′ 15′′N; 4° 45′ 46′′E). The dam is located on Oued
Aissi of approximately 10 km south-east of Tizi-Ouzou
town. The whole site presents a capacity of 175 millions of
m3 spreading on a surface of 550 hectares. This region
belongs to sub-humid bioclimatic stage with a winter tem-
perate according to 1998–2013 data. Culicidae fauna mon-
itoring was performed with the help of 15 serial samplings
made at intervals of 8 days on a 4-month duration (May–
August 2014). Three epigeous sites (in the open air) were
retained as stations and their mosquitoes larvae populations
were subject of study; their choice was supported on the
representativeness of Culicidae larvae in a productive site
batch, accessibility, sustainability and no treatment by
chemical product. Sampling of preimaginal stages (larval)
has been achieved according to the technique of dipping
(dipper blow) (El Joubari et al. 2014). The dipper of known
459
460
capacity (c = 11) was put into water, and then moved with
care avoiding turmoil. Ten blows of dipper are therefore
made in different spots of the site with a space of 1 m. In
laboratory; larvae were selected by species, by stages and
counted. For the species determination, we consulted the
works of Silver (2008). This one-time study has also been
facilitated by use of identification software of Culicidae of
Mediterranean Africa performed by Croset et al. (1976).
3 Results and Discussion
In total 1062 larvae of Cuticidae were inventoried on 2014 in
Taksebt’s dam. The morphological identifications showed
the presence of 8 species belonging to two sub-families:
Anophelinae and Culicinae. Among the captured species in
all stations, C. hortensis (72.98%) and Culiseta longiareo-
lata (19.68%) are the most abundant.
On upstream of the dam, 636 Culicidae individuals
spread between 4 species were captured. C. hortensis, spe-
cies batracophile is strongly dominant (65.88%). In this
environment, this species was omnipresent. C. longiareo-
lata, ornithophilous species comes in second rank with a rate
of 32.39%.
Near the dike, 60 individuals belonging to six species
were inventoried. C. impudicus predominates with a per-
centage of 65%, followed by Anopheles labranchiae
(13.33%) and A. caspius (11.66%). The occurrence fre-
quency of C. impudicus is of 26.66%, and this makes it an
accessory species class, and between 6.66 and 13.33% for
the other species which were accidental.
Downstream of the dam 366 individuals belonging to
three species were inventoried. C. hortensis (97.2%) remains
the dominant species. This last one, qualified as a constant,
presented an occurrence frequency of 86.66%. C. impudicus
(F.O = 20%) and C. longiareolata (F.O = 13.33%) were
accidental.
In Taksebt’s dam of Tizi-Ouzou, C. hortensis (65.88%)
presents the bulk of catches. Females of C. hortensis, feed
particularly on amphibians and reptiles (White et al. 2011).
This species has never been involved in pathogenic trans-
mission for humans (Schaffner et al. 2001). Larvae of this
species may occupy natural sites such as ponds or marshes
and so artificial environment such as throughs and irrigation
basins. By using the same sampling technique, the authors in
Bouabida et al. (2012) have identified in swamp of Reghaia
7 species of Culicidae, Messai et al. (2010) noted that C.
pipiens, (58.48%) and C. longiareolata, (39.5%) were the
most abundant in this environment. These two species
occupy a natural environment rather than artificial and they
are frequently associated to human activities. France and
CD-Rom collection didactique (2016) classified these two
Z. Lounaci et al.
species as among the species with larger distribution over
Mediterranean Africa. By contrast, in the same bioclimatic
stage of Constantine region, only six species of Culcidae
were identified on a period of two years (Berchi et al. 1758).
This author underlines the dominance of C. pipiens in dif-
ferent urban environments (R.A = 99%) peri urban
(R.A = 98%). Few larvae specimens of A. labranchiae were
captured only in the center of Taksebt’s dam (13%). Recent
data show a population expansion of this potential vector of
Plasmodium falciparum (Haemosporida: Plasmodiidae) in
Maghreb particularly in Morocco (Gabinaud 1975). In this
study, the seasonal dynamics of C. hortensis follows a
classic thermophilic trend, larvae of first stages I1 and I2 of
C. hortensis have been found from the first sampling made
on 5 May 2014, and we noted the absence of nymphs. The
outbreaks are multiplying in this site, to record a peak on 7th
July with a population of 89 individuals, which coincides
with temperatures increases. All environmental warming
may influence the development cycle of numerous aquatic
insects, notably Culicidae (Hassaine 2002). Then, population
gradually decreased with individual’s dominance of larval
development of the last stages (L3, L4 and nymph), to record
at last zero values of C. hortensis individuals in the sampling
of 16 and 24 August due to the rise of the temperature
generating therefore, an intense water evaporation, and
consequently a drop in water level and to the drying of the
sites.
4 Conclusion
The bioecological study of Culicidae in Taksebt’s dam of
Tizi-Ouzou relied on the dipping technique. Eight spe-
cies, belonging to two sub-families were identified. Those
of Anophelinae with a single species, in this case A.
labranchiae; potential causal agent of malaria and those
of Culicinae with seven species. Medical entomologists
and veterinarians think that these are the main vector of
infectious diseases, like the West Nil virus which is
transmitted to human by A. caspius. From the 3 study
stations, station II located near the dike of Taksebt’s dam
welcomed the highest number of species of Culicidae. In
terms of number by species and by station, it should be
noted that C. hortensis is strongly present in upstream,
and downstream of the dam. A one-time study carried out
on population of C. hortensis was based on the moni-
toring of variation in time and space of immature stages.
So; larval number is relatively high in sites bordered by
diversified vegetation. Population explosion provoked by
positive climate conditions in May and June allowed this
species to settle in the study sites. In summer period, from
the end of July, the absence of larvae in the site would be
due to a temporary nature of these environments.
Bioecology of Culicidae (Diptera; Nematocera) …
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Becker N, Petric D, Zgomba M, Boase C, Dahl C, Madon M, Kaiser A.
Mosquitoes and their control. 2nd ed. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg,
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Morphometry of Culex pipiens pipiens Linneus, 1758 (Dipterae;
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Brunhes J, Hassaine K, Rhaim A, Hervy JP. Les Culicides de l’Afrique
méditerranéenne: espèces présentes et répartition (Diptera, Néma-
tocera). Bull Soc Ent France. 2000;105(2):195–204.
Brunhes J, Rhaim A, Geoffroy B, Angel G, Hervy P. Les Culicidae
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ment, Montpellier, France, IRD & ITP, CD-Rom collection
didactique, IRD; 2016.
Croset H, Papierok B, Rioux JA, Gabinaud A, Cooserans J, Arnaud D.
Absolute estimates of larval population of Culicid mosquitoes of capture
– recapture, removal and dipping methods. Ecolog Ent. 1976;1:251–6.
461
El Joubari M, Louah A, Himmi O. Mosquitoes (Diptera, Culicidae) of
Smir marshes (northwest of Morocco): inventory and biotypology.
Bull Soc Pathol Exot. 2014;107:48–59.
Gabinaud A. Ecologie de deux Aedes halophiles du littoral français:
Aedes (O) caspius, (Pallas, 1771) et. Aedes (O) detritus (Haliday,
1833) Utilisation de la végétation comme indicateur biologique
pour l’établissement d’une carte écologique. Application en
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lier; 1975. P. 474.
Gardner AM, Hamer GL, Hines AM, Newman CM, Walker ED,
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Hassaine K. Bioécologie et biotypologie des Culicidae (Diptera,
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 Occurrence, Sources and Environmental
Health Risk Assesement of Polycyclic
Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Domestic
Effluents Discharges in Wadi El Bey (Tunisia)

Imen Gdara, Ines Zrafi, Catia Balducci, Angelo Cecinato,

and Ahmed Ghrabi

Keywords
Domestic effluents Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Diagnostic ratio Ecosystem risk
assessment

sources and assess their environmental risks in surface

1 Introduction wastewater.

He release of untreated effluents from industries and

domestic sources deteriorates the water quality of receiving 2 Materials and Methods
water bodies and drains. Hence, the characterization of
wastewater holds an important place as it can help the use of 2.1 Study Area
this wastewater for other purposes (Hamid et al. 2016).
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are considered
among the most toxic organic micro-pollutants discharged
into the environment. These compounds are produced by
natural and anthropogenic processes (Tolosa et al. 1996).
Due to their carcinogenic and mutagenic potentials (Aziz
et al. 2014). The monitoring of persistent toxic substances in
wastewater is necessary for protecting ecological and human
health. This work aimed to investigate contamination by
(PAHs) in domestic effluents to distinguish their possible

I. Gdara (&)
I. Zrafi
A. Ghrabi 2.2 Hydrocarbon Analysis

Center for Research and Water Technology (CERTE)—
Technopole Borj Cedria, BP. 273, 8020 Soliman, Tunisia Hydrocarbons in water samples (50 mL) were
e-mail: imenegdara@gmail.com liquid/liquid-extracted three times for 1 h with 100 mL pure
I. Zrafi chloroform using a separatory funnel. The extracts were then
e-mail: zrafi_ines@yahoo.fr concentrated to 2 mL using rotary evaporation. Each extract
A. Ghrabi was weighed and fractionated into non-aromatic hydrocar-
e-mail: a.ghrabi@yahoo.fr bons (NAH) and aromatic hydrocarbons (AH) by adsorption
I. Gdara liquid chromatography using a column of alumina and silica
Faculty of Science of Bizerte, 7021 Zarzouna Bizerte, Tunisia gel, with gradient solvents as an eluent: n-hexane and 2:1
C. Balducci
A. Cecinato n-hexane/chloroform for the NAH and AH fractions,
National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric respectively. The analytes were detected and quantified
Pollution Research (CNR-IIA), Via Salaria km 29.3, C.P. 10,
00015 Monterotondo Scalo, Rome, Italy using a Trace GC Ultra gas chromatograph equipped with an
e-mail: balducci@iia.cnr.it AS-8000 auto-sampler and Trace DSQ quadrupole mass
A. Cecinato spectrometer (Trace-GC Ultra and DSQ-II, both from
e-mail: cecinato@iia.cnr.it Thermo, Rodano, Italy).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 463

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_143
464
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Seasonal Distribution of PAHs in Urban
Effluents
Total concentrations of PAHs ranged from 1.31 to
112.63 ng/L with a maximun recorded in S9 (Rejection
Wadi El Bey, upside the Sebkha) in the summer season. The
key factors influencing the RPAHs differences, could be the
emission water sources, In fact S9 is located close to the
urban area of Soliman. This site is exposed to PAH release
from domestic heating, untreated sewage and industrial
wastewater, residential activities and other urban effluents.
The behavior of PAHs was not the same at all sites.
Although the emission rate was presumably higher during
the winter due to contribution of domestic heating and
atmospheric stability tended to hinder the dispersion of
pollutants (Zhou et al. 2005), other factors like predominant
weather conditions seemed to influence the PAH loads. On
the average, the maximum PAH concentrations were found
during the dry season (Fig. 1).
3.2 PAH Composition of Rings Groups
The 4- and 5- ring compounds were the principal PAHs
detected in most of the sampling sites (Fig. 2).
Fig. 1 Seasonal distribution of PAHs in urban effluents
Fig. 2 Composition of PAHs according to the ring group in the investigated sampling sites
I. Gdara et al.
3.3 Source Identification of PAHs
Isomeric ratios BaA/(BaA + Chr) and Ant/(Ant + Phe) were
plotted versus Flu/(Flu + Pyr) for each data point and season
to analyze how PAHs were distributed with regard to their
possible origins. According to these plots, the sites were
likely to be polluted by a mixture of petrogenic and pyrolytic
inputs (Table 1).
3.4 Environmental Health Risk Assessment
Hence, RQNCs and RQMPCs quantities were calculated as
follows:
RQNC = CPAH/CQV (NC) and RQMPC = CPAH/
CQV (MPC), where: (CQV (NC) is the quality value of
the NC of each PAH; and CQV (MPC) represents the quality
value of the MPC of the same PAH in the medium (Fig. 3).
In principle, RQ (NCs) < 1 indicated that the single
PAHs might be probably of negligible concern, while RQ
(MPCs) > 1 would indicate that contamination by the single
PAHs was much severe and some control measures and
remedial actions must be undertaken at once which is the
case in almost all the sampling sites. In case of RQ
(NCs) > 1 and RQ (MPCs) < 1 which indicated that con-
tamination by the single PAHs might list as middle levels
and some control measures or remedial actions need to be
Occurrence, Sources and Environmental Health Risk … 465

Table 1 Ecological risk assesement of PAHs in urban effluents

BaA Chry BbF BkF BaP
TEQ RQ RQ RQ RQ RQ RQ RQ RQ RQ RQ
(ng/L) (NCs) (MPCs) (NCs) (MPCs) (NCs) (MPCs) (NCs) (MPCs) (NCs) (MPCs)
S1 266.53 7286 72.8 141 1.41 132 1.32 0 0 386.3 3.86
S2 127.92 4174 41.7 52.73 0.52 0 0 0 0 172 1.72
S3 1431.6 1424 14.24 202.8 2.02 6642 66.42 22.36 0.22 2510 25.1
S4 301.88 2955 29.5 169.1 1.69 0 0 0 0 543.5 5.43
S5 458.37 4457 44.5 130 1.30 0 0 0 0 815 8.15
S6 422.97 7980 79.8 187.1 1.87 0 0 498.6 4.98 642 6.42
S7 575.1 1994 19.94 195.3 1.95 0 0 0 0 1109 11.09
S8 75.75 2269 22.6 148.4 1.48 0 0 0 0 104.5 1.04
S9 29.6 2929 29.2 90.4 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0
BaA Benzo (a) anthracene, Chry Chrysene, BaP Benzo (a) pyrene, BbF Benzo (b) Fluoranthene, BkF Benzo (k) fluoranthene, TEQ Toxic
equivalent quotient

Fig. 3 Plots of isomeric ratios

BaA/(BaA + Chr), and Ant/
(Ant + Phe) versus Flu/
(Flu + Pyr)

undertaken. The total PAHs concentrations in domestic
effluents discharges in Wadi El Bey had reached a relatively
higher level. Therefore, measures should be put into place to
prevent and control the damage of PAHs to aquatic organ-
isms and human health.
4 Conclusion
This study provided the first concentration data and
information about the PAHs sources in domestic effluents
discharges in Wadi El Bey. Seasonal trends of 26 PAHs
were surveyed, and the sources and hazard assessment
were considered. PAHs in wastewaters ranged from 1.31
to 112.63 ng/ml. The PAH profiles indicated that the 4–
5-ring compounds were the major PAHs detected in most
sampling sites. Diagnostic ratios and molecular indices
showed that PAHs could originate from petrogenic,
mixed and pyrolytic sources. The water quality guidelines
and calculated risk quotients indicated that wastewater
discharged in Wadi El bey was highly polluted and pre-
sented moderate to high level ecosystem risk.
466
References
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 Effect of 17a-Ethinylestradiol Exposure
on Phycocyanin Metabolite Production
and Antioxydant System of Phormidium
Versicolor NCC466

Dalel Belhaj, Donyez Frikha, Bouthaina Jerbi, Khaled Athmouni,

Moneem Kallel, Sami Maalej, John Zhou, and Habib Ayadi

Keywords
17a-ethinylestradiol Oxidative damage Phormidium versicolor Phycocyanin
metabolite

1 Introduction balance and alter DNA in aquatic organisms (Belhaj et al.

2017). In coastal ecosystems, microalgae are a key com-
With the growing release of endocrine dustrupting chemi- ponent of food chains in aquatic environments owing to
cals such as 17a-ethinylestradiol (EE2) into aquatic their fundamental contribution to energy conversion and
ecosystems in recent years (Belhaj et al. 2015), concerns ecosystem food web maintenance. Hence, it is crucial to
have been raised about their potential toxicity to aquatic have early assessment tools for cytotoxic and genotoxic
organism. EE2 may cause overproduction of reactive effects at the cellular level, which could lead to disturbance
oxygen species (ROS) leading to distrub the antioxidant in structure and productivity of the algae communities
which, in turn, could induce direct structural changes in the
rest of the ecosystem (Martinez et al. 2015). Therefore, the
present paper described the effect of EE2 on antioxydant
D. Belhaj (&)
D. Frikha
K. Athmouni
S. Maalej
H. Ayadi system, as well as on phycocyanin production (the major
Department of Life Sciences, Laboratory of Biodiversity and
photosynthetic accessory pigments in cyanobacteria) in
Aquatic Ecosystems, Ecology and Planktonology, University of
Sfax, FSS, Sfax, Tunisia newely isolated Phormidium versicolor from Sfax solar
e-mail: dalel_belhaj@yahoo.fr saltern.
D. Frikha
e-mail: fdonyez@yahoo.com
K. Athmouni 2 Materials and Methods
e-mail: khaled_athmouni@hotmail.fr
S. Maalej P. versicolor, isolated from Sfax solar saltern (Tunisia), was
e-mail: sami.maalej@fss.rnu.tn grown in BG 11 medium and cultured in homeothermic
H. Ayadi incubator with a 14/12-h light/dark cycle. Microalgae cells
e-mail: habibayadi62@yahoo.fr were exposed to three different concentrations of EE2 (10,
D. Belhaj
B. Jerbi
M. Kallel 100, and 1000 ng L−1) under 12 day culture conditions. At
ENIS. Engineering Laboratory of Environment and the end of the experiment, the supernatant was discarded,
Ecotechnology, University of Sfax, LR16ES19, Sfax, Tunisia and the pellet was washed with deionized water. Photosyn-
e-mail: bouthainajerbi@gmail.com
thetic pigments, uncluding Chl a and phycocyanin (PC) were
M. Kallel estimated according to Lichtenthaler and Buschmann (2001)
e-mail: monemkallel@gmail.com
and Bennett et al. (1973). Antioxidant enzyme activities and
J. Zhou DNA damage were analyzed according to Belhaj et al.
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Center of
(2017).
Technology in Water and Wastewater, University of Technology
Sydney, Broadway, Ultimo, Australia
e-mail: JunLiang.Zhou@uts.edu.au

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 467

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_144
468 D. Belhaj et al.

Table 1 Effect of EE2 concentrations on photosynthetic pigments and enzymatic activities of P. versicolor after a 12-day incubation. Results are
the average means (n = 3) ± SD of triplicate experiments
Parameters Control DMSO EE2 (ng L−1)
10 100 1000
Photosynthetic pigments
Chl a (µg mg−1) 9.57 ± 1.2 9.6 ± 0.8 9.94 ± 1.5 8.61 ± 0.65 8.07 ± 0.49
PC (µg mg−1 dry biomass) 362.3 ± 8.6 358.4 ± 11 370 ± 8 406.2 ± 7.8 798.2 ± 10
Biomarker stress and enzymatic activities
MDA (nM mg−1 protein) 0.56 ± 0.025 0.58 ± 0.018 0.51 ± 0.016 1.02 ± 0.06 1.05 ± 0.04
SOD (U mg−1 protein) 8.03 ± 0.24 8 ± 0.5 7.78 ± 0.25 9.13 ± 0.31 12.6 ± 0.32
CAT (µM H2O2 min−1 mg−1 protein) 0.07 ± 0.002 0.07 ± 0.002 0.065 ± 0.001 0.083 ± 0.001 0.09 ± 0.001
GPx (nM reduced GSH min−1 mg−1 protein) 0.91 ± 0.02 0.88 ± 0.04 0.85 ± 0.03 0.9 ± 0.038 0.97 ± 0.051

Control DMSO 10 ng L-1 100 ng L-1 1000 ng L-1

3 Results and Discussion 700

High EE2 concentrations (1000 ng L−1) inhibited the growth 600

of P. versicolor (measured as Chl a) (Table 1), possibly

ng DNA mg-1 protein

because the concentration of EE2 exceeded the tolerance 500

limit of microalgae cells, causing the cell structure to dis- 400

integrate. However, a low concentration may promote the
growth, possibly due to the promotion of certain enzymes 300
involved in physiological and biochemical reactions at cer-
tain EE2 concentrations. Furthermore, it is possible that the 200

studied cyanobacteria partially degraded and absorbed EE2

as nutrients instead of toxic xenobiotic, which allow cells to
maintain accurate homeostatic regulation of intracellular
xenobiotic levels. These results are somewhat similar to the
findings of Belhaj et al. (2017), who reported the dual effect
(promotion and inhibition) of EE2 on Dunaliella salina.
Moreover, high concentration of EE2 lead to over produc-
tion of phycocyanin (Table 1). Several marine microalgae
have an astonishing capacity to secrete various redox-active
metabolite such us phycocyanin (El-Fouly et al. 2015).
Phycocyanin is water-soluble blue-colored nitrogen-
containing tricyclic heterocyclomer. It was recognized for
anti-vibriosis activity in aquatic culture systems (Vijayan
et al. 2006), as an antagonistic agent, cell adhesion, and
biocontrol (Tang et al. 2007). Herein, the increase of phy-
cocyanin (PC) metabolite production protect P.versicolor
against high xenobiotic concentration. Thus, up-regulation
of phycocyanin could enhance EE2 tolerance of this
cyanobacteria.
Additionally, levels of MDA increased markedly in
P. versicolor with increasing concentration exposure
(Table 1), suggesting that the membranes suffered oxidant
damage under the EE2 stress. However, the increase in the
activities of SOD, CAT and GPx implied that EE2 may
promote some damaging processes and stimulate a resistance
reaction in P. versicolor NCC466. This is an adaptive
strategy to protect themselves against oxidative damage.
100
0
Fig. 1 DNA damage biomarker stress (mean ± SD; n = 3) in P. ver-
sicolor after 12-day exposure compared with the control, and
cyanobacteria spiked with DMSO and different concentrations of EE2
Significant oxidative stress was observed at high con-
centrations which could lead to DNA damage; nevertheless,
DNA damage was not observed (Fig. 1). Thus, EE2 did not
produce genotoxicity; this could be due to the fact that
during the 11-day exposure, EE2 was not able to produce an
irreversible damage, or that fortunately efficiency of enzy-
matic antioxidant responses and phycocyanin metabolite to
prevent severe damage.
4 Conclusion
High EE2 concentrations decreased the cellular content of
Chl a, stimulated the antioxidant mechanisms by
increasing SOD, CAT and GPx activities. Nevertheless,
the antioxidant enzymes were not enough to degrade the
overproduction of reactive oxygen species, leading to
lipid peroxidation occurrence. Moreover, EE2 was not
able to produce an irreversible damage, or that fortunately
of phycocyanin production to prevent severe damage.
Effect of 17a-Ethinylestradiol Exposure on Phycocyanin …
References
Belhaj D, Athmouni K, Frikha D, Kallel M El Feki A, Maalej S,
Zhou LJ, Ayadi H. Biochemical and physiological responses of
halophilic nanophytoplankton (Dunaliella salina) from exposure to
xeno-estrogen 17a-ethinylestradiol. Environ Sci Pollut Res.
2017;24(8):7392–7402.
Belhaj D, Baccar R, Jaabiri I, Bouzid J, Kallel M, Ayadi H, Zhou JL. Fate
of selected estrogenic hormones in an urban sewage treatment plant
in Tunisia (North Africa). Sci Total Environ. 2015;505:154–60.
Bennett A, Bogorad L. Complementary chromatic adaptation in
filamentous blue green algae. J Cell Biol. 1973;58:419–33.
El-Fouly MZ, Sharaf AM, Shahin AAM, El-Bialy HA, Omara AMA.
Biosynthesis of pyocyanin pigment by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
J Radiat Res Appl Sci. 2015;8(1):36–48.
469
Lichtenthaler HK, Buschmann C. Chlorophylls and carotenoids:
measurement and characterization by UV-VIS spectroscopy. Curr
protocolFood Anal Chem. 2001;F4.3.1–F4.3.8.
Martinez RS, Di Marzio WD, Sáenz ME. Genotoxic effects of
commercial formulations of Chlorpyrifos and Tebuconazole on
green algae. Ecotoxicology. 2015;24(1):45–54.
Tang X, Zhu Y, Meng Q. Enhanced crude oil biodegradability of
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ZJU after preservation in crude
oil-containing medium. World J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2007;23
(1):7–14.
Vijayan KK, Singh ISB, Jayaprakash NS, Alavandi SV, Pai SS,
Preetha R, Rajan JJS, Santiago TC. A brackish water isolate of
Pseudomonas PS-102, a potential antagonistic bacterium against
pathogenic vibrios in penaied and non-penaied rearing systems.
Aquacult. 2006;251:192–200.
 Determination of Trace and Oligo-Elements
in the Constantine Region Soils
Samira Naili, Assia Nait Merzoug, George Dénès, Hocine Merazig,
and Abdelhak Lakehal



Keywords
Soil ETM Trace elements
1 Introduction
ETMs are naturally presistent on earth soil. Some of these
elements are trace elements, essential and beneficial to living
beings, such as manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu),
iron (Fe) and chromium (Cr). Concentrations in animal feed
or soil should be maintained at a certain level to allow for
normal development and reproduction of organisms. At
high-level concentrations, certain toxic mechanisms might
well develop (Walker et al. 1996). Actually, some
oligo-elements, such as copper and zinc, could attain toxicity
level in certain plants even prior to attaining sufficiently high
concentrations to turrn out to be too toxic to human beings.
Other non essentiels ETM, like led (Pb) and Arsenic (As),
S. Naili (&)
A. Nait Merzoug
H. Merazig
Chemistry research unit of environmental and structural
molecular, University of Constantine 1, Constantine, Algeria
e-mail: Nailismr@gmail.com
A. Nait Merzoug
e-mail: abenlala@yahoo.fr
H. Merazig
e-mail: hmerazig@gmail.com
A. Nait Merzoug
Laboratory of Water and Environmental Science and Technology,
Mohamed Cherif University Messadia de Souk Ahras,
BP155341000 Souk-Ahras, Algeria
A. Lakehal
Department of Epidemiology, CHU de Constantine, Faculty of
Medicine, University of Constantine 3, Constantine, Algeria
e-mail: dr.lakehal@yahoo.fr
G. Dénès
Laboratory of Solid State Chemistry and Mossbauer Spectroscopy,
Department of Chemistry Concordia University Montreal,
Quebec, Canada
e-mail: georges.denes@concordia.ca
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_145



Major elements Agricultural site
prove to stand as pure contaminants, with no recognized
utility for the human beings (Tremel-Schaub et Feix 2005)
and highly toxic even in minute proportions.
Our work appears to reveal the prevalence of significant
trace-element levels.
In this regard, the present work is aimed to characterize
soil quality based on the reached soil relating results, high-
lighting the predominance of some physicochemical
parameters, namely: pH, organic matter, ETM.
However, whether they are essential ETMs (trace ele-
ments or not to living beings, the except presence of same
them in Agricultural soils can lead to toxicity phenomena in
plants as well as in animals and the humans who consume it
(MENU 2004).
2 Materials and Methods
The city of Constantine has a central geographical position
in the region. It is a pivotal city situated between the
Algerian Tell and the High Plains, at the crossing main road
junctions linking the north to the south (Skikda-Biskra) and
the West to the East (Setif, Annaba). The surrounding
Constantine zone is an area conducive to the development of
arable crops throughout the country. It is a region charac-
terized with a very cold weather and heavy rain in winter,
and a very hot weather in summer. Generally, the parcels
chosen are parcels intended for vegetable crops. The soils
are mainly brown limestone, with clay-sandy texture across
the agricultural sites. The soil was dried in the open, crushed
and sieved to 2 mm. Sampling was undertaken at a depth of
30 cm from soil level. Soils were sampled by means of an
auger and placed in clean plastic bags and stored at room
temperature until laboratory analysis Figs. 1 and 2.
471
472
Fig. 1 Location of agricultural
sites
Fig. 2 Determination of trace elements via RX fluorescence
Analyses of trace elements were performed via XRF
(X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy). The assay was carried
out at the Laboratory of the Research Unit of Chemistry of
S. Naili et al.
the Environment and Structural Mentouri University of
Constantine (CHEMS). In addition to analyzing the MTEs
and trace elements, the samples’ physicochemical parame-
ters were also determined at the FERTIAL Agricultural Soil
Analysis and Fertility Laboratory, of Annaba, as well as the
Laboratory of Rural Development of Soil and Water Anal-
ysis, of BNEDER Algiers.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Soil Characteristics
The sampled soil associated characteristics are depicted in
Table 1. pH is considered to stand as the main chemical
parameter controlling the bioavailability of heavy metals in
soil (Brallier et al. 1996). The mean pH (at 25 °C) charac-
terizing the cultivated land proves to vary between 8.27 and
8.40, while that relating to the uncultivated land appears to
be almost invariable (between 8.36 and 8.49). The alkaline
pH helps restrict the passage of heavy metals from the solid
phase to the soil pertaining solution and, therefrom, to the
Determination of Trace and Oligo-Elements … 473

Table 1 Sampled soils’ characteristics relevant to the constantine region

No. Soil Latitude N Longititude W pH Clay % Silt % Sand % M.O N Tot C/N
Cultivated agricultural land
S2 36° 15′ 53,36″ 6° 38′ 52,19″ 8.51 48 28.60 23.40 1.125 0.098 11.48
S3 36° 15′ 1,58″ 6° 36′ 43,98″ 8.40 48 24 28 0.98 0.237 4.13
S4 36° 18′ 1,32″ 6° 29′ 24,87″ 8.39 69.84 14.15 16.00 1.35 0.122 11.06
S5 36° 12′ 20,97″ 6° 49′ 6,99″ 8.27 62.28 10.47 27.23 1.197 0.102 11.73
S7 36° 13′ 16,87″ 6° 31′ 24,19″ 8.35 53.33 16.66 30.00 1.28 0.122 10.49
Non-cropland agricultural land
S1 36° 16′ 30,22″ 6° 40′ 18,10″ 8.38 46.4 30.00 23.4 1.54 0.232 6.63
S6 36° 11′ 50,95″ 6° 48′ 46,94″ 8.36 64.33 9.66 26.0 1.34 0.144 9.30
S8 36° 13′ 19,56″ 6° 31′ 25,12″ 8.49 53.33 16.66 30.0 1.35 0.128 10.54

Fig. 3 Metal trace element levels 400

in both soil types (cultivated deed Teneur en ppm
350
uncultivated soil)
300
250 CulƟvated soi
UnculƟvated s
200
AFNOR Norme
150
Normal soil
100
50
0
Cu Cr Ni Mn Zn Pb As

plant (Thornton 1996). It reflects, along with clays and silts,
the mother rock’s calcareous nature. The studied soils’ tex-
ture varies from cultivated to uncultivated soils, highlighting
that the cultivated land proves to concentrate more clay and
sand than the uncultivated land. Regarding C/N fertility, the
cultivated soils are discovered to be more fertile than the
uncultivated ones.
Heavy metal content in the sampled soil: analysis of the
one-factor variance of heavy metal pertaining results proves
to reveal well that the As, Pb and Zn concentrations in cul-
tivated soils turn out to be significantly higher than the
uncultivated soils relating ones (Fig. 3). Arsenic is carcino-
genic (Chen et al. 1992) and the uniquely significant polluting
component is discovered to be the Zinc. Mn proves to have
the same concentration as Zn with respect to both soil types.
4 Conclusion
The present work puts forward an assessment of the
physicochemical quality of agricultural soils prtaining to
the Constantine region. The result analyses have led to
the following conclusions:
Regarding the pH, the results proved to reveal that the
soils are alkaline based, ranging from 8.38 to 8.39. This
alkalinity is generally related either to the parent rock’s
nature or to the soils’ enrichment by shells.
Concerning the Organic Matter, the results appeared to
indicate a significant variation in these contents.
The study areas pertaining to the constantine farms
seemed to reveal heavy metal concentrations exceeding
the thresholds recommended by the AFNOR standard (N
F U 44-041), more particularly regarding Cr, Zn, Ni and
Pb at all levels of the agricultural areas. Noteworthy, also,
is that lead has been proved to be responsible for several
harmful effects on human health (brain, reproductive and
metabolic disorders, etc.).
References
Baize D. Guide to analyzes in soil science. Paris: INRA; 2000. p. 257.
Brallier S, Harrison RB, Henry CL, Dongsen X. Liming effects on
availability of Cd, Cu, Ni and Zn in a soil amended with sewage
sludge 16 years previously. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution.
1996;86:195–206.
Chassin P, Baize D, Cambier P, Sterckeman T. Metallic trace elements
and soil quality. Medium and long term impact. Study Manag Soils.
1996;3:297–306.
Chen KP, Wu HY, Wu TC. 1962. Epidemiologic studies on black food
disease ares.
Cottenie A. Trace elements and ecochemistry. Agricontact. 1983;2
(137):1–4.
Delcarte E. Contribution to the analytical characterization of metallic
contaminants in terrestrial ecosystems. Doctoral thesis in agronomic
sciences. Gembloux: FUSAGx; 1988. 277p.
474
Donard OFX, Caruso JA. Trace metal and metalloid species determi-
nation: evolution and trends. Spectrochim Acta, Part B.
1998;53:157–63.
Ernst WHO. Bioavailability of heavy metals and decontamination of
soils by plants. Appl Geochem. 1996;11:163–7.
Laville-Timsit L, Lecomte P. Metal contamination in soils: distin-
guishing between natural and anthropogenic origins. Undermine
Met Environ Int Conf. 1992;207–220.
Marcoen JM, Engels P, Naud J. Recent possibilities of Fluorescence X
Spectrometry in the field of environment. Bull Rech Agron
Gembloux. 1992;27:133–46.
S. Naili et al.
Martin H. Geochemical prospecting and environmental protection.
Pedology. 1977;27(1):92–103.
MENU. 2004. Guide sur la valorisation des matières fertilisation
residuelles. Criterès de rèfèrence et nounes reglementaires. Minis-
terè de l'environment, Quebec. p. 127.
Thornton, I. Impacts of mining on the environment: regional and global
issue. Applied Geochemistry. 1996; 17:355–361.
Tremel-Shaub, A. et I. Teix. Contamination des sols. Trausferts des sols
vers ls ploutes. Paris: EDP Scienves/ADEME. 2005. p. 413.
Walker et al. Assessing organization culture: A comparison of methods.
International Journal of Selection and Assessment 1996;4(7):96–105.
 Former Extractive Activities in Tunisia:
Environmental Risk Assessement and Heavy
Metals Immobilization

Jihène Nouairi, Walid Hajjaji, Joao A. Labrincha, Fernando Rocha,

Carla Patinha, Eduardo Ferreira da Silva, and Mounir Medhioub

Keywords
Environmental risk assessement Cement Metallic immobilization Mines wastes

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Mining has a very economic importance worldwide and
remains an essential part of the economy in different coun-
tries (Nansai et al. 2015; Galas and Galas 2016). However,
the exploitation of mineral resources, like an important
number of human activities, involves many risks for the
environment. In Tunisia, mining history dates back to over
two thousand years and had its expansion around 1880 when
the large-scale Pb-Zn mining operations began (Sainfeld
1952). After two centuries of mining, the Tunisian North
was deeply and permanently disrupted. Knowing that with
the used extraction means it was not possible to recover all
of the metal, these potentially toxic elements (PTE) rich
dumps are likely to pollute large areas around the old dis-
tricts starting with the topsoil and vegetation. The two main
objectives of this study were the assessment of the PTE
distribution in soils and plants from Fej Lahdoum and
Lakhouat and the synthesis of sulfobelite clinkers incorpo-
rating mines tailings.
J. Nouairi (&)
M. Medhioub
Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences of Sfax,
3018 Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: jihen_nairi@yahoo.com
W. Hajjaji
F. Rocha
C. Patinha
E.F. da Silva
Geobiotec, Geosciences Department, University of Aveiro,
3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
J. A. Labrincha
Department of Materials and Ceramic
Engineering/CICECO—Aveiro Institute of Materials,
University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
Fej Lahdoum, old abandoned mine, located 139 km south of
Tunis, was exploited several times from 1992 to 2008 (ONM
extractive industry in Tunisia) and Lakhouat (Siliana district,
located just 120 km south the capital—Tunis), where the
exploitation of the lead and zinc lasted almost a century
since its discovery in 1892 until the exhaustion of reserves in
1992. Soil samples and plants were collected. From each site
The toposequential approach along the lines of gentle slopes
was used to highlight the influence of fluid action in soil
contamination by mine waste. Chemical analysis involving
the determination of PTE concentrations was carried out by
x-ray fluorescence (XRF) using an Axios Wavelength Dis-
persive XRF spectrometer.
Derived cements were obtained by adding 5 wt% of
gypsum to the clinker. Mortars were produced by combining
the obtained cements with commercial sand and prepared
through dry mixing of raw materials in a bag for 1 min,
followed by mixing with water during 1 min. The binder/
aggregate and water/binder ratio (in weight) were 1:2 and 0.5,
respectively. After demoulding, mortars were cured in a
climate chamber (66% relative humidity and 22 °C) up to 7,
14 and 21 days Fig. 1.
3 Results and Discussion
For Fej Lahdoum soils, contamination indexes have been
calculated only for Pb, Zn, Ba and Sr, the most abundant
PTE in wastes and soils. Taking into consideration the val-
ues of the local geochemical background, the Enrichement
Factor (EF) for Pb and Zn are very high. In fact, the
enrichment of soils in Zn is moderate to extreme (3 < EF

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 475

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_146
476
Fig. 1 Map showing study sites
location
Algeria
Zn < 190) while it is extreme for Pb (144 < EF Pb < 1218).
For Ba, enrichment in soils is absent to very strong e
(0.5 < EF Ba < 26), and concerning Sr, enrichment is also
absent to high (0.5 < EF Sr < 15). Regarding Wheat, sta-
tistical results showed that translocation factor (TF) values
are lower than 1 for Pb, Cr and Cu, indicating a low transfer
of these elements into the aerial parts of wheat plant, while
for Zn the value exceeds 1, indicating a transfer and accu-
mulation of zinc from the roots to the seeds. Similar results
are observed on the soils and plants of Lakhouat district.
The mines wastes were mixed with commercial raw
materials (calcite and alumina) in proportions adjusted to
generate the desired phases on the clinkers. The mixtures
were milled for 1 h in a dry mixer and then calcined in an
electric furnace (Termolab). The preliminary results show
the formation of main phase dicalcium silicate and ye’elimite
for all cements as determined by X-ray diffraction and SEM
micrographes (Fig. 2).
J. Nouairi et al.
Mediterranean sea
Mediterranean sea
North-South axis
Location of mines sites
The optimum compressive strength value of the mortars
(24.34 MPa) are obtained for clinkers with higher amounts
of C4A3$ and lower firing temperature (1340 °C). Pb and Zn
levels in the obtained concrete decreased to 75 and 80% due
to the presence of Ettringite observed by Scanning electron
microscope (SEM).
All cements showed a rapid reaction period. In general
and especially in case of sulfobelitic cements, a rapid evo-
lution of the temperature in the first moments of the process
was observed, due to the reaction of water with gypsum and
also to the hydration of aluminates (Senff et al.,).
Metal concentrations in mortars were very low. Therefore
they present no environmental danger or threat to human
health, especially that they are incorporated into the cement
matrix and thus not risk of leaching or transportation was
provided. Moreover, concentrations of leached contaminants
decreased in clinkers and mortars by 75 to 85%. This shows
that this application helped in the immobilization of PTE.
Former Extractive Activities in Tunisia: Environmental …
Fig. 2 SEM micrographs of the obtained cements
4 Conclusions
Mining wastes are suspected of being the primary source
of environmental contamination in the former mining
districts. Compared to the geochemical background of the
region and standard allowed in soil environments, these
values exceed the normal concentrations. The results
proved that the mining wastes reuse in sulfobelitic
clinkers was feasible. The obtained clinkers generated
cements with distinct but tailored properties and con-
centrations of leached contaminants decreased in clinkers
and mortars by 75–85%. This shows that this application
helped in the Zn, Pb and Cu immobilization.
477
References
Galas S, Galas A. The qualification process of mining projects in
environmental impact assessment: criteria and thresholds. Resour
Policy. Sep 2016;49:204–212.
Nansai K et al. Global mining risk footprint of critical metals necessary
for low-carbon technologies: the case of neodymium, cobalt, and
platinum in Japan. Environ Sci Technol. 2015 Feb 05;49(4):2022–
2031.
Sainfeld P. The lead-zinc deposits of Tunisia. Annals of Mines and
Geology No. 9. S.E.F.A.N.Tunis, 252.
Senff L, Castela A, Hajjaji W, Hotza D, Labrincha JA. Labrincha.
Formulations of sulfobelite cement through design of experiments.
Constr Build Mater. 2011;25.
 Urban Sediment Contamination with Heavy
Metals in Southern China

Jinmeng Xia, Lihui Chen, Feng Zhen, and Yubao Li

Keywords
Urban sediments Heavy metals South China

1 Introduction (RAC) (Jain 2004) were employed to evaluate ecological

With the rapid economic development for the last 4 decades,
wetland sediments in most cities in China have been polluted
at different levels by heavy metals (Zhu et al. 2013; Bai et al.
2011). Sediments are important storage sites of heavy metals
and a potential source of pollution. The Chinese tradition
that sediments are dug from human impacted rivers and then
used as fertilizers for farming can be traced back to thou-
sands of years ago. Metals and metalloids accumulated in
sediments pose environmental problems concerning metals
being transferred from solid phases to the aquatic medium
and thereby included in the food chain. (Keivan Nemati et al.
2011).
2 Materials and Methods
We analyzed 31 sediment samples collected from 2 repre-
sentative rivers (21 samples from RA and 10 for RB) in the
urban area of Wenzhou, a prefecture city in southeastern
China to determine total contents of heavy metals (As, Hg,
Cr, Pb, Cu, Cd, and Zn) and their chemical forms using
sequential extraction (Ghaedi et al. 2007). Ecological Risk
Index (RI) (Hakason 1980) and Risk Assessment Code
J. Xia
Y. Li (&)
College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Wenzhou
University, Wenzhou, China
e-mail: yubao@wzu.edu.cn
L. Chen
Zhejiang Zhonglan Environmental Tech Co., Ltd,
Wenzhou, China
F. Zhen
Lu Qiao Sewage Treatment Co. Ltd, Taizhou, China
and environmental risks of the rivers impacted by heavy
metals. Second phase ratio (the sum of exchangeable, oxi-
dible, reducible fractions, labeled F1, F2 and F3) to primary
phase (residual fraction, F4) (RSP) was adopted to describe
metal speciation in sediment (Nemati et al. 2011; Wang
Chongchen et al. 2011). We also consulted the published
literature in Chinese on toxic metals in wetlands impacted by
big cities in south China, giving a big picture of heavy metal
pollution in urban sediments.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Heavy Metals and Urban Sediments Risks
in Wenzhou
3.1.1 Total Contents and RI
The mean values of total contents of heavy metals (mg g−1)
in the RA was in the order of Zn (810.46, ± 292.94) > Pb
(228.73, ± 57.67) > Cr (129.14, ± 48.14) > Cu (102.66,
± 46.71) > Cd (101.56, ± 18.07) and RB was Zn
(1193.45, ± 403.12) > Cu (332.40, ± 180.34) > Cr (300.80,
± 83.93) > Pb (97.25, ± 21.06) > Cd (9.64, ± 2.66). And
the values of RI in RA and RB were (18208.53, ± 3235.69)
and (268.77, ± 325.41), respectively. The contamination of
heavy metals to the sediments of RA (High risk) was more
serious than that in the RB (Considerable Risk).
3.1.2 RSP and RAC
Total metal content in polluted environmental samples is a
poor indicator of bioavailability, mobility or toxicity and all
of these depend on the different chemical forms of binding

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 479

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_147
480 J. Xia et al.

Table 1 Potential ecological risk index (RI) of 35 urban wetlands in 15 big citiesa, South China
Wetlands Low risk Moderate risk Considerable risk High risk Total
Number of rivers assessed 3 1 9 6 19
Number of lakes assessed 11 5 0 0 16
a
Fifteen cities 2 Province level (Chongqing’ Shanghai); 6 Provincial capitals (Changsha, Hangzhou, Hefei, Nanchang, Nanjing, Wuhan); and 7
Prefecture cities (Dongguan, Hengyang, Hengshui, Ningbo, Shenzhen, Suzhou, Wenzhou)

between trace metals and solid phases of the samples. 4 Conclusion

The order of RSP in RA was Zn (7.65, ± 4.45) > Cd
(2.93, ± 0.84) > Cu (2.00, ± 0.83) > Pb (1.46, ± 0.47)
> Cr (1.11, ± 0.46), while the order of that in RB was Cd
(3.64, ± 1.41) > Pb (0.63, ± 0.13) > Cu (0.60, ± 0.20)
> Zn (0.37, ± 0.10) > Cr (0.30, ± 0.06). According to
RAC, RA was assessed Zn, Cu, and Cr at low risk, Pb at
medium risk and Cd at high risk, while RB was assessed Cu
and Cr at low risk and Zn, Pb, and Cd at Medium risk.
3.1.3 Heavy Metal Risks of Urban Sediments
in South China
Thirty five urban wetlands in 15 big cities in southern China
were contaminated by heavy metals according to RI assess-
ments (Table 1). Urban rivers were closer to industrial and
residential facilities than lakes, consequently they were more
impacted. Nineteen rivers were assessed; 6 were at High
Risk, 9 at Considerable risk, 1 at Moderate risk and 3 at Low
Appendix
Risk, while lakes were 11 at Low and 5 at Moderate Risk.
Two representative rivers (RA and RB) in the urban area
of Wenzhou City were found contaminated by heavy
metals. RA and RB were assessed High Risk and Con-
siderable Risk respectively by RI. RSP and RAC indi-
cated the contamination of urban sediments in Wenzhou
with high risk of Cd in the RB and low and medium risk
of other metals in both RA and RB, respectively.
Thirty five urban wetlands in 15 big cities in southern
China were assessed 15 at High and Considerable and 20
at Moderate and Low risk. Urban sediments can no more
be used as fertilizers or soil amendments applied to
croplands and any other soils.

Heavy metal contents (mg g−1) and potential ecological risk index (RI) of 35 urban wetlands in 15 big cities, South China
Literature cited City Wetland As Hg Pb Cu Cr Cd Zn RI
Zhang et al. (2013) Hangzhou Jiangcun river – – 31.0 53.3 – 2.7 212.7 Considerable risk
Zhang et al. (2013) Hangzhou Yuhangtang river – – 25.2 51.8 – 2.5 239.6 Considerable risk
Zhang et al. (2013) Hangzhou Grand canal – – 37.7 35.6 – 2.4 287.5 Considerable risk
Zhang et al. (2013) Hangzhou Xinkai river – – 22.9 131.6 – 2.1 311.9 Considerable risk
Zhang et al. (2013) Hangzhou Shangtang river – – 26.9 61.8 – 2.2 365.0 Considerable risk
Shao et al. (2007) Hangzhou Xixi wetland(lake) 6.3 0.2 39.2 36.8 64.9 0.23 91.5 Low risk
Pan et al. (2014) Hangzhou Hemu wetland(lake) – – 41.6 85.6 86.6 – 383.0 Low risk
Tang et al. (2014) Ningbo Huilong river – – 21.2 53.3 43.9 0.2 762.8 Low risk
Ma et al. (2011) Nanjing Yueya lake – – 54.3 65.3 63.2 4.1 439.2 Moderate risk
Ma et al. (2011) Nanjing Zixia lake – – 20.9 37.5 13.5 2.5 77.7 Moderate risk
Ma et al. (2011) Nanjing Pipa lake – – 21.0 13.2 18.7 1.2 62.0 Low risk
Ma et al. (2011) Nanjing Qian lake – – 45.5 33.1 22.1 2.5 153.5 Moderate risk
This study Wenzhou Sanyang river (RA) – – 216.3 92.8 123.0 106 871.0 High risk
This study Wenzhou Weisipu river (RB) 97.3 332.4 300.8 9.6 1193.5 Considerable risk
Zhou et al. (2008) Shanghai Suzhou river – – 39.2 234.4 44.2 2.0 512.7 Considerable risk
Dai et al. (2010) Shenzheng Shenzheng river 15.7 0.47 80.7 124.3 93.7 0.71 528.7 Considerable risk
Dai et al. (2010) Shenzheng Buji river 10.5 0.41 63.2 204.0 218.1 1.26 742.4 High risk
Dai et al. (2010) Shenzheng Longgang river 18.6 0.44 115.2 2243 2157 3.25 2756 High risk
(continued)
Urban Sediment Contamination with Heavy … 481

Literature cited City Wetland As Hg Pb Cu Cr Cd Zn RI

Dai et al. (2010) Shenzheng Maozhou river 11.2 0.20 42.7 145.0 117.0 0.33 289.0 Moderate risk
Qiu et al. (2016) Hengyang Xiangjiang river 103.0 0.34 273.0 141.0 57.2 39.5 905.6 High risk
Zhao et al. (2012) Nanjing Xuanwu lake – – 41.5 35.5 68.9 0.5 145.4 Moderate risk
He et al. (2009) Chongqing Qingshui stream – – 40.4 171.4 316.6 0.85 1023 Considerable risk
Zhang et al. (2012) Hefei Nanfei river – – 22.6 41.2 55.2 0.34 129.4 Low risk
Zhang et al. (2007) Hengshui Hengshuihu lake 18.6 0.1 20.4 26.1 54.9 0.02 61.9 Low risk
Gong et al. (2006) Nanchang Poyang lake (east) – – 84.0 43.5 – 1.6 177.0 Low risk
Li et al. (2016) Fuzhou Mingjiang river – – 79.1 42.3 66.6 0.9 195.6 High risk
Qiao et al. (2005) Wuhan Moshui lake 30.3 0.18 69.5 76.1 189.0 0.61 650.0 Low risk
Qiao et al. (2005) Wuhan Jinyin lake 16.6 0.18 40.7 80.9 178.0 0.61 195.0 Low risk
Qiao et al. (2005) Wuhan Liangzi lake 25.5 0.1 50.1 44.4 121.0 0.58 120.0 Low risk
Qiao et al. (2005) Wuhan Lu lake 15.1 0.1 44.0 44.6 116.0 0.46 127.0 Low risk
Qiao et al. (2005) Wuhan Tangxun lake 24.6 0.12 39.3 49.6 113.0 0.56 138.0 Low risk
Li et al. (2016) Wuhan East lake – – 51.8 35.9 85.7 0.3 166.8 Low risk
Wang et al. (2011) Dongguan Danshui river – 0.43 118.5 289.5 301.5 – 993.5 High risk
Wang et al. (2011) Dongguan Xizhi river – 0.08 53.4 14.0 32.5 – 114.4 Low risk
Wang et al. (2011) Dongguan Dongjiang river – 0.18 104.9 179.0 99.0 – 289.0 Considerable risk
Wei et al. (2010) Suzhou Suzhou urban river – – 74.7 75.6 115.2 – 283.7 Low risk

References
Bai J, Cui B, Zhang K, Deng W, Gao H, Xiao R. Spatial distribution
and ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in surface sediments
from a typical plateau lake wetland. China Ecol Model.
2011;222:301–6.
Ghaedi M, Ahmadi F, Soylak M. Preconcentration and speciation of
nickel, copper and cobalt using solid phase extraction and their
determination in some real samples. J Hazard Mater. 2007;147:
226–31.
Hakanson L. An ecological risk index for aquatic pollution control.
A sedimentological approach. Water Res. 1980;14:975–1001.
Jain CK. Metal fractionation study on bed sediments of River Yamuna.
India Water Res. 2004;38:569–78.
Nemati K, Bakar NKA, Abas MR, Sobhanzadeh E. Speciation of heavy
metals by modified BCR sequential extraction procedure in different
depths of sediments from Sungai Buloh, Selangor. Malays J Hazard
Mater. 2011;192:402–10.
Wang CC, Liu Y, Wang P, Wang CZ. Characteristics of sediments
polluted by heavy metals in a reach of Tonghui River. Environ Sci
Technol. 2011;34(7):186–90 (In Chinese).
Zhu X, Ji H, Chen Y, Qiao M, Tang L. Assessment and sources of
heavy metals in surface sediments of Miyun Reservoir. Beijing Env
Monit Assess. 2013;185:6049–62.
 Life Cycle Assessment of Sulfuric Acid
Production System in Tunisia
Marwa Mami, Mohamed-Razak Jeday, and Noureddine Hajjaji
Keywords
Sulfuric acid production system
1 Introduction
Sulfuric acid is an important liquid for chemical industries. It
is used in making fertilizers, manufacturing a myriad of
chemicals and materials, refining petroleum, etc. The
worldwide consumption of sulfuric acid is about 220 mega
tons per year. The share of Tunisia is about 4 million tons
per year (Buckingham et al. 2010) among which 3 million
tons are produced by Tunisian chemical group located in
Gabes (www.gct.com.tn). This production has adverse
effects on the environment, humans and the ecosystem.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology is the most
widely used to study the environmental impacts throughout
the life of the study system from the extraction of the raw
materials to the end of life (from cradle to grave). LCA is an
ISO methodology (14040–14044) and determines the envi-
ronmental performance of a product, a process or a service
(ISO 14040).
M. Mami (&)
M. -R. Jeday
Energy and Environment Research Unit, National School of
Engineers of Gabes, Avenue Omar Ibn al Khattab- Zrig, 6029
Gabes, Tunisia
e-mail: mami_marwa@live.com
M. -R. Jeday
e-mail: raz.jday@yahoo.fr
N. Hajjaji
Research Unit for Catalysis and Materials for the Environment and
Processes, Faculty of Sciences of Gabes University Campus, 6072
Gabès, Tunisia
e-mail: hajjaji.nour@gmail.com
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_148



Life cycle assessment Environmental impacts
2 Materials and Methods
To provide the impacts related to the production of sulfuric
acid, we developed an inventory that was developed for the
Tunisian Chemical Group (Gabes). The main goal of the
investigation was the determination of the environmental
impacts of sulfuric acid production system. The functional
unit opted is 1 ton of sulfuric acid.
The boundries of system are presented in the following
figure (Fig. 1):
The foreground data for LCA were provided from the
Tunisian Chemical Group and the background data were
obtained for Ecoinvent 3 database.
The software used to detect the environmental impacts is
SimaPro® 8.3 with the ILCD 2011 midpoint + V1.09 impact
assessment method. Sixteen impacts were detected: climate
change, Ozone Depletion, Water Resource Depletion and
mineral, fossil and renewable resouce depletion, Acidifica-
tion, Terrestrial Eutrophication, Freshwater Eutrophication,
Marine Eutrophication, Photochimical Ozone formation,
Human Toxicity, cancer effects, non cancer effects, Partic-
ulate Matter, Ionizing Radiation Human Health, Ionizing
Radiation Ecosystem, Freshwater Eco Toxicity, and Land
Use (PRé Consultants 2016).
3 Results and Discussion
The characterization of the environmental impacts of the
sulfuric acid production system is presented in the next
figure (Fig. 2):
In the discussion only climate change, acidification,
ozone depletion and terretrial eutrophication were detailed.
483
484 M. Mami et al.

Fig. 1 Boundaries of the sulfuric acid production system

Fig. 2 Characterization of the environmental impacts of the sulfuric acid production system
Life Cycle Assessment of Sulfuric Acid …
Fig. 3 Characterization of the environmental impacts of different sulfuric acid systems
We did not discuss the water resource depletion because the
water used is sea water which is an infinite resource.
The results show that the “sulfur treatment” sub-system is
the main source of climate change, ozone depletion impact
with a contribution of approximately 76.6%, 99.5% and
respectively.
The contributions of the “Process for the producing sul-
furic acid” to the acidification impact is 63.2%; this is
explained by the emission of sulfur dioxide in air.
About 46.2% of terrestrial eutrophication impact is
attributed to the transport subsystem. This can be explained
by the consequence of combustion of fossil fuels and dis-
tance traveled.
The subsystem “sulfur treatment” is the greatest con-
tributor of the Tunisian sulfuric acid impact. This is attrib-
uted to the emissions of sulfur production mode (petroleum
desulfurization) which needs high energy consumption.
In the following, a graph (Fig. 3) that compared the
Tunisian sulfuric acid and other acids is presented; The data
were taken from the ecoinvent V3.3 database.
485
So the Tunisian sulfuric acid is dominant in some impacts
and has less impacts in others.
4 Conclusion
The investigation constitutes a modest contribution to the
development of the Tunisian LCA database. The results
could be used for the LCA of various mineral fertilizers
(DAP) production and thereafter for agricultural products
investigations.
References
Buckingham, et al. 1900–2010 sulfur statistics. Washington, DC:
United States Geological Survey; 2010.
ISO 14040 Environemental Management, ‘Life Cycle Assessment—
Principle and Frame Work’, International Organization of standards
National Standard Authority of Ireland, (Ireland, 2006).
PRé Consultants, What’s New in SimaPro 8.3, 2016.
www.gct.com.tn.
 Eco (Geno) Toxic Assessment of Urban
Sewage Sludge from Sfax Wastewater
Treatment Plant

Bouthaina Jerbi, Dalel Belhaj, Houda Ayadi, Donyez Frikha,

Sami Maalej, Habib Ayadi, and Monem Kallel

Keywords
Ecotoxicity Genotoxicity Sewage sludge Leachate

1 Introduction COD, total N, total P, TSS, heavy metals, OM and BOD

The use of sewage sludge, generated during wastewater
treatment, as an organic fertilizer has attracted more attention
in view of soil amendment and nutrient supplying (Antolin
et al. 2005) and at the same time to reduce the use of
chemical fertilizers (Passuello et al. 2010). However, SS can
be a source of contamination of several toxic agents.
Therefore, its use in agriculture requires some attention to
avoid possible damage to the environment and exposed
organisms.
were measured in leachates of S1, S2 and S3.
For the evaluation of the sludge leachate toxicity, Artemia
salina and Fabrea salina were chosen as test organism
(Svensson 2005).
S. Lycopersicum L. and V. faba were used for phyto-
toxicity tests (Bedoui et al. 2015).
The genotoxic potential of sludge leachates was tested
with Vicia Faba (Chiochetta et al. 2015) and SOS chro-
motest using Escherichia Coli PQ37 (Quillardet and Hof-
nung. 1985).

2 Materials and Methods 3 Results and Discussion

The urban sludge samples were collected from different 3.1 Characterization of Leachate Samples
treatment processes in Sfax Sewage Treatment Plant: S1
(Sludge I), S2 (Sludge II) and S3 (Dehydrated sludge). pH, The physicochemical properties of the three types of lea-
chates were presented in Table 1. He decrease of leachates
pH after treatment could be attributed to the decomposition
B. Jerbi (&)
D. Belhaj
M. Kallel of organic fractions of wastewater, mainly by microbes in
GEET, ENIS, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: bouthainajerbi@gmail.com
water, producing some acidic species of mineralized organic
materials (Belhaj et al. 2014).
D. Belhaj
e-mail: dalel_belhaj@yahoo.fr
The same trend was shown for conductivity and DOC.
The SUVA index is considered in the literature as an indi-
M. Kallel
e-mail: monemkallel@gmail.com
cator of the aromaticity of DOM. The SUVA index value
decreased in the treated leachates.
D. Belhaj
H. Ayadi
D. Frikha
S. Maalej
H. Ayadi
BEA, FSS, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: houda.ayadi@gmail.com
D. Frikha
3.2 Ecotoxicity Test with Algae
e-mail: fdonyez@yahoo.com
A.Salina revealed a very high sensitivity when exposed to
S. Maalej
e-mail: sami.maalej@fss.rnu.tn S3. A.Salina exposed to over than 12.5% of S3 exhibited
100% mortality. This high toxicity decreased when algae
H. Ayadi
e-mail: habibayadi62@yahoo.fr

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 487

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_149
488 B. Jerbi et al.

Table 1 Physico-chemical Parameters S1 S2 S3

characteristics of leachates
pH (1:5 (w/v)) 8.19 ± 0.01 7.21 ± 0.01 7.39 ± 0.01
EC 1:5 (mS cm−1) 4.67 ± 0.01 5.80 ± 0.01 9.57 ± 0.01
SUVA index (L cm g−1 C) 3.13 ± 0.9 2.25 ± 1.2 2.36 ± 1.5
Percentage of aromaticity 24 ± 0.6 18.2 ± 0.33 19 ± 0.23
DCO (mg C L−1) 12.79 ± 0.21 22.23 ± 1.5 43.4 ± 0.49
Abs 254 nm 0.4 ± 0.04 0.5 ± 0.003 1.024 ± 0.09

Fig. 1 Eco (geno) toxicological (S1) (S2) (3S) (S1) (S2) (S3)

F. salina Inhibition Rates (%)

A. salina Inhibition rates (%)
test 120 120
(a) (b)
100 100

80 80

60 60
40
40
20
20
0
0
3.12 6.75 12.5 25 50 100 3.12 6.75 12.5 25 50 100

(S1) (S2) (3S) (S1) (S2) (3S)

100

IG (%) of S. lycopersicum
(c) 100 (d)
80
IG (%) of V. faba

80
60
60
40
40
20 20

0 0

3.12 6.75 12.5 25 50 100 3.12 6.75 12.5 25 50 100

Control S1 S2 S3
1000
(e)
ng DNA mg-1 protein

800

600

400

200

0
F. salina A. salina V. faba S. lycopersicum

were exposed to S2 with an EC50 of 12.5% and a growth 3.3 Phytotoxicity Test
inhibition percentage of 90% at the highest testable dose
(100%). Toxicity further decreased when the algae were The phytotoxicity test showed that the Inhibition germina-
exposed to S1 with an EC50 of 50% and a growth inhi- tion index tended to increase with the sludge treatment in the
bition percentage of 70% at the highest testable dose case of Vicia Faba and tomato. Tomato seems to be more
(100%). F. salina revealed the highest toxicity with EC50 sensitive to the toxicity induced by S3 (99.6%) compared to
of 3.125%. that of Vicia Faba.
Eco (Geno) Toxic Assessment of Urban …
3.4 Genotoxicity Test
The same toxicity trend noticed in the ecotoxicity and
phytotoxicity tests was observed in the genotoxicity test
performed with V.faba. The dehydrated sludge leachate was
more genotoxic than primary and secondary sludge. This
indicates that the wastewater treatment plant suffers from a
certain lack in its operation. However, SOS Chromotest
results clearly indicated that the dehydrated sludge leachate
present genotoxic effects. In the present study, significant
genotox activity was defined as having an induction factor
equal or greater than 1 (Fig. 1).
4 Conclusion
The application of biological assays with different species
could be valuable for wastewater treatment plant assess-
ment. Specifically, 96 and 72 h IC50 values in F. salina
and A. salina, respectively, 72 h GI values in S. Lycop-
ersicum L.; V. faba and sos chromotest commonly linked
with species sensitivity could allow a holistic assessment
of dehydrated sludge toxic potency, as well as the exis-
tence of antagonistic effects among chemicals with which
species come into contact. Likewise, the high persistence
of metals such as Cr and fatty acids could mediate the
obtained toxicity in both terrestrial and aquatic species,
thus revealing the need for improving WWTP process.
This study can provide practical information to medical
and water managers and health authorities in the
489
assessment of water quality strategies for the reduction of
genotoxic effects in the urban wastewater before and after
treatment.
References
Antolin MC, Pascual I, Garcia C, Polo A, Sanchez-Diaz M. Growth,
yield and solute content of barley in soils treated with sewage
sludge under semiarid Mediterranean conditions. Field Crops Res
2005;94(2–3):224-237.
Bedoui A, Tigini V, Ghedira K, Varese G-C, Chekir-Ghedira L.
Evaluation of an evetual ecotoxicity induced by textile effluents
using a battery of biotests. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2015.
Belhaj D, Jaabiri I, Turki N, Azri C, Kallel M, Ayadi H. Descriptive
and multivariable analysis of the water parameters quality of Sfax
sewage treatment plant after rehabilitation. IOSR J Comput Eng.
(IOSR-JCE) e-ISSN: 2278-0661, p- ISSN: 2278-8727. 2014;16
(1):81–91. Ver. VII.
Chiochetta C-G, Cotelle S, Masfaraud J-F, Toumi H, Quaranta G,
Adani F, Radetski C-M. Use of ago-industrial organic sludge
amendment to remediate degraded soil: chemical and eco(geno)-
toxicolgical differences between fresh and stabilized sludge and
establishment of application rates. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2015.
Passuello A, Mari M, Nadal M, Schuhmacher M, Domingo J-L. POP
accumulation in the food chain: Integrated risk model for sewage
sludge application in agricultural soils. 2010;36(6):577–583.
Quillardet P, Hofnung M. The SOS Chromotest, a colorimetric
bacterial assay for genotoxins: procedures. Mutat Res. 1985;147:
65–78.
Svensson B-M, Mathiasson L, Martensson L, Bergstrom S. Artemia
salina as test organism for assessment of acute toxicity of leachate
water from landfills. 2005.
 Cellular Compartmentalization and Chemical
Forms of Cell Accumulation of Nickel
in the Halophyte of Sesuvium Portulacastrum

Emna Fourati, Katarina Vogel-Mikuš, Mitija Kelemen, Primož Vavpetič,

Primož Pelicon, Chedly Abdelly, and Tahar Ghnaya

Keywords
S. portulacastrum Nickel Tolerance Accumulation Chemical forms
Compartmentalization

1 Introduction “phytoremediation” appeared as a promising biological

Soil contamination by toxic metals is a major environmental
problem. These pollutants, contained in anthropogenic
wastes, cannot be biodegraded and accumulate in soils and
transported to human through the consumption of contami-
nated aliments or smoking. Several recent researchers
showed that these elements are able to generate many dis-
eases as cancer and renal or kidney dysfunctions. So the
extraction of these pollutants from soils is considered as the
only solution to limit their risks. Physicochemical tech-
nologies of remediation are very expensive and soil
destructive. Recently, the use of plants for metal extraction
E. Fourati
Université de Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: emna.fourati89@gmail.com
E. Fourati
C. Abdelly
T. Ghnaya (&)
Laboratoire des Plantes Extrèmophiles, Centre de Biotechnologie
de Borj Cedria (LR15CBBC02), BP 901 2050, Hammam-Lif,
Tunisia
e-mail: tahar.ghnaya@gmail.com
C. Abdelly
e-mail: abdelly.chedly@gmail.com
E. Fourati
K. Vogel-Mikuš
Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of
Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva, 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
e-mail: Katarina.VogelMikus@bf.uni-lj.si
K. Vogel-Mikuš
M. Kelemen
P. Vavpetič
P. Pelicon
Jozef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, Ljubljana, Slovenia
e-mail: mitja.kelemen@ijs.si
P. Vavpetič
e-mail: primoz.vavpetic@ijs.si
P. Pelicon
e-mail: primoz.pelicon@ijs.si
approach more efficient than the traditional techniques. In
this context, it has been demonstrated that halophytes are
more suitable for metals extraction than glycophytes species.
To tolerate these elements, these plants adopt many strate-
gies avoiding the interaction of these elements with their
vital metabolic processes. The major tolerance mechanisms
are (i) the sequestration of metals in less metabolically active
compartment of the cell as cell-wall and vacuole (ii) the
chelation of metal to organic or inorganic compounds and
decrease of the concentration of free ions in the cytoplasm.
Hence, it is known that the reactivity of the metals and their
ability to induce phytotoxicity derives essentially from their
strong affinity to the thiol (S-H) groups of the proteins thus
affecting the activity of several enzymes.
In this work we aimed to determinate the response of the
halophyte Sesuvium portulacastrum to Ni and focused
essentially on Ni cell accumulation using a sophisticated
histochemical method (µ-PIXE). We also determined the
chemical (mineral and organic) forms of accumulation inside
this halophyte shoots.
2 Materials and Methods
Seedlings of Sesuvium portulacastrum L. were subjected to
Ni at different concentrations (0, 25, 50 and 100 µM) during
1 month. At harvest, we analysed the impact of Ni on plant
growth parameter and other biochemical and histochemical
analyses. Different chemical Ni accumulation forms in the
cell were determined according to Wali et al. (2015) using
different extraction solutions and different centrifugation

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 491

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_150
492 E. Fourati et al.

gradients. The Ni accumulation visualisation at cell level
was determined by Micro-PIXE method (proton-induced
X-ray emission) according to Vogel et al. (2009). Total Ni
shoot accumulation was measured using AAs method.
3 Results and Discussion
The results related to the growth revealed that Ni induced a
slight reduction in biomass production in S. portulacastrum
subjected at 100 µM Ni (Fig. 1a). This suggests that this
halophyte could be qualified as Ni-tolerant species con-
firming our previous publication (Fourati et al. 2016). We
also observed an increase in internal shoot Ni content with
increasing external Ni dose reaching up to 1000 µg g−1 DW
at 100 µM Ni (Fig. 1b). This Ni accumulation potential in
the shoots is considered as the most important parameter to
evaluate the potential of phytoextraction in plants (Amari
et al. 2014, Fourati et al. 2016). For the Ni concentration
localisation in different plant tissue compartments we used
ImageJ and µ-PIXE analysis (Table 1a). Data showed that
Ni was approximately distributed in all the compartments of
the plant tissues. The highest Ni concentration in S. portu-
lacastrum shoots was observed in the mesophyll tissues and
vascular bundles. According to the literature, Vogel-Mikuš
et al. (2009) and Bidwell et al. (2004) demonstrated that the
sequestration of Ni in the mesophyll tissues and Vascular
bundles is a kind of a resistance mechanism to this metal in
plants adopted by Ni accumulator species. Using a sequen-
tial extraction and in different solvents (ethanol 80% (FI),
distilled water (FII), 1 M NaCl (FIII), 2% acetic acid (IVF),
0.6 M hydrochloric acid (FV), free (FVI)), we obtained the
different chemical forms of accumulated Ni (Table 1b). The
speciation of Ni in the tissues showed that the major form of
accumulation of this metal in the shoot of S. portulacastrum
that was extracted by 80% ethanol corresponding Ni
attached to inorganic anions. The percentage of total cell Ni
present in this form was up 56% of the total metal in the
cells. In addition, (FIII) fraction containing Ni fixed to
pectates and protein shows the second amounts of Ni in the
shoots in S. portulacastrum. Ni fixation to the pectates
explains partly the parietal accumulation of Ni privileged in

1. 6 1600
Whole plant DW, g.plant-1

(a) (b)

μg .Ni .g-1 ShootDW

a ab ab a
1.2 1200
b
b
0. 8 bc 800

0.4 400
c c 0
0
0 25 50 100 0 25 50 100
NiCl2 , μM NiCl 2 , μM

Fig. 1 Effect of different NiCl2 external concentrations on the whole month to increasing NiCl2 concentrations in the nutrient solution.
plant biomass (g plant−1) a and Nickel concentrations (µg g−1 DW) Means (n = 4 per treatment ± SE) with at least one same letter are not
b in shoots of Sesuvium portulacastrum. Plants were exposed for 1 significantly different at P  0.05

Table 1 Micro-PIXE localization and concentration of Ni (ImageJ) (µg g−1 DW) within leaf cross-section a and variation of the Ni contents in
the various residues obtained following extractions using different solvents in the shoot b of S.portulacastrum Subjected at 50 µM Ni in vivo
culture; LOD, minimum limit of detection of the measurement; Micro-PIXE, Micro-Proton-Induced X-Ray Emission. WA, whole area; LE, lower
epidermis; PM, palisade mesophyll (i.e. adaxial side); SM, spongy mesophyll (i.e. abaxial side), UE, upper epidermis; VB, vascular bundle
Treatments Maps (µ-Pixe) WA LE SM VB PM UP LOD
114 67 144 131 111 60 14
A

50μM Ni

Contents of Ni (µg g−1 FW)

B
FI FII FIII FIV FV FVI Total
50μM Ni 30.5 9.5 7.8 5.3 1.7 0 55
56% 17% 14% 10% 3% 0% 100%
Cellular Compartmentalization and Chemical …
this plant shown in our previous publication (Fourati et al.
2016). On the other hand, the absence of Ni in the free form
(FVI), which is the most toxic form, explains the capability
of the species to accumulate and tolerate elevated Ni
amounts in their shoots. Thus, we suggest that the Ni
binding to proteins and pectates as well as its localisation in
the mesophyll tissues and vascular bundles are two mecha-
nisms that control the Sesuvium portulacastrum tolerance
to Ni.
4 Conclusion
The results obtained in the study, relying on the plant
growth parameters, Ni accumulation, the distribution and
localisation of Ni and the speciation of this metal, suggest
the S. portulacastrum ability to cope with Ni. Also, this
species accumulates large amounts of Ni in the shoots
without deleterious effects on growth. Micro-PIXE anal-
ysis sowed that Ni is localised essentially in the meso-
phyll cell and Vascular bundles in the shoots of S.
portulacastrum subjected to Ni. At this level Ni is
essentially fixed with inorganic anions and pectates and
pectines. This Ni compartmentalization and these privi-
leged accumulation chemical forms could be responsible
for the tolerance shown in this species to Ni. In fact, we
suggest that the Ni is essentially bound to cell wall and
chelated by inorganic compounds (PO42−, Cl−, NO3−)
avoiding the accumulation to the free ion (Ni2+) which is
toxic for plants. Taken together, all data showed the
493
Sesuvium portulacastrum high potential to tolerate and
accumulate Ni without significant growth reduction and
could be hence, used for this metal phytoextraction from
affected soils.
References
Amari T, Ghnaya T, Debez A, Taamali M, BenYoussef N, Lucchini G,
Sacchi GA, Abdelly C. Comparative Ni tolerance and accumulation
potentials between Mesembryanthemum crystallinum (halophyte)
and Brassica juncea: metal accumulation, nutrient status and
photosynthetic activity. J Plant Physiol. 2014;171(17):1634–1644.
doi: 10.1016/j.jplph.2014.06.020.
Bidwell SD, Crawford SA, Sommer-Knudsen J, Woodrow LE, Mar-
shall AT. Sub-cellular localization of Ni in the hyperaccumulator,
Hybanthus floribundus (Lindley) F.Muell. J Plant Cell Environ.
2004;27:705–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0016-8025.2003.01170.x.
Fourati E, Wali M, Vogel-Mikus K, Abdelly C, Ghnaya T. Nickel
tolerance, accumulation and subcellular distribution in the halo-
phytes Sesuvium portulacastrum and Cakile maritima. J Plant
Physiol Bioch. 2016;108:295–303. doi.org/:10.1016/j.plaphy.2016.
07.024.
Vogel-Mikuš K, Pelicon P, Vavpetič P, Kreft I, Regvar M. Elemental
analysis of edible grains by micro-PIXE: Common buckwheat case
study. J Nucl Instr Meth Phys Res B. 2009;267:2884–2889. doi:10.
1016/j.nimb.2009.06.104.
Wali M, Fourati E, Hmaeid N, Ghabriche R, Poschenrieder C,
Abdelly C, Ghnaya T. NaCl alleviates Cd toxicity by changing its
chemical forms of accumulation in the halophyte Sesuvium
portulacastrum. Environ Sci Pollut R. 2015; https://doi.org/10.
1007/s11356-015-4298-9.
 Study of the Toxicity of Cadmium Selenide
(CdSe) Nanoparticles on a Terrestrial
Ecosystem Model Helix Aspersa

Salmi Aya, Toualbia Nadjiba, and Rouabhi Rachid

Keywords
Toxicity CdSe Helix aspersa Biomarker Oxidative stress Enzymatic

7.2 lg/g/2days, The control animals were injected by the

1 Introduction
distilled water. We sought to evaluate the effects of oxidative
stress in the digestive gland by monitoring the activity of
Manufactured nanomaterials have new physicochemical
certain enzymatic biomarkers: The measurement of glu-
properties which allow their use in a large number of food or
tathione S-transferase activity (GST) is determined accord-
cosmetic products, the development of tools for electronics
ing to the method of Habig et al. (1974). Catalase activity
or the biomedical sciences. The use of metallic nanoparticles
was determined in hepatopancreas according to Regoli and
(NPs) in nanotechnology carries with it a risk of environ-
Principato (1995), the rate of disappearance of H2O2 is
mental contamination which is difficult to evaluate because
monitored by observing the rate of decrease in absorbance at
of the lack of toxicological knowledge on the NPs.
240 nm. We also measured reduced Glutathione; the deter-
More and more studies are being carried in order to better
mination of glutathione is carried out according to the
understand and better master the properties, behavior and risks
method of Weckbeker and Cory (1988). Malondialdehyde
related to nanoparticles. These include evaluating the toxicity
(MDA), considered a bio marker of lipid peroxidation, was
of nanoparticles of varying nature on different models in vivo
also measured, the dosage of the MDA is carried out
or in vitro. Most studies carried in vitro show that most
according to the method of Esterbauer et al. (1992). Thus,
metallic nanoparticles induce an increase in the rate of cellular
the neurotoxicity of CdSe was confirmed through the mea-
mortality, associated mainly with DNA damage, and a pro-
surement of acetylcholine esterase activity (AChE), The
duction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Triboulet 2013).
determination of the AChE activity was carried out accord-
ing to the method of Ellman et al. (1961).
2 Materials and Methods

Snails were injected with increasing concentrations of CdSe

3 Results and Discussion
for 3 months, we retained two (2) doses and a control
medium. The doses that were used were 3.6 lg/g/2days and
Our results show an increase in the activity of antioxidant
enzymes (GST, Catalase, MDA) and a decrease in the level
of GSH in the digestive gland, thus we also demonstrated a
S. Aya (&)
T. Nadjiba
R. Rachid neurotoxic effect of CdSe translated by a decrease in activity
Department of Applied Biology, Larbi Tebessi University, 12000 of acetylcholine esterase (AchE).
Tebessa, Algeria
e-mail: ayasalmi13@yahoo.fr
T. Nadjiba
e-mail: nanatoualbia@yahoo.com
R. Rachid
e-mail: r_rouabhi@yahoo.fr

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 495

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_151
496
Parameters Control
GST (umol/min/mg of protein) 0.0128 ± 0.0024
CAT (umol/min/mg of protein) 11.92 ± 1.4
GSH (umol/mg of protein) 7.22 ± 0.51
MDA (umol/mg of protein) 25.01 ± 0.056
AchE (umol/min/mg of protein) 0.00002612 ± 0.0000024
Exposure of snails to CdSe resulted in a very highly
significant increase in catalase (CAT) activity in hep-
atopancreas, which is dose-dependent on the CdSe concen-
tration. Experiments of exposure to TiO2 NP in the terrestrial
invertebrate Poercellioscaber revealed sublethal effects such
as induction of CAT catalase (Drobne et al. 2009). Our
results are in perfect agreement with those of Buffet et al.
(2011) observed an induction of CAT in the bivalve S. plana
and the annelid H. diversicolor exposed to CuO NP. CAT
has also induced S. plana exposed to AU NP (Pan et al.
2012); Kim et al. (2010) also observed induction of CAT in
D. magna exposed to Tio2 NP.
Our results revealed very high levels of MDA in the
digestive gland in Helix Aspersa treated with cadmium
selenide. These results are in agreement with those of Dutta
et al. (2012), which showed an increase in levels of
malondialdehyde, a byproduct of lipid peroxidation, corre-
lated with ERO production by zinc oxide nanoparticles
placed under illumination.
The decrease in the level of GSH could be explained by a
direct reaction/binding of CdSe with glutathione, in fact the
carboxyl groups of glutathione (amine group, sulfhydryl
group (−GH) as well as two peptides) conjugate with
xenobiotic. This interaction takes place thanks to the inter-
vention of GST which allows the conjugation of xenobiotic
or its metabolites with GSH during phase II of the
metabolism.
The GST acts in phase II of biotransformation during the
conjugation reaction. Our results show a highly significant
and dose-dependent increase in GST in the digestive gland.
GP induction was observed in S. plana and H. diversicolor
exposed to CuO NP (Buffet et al. 2011) and S. plana de
Au NP (Pan et al. 2012), this biomarker was also stimulated
in M. galloprovincialis exposed to SiO2 NP (Canesi et al.
2010) and D. magna exposed to TiO2 NP (Kim et al 2010).
In our study we showed a dose-dependent and a highly
significant decrease in the activity of AchE in treated snails,
these results which are confirmed by the work of Wang et al.
(2009), showed that different types of NP may have neuro-
toxic properties and propose to use EAE as a biomarker for
NP. Neurotoxic effects attested by the inhibition of AchE
were demonstrated only after 15 days of exposure in M.
galloprovincialis exposed to CuO NP (Gomes et al. 2011).
S. Aya et al.
CdSe 1 CdSe 2
0.1051 ± 0.034 0.1856 ± 0.023
41.28 ± 2.3 59.69 ± 2.6
3.16 ± 0.55 3.79 ± 0.66
71.84 ± 3.4 123.2 ± 8.9
0.000000197 ± 0.000000057 0.000001827 ± 0.00000013
Zhao et al. (2011) showed the inhibition of cholinesterase
activity in the exposure of juvenile Cyprinus carpio carp to
CuO NP, and also suggest their potential neurotoxic
potential.
4 Conclusion
In this study, we studied the effect of CdSe on the
oxidative stress biomarkers of hepatopancreas of the
Helix aspersa snail. We can conclude that the Helix
aspersa species is sensitive to the presence of
CdSe-based semiconductor materials, this sensitivity was
manifested by the effects of induced oxidative stress and
the enzymatic mechanisms involved.
References
Buffet PE, Tankoua OF, Pan JF, Berhanu D, Herrenknecht C, Poirier L,
Amirad-Triquet C, Amirad JC, Berard JB, Risso C, Guibbolini M,
Roméo MI, Reip P, Valsami-Jones E, Mouneyrac C. Behavioural
and Biochemical responses of two marine invertebrates Scrobicu-
laria Plana and Hediste Diversicolor to copper oxide nanoparticles.
Chemosphere. 2011;84(1):166–74.
Canesi L, Fabbri R, Gallo G, Vallotto D, Marcomini A, Pojana G.
Biomarkers in Mytilus galloprovincialis exposed to suspensions of
selected nanoparticles (Nano carbon black, C60 fullerene, Nano
TiO2, Nano SiO2). Aquat Toxicol. 2010;100(2):168–77.
Drobne D, Jemec A, Pipan Tkalec Z. In vivo screening to determine
hazards of nanoparticles: Nanosized TiO2. Environ Pollut.
2009;157:1157–64.
Dutta RK, Nenavathu BP, Gangishetty MK, Reddy AVR. Studies on
antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticles by ROS induced lipid
peroxidation. Colloids Surf, B. 2012;94:143–50.
Ellman GL, Courtney KD, Andres V, Featherstone RM. A new and
rapid colorimetric determination of acetylcholinesterase activity.
Biochem Pharmacol. 1961;7:88–95.
Esterbaer H, Gebicki J, Puhl H, Jungens G. The role of lipid
peroxidation and antioxidants in oxidative modification of LDL.
Free Radic Biol Med. 1992;13:341.
Gomes T, Pinheiro JP, Cancio I, Pereira CG, Cardoso C,
Bebianno MJ. Effects of copper nanoparticles exposure in the
Mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. Environ Sci Technol. 2011;45
(1):9356–62.
Habig H, Pabst MJ, Jokoby WB. Glutathione-S-transferase: the first
enzymatic step in mercapturic acid formation. J Biol Chem.
1974;249:7130–9.
Kim KT, Klaine SJ, Cho J, Kim SH, Kim SD. Oxidative stress
responses of Daphnia Magna exposed to TiO2 nanoparticles
Study of the Toxicity of Cadmium Selenide (CdSe) Nanoparticles …
according to size fraction. Sci Total Environ. 2010;408(10):
2268–72.
Pan JF, Buffet PE, Poirier L, Amirad-Triquet C, Gilliland D, Joubert Y,
Pilet P, Guibbolini M, Risso de Faverney C, Roméo M,
Valsami-Jones E, Mouneyrac C. Size dependent bioaccumula-
tion and ecotoxicity of gold nanoparticles in an endobenthic
invertebrate : the Tellinid clam Scorbicularia Plana. Environ Pollut.
2012;168:37–43.
Regoli F, Principato G. Glutathione, glutathione-dependant and
antioxidant enzymes in mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis exposed
to metals under field and laboratory conditions: implication for the
biomarkers. Aquat Toxicol. 1995;31:143–64.
497
Triboulet S. Study of the effects of two types of metallic nanoparticles
on murine macrophages by a proteomic approach. Doctoral thesis.
Universite de Grenoble. P 25, 2013.
Wang Z, Zhao J, Li F, Gao D, Xing B. Adsorption and inhibition of
acetylcholinesterase by different nanoparticles. Chemosphere.
2009;77(1):67–73.
Weckbker G, Cory JG. Ribonucleotide reductase activity and growth of
Glutathoine depleted mouse leukemia L1210 cells in vitro. Cancer
Lett. 1988;40:257–64.
Zhao J, Wang Z, Liu X, Xie X, Zhang K, Xing B. Distribution of CuO
nanoparticles in juvenile carp (Cyprinus Carpio) and their potential
toxicity. J Hazaradous Mater. 2011;197:304–10.
 Investigation of Nanoparticles and Ultra Fine
Particles in the Workplace

Med Salah Benlatreche, Ouafa Boukhmis, and Kahina Slimane

Keywords
Nanoparticles (NPs) Ultra fine particles (UFP) Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM)


Public health Atmospheric pollution The workplace environment

1 Introduction The present study is focused on characterizing NPs and

Nanoparticles (NPs) and Ultra fine particles (UFP) represent
major components of the atmospheric pollution, associated
with an increased morbidity and mortality, in particular at
the cardiovascular and respiratory levels (Présumé et al.
2016; Atkinson et al. 2014; Qiu et al. 2014).
At workplace, NP and UFP pollution can be emitted
secondary to various industrial processes, mainly arc weld-
ing. During this process, welding fumes, bearing a propor-
tion of NP that representing up to 10% in mass and 80% in
number of the total particles, are usually emitted (Antonini
et al. 2011; Gomes et al. 2012).
Epidemiological research suggests that UFP may well
contribute to cardiovascular and respiratory problems (Pré-
sumé et al. 2016; Qiu et al. 2014). Noteworthy, however,
most of the NPs are deposited in the alveolar zone, deposits in
increasing proportion in the upper airways as the particle size
decreases below 5 nm, proved to induce the development of
peribronchiolar, perivascular, and alveolar fibrosis, together
with an interstitial inflammation (Présumé et al. 2016).
M. S. Benlatreche (&)
Structure of Telecom and Instrumentation Medical,
University of Boumerdes, Boumerdes, Algeria
e-mail: msbenlatreche@univ-boumerdes.dz
O. Boukhmis
Chemical Department, University of Constantine,
Constantine, Algeria
e-mail: wafa2535@gmail.com
K. Slimane
Physics Department, University of Boumerdes,
Boumerdes, Algeria
e-mail: www.slimanekahina.com@gmail.com
UFP through Scanning Electronic Microscopy, X-ray
diffraction and Raman Microscopy, along with the airborne
nanosized particles and their importance to public health in
the Workplace (Metallic foundry).
2 Materials and Methods
The sample powder (NPs and UFP), was obtained by
atmospheric sampling (dust) undertaken in different working
environments. The morphology was examined by scanning
electron microscopy (SEM). The depth profile associated
with the chemical composition was achieved via SEM with
energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy.
The SEM is a Quanta 250 scanning electron microscope,
several high-resolution image acquisitions have been carried
out in several zones and with different magnitudes ranging
from 2000 times to 10,000 times, for the purpose of high-
light the topography associated with the corrosion product
studied.
The selected analysis releting parameters are: Pressure
mode: >1.03  10−4 Pa; Electron beam primary: 15 kV;
Size of the electron beam (spot): of 2.5 and 3; Secondary
electron detector: ETD (Everhart Thornley Detector); and
Working distance (WD): from 8 mm.
3 Results and Discussion
The SEM images are depicted in (Fig. 1a). As for (Fig. 1b),
it proved to confirm the presence of spherical nanoparticles
and other shape configurations, with varying sizes (between

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 499

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_152
500
Fig. 1 a SEM image: presence of spherical nanoparticles & agglomerates, b the grains’ measurements in different regions
Fig. 2 SEM image via the EDX spectrum on the sample overall characterization
922 and 175 nm) homogeneous geometric form and other
small particles, with varying sizes (between 28 and 87 nm).
The microanalysis by EDS (Fig. 2), as carried out over
the entire sample (“overall analysis”), reveals well the per-
sistence of silicon, iron, oxygen. These might well be due to
the presence of physisorbed species (e.g. FeO, SiO groups)
on the surface of highly reactive particles.
The EDS-X spectrum proves to indicate the elements in
the EDS spot4 area. It is worth noting that in this particular
area, zone two chemical Fe and oxygen elements appear to
persist, such as iron, representing 73.16% atomic and
43.85% mass, oxygen representing 26.84% in mass and
56.15% in atomic.
4 Conclusion
As a conclusion, this brief review was focused on treating
the important subject of particle characterization, as critical
prerequisites for studying any UFP and NPs pertaining
health and environmental impacts, in a bid to identify the
size and the relevant chemical composition, their varying
sizes (between 922 and 175 nm) as well as homogeneous
geometric. As for the other small particles, whose sizes
turn out to vary between (28 and 87 nm), the spherical
M. S. Benlatreche et al.
shape associated chemical composition proved to confirm
well the presence of Fe2O3 relating nanoparticles.
References
Antonini J, Roberts J, Stone S, Chen B, Schwegler-Berry D,
Chapman R, Zeidler-Erdely P, Andrews R, Frazer D. Persistence
of deposited metals in the lungs after stainless steel and mild steel
welding fume inhalation in rats. Arch Toxicol. 2011;85:487–98.
doi:10.1186/1743-8977-11-23.
Atkinson RW, Kang S, Anderson HR, Mills IC, Walton HA.
Epidemiological time series studies of PM2.5 and daily mortality
and hospital admissions: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
Thorax. 2014; 69:660–5. https://doi.org/10.1136/thoraxjnl-2013-
204492.
Gomes JF, Albuquerque PC, Miranda RM, Vieira MT. Determination
of airborne nanoparticles from welding operations. J Toxicol
Environ Health A. 2012;75:747–55. doi:10.3390/atmos7060074.
Présumé M, et al. Exposure to metal oxide nanoparticles administrated
at occupationally-relevant doses induces pulmonary effects in mice
Nanotoxicology, Sept 2016. https://doi.org/10.1080/17435390.
2016.1242797.
Qiu H, Tian LW, Pun VC, Ho KF, Wong TW, Yu IT. Coarse
particulate matter associated with increased risk of emergency
hospital admissions for pneumonia in Hong Kong. Thorax.
2014;69:1027–33. doi:10.3390/ijerph14020191.
 New Environmental Culture in Algeria:
Eco Design
Sihem Tireche and Abdelaziz Tairi



Keywords
Eco design Impact
1 Introduction
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a tool used to assess the
environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with
a product or a system. It considers the entire life cycle of a
product from resource extraction to waste disposal. Envi-
ronmental problems are associated with impact categories
where the magnitude of the potential impact is determined
(Antón et al. 2007).
LCA (International Standard ISO 1404 2000; Hanssen
1988) is a technique for assessing the environmental aspects
and potential impacts associated with the product by:
• compiling an inventory, and evaluating the potential
environmental impacts associated with relevant inputs
and outputs of a product system;
• Interpreting the results of the inventory analysis and
impact assessment phases in relation to the objectives.
2 Materials and Methods
This method is object of an international standardization (the
series ISO 14040–14043). The method consists of four
stages:
– a stage of definition of the objectives and framework of
the LCA (ISO 14040);
S. Tireche (&)
A. Tairi
University of Boumerdes, Boumerdes, Algeria
e-mail: stireche2000@yahoo.fr
A. Tairi
e-mail: atairi68@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_153


Life cycle analysis (LCA) Sustainability
– a stage of inventory of the emissions and raw materials
(ISO 14041);
– a stage of evaluation of the impacts (ISO 14042);
– a stage of interpretation of the results and search for
improvement (ISO 14043).
The ecological assessment is achieved on the basis of an
LCA which conforms to ISO 14040–14043 (International
Standard Organisation (ISO) 2000) with the following cat-
egories: global warming potential (GWP), ozone depletion
potential (ODP), acidification potential (AP), photochemical
smog (POCP), solid wastes, water emissions, energy con-
sumption, raw material consumption, land use, toxicity
potential and risk potential. In this context, it is essential to
point out that the function of a product constitutes the basis
of a comparative analysis rather than the product itself
(Kicherer and Schaltegger 2007).
2.1 Functional Unit and Studied Products
After having defined the functional unit (ISO 14040), the
study passes through an inventory of the emissions and raw
materials, within the company and with the raw material
suppliers (ISO 14041) (Seiffert 2008).
2.2 Software SIMAPRO
The application of the method of analysis of cycle of life
often results in treating a multitude of data and consequently
requires to have a software with a multiple role. Simapro 6.0,
501
502
developed at the point by pre-consultant in the Netherlands,
is a software of life cycle analysis which allows studying and
comparing products whatever the level of complexity of
their cycle of life is, in particular by taking into account of
the stages of end of lifetime (dismantling, recycling and
elimination) (Seiffert 2008; Winkler and Bilitewski 2007;
Eidea 2003; i Canals 2006; Sugiyama 2006; Raluy 2005).
3 Conclusion
The results were obtained after introduction of the data of
the inventory into the software Simapro. This part enables
us to visualize directly, thanks to the graphs and tree
structures, the weak and strong points of the office by
considering all its subsystems.
References
Andreas K, Stefan S, Heinrich T, Beatriz FP. Eco-efficiency combining
life cycle assessment and life cycle costs via normalization. Int J
LCA. 2007;12(7):537–43.
Antón F, Castells JI. Montero Land use indicators in life cycle
assessment. Case study: the environmental impact of Mediterranean
greenhouses. J Clean Prod. 2007; 15:432–38.
S. Tireche and A. Tairi
Eidea MH, Homleida JP, Mattsson Lebensm-Wiss B. Life cycle
assessment (LCA) of cleaning-in-place processes in dairies.
U-Technol. 2003; 36:303–14.
Hanssen OJ. Environmental impacts of product systems in a life cycle
perspective: a survey of five product types based on life cycle
assessments studies. J Clean Prod. 1988;6:299–311.
i Canals LM, Burnip GM, Cowell SJ. Evaluation of the environmental
impacts of apple production using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA):
case study in New Zealand. Agric Ecosyst Environ. 2006;
114:226–38.
International Standard ISO 14042. Environmental management—life
cycle assessment—life cycle impact assessment. 1st ed.;
2000-03-01.
International Standard Organisation (ISO) (eds). Environmental man-
agement—life cycle assessment—ISO 14040 (1997); 14041 (1998);
1402 (2000); 14043 (2000).
Raluy RG, Serra L, Uche J. Life cycle assessment of desalination
technologies integrated with renewable energies. Desalination.
2005; 183:81–93.
Seiffert MEB, Environmental impact evaluation using a cooperative
model for implementing EMS (ISO 14001) in small and
medium-sized enterprises. J Clean Prod. 2008; 16:1447–61.
Sugiyama H, Hirao M, Mendivil R, Fischer U, Hungerbühler K.
A hierarchical activity model of chemical process design based on
life cycle assessment. Trans IChemE, Part B, Process Safety
Environ Prot. 2006; 84(B1):63–74.
Winkler J, Bilitewski B. Comparative evaluation of life cycle
assessment models for solid waste management. Waste Manage.
2007; 27:1021–31.
 Chemical Composition and Insecticide
Properties of the Essential Oils from Mentha
Pulegium Against Aedes Caspius
(Diptera: Culicidae)

Fouzia Tine-Djebbar, Raja Guenez, and Noureddine Soltani

Keywords
Aedes caspius Essential oils Mentha pulegium Chemical composition
Larvicidal activity

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Mosquitoes can transmit serious human diseases such as
malaria, dengue, filariasis, and yellow fever, which affect
more than 700 million people annually throughout the
world. WHO has declared the mosquitoes as public enemy
number one (WHO 1996). To prevent this arthropod pro-
liferation and improve the environment quality and public
health, more attention has been focused on botanicals, which
are ecofriendly, cost effective, and one of the possible
alternatives to synthetic insecticides. Many studies on plant
extracts against mosquito have been conducted around the
world, and their larvicidal, pupicidal, adult emergence
inhibition and repellent activities have been reported (Pavela
et al. 2014; Rocha et al. 2015; El Akhal et al. 2015, 2016).
The Lamiaceae family is recognized for their vital oils,
medicinal uses and antimicrobial activity of different species
(Skaltsa et al. 2003). Mentha is an important genus of
Lamiaceae. Mentha pulegium L. is native to temperate Asia,
Africa and Europe (GRIN 2010). This present study aimed
to determine the chemical composition of essential oils of
cultivated mint species largely used in Algeria, M. pulegium
and to test their insecticidal activities against Ae caspius, the
most interesting mosquito species in Algeria, particularly in
Tebessa area (Tine-Djebbar et al. 2016).
F. Tine-Djebbar (&)
R. Guenez
Larbi Tebbesi University, Laboratory of Applied Animal Biology
—University of Annaba, Annaba, Algeria
e-mail: fouzia.djebbar@yahoo.fr
N. Soltani
Laboratory of Applied Animal Biology—University of Annaba,
Annaba, Algeria
Mosquito rearing: Aedes caspius Pallas, 1771 larvae were
collected from untreated areas located at Tébessa (Northeast
Algeria). Larvae specimens were morphologically identified
according to identification keys of Brunhes et al. (1999) and
Himmi et al. (1995). Pyrex storage jars containing 150 ml of
tap water were maintained at 25 °C temperature and a
photoperiod of 14:10 (L:D). Larvae were daily fed with fresh
food consisting of a mixture of Biscuit Petit Regal-dried
yeast (75:25 by weight) and water was replaced every four
days.
Plant Material and oil extraction: The aerial parts of
M. pulegium L. (Lamiaceae) were collected in April 2014 in
Tebessa (North East Algeria). Dried above-ground parts of
the plants (about 100 g) were cut into small pieces and
subjected to hydrodistillation for 3 h using a Clevenger type
apparatus.
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: The essential
oil of M. pulegium was subjected to gas chromatography-
mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis using Perkin Elmer
chromatograph Autosystem GC. The column, HP-5
(length: 30 m with an internal diameter of 0.25 mm and a
film thickness of 0.25 lm) was used with helium as carrier
gas.
Toxicity bioassay: Newly ecdysed fourth-instar larvae of
Ae. caspius (<8 h old) were exposed to the different con-
centrations (50, 100, 250, 500, and 1000 ppm) of M. pule-
gium essential oil, Controls were exposed to water only.
Mortality was recorded after 24 h treatment. The mortality
percentages obtained were corrected (Abbott 1925) and
toxicity data subjected to probit analysis (Finney 1971).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 503

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_154
504
3 Results and Discussion
Chemical composition of essential oil: Fourteen compounds,
representing 99.29% of the total essential oil, were identified.
The major component was Pulegone (72.50%), other com-
ponents present in appreciable contents were: Eucalyptol
(10.44%), Menthone Pentanone (3.78%), L-b Pinene
(1.90%), Piperitenone (1.51%) and Isopulegone (1.12%).
Literature data suggests that M. pulegium is a chemical
polymorph species in both qualitative and/or quantitative
composition (Kokkini et al. 2004). Compared to published
data, the chemical profile obtained presents differences, but
also some similarities. 38 components were identified in the
essential oils of M. pulegium collected from Tunisia (Hafedh
et al. 2009) and Iran (Sardashti and Adhami 2013) and 16
from Morocco (Benayad 2008). Studies reported by Mah-
boubi and Haghi (2008) show clearly that M. pulegium
essential oil contains the following compounds: piperitenone
33.0%, a-terpineol 4.7%, pulegone 2.3% from which
piperitone was the major constituent (38.00%).
Larvicidal activity: The efficacy of phytochemicals against
mosquito larvae can vary significantly depending on plant
species and age of plant parts, EO physico-chemical charac-
teristics and chemical composition, the environmental con-
ditions, the used extraction technique and the drying process
(El Ouali Lalami et al. 2016). In some previous investigations,
the effect of essential oil and extracts of Mentha species on
pests was reported, especially against mosquito’s species
(Ansari et al. 2000; Traboulsi et al. 2002; Amer and Mehlhorn
2006). In our present study, dose-response relationship was
determined for M. pulegium essential oil applied to newly
ecdysed fourth instar larvae of Ae caspius. The mortality was
scored at 24 h after treatment. With probit, LC50 was cal-
culated as 28.16 ppm, and LC90 was 53.75 ppm for Ae
caspius. After treatment, intoxicated larvae showed a change
in their behaviour by sinking to the bottom of the jar and
remaining there motionless until they died.
4 Conclusion
In the present study, it can be concluded that the essential
oil of M. pulegium with pulegone and eucalyptol as major
constituents was found to exhibit potent larvicidal activity
against Ae caspius larvae. The essential oils can greatly
contribute to reduce both the environmental chemicali-
sation and the population density of mosquitoes.
F. Tine-Djebbar et al.
References
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J Econ Entomol. 1925;18:265–7.
Amer A, Mehlhorn H. Larvicidal effects of various essential oils against
Aedes, Anopheles and Culex larvae (Diptera, Culicidae). Parasitol
Res. 2006;99:466–72.
Ansari MA, Vasudevan P, Tandon M, Razdan RK. Larvicidal and
mosquito repellent action of peppermint (Mentha piperita) oil.
Biores Technol. 2000;71:267–71.
Benayad N. Les huiles essentielles extraites des plantes médicinales
marocaines : moyen efficace de lutte contre les ravageurs des
denrées alimentaires stockées. Rapport d’étude. Faculté des sciences
de Rabat, Maroc, 63p; 2008.
Brunhes J, Rhaim A, Geoffroy B, Hervy JP. Mosquitoes of the
Mediterranean Africa: software identification and education,
CD-ROM (Didactiques), IRD, Paris, France; IPT, Tunis, Tunisia;
1999.
El Akhal F, Greche H, Ouazzani CF, Guemmouh R, El Ouali LA.
Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of Culex pipiens
essential oil of Thymus vulgaris grown in Morocco. J Mater Environ
Sci. 2015;1:214–9.
El Akhal F, Guemmouh R, Maniar S, Taghzouti K, El Ouali LA.
Larvicidal activity of essential oils of Thymus vulgaris and
Origanum majorana (Lamiaceae) against of the malaria vector
Anopheles labranchiae (Diptera: Culicidae) original article. Int J
Pharm Pharmaceutical Sci. 2016;8(3):372–6.
El Ouali Lalami A, EL-Akhal F, Maniar S, Ez zoubi Y, Taghzouti K.
Chemical constituents and larvicidal activity of essential oil of
Lavandula stoechas (Lamiaceae) from morocco against the malaria
vector Anopheles labranchiae (Diptera: Culicidae). Int J Pharma-
cognosy Phytochem Res. 8 3:505–511; 2016.
Finney DJ. Probit analysis. 3d ed. London and New York: Cambridge
University Press; 1971.
Germplasm Resources Information Network. [Online Database] Belts-
ville (MD): National Germplasm Resources Laboratory; 2010.
Hafedh H, Najla T, Emira N, Mejdi S, Hanen F, Riadh K, Amina B.
Biological activities of the essential oils and methanol extract of two
cultivated mint species (Mentha longifolia and Mentha pulegium)
used in the Tunisian folkloric medicine. World J Microbiol
Biotechnol. 2009;25:2227–38.
Himmi O, Dakki M, Trari B, El Agbani MA. The Culicidae of
Morocco: identification keys with biological and ecological data
(Work of the Scientific Institute), zoology of Series, Rabat,
Morocco; 1995.
Kokkini S, Karousou R, Hanlidou E, Lanaras T. Essential oil
composition of Greek (Origanum vulgare ssp hirtum) and Turkish
(O. onites) oregano: a tool for their distinction. J Essent Oil Res.
2004;16(4):334–8.
Mahboubi M, Haghi G. Antimicrobial activity and chemical compo-
sition of Mentha pulegium L. essential oil. J Ethnopharmacol.
2008;119(2):325–7.
Pavela R, Kaffková K, Kumšta M. Chemical composition and larvicidal
activity of essential oils from different Mentha and Pulegium
species against Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae).
Plant Prot Sci. 2014;50(1):36–42.
Chemical Composition and Insecticide Properties …
Rocha D, Novo M, Matos O, Figueiredo AC, Delgado M, Cabral MD,
Liberato M, Moiteiro C. Potential of Mentha pulegium for mosquito
control. Revista de Ciências Agrárias 2015;38 2:155–65.
Sardashti A, Adhami Y. Chemical composition of the essential oil of
Mentha pulegium L. from Taftan Area by means of gas
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7 40:3003–7; 2013.
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Tine-Djebbar F, Bouabida H, Soltani N. Répartition spatio-temporelle
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Traboulsi AF, Taoubi K, El-Haj S, Bessiere JM, Rammal S. Insecticidal
properties of essential plant oils against the mosquito Culex pipiens
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testing of insecticides. World Health Organization
CTD/WHOPES/IC/1996; 1996. pp. 1–69.
 Comparison of Three Techniques
for the Detection and Quantification
of Enteric Parasites in Wastewater
Samples in Tunisia
Layla Ben Ayed, Sonia Sabbahi, and Panagiotis Karanis





Keywords
Wastewater Protozoa Helminths
sludge Aerated lagoon
1 Introduction
In recent decades, a pressure on water resources has
increased at a same time of demand increase in the world
and particularly in Tunisia. In fact, to face the water shortage
and ensure a sustainable solution, Tunisia has looked for
alternative sources such as the treated wastewater reuse in
agriculture as this sector is the main consumer of conven-
tional water resources. Consequently, the treated wastewater
must not only be considered as a source of nitrogen and
phosphorus supplement (Davutluoglu 2005) but also as a
safe matrice that will not alter public health.
Important efforts have been made, worldwide, to develop
and standardize the monitoring of physico-chemical and
bacteriological parameters in sewage samples. However,
monitoring and quantification of parasites, still lacks stan-
dardization methods. In fact, parasites, are a microbiological
group, of public health interest as they are characterized by
an important persistence to hostile conditions, acquired
thanks to their protective walls. They are also characterized
by a resistance to conventional water treatment ways.
L. Ben Ayed (&)
Laboratory of Water Sciences and Technology,
Institut National Agronomique de Tunisie, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: benayedlayla@yahoo.fr
S. Sabbahi
Institut National de Recherche En Génie Rural,
Eaux et Forêts, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: sabbahisonia@yahoo.fr
P. Karanis
State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture,
Qinghai University, Xining, China
e-mail: panagiotis.karanis@uk-koeln.de
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_155


Techniques of concentration Activated
In 1979, the World Health Organization promulgated a
restriction on the use of treated wastewater in agriculture, if it
is higher than the arithmetic mean of 1 intestinal nematode
eggs per liter. These species refer to Ascaris lumbricoides,
Trichuris trichiura, Ankylostoma duodenalis and Necator
americanus (Ayres et al. 1991). But, recently and thanks to
the application of the microbiological risk assessment, the
current guidelines enacted by the same organization requires a
limit less than the arithmetic mean of 0.1 intestinal nematodes
per liter of treated wastewater sample. However, no restric-
tions are stipulated regarding the protozoa presence even if
there are more prevalent in humans and in environmental
samples in the world and particularly in Tunisia (Alouini
1998; Ben Ayed et al. 2007, 2009). This situation led to focus
research on a better and simple evaluation of their presence.
This work aimed to assess: (i) the parasitological quality
before and after the wastewater treatment processes (Acti-
vated sludge and lagoon) and (ii) the efficiency of three
conventional techniques to determine quantitatively this
quality.
2 Materials and Methods
Study sites and samples: A total of 22 samples were col-
lected, from February to May 2016, from two wastewater
treatment plants (WWTPs): Kalaat el Andalous and Char-
guia, both located in the district of Tunis, Tunisia. The
treatment adopted in these plants is, respectively, aerated
lagoon and activated sludge.
Sampling process: Two liter samples gathered over a
24-h period were collected from raw and treated wastewater.
Upon arrival in the laboratory, the wastewater samples were
507
508
left to settle undisturbed for 24 h at room temperature given
the wide dispersion of parasites in the environmental sam-
ples. The supernatant was then removed and the sediment
was used in the microscopic analysis.
The experimental techniques applied: The three tech-
niques were applied on the same raw and treated wastewater
samples were: (i) The direct exam, (ii) the modified Bai-
lenger method (WHO 1989) and (iii) the technique of Arther
—Fitzerald—Fox (1981). Throughout this work, 4 aspects
of each method were reported: (1) the ease of the process,
(2) the time and the price of chemical reagents needed for
final examination, (3) the likelihood of operator error and
(4) if the technique varied from the quality of the samples
(Raw or treated).
The direct exam: Fifty microliters of the recovered sed-
iment were transferred quickly to a slide for microscopic
observation (400). The selection of this kind of technique
was mainly based on: (i) its cheapness as it does not need
any reagents addition and (ii) its easiness.
The modified Bailenger technique (WHO 1989): This
technique was chosen thanks to its standardization by the
World Health Organization and its good identification in
previous results obtained (Ben Ayed et al. 2007, 2009).
The number of ova or cysts per liter of wastewater was
calculated following the equation:
NX
C¼
PV
where C is the number of ova or cysts per liter of sewage, N
the number of ova or cysts counted under microscopic
observation, X the volume of the final product (in milli-
liters), P the volume put on the slide (0.050 mL), and V the
original sample volume (2.5 L of sewage).
The Arther—Fitzerald—Fox (Arther et al. 1981): Its
choice was based on its ability to ensure parasites flotation,
based on a density differentiation between the parasites and
the liquid used for dilution, so that a comparison with the
sedimentation technique (Modified Bailenger technique)
could be conducted.
The determination of the helminths ova and protozoa
cysts was calculated according to the following formula:
Y M
N¼  concentrations of these species were obtained thanks to
C V
N Number of ova or (oo)cysts per liter
Y Number of ova or (oo)cysts in the Mac Master cell
L. Ben Ayed et al.
C Volume used in the Mac Master cell
V Sample volume
M Estimated volume of the meniscus
3 Results and Discussion
The selection criteria of the more sensitive and efficient
technique were mainly based on: (i) the parasitic concen-
tration, (ii) the number of species detected per method and
(iii) the economic and technique reliability.
For protozoa, the species detected were Giardia spp.,
Entamoeba coli and Entamoeba histolytica/dispar/
moshkovskii. For helminths, the species were more numer-
ous: Ascaris spp. Enterobius vermicularis, Ankylostoma
duodenale/Necator americanus, Tristrongylus spp., Stron-
gyloïdes stercoralis, Strongyloïdes sp., Toxocara spp., Tri-
churis trichiura, Taenia psp., Hymenolepis nana,
Hymenolepis diminuta.
Whatever applied technique was for the two considered
WWTPs, there was a notable predominance of protozoa
(oo)cysts presence over helminths ova. Moreover, for the
three considered techniques, the pathogenic protozoa Enta-
moeba histolytica/dispar/moschkovskii was the predominant
in raw and treated wastewater.
In fact, higher concentrations of protozoa were almost
obtained thanks to the direct exam of the two sample types
(raw and treated wastewater) for Kalaat el Andalous
(Lagoon) and Charguia (Activated sludge) as summarized in
Fig. 1, except for one sample of raw wastewater collected
from Kalaat el Andalous, where higher protozoa concen-
trations were obtained by Bailenger technique (6.7  102 by
direct exam against 7.03  102 cysts/l with Bailenger
technique).
However, the lowest protozoa concentrations were
obtained by Mc Arther technique in raw and treated
wastewater of the two WWTPs. They ranged between
2.94  102 and 3.25  102 cysts/l of raw wastewater and
2.71  102 and 2.53  102 cysts/l of treated wastewater.
For helminths presence, a predominance of nematods was
noted in both raw and treated wastewater samples for the
two WWTPs for the three techniques. In fact, the highest
Bailenger technique in raw wastewater samples with
respectively 3.21  102 and 3.26  102 ova/l for Kalaat el
Andalous and Charguia.
Comparison of Three Techniques for the Detection …
Fig 1. Average concentrations of
protozoa cysts in treated
wastewater (TWW) of Kalaat el
Andalous (a) and Charguia (b)
Cysts concentration/ TWW
As noted for protozoa, lowest nematods concentrations
were obtained by Mc Arther technique for both types of
WWTPs.
4 Conclusion
The parasitic analysis of raw and treated wastewater
showed the presence of a large variety of protozoa and
helminths, with a constant predominance of the former.
All the raw wastewater samples, for the three techniques
applied, were contaminated by protozoa cysts with
a predominance of Entameoba histolytica/dispar/
moshkovskii.
For helminths, a predominance of nematods were
detected over cestods. A better level of elimination was
recorded for helminths compared to protozoa. There was
not a significant level of elimination between the lagoon
and the activated sludge.
509
(a)
1 Direct exam
Cysts concentration/ TWW
2 Bailenger
3 Mc Arther
Protozoa cysts
(b)
1 Direct exam
2 Bailenger
3 Mc Arther
Protozoa cysts
References
Alouini Z. Devenir des œufs et des kystes de parasites au cours d’un
cycle d’épuration de la station Cherguia à Tunis. La Houille
Blanche. 1998;7:60–4.
Arther RG, Fitzgerald PR, Fox JC. Parasite Ova in anaerobically
digested sludge. J Water Pollut Control Fed. 1981;53(8):1334–8.
Ayres R, Stott R, Lee D, Mara D, Silva S. Comparison of techniques
for the enumeration of human parasitic helminth eggs in treated
wastewater. Environ Technol. 1991;12(7):617–23.
Ben Ayed L, Alouini Z, Jemli M, Sabbahi S. Evaluation of the parasite
prevalence of sewage and sludge samples in Tunisia. Environ-
nement Risques & Sante. 2007;6(6):433–42.
Ben Ayed L, Schijven J, Alouini Z, Jemli M, Sabbahi S. Presence of
parasitic protozoa and helminth in sewage and efficiency of sewage
treatment in Tunisia. Parasitol Res. 2009;105(2):393–406.
Davutluoglu A. Detection of helminth eggs and protozoan cysts in
wastewaters. PhD. 99p; 2005.
World Health Organization. Analyse des eaux résiduaires en vue de
leur recyclage en agriculture. Genève: Manuel des techniques de
laboratoire en parasitologie et bactériologie; 1989. p. 31p.
 Morphological and Biochemical Effect
of Iron Stress on Date Palm V.Deglet Nour
Seeds

Wiem Mnafki, Zayneb Chaâbene, Kais Mnafgui, and Amine Elleuch

Keywords
P. dactylifera Heavy metal stress Amylolytic activity oxidative Anti-oxidative
enzyme

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Iron (Fe) is an essential micronutrient for almost all living
organisms and represents one of the most versatile metals in
biology. Its functions are mostly based on the reversible
redox reaction of Fe2+ (ferrous) and Fe3+ (ferric) ions, its
ability to form octahedral complexes with various ligands
and to vary its redox potential in response to different ligand
environments (Hell and Stephan 2003). Fe is mainly
required for photosynthesis, respiration, sulphate assimila-
tion, hormone synthesis, However, when Fe is taken up in
excess of cellular needs, it becomes highly toxic, since both
Fe2+ and Fe3+ can act as catalysts in the formation of
hydroxyl radicals. The aim of this work was to study the
potential of palm tree in the phytoremediation of polluted
soils and focused on the biochemical consequences to
understand the intracellular mechanisms involved in this
resistance.
W. Mnafki (&)
Z. Chaâbene
K. Mnafgui
A. Elleuch
Faculty of Sciences of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: wiemmnafki99@gmail.com
Z. Chaâbene
e-mail: chaabenezayneb@gmail.com
K. Mnafgui
e-mail: kaismnafgui@gmail.com
A. Elleuch
e-mail: Amineelleuch@hotmail.com
1. Seeds germination and treatments
Seeds from the Deglet Nour date palm cultivar were used.
They were sterilised and germinated in darkness with 1, 2
and 4 mM of FeSO4 solutions and kept at 26 °C.
1. Amylase activity assays
The amount of the reducing sugars released by the action
of amylases on starch was measured at 37 °C and pH 5 for
10 min (Khemakhem et al. 2012). One unit of amylase was
defined as the amount of enzymes required to produce
reducing sugars equivalent to 1 mol glucose/min.
2. Oxydant and anti oxydant activities measurement
the estimation of H2O2 in germinated seeds was achieved
by the methods of Sagisaka (1979), oxydative damage was
determined by estimating MDA equivalent according to the
method of Duan et al. 2011. the absorbance was calculated at
532 nm using the extinction coefficient to 155 mM−1 cm−1.
Catalase activity was determined by the method of Aeibi
(1984) using extinction coefficient 39.4 mM−1 cm−1.
3 Results and Discussion
The germination rate (Fig. 1a) showed a difference of almost
15% between control and 4 mM treatment after 20 days of
germination. However, during the periods of treatment, the
radical length (Fig. 1b) significantly increased with

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 511

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_156
512 W. Mnafki et al.

Fig. 1 Effect of different Iron Control 1mM Control 1mM

concentrations (0.1.2 and 4 mM
(a) (b)
2mM 4mM 2mM 4mM
Fe) on seed germination 120
4

Radical length (cm)

Germination rate %
(a) radical length (b) of treated 100
palm tree seeds over 60 days * *
80 3
60 2
40 *
1 * *
20
0 0
0 20 40 60
-20 0 20 40 60
Days Days

(c)

increasing Iron concentrations until a maximum with 2 mM
and then decreased with 4 mM of Fe.
A similar result was illustrated by Mehraban et al. (2008),
who showed that a maximum growth of rice plants was
observed at an iron concentration of 50 mg/l.
Sahrawat (2005) reported that iron toxicity depends on
the cultivar and the considerable decrease of the root length
was observed when the iron was in excess.
The results of amylase activity (Fig. 2a) showed signifi-
cant variations in amylase activity: 0 mM > 1 mM < 2 mM
> 4 mM. On the basis of these results which have been
repeated and confirmed 3 times, the iron appears to act
antagonistically on the amylase activity for the 1 and 2 mM
concentration, which suggests the implication of different
mechanisms depending on iron considered by the plant as an
oligo element (low concentration) or toxic element (high
concentration). Thus the morphological results showed that
2 mM stimulated a better germination than 1 mM which
explains the increase in amylase activity at this level. Parsard
and Bisht (2010) proved that amylase is an enzyme that
decreases as a consequence of Iron concentration, limiting
the germination.
Figure 2b illustrates a decrease in catalase activity as a
function of time for each concentration used. A peak of this
activity at 40 days of treatment is explained by the fact that
the group of seeds treated with 1 mM consumed more H2O2
than the others, which explains the increase in production of
the catalase enzyme. According to Boojar and Goudarz
(2007), the elevation of the antioxidant activity is a tolerant
component of the system component H2O2.
Figure 2c, d illustrated the effects of FeSO4 on MDA and
H2O2. The H2O2 production consistently increased with Fe
concentration but the maximal increase was more obvious at
the highest concentration. The higher accumulation of MDA
reflecting cell membrane destruction was more observed at
4 mM. These results are similar to those reported by Dey
et al. (2007), studying the effect of lead on wheat growth and
Helianthus annuus
4 Conclusion
Iron toxicity caused crucial physiological processes in
plants resulting in a variety of symptoms. The results of
this study demonstrate that Fe increased seed germination
of palm tree in 2 mM and reduced it in 4 mM. Under this
condition a perturbation in amyase activity, antioxydant
and oxydant activities was observed. The stimulation of
the antioxydant systems relects the ability of palm tree to
tolerate Fe toxicity levels. The seeds of palm tree Phoenix
dactylifera showed an excellent and promosing system
Morphological and Biochemical Effect of Iron Stress …
Fig. 2 Effects of different Iron concentrations (0.1.2 and 4 mM) on CAT (b), MDA (c), H2O2 (d) and amylase activity (a) of treated palm tree
seeds over 60 days
for studying plants tolerance under a metal stress and can
also be used for phytoremediation programme.
References
Aebi H. Catalase in vitro. Methods Enzymol 1984; 105:121–126.
Aghaz M, Bandehagh A. Effect of lead stress on some leaf character-
istics in dill (Anethom graveolens) ecotypes. Int J Agronomy Plant
Prod. 2013;4(1):147–50.
Boojar MMA, Goodarzi F. The copper tolerance strategies and the role
of antioxidative enzymes in three plant species grown on copper
mine. Chemosphere. 2007;67:2138–47.
Dey SK, Dey J, Patra S, Pothal D. Changes in the antioxidative enzyme
activities and lipid peroxidation in wheat seedlings exposed to
cadmium and lead stress. Braz J Plant Physiol. 2007;19(1):53–60.
Duan XW, Liu T, Zhang DD, Su XG, Lin HT, Jiang YM. Effect of pure
oxygen atmosphere on antioxidant enzyme and antioxidant activity of
harvested litchi fruit during storage. Food Res Int. 2011;44:1905–11.
513
Garcia JS, Gratão PL, Azevedo RA, Arruda MAZ. Metal contamination
effects on sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) growth and protein
expression in leaves during development. J Agric Food Chem.
2006;54(22):8623–30.
Hell R, Stephan UW. Iron uptake, trafficking and homeostasis in plants.
Planta. 2003;266:541–51.
Khemakhem B, Fendri I, Dahech I, Belguith K, Kammoun R,
Mejdoub H. Purification and characterization of a maltogenic
amylase from Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum) seeds using
the Box Benkhen Design(BBD). Ind Crops Prod. 2012; 43:334–339.
Mehraban P, Zadeh AA, Sadeghipour HR. Iron toxicity in rice (Oryza
sativa L.), under different potassium nutrition. Asian J Plant Sci.
2008;7:251–9.
Prasad K, Bisht G. Evaluation of nutritive, antioxidant and mineral
composition of Pavetta indica Linn. Leaves. Res J Phytochem.
2011;5:54–9.
Sagisaka S. The occurrence of peroxide in perennial plant Populus
glerica. Plant Physiol. 1979;57:308–9.
Sahrawat KL. Iron toxicity in wetland rice and the role of other
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 Copper Effect on Phosphate Nitrogen
and Fungicide Removal from Water Using
an Aquatic Plant Lemna Gibba

Smain Megateli and Michel Couderchet

Abstract
This study showed that phytoremediation of nitrogen or phosphate or a fungicide may be
influenced by the presence of another contaminant in the medium, either positively or
negatively. The simultaneous presence of contaminants may also have an influence on
phytoremediation. Lemna gibba showed higher phosphor and nitrogen removal in growth
medium without metals (86.82% and 75% respectively). Metals further decreased the
efficiency of removal of phosphor and nitrogen. After 8 days, 10-4- 1 mg L-1 Cu reduced
removal of phosphate by 58.64 to 8.30% and removal of nitrogen by 55% to 10%.

Keywords
Heavy metals Lemna Pesticide Phytoremediation Interaction

1 Introduction and nitrogen from synthetic medium. The effects of the

Bio-monitoring studies have demonstrated the ability of
certain aquatic plants to accumulate metals (Megateli et al.
2009) and organic pollutants (Olette et al. 2008), so that they
could be used as removing agents for pollutants from con-
taminated water. Nitrogen and phosphate are two essential
elements for plants and responsible for the phenomenon of
eutrophication. However, in many wastewaters high levels
of phosphate and nitrogen are often coupled with various
metals. Consequently, metal loads can reduce the efficiency
of the biological wastewater treatment and even cause their
complete failure. In the present investigation, the potential of
Lemna gibba has been assessed for the removal of phosphate
presence of heavy metals such as copper on the bioremoval
of phosphate and nitrogen and fungicide have been studied.
2 Materials and Methods
The plants (10 colonies) were cultivated in 250 mL Erlen-
meyer flasks containing 100 mL of culture medium to which
Cu and/or DMM had been added. The flasks were placed in
a thermostated chamber (at 22 ± 2 °C) with a photoperiod
of 16 h of light (4000 Luxes) and 8 h of darkness.
The removal of Nitrogen and phosphate was calculated
using the following equation:

½C0  Ct
Rð % Þ ¼  100
C0
S. Megateli (&)
Laboratoire de Biotechnologie, Santé et Environnement, Faculté where C0 and Ct represent the residual concentration of
Des Sciences de La Nature et de La Vie, Université Blida,
Nitrogen (NTK) and phosphate (PO43−) at the beginning of
1, BP 270 Route de Soumaa, 09000 Blida, Algeria
e-mail: megatlismail@yahoo.fr the experiment and at time t, respectively. The analysis of
DMM was performed by an HPLC system (Prostar system,
M. Couderchet
Laboratoire Des Plantes, Pesticides et Développement Durable, Varian, Les Ulis, France).
URVVC-SE. UFR Sciences, Université de Reims
Champagne-Ardenne, BP 1039, 51687 Reims, France
e-mail: michel.couderchet@univ-reims.fr

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 515

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_157
516
3 Results and Discussion
L. gibba showed higher phosphate and nitrogen removal in
growth medium without copper (86.82 and 75% respec-
tively). The Cu further decreased the removal efficiency of
phosphate and nitrogen. After 8 days, 10−4 − 1 mg L−1 Cu
reduced phosphate removal by 58.64 to 8.30% and nitrogen
removal by 55–10%. Depuration of Forum (DMMF) by
L. gibba varied between 10 and 40% after 96 h and it was
generally more important than that of the pure ingredient
(DMMP). This depuration decreased in the presence of Cu
possibly due to the metal toxicity. The presence of Cu
generally induced a decrease in the removal of dimetho-
morph. For example after 96 h with 500 µg L−1 of Forum,
elimination of the fungicide declined from 31 to 10% as Cu
concentration increased from 0 to 30 µg L−1. It was previ-
ously suggested that the elimination of DMM by L. gibba
was only important in metabolically active plants and pos-
sibly related to the degradation of the fungicide by Cyt P450
oxidation (Dosnon-Olette et al. 2011).
S. Megateli and M. Couderchet
4 Conclusion
Our results showed that phytoremediation of a nitrogen or
a phosphate or a pesticide may be influenced by the
presence of Cu as contaminant
References
Dosnon-Olette R, Schroder P, Bartha B, Aziz A, Couderchet M,
Eullaffroy P. Enzymatic basis for fungicide removal by Elodea
canadensis. Environ Sci Pollut R. 2011;18:1015–21.
Megateli S, Semsari S, Couderchet M. Toxicity and removal of heavy
metals (cadmium, copper, and zinc) by Lemna gibba. Ecotoxicol
Environ Saf. 2009;72:1774–80.
Olette R, Couderchet M, Biangianti S, Eullaffroy P. Toxicity and
removal of pesticides by selected aquatic plants. Chemosphere.
2008;70:1414–21.
 Mitochondrial Dysfunction of Rat Wistar
Nervous System After an Exposure
to Abamectin (Oxidative Stress Status,
Caspase-3, Stromal Enzymes
and Mitochondrial Respiration and Swelling)

Rachid Rouabhi and Salim Gasmi

Keywords
Abamectin Neurotoxicity Mitochondria Apoptosis Swelling Oxidative stress

1 Introduction the pet store was maintained at 23 °C, with a moderate

Abamectin is a mixture of avermectins containing more than
80% avermectin B1a and less than 20% avermectin B1b.
These two components, B1a and B1b have very similar
biological and toxicological properties (Fig. 1). Pesticide
poisoning by small doses induce harmful effects on health
and the environment (Mnif et al. 2011; Bonvallot 2014).
This action has more breadth over the past centuries with the
peak of the industry and progress in science and technology
whether industrial, agricultural or domestic. In rejecting
increasing amounts of pollutants or waste. Industrial decline
has left many sites polluted by past activities (DRIRE 2003).
This active or inactive pollution presents health risks through
direct exposure to pollutants or indirectly via water, air,
sediment and floor. The awareness of these risks leads to the
need for a diagnosis of pollution and implementation means
to address them (Seddik 2014).
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Animals
This study was conducted at the toxicology laboratory,
University of Tebessa on male albino Wistar rats, from the
Institute Pasteur of Algiers, weighing about 240–260 g.
Animals were divided into a control group and three treaties.
They had good access to water and food. The temperature of
R. Rouabhi (&)
S. Gasmi
Applied Biology Department, Tebessa University, Tebessa,
Algeria
e-mail: r_rouabhi@yahoo.fr
humidity and a 12/12 h photoperiod.
2.2 Isolated of Brain Mitochondria and Matrix
Preparation
The extraction of the mitochondria was achieved according to
the method described by David et al. (2014) and Rustin
(1994). There is a differential centrifugation. Briefly, after
decapitation, the brains were rapidly removed and immersed
in TSE buffer (250 mM sucrose, 10 mM Tris, 0.1 mm EDTA,
and pH 7.2 at 4 °C). Mitochondrial suspension was frozen
thawed 6–8 times with increased and repeated poterisation, to
break the mitochondria. After centrifugation for 10 min at
9600 rpm, the supernatant was used as an enzyme source.
2.3 Evaluation of Swelling, Permeability
and Mitochondrial Respiration
According to the method of Kristal (1996), we carried out
the estimation of the mitochondrial permeability based on
the rate of traverse of Ca++ followed by an increase in
mitochondrial size detected at 540 nm wavelength for 3 min
and each 30 s. Respiration was estimated using an Oxygraph
(Hansatech) according to the method described by (Rouabhi
et al. 2015; Henine et al. 2016).
2.4 Determination of GST, GPx, CAT and SOD
Activity
GST catalyzes the conjugation reaction with glutathione in
the first step of mercapturic acid synthesis. The activity of

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 517

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_158
518 R. Rouabhi and S. Gasmi

activity was determined according to the method of Aebi

(1984). The H2O2 decomposition rate was followed by
monitoring absorption at 240 nm. The enzymatic activity of
SOD (IU/ml) was assessed by the method of Beauchamp and
Fridovich (1971). For the assay of SOD, a reaction mixture
was prepared containing Sodium cyanide, NBT, EDTA,
riboflavin and phosphate buffer at pH 7.2, 5 ml of sample.
The mixture was subjected to radiation by a 15-watt lamp for
10 min and the absorbance was measured at 560 nm in
quartz cuvettes.

3 Results and Discussion

Fig. 1 Chemical structure of abamectin
GST was measured according to the method of Habig et al.
(1974), at absorbance of 340 nm at 30s intervals for 3 min.
The GPx activity was measured by the procedure of Flohe
(1984), the absorbance was recorded at 420 nm. A Catalase
3.1 Mitochondrial Stress Parameters Testing
The results of this study on the changes of mitochondrial
stress parameters in the hippocampus and striatum of brains
of Wistar rats are given in Table 1.

Table 1 Mitochondrial variation Groups

of glutathione (mitGSH), Malondi
aldehyde (mitMDA), the Control Abamectin
enzymatic activity of glutathione mitGSH Hip 35.292 ± 1.244000 22.15 ± 1.697***
peroxidase (mitGPx), glutathione nmol/mg Str 30.747 ± 1.244000 25.967 ± 1.8730**
S -transferase (mitGST),
mitGPx Hip 66.969 ± 2.60700 52.465 ± 6.057**
superoxide dismutase (mitSOD)
and catalase (mitCAT) in nmol/min/mg Str 65.484 ± 6.090000 46.763 ± 3.716***
hippocampus and striatum in mitMDA Hip 0.568 ± 0.091000 0.883 ± 0.101***
control rats and treated after 03 nmol/mg Str 1.651 ± 0.0650000 3.133 ± 0.0710***
months of treatment mitGST Hip 67.196 ± 1.48200 77.75 ± 1.4911**
Pmol/min/mg Str 65.666 ± 1.945000 76.296 ± 1.903***
mitSOD Hip 9.57 ± 0.8070000 27.32 ± 0.812 ***
U/mg Str 13.86 ± 1.1780000 25.38 ± 1.1780***
mitCAT Hip 145.225 ± 4.0800 125.18 ± 10.48 **
nmol/min/mg Str 142.84 ± 2.278000 123.17 ± 1.448***
Hip: Hippocampus, Str: Striatum. Each value is expressed as mean ± standard deviation, we use Student
test. (p  0.05): significant (*), (p  0.01): highly significant (**), (p  0.0001): very highly significant
(***), P > 0.05: not significant (ns)

Table 2 Swelling of brain Groups

change, Respiration and
mitochondrial permeability and Control Abamectin
activity caspase3 and cytochrome Mitochondrial swelling Hip 0.242 ± 0.0140 0.343 ± 0.0170***
c in the hippocampus and striatum Str 0.243 ± 0.03000 0.526 ± 0.03100***
in control rats and treated after 03
Mitochondrial Respiration Hip +++++ +++
months of treatment
Str +++++ +-
Mitochondrial permeability Hip +++ +++++
Str ++ ++++
Caspase 3 activity Hip 63.457 ± 10.94 194.75 ± 14.79***
Str 54.237 ± 7.6700 82.379 ± 6.5610***
Cytochrome c (µg/ml) Hip 1.176 ± 0.00065 6.601 ± 0.00050***
Str 1.1 ± 0.000600 0.0066 ± 0.0005***
Hip: Hippocampus, Str: Striatum. Each value is expressed as mean ± standard deviation, we use Student
test. (p  0.0001): very highly significant (***), P > 0.05: not significant (ns)
Mitochondrial Dysfunction of Rat Wistar Nervous System …
3.2 Study of Mitochondrial Apoptosis
Parameters
The results of this study on the changes of mitochondrial
apoptosis parameters in the hippocampus and striatum of
brains of Wistar rats are given in Table 2.
4 Conclusion
In conclusion, our study indicated that the abamectin
poisoning can damage the brain cells in the hippocampus
and striatum by altering mitochondrial metabolism,
energy and neurotransmitters. It causes neurodegenera-
tive diseases such as Alzheimer’s.
References
Aebi. Catalase In vivo, methods in enzymology. Orlando: Academic
press; 1984. vol. 105, pp. 121–6.
Beauchamp C, Fridovich I. Superoxide dismutase: improved assays and
an assay applicable to acrylamide gels. Biochem. 1971;44:276–87.
Bonvallot N (2014) application de la metabolomique à l’etude du lien
entre les expositions environnementales aux pesticides pendant la
grossesse et le developpement de l’enfant. thèse doctorat
SEVAB INRA, p. 256.
519
David A, Clayton S, Gerald S. Isolation of Mitocho ndria from Tissue
Culture Cells. Cold Spring Harb Protocols 2014. 10.1101/080 002.
DRIRE. Direction Régionale de l'Industrie de la Recherche et de
l'Environnement dans l'actualité; 2003.
Flohe G. Analysis of glutathione peroxidase. Methods Enzymol
1984;105:114–21.
Habig WH, Pabst MJ, Jakoby WB. Glutathione S-transferases The first
enzymatic step in mercapturic acid formation J Biol Chem
1974;249:7130–139.
Henine S, Rouabhi R, Gasmi S, Amrouche A, Abide A, Salmi A,
Toualbia N, Taib C, Bouteraa Z, Chenikher H, Boussekine S,
Kebieche M, Aouimeur M. Oxidative stress status caspase-3
stromal enzymes and mitochondrial respiration and swelling of
Paramecium caudatum in responding to the toxicity of Fe3O4
nanoparticles Environ Health Sci 2016;8:161.
Mnif W, Hassine AI, Bouaziz A, Bartegi A, Thomas O, Roig B. Effect
of endocrine disruptor pesticides: a review Int J Environ Res Public
Health 2011. 2265–303.
Rouabhi R, Gasmi S, Boussekine S, Kebieche M. Hepatic Oxidative
Stress Induced by Zn and Opposite Effect of Se in Oryctolagus
cuniculus J Environ Anal Toxicol 2015. 289.
Rustin P, Chrétien D, Bourgeron T, Gérard B, Rotig A, Munnich A.
Biochemical & mol investigation in respiratory chain deficiences.
Clin Chem Acta 1994. 35–51.
Seddik L. Evaluation de l'effet protecteur de l'extrait de feuilles d'olive
(Olea europeu) chez les rats intoxiqués à l'acétate de plomb au
niveau cérébral et du cartilage osseux. Approche neurocomporte-
mentale, biochimique et immunohistoch. Thèse. Oran university
2014. 131.
 Assessment of Lead Contamination
in Pepper and Agricultural Soils in Hammam
Boughrara, Northwest Algeria

Abderrazzak Baba Ahmed and Tahar Kebir

Keywords
Pepper Lead Soil contamination Sequential extraction

At the end, the localization study of lead has also fol-

1 Introduction
lowed the evolution of this metal as a function of depth. This
could inform us about the potential risks associated with the
Soils contamination with heavy metals is a common problem
contamination of the soil and the food chain in Hammam
throughout the world. The presence of heavy metals can lead
Boughrara.
to risks of water and soil contamination, transfers to the
chain food, or the reduction of the soil biological activity
(Sterckeman et al. 2008).
2 Materials and Methods
Heavy metals are extremely persistent in the environ-
ment; they are nonbio-degradable and nonthermodegradable
2.1 Soil and Plant Samples
and thus readily accumulate at toxic levels. Heavy metals
can be accumulated in the soil at toxic levels due to the
Soil samples: different soil horizons (S) [0–30 cm, 30–
long-term application of wastewater (Bohn et al. 1985).
60 cm and 60–90 cm] (were collected in triplicate two
Thus the present work proposed to evaluate both the
sampling stations in Hammam-Boughrara, Tlemcen (Alge-
contamination and the risk of metal contamination by lead in
ria) at 100 m from each other. The samples were air-dried,
agriculture in different soil horizons near urban areas, road
crushed, passed through 2-mm sieve and stored at ambient
and river Tafna city of In this study an assessment was
temperature. Afterwards, the soil properties and the con-
performed on the impact of soils on lead contamination of
centrations of the heavy metals were determined (Allison
pepper.
1986).
In this work, the distribution and migration of lead in
Wheat samples: Plant samples (pepper) were taken in
different soil depths was studied. It was applied on a widely
triplicate from the same field simultaneously. Replicate
cultivated site in Algeria.
samples were washed using distilled water and then sepa-
Lead concentrations exceeded the acceptable limits in
rately oven-dried at 80 °C till constant weight was achieved.
soils, with strong surface accumulations and a rapid decrease
The samples were then crushed separately through a steel
of the contamination with depth. However, in the edible
grinder and the crushed material was passed through 2-mm
portion of pepper, the lead concentrations were higher than
sieve (Allen et al. 1986).
the permitted limits of the European standard. As for the
plants grown, the study indicates a potential ecological risk
of pepper contamination by lead.
2.2 Chemical Characterization of the Soils
A. Baba Ahmed (&)
Centry University of Rélizane, Tlemcen, Algeria Three replicates of each sample (S) were analysed. The pH
e-mail: abderrazak_baba@yahoo.fr was measured in water (1:2.5 w/v) using a pH meter (Allison
T. Kebir 1986) (HM-50 V, Toadkk, Tokyo, Japan). The organic
University of Saida, Saida, Algeria carbon has been determined using the Allison (1986)
e-mail: kebir_tahar@yahoo.fr

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 521

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_159
522 A. Baba Ahmed and T. Kebir

method, cation exchange capacity by cobaltihexamine
chloride the Orsini and Remy’s method (1976) [5]. The total
concentration of CaCO3 was measured in an acidic medium
using a Bernard calcimeter (Allison 1986).
To verify the accumulation of lead in the pepper,
extraction of lead by aqua regia in the roots and aerial parts
was performed. This assay was performed on these samples
of plants collected in 2011. The results of these extractions
are listed in Table 3

2.3 Metal Analysis

The concentrations of lead in both soil and plant (pepper)
were determined using the atomic absorption spectrometry
(Aurora Instruments Ltd-AI 1200).
2.4 Metal Speciation
The sequential extraction previously described (Tessier et al.
1979) was followed.
3.1 Sequential Extraction
The total lead content in the different phases slightly
exceeded the limits defined in Table 2 in 0–30 cm soil
horizon, so there is possibility of lead contamination, with
strong surface accumulations and a rapid decrease of the
pollution with depth and it appears that a significant pro-
portion of this pollution is theoretically releasable because it
is not associated with the residual phase (Table 4).
Thus, following these results, the soil may be contami-
nated by lead, this contamination varied with seasons.

2.5 Metal Extraction of Pepper

Pepper samples weighing approximately 10 g were car-
bonized on an electrothermal plate and ashed at 500 °C in a
furnace for 3 h. A 0.1 g of ash was digested with 2 mL of a
mixture of concentrated HCl (37.5%) and HNO3 (65%) in
3:1 ratio at 80 °C until a transparent solution was obtained
(Allen et al. 1986).
3.2 Metal Content in the Plant
In contrast, lead, levels were higher in aerial part than the
pepper roots.
The measured lead levels in the shoots in spring were
higher than in autumn and summer. There was a seasonal
effect on the lead levels.

– The levels of lead were higher in leaves than in roots,

3 Results and Discussion stems and fruits.

In the absence of standards relating to Algerian reference
levels in the soil, we adopted a comparative approach
identified by reference to reports in the literature and sup-
plemented by the European standards (Table 1).
The analysis results of lead total concentrations by the
method of sequential extraction of different soil depths in the
different seasons of 2011 are listed in Table 2.
From these results, a significant accumulation of Pb was
observed in the leaves followed by fruits, then in roots and to
a lesser extent in the stems.
Comparing the results between the roots and the aerial
parts of our plants, we can notice that lead transferred to the
roots continue to migrate to the aerial parts and are therefore
enriched in the aerial parts.

Table 1 Maximum authorized ETM Content limits of heavy metals in soils (mg kg−1 dry weight)
concentrations of heavy metals in
sludge used in agriculture and in Cadmium 2
soils amended by sludge (Baize Lead 100
and Sterckeman 2002)
Nickel 50
Iron 40,000
Manganese 270

Table 2 The total Depths (cm) Seasons

concentrations of lead (mg kg−1
dry weight) in different soil Autumn Spring Summer
depths after fractionation by 0–30 166.73 178.32 189.24
sequential extraction in different
seasons of the year 2011 30–60 72.12 87.53 96.39
60–90 35.21 42.62 46.74
Assessment of Lead Contamination in Pepper and Agricultural … 523

Table 3 Concentrations of lead Different parts of the plant Seasons

(mg kg−1 dry weight) in the
different parts of pepper during Autumn Spring Summer
the different seasons of the year Roots 12.45 ± 0.13 14.32 ± 0.16 13.21 ± 0.14
2011
Stems 04.18 ± 0.10 05.64 ± 0.11 04.88 ± 0.10
Leaves 28.38 ± 0.20 38.73 ± 0.23 30.49 ± 0.22
Fruits 12.06 ± 0.13 14.77 ± 0.16 13.11 ± 0.14

Table 4 Critical and normal ETM Deficiency Toxicity Normal content

levels (mg kg−1 dry weight) of
heavy metals in plants (Fageria Cd – 5 0.05
et al. 2002) Pb – 12–300 1.0
Ni 1–5 10–100 1.5

4 Conclusion
This research has allowed access to detailed knowledge
about the future of metal pollutants such as lead in
agricultural soil. The sequential extraction performed on
soil showed that the source of contamination by lead is
not a potential threat to the environment despite its high
levels because they are mobile. Although translocation of
lead to the aerial parts in pepper appears to be limited, it
may contaminate the animals fed by its forage or grain
especially with lead. Finally, the study of the lead
localization has also to follow the evolution of this metal
as a function of depth. This could inform us about the
potential risks associated with the contamination of the
soil and the food chain in Hammam Boughrara.
References
Allen SE, Grimshaw HM, Rowland AP. Chemical analysis. In:
Moore PD, Chapman SB, editors. Methods in plant ecology.
Oxford, London: Blackwell Scientific Publication; 1986.
p. 285–344.
Allison LE. Organic carbon. In: Klute A, editor. Methods of soil
analysis. Madison, WI: PartI. Am Soc Agron; 1986. p. 1367–81.
Baize D, Sterckeman T. Importance de la détermination du fond
pédogéochimique pour évaluer la pollution des sols par des métaux.
L’exemple du site de Dornach. Rencontre nationale de la recherche
sur les sites et sols pollués. Paris, ADEME; 2002. p. 6.
Bohn HL, McNeal BL, O’Connor AG. Soil chemistry. 2nd ed. New
York: Wiley-Inter Science Publications; 1985.
Fageria NK, Baligar VC, Clark RB. Micronutrient cultures, Fageria
production. Adv Agron. 2002;77:189–272 (New York).
Orsini L, Remy JC. Using chloride cobaltihexamine for the simulta-
neous determination of exchange capacity and exchangeable bases
of soils science. J Bull AFES. 1976;4:269–79.
Sterckeman T, Douay F, Proix N, Fourrier H. Contamination des
sols vers la profondeur à Noyelles-Godault et Auby. In: Un
point sur les éléments traces métalliques dans les sols
approches fonctionnelles et spatiales. INRA Ed, Paris; 2008.
p. 565.
Tessier A, Campbell PGC, Bisson M. Sequential extraction procedure
for the speciation of particulate traces metals. J Anal Chem. 1979;51
(7):844–51.
 Determination of Heavy Metals in Sediments
and Gardon (Rutilus rutilus) of the Sikkak
Dam, Northwest Algeria
Zineb Derrag and Nacéra Dali Youcef



Keywords
Heavy metal Pollution
1 Introduction
Heavy metals are considered to be point or nonpoint pollu-
tant sources of dams, lakes, seas, and rivers. In general,
heavy metals originate from terrestrial flows, atmospheric
deposition and waste water discharge in water ecosystems
(Guo et al. 2010). Algeria is a poor country in water (Kettab
2001). In recent years, the city of Tlemcen effluents are
treated by the sewage treatment of Ain El Houtz before they
arrive at Sikkak dam through wadi Sikkak. Effluents are
treated but metals are also found. Heavy metals tends to
accumulate in water sediments, and biota and do not easily
decompose. Because they are not degradable, they accu-
mulate in tissues and show toxicity in living organisms
(Karadede-Akin and Unlu 2007). Furthermore, they do not
dissolve easily they are not absorbed by a solid suspended
matter in the water matrix (Jain et al. 2008). We chose the
sediments and the gardon (Rutilus rutilus) to monitor pol-
lution by the heavy metals. The sediments quality has been
recognized to be an important indicator of the water quality.
The gardon is a good water quality indicator. This is an
excellent farmed fish consumed by a large population as in
the other regions/parts of the world (Kalyoncu et al. 2012;
Ozturk et al. 2009). The objective of this study was to assess
Z. Derrag (&)
N. Dali Youcef
Laboratory of Valuation of Shares Rights for the Protection of the
Environment and Public Health Applications, Department of
Ecology and Environment, Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences
and Earth and Universe Sciences, University of Tlemcen, DFZMS,
BP 119, 13000 Tlemcen, Algeria
e-mail: zina_iman@yahoo.fr
N. Dali Youcef
e-mail: n_daliyoucef@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_160




Sediments Sikkak dam Rutilus rutilus Tlemcen
the pollution status of the Sikkak dam by estimating levels of
Cd, Fe, Pb, Zn and Ni in sediments and in four different
tissues (muscle, gills, gonads, and liver) of Rutilus rutilus L.,
1758. Health risk assessment was also considered.
2 Materials and Methods
The Sikkak dam is located in wadi Sikkak, in Ain youcef on
the east of Tlemcen (northwest of Algeria). It is continuously
exposed to the urban and the agricultural waste including a
large number of metal ions. This investigation has been
discussed in a previous work (Derrag et al. 2014). Sampling
was carried out monthly between December 2010 to
November 2011 in Sikkak dam (Ain Youcef). Then, sedi-
ments were dried in ambient air for a few days. The samples
were crushed using a porcelain mortar to obtain a fine
powder. The lower fraction is kept and mineralized with a
mixture of acids of HCl + HNO3 (volume ratio of 3:1) in
Teflon flasks at 120 °C (Agemian and Chau 1975).
79 specimens of fishes (Rutilus rutilus) were collected from
Sikkak dam. Digestion was conducted according to the dry
method (Derrag et al. 2014). The resulting solutions were
then filtered using a membrane of cellulose of 0.45 µm of
porosity and a swinex, and adjusted to 20 ml with bidistiller
water then packed in polyethylene bags and kept at 4 °C in
the refrigerator until analysis. Acids exhibiting high purity
were employed, i.e. HCl and HNO3, from Merck Suprapur
quality. A AURORA AI. 1200 Flame Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer was used to determine the concentra-
tions of metals (Cd, Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn and Ni).
525
526
3 Results and Discussion
The average metal content at Sikkak dam sediments was
found in the order of Fe > Zn > Pb > Ni > Cu > Cd for all
months. The highest concentration was recorded for Fe, and
the lowest for Cd. The origin of the major elements Fe could
be attributed to the geological environment surrounding the
Sikkak dam. The results for cadmium indicate a very
important accumulation, easily exceeding the average ref-
erence level (0.3 mg/kg) (Turekian and Wedepohl 1961).
The values of Cd found in this study, showed that they can
be considered as anoxic sediments with a high organic
matter content (Chong and Wong 2000; Derrag et al. 2014;
Griscom and Fisher 2000).
The results of the current study show that, with the
exception of Cd, Zn and Pb levels (P > 0.05), concentrations
of Fe, Cu, Ni were of high significant differences between
months (ANOVA 1). According to Müller scale (Müller
1969), used by other authors, i.e. (Khaled et al. 2014), The
geo accumulation index averages for all months are classi-
fied between −2 and 1, corresponding to uncontaminated to
moderately contaminated.
In general different tissues showed different capacities for
accumulation of heavy metals. Heavy metal concentrations
in all organs decreased in the sequence: Fe > Zn > Pb >
Ni > Cu > Cd. In general, the gradient of accumulation of
organs is as follows: livers > gills > gonads > muscles. The
highest concentrations are observed in the livers and the
lowest are in the muscles. The phenomenon that different
metals are accumulated at different concentrations in the
various organs and tissues of fish was observed in literature
(Bahnasawy et al. 2009; Yilmaz 2005). The difference in the
levels of accumulation of the different organs/tissues of a
fish can primarily be attributed to the differences in the
physiological role of each organ (Bahnasawy et al. 2009;
Kalyoncu et al. 2012). Similar results were reported from a
number of fish species that the muscle is not an active tissue
in accumulating heavy metals (Yilmaz 2005). These results
agree with many authors [17–3]. The metal concentrations in
tissues of Rutilus rutilus depends on the age, the length and
the weight together. The relationships between heavy metal
levels in the tissues and the fish sizes were generally sup-
ported in the literature (Canli and Atli 2003; Karadede et al.
2004).
According to the result of BAF (%) Zn, Pb, Cd, and Ni
revealed the highest BAF respectively of 48%, 43%, 36%,
and 12% in gills, Cu and Ni 12% in Liver. PCA indicated
that both sediments and organs of the fishes explained sig-
nificantly 99.5% of the total variance (98.5% for factor 1 and
1.3% for factor 2) of the metal concentration.
Z. Derrag and N. Dali Youcef
4 Conclusion
The content of the heavy metals (Cd, Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn, and
Ni) in the sediments and the organ of fishes samples
collected from Sikkak dam was studied. The measure-
ments carried out to determine the contamination level
and the quality of the samples indicated the existence of
contamination by Cd and Pb. In sediments, the Cd con-
centration in particular was higher than the background
levels. For fishes, Cd and Pb concentrations were higher
than the tolerable levels. The gardon could be considered
a bio-indicator of environmental contamination within a
zone by estimating the bioavailability of metals to the
fresh water. A potential danger may exist in the future,
depending on the agricultural development in the region.
Since Sikkak dam is used for agricultural irrigation pur-
poses, performing pollution researches is of high signif-
icance for both the environment and the public health.
The muscle of gardon is not suitable for human
consumption
References
Agemian H, Chau ASY. An atomic absorption method for determina-
tion of 20 elements in lake sediments after acid digestion. Anal
Chim Acta 1975; 80:61–66.
Bahnasawy M, Khidr AA, Dheina N. Seasonal variations of heavy
metals concentrations in mullet, Mugil cephalus and Linza Ramada
(Mugilidae) from Lake Manzala, Egypt. J Appl Sci Res.
2009;5:845–52.
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 Towards a Thermoregulation Filter Facing
the Urban Heat Stress: Algiers Case Study

Assia Fernini-Haffif and Ewa Berezowska-Azzag

Keywords
Urban heat stress Urban resilience Anthropogenic heat resources Urban
thermoregulation

1 Introduction agree that extremes announced today will designate the

The African shore of the Mediterranean seems to have
changed its climate regime, going through two seasons only:
the autumn, with cold and furtive extremely low tempera-
tures and the summer, with extremely high temperatures
often causing morbidity, if not death. During the last forty
years, Algiers has recorded the increase of medium tem-
peratures, up to 7 °C, while the rainfall rate has significantly
decreased. Since the resulting urban heat stress has been
intensified by urban ecosystem features, it can be argued that
they could also contribute to regulate and/or reduce its
impact (Papanastasiou et al. 2014; Zuo et al. 2015).
Research related to the urban heat island has generally
focused on the urban-rural contrast. However, some studies
have highlighted the role of urbanization in the local tem-
perature increase (Chung et al. 2004; Kim and Baik 2004;
Chuang et al. 2013) and, subsequently, in extreme weather
events or risks, like the urban heat stress.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), the atmospheric temperature is about to
reach 1.8–6.4 °C more by 2100 (IPCC 2007), so the fre-
quency, the intensity, and the duration of heat waves are
likely to increase (Field et al. 2012). Besides, researchers
A. Fernini-Haffif (&)
Laboratoire Ville, Urbanisme et Développement Durable
(VUDD), Ecole Polytechnique d’Architecture et d’Urbanisme
d’Alger (EPAU), Route de Beaulieu El- Harrach, BP n°177,
16200 Algiers, Algeria
e-mail: fernini_assia@yahoo.fr
E. Berezowska-Azzag
Laboratoire Ville, Urbanisme et Développement Durable
(VUDD), Ecole Polytechnique d’Architecture et d’Urbanisme
d’Alger (EPAU), Algiers, Algeria
e-mail: ewaazzag@yahoo.fr
average climate conditions in the future and aggravate
heat-related mortality if adaptation does not occur in time.
Thus, there is now an urgent need for efficient urban plan-
ning, in order to prepare the cities against such future
adverse outcomes.
As the cities are responsible for 60–80% of the global
energy consumption and emissions, they also contribute to
aggravated extreme weather events, because of their location
and nature, the concentration of infrastructures, populations
and their economic activities (VATI-Hungarian 2011).
When the heat waves pervade the urban environment, energy
consumption increases for the purpose of refreshment and
impacts the anthropogenic heat (Sailor 2010). As a conse-
quence, the urban heat is intensified (Zuo et al. 2015). All
the natural resources are then altered. For example, water
resources are overexploited and sometimes contaminated
(Zuo et al. 2015), the air quality is degraded, the production
of waste increase and the biodiversity is lost (Santamouris
2001; Shahmohamadi et al. 2011). All these effects have a
negative impact on the human health (Zuo et al. 2015). Most
of the studies are thus more focused on environmental issues
(e.g. water, air quality and environmental pollution)
(VATI-Hungarian 2011), power consumption or on city
anthropogenic heat assessment (Shahmohamadi et al. 2011;
Sailor David 2010), in addition to health issues (Harlan et al.
2011).
This research focused, on the one hand, on investigating
the implications associated with the nexus of anthropogenic
heat, natural resources and health additional impact on the
urban ecosystem. It postulated that a feedback loop should
closely connect the urban ecosystem with the GES emissions
and the energy consumption. This critical relationship may
seriously aggravate the urban heat level, so our research aim

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 529

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_161
530
was to identify the intrinsic characteristics of the urban
ecosystem which could contribute to stabilize the three
components relation, exacerbating the heat phenomenon.
The main objective was to develop an original assessment
method serving to evaluate the resilience capacity face to the
urban heat stress and strengthening the urban thermoregu-
lation strategy. Bab Ezzouar municipality in Algiers (Alge-
ria) was chosen as a demonstrative case study.
The research process can be summarized in three steps:
(1) firstly, analyze the urban ecosystem components (an-
thropogenic heat, natural resources and their impact on
health) having a potential role in exacerbating the urban
heat; (2) secondly, analyze the capacities of these compo-
nents of thermal exacerbation to moderate the heat and
identify them as filter of urban thermoregulation; (3) thirdly,
evaluate the urban absorption capacity and the adaption
capacity face to the heat stress, relying on the thermoregu-
lation filter.
2 Materials and Methods
Bab Ezzouar city (800 ha, 100,000 inhab) is among the
hottest Algiers municipalities. Its strategic location in the East
of Algiers, with 118 inhabitants/ha density, makes it a com-
petitive pole. It represents an interesting case study in view of
its metropolitan ambitions in the regional scale of Algiers.
The research is based on the causal investigation method
of analysis of the urban heat in a complex process of thermal
exacerbation within urban areas, focusing on: (1) the urban
components that could potentially generate increasing tem-
perature, such as energy consumption and greenhouse gas
emission; (2) their interactions with the environment, public
health and economy; (3) and finally the components that
increase the urban heat effects (the anthropogenic heat, the
alteration of natural resources and the degradation of human
health). We argued that these interacting components play a
double role as they could both exacerbate and regulate the
thermal conditions simultaneously. They designate the urban
thermoregulation drivers which modify the climatic factors
(temperature, humidity…). Since it is the interaction
between these components that generated the phenomenon
of urban thermal stress, it has become vital to simultaneously
intervene on them, to meet the objective of thermal regula-
tion at the city level. According to their double role as
amplifier and regulator, they could play the role of filter as
per the urban thermoregulation process.
Through its urban metabolism, the city rejects different
substances in addition to some energy that turns into heat. In
relation with the thermal aspect only, some parameters
characterizing the urban morphology and physiology
(Berezowska-Azzag 2013), which aggravate the thermal
comfort according to the metabolic circuit, have been
A. Fernini-Haffif and E. Berezowska-Azzag
identified. The urban thermal stress, as determined here,
leads to target three key challenges: the reduction of
anthropogenic heat, the conservation of the natural resour-
ces, and the protection of the community health which could
be additionally impacted.
In order to calculate the absorption capacity index and the
adaptation capacity index face to the resulting urban heat
phenomenon, we have used the inductive thermoregulation
approach. Then, the absorptive capacity is supposed to be
the reactive resilience (Cutter et al. 2008; Bene et al. 2012)
based on some protective measures by short term, while the
adaptive capacity is supposed to be the proactive resilience,
based on some preventive measures by middle term within
areas where the urban ability to face the heat waves is weak.
A heat absorption capacity index and a heat adaptation
capacity index were developed for each of the following
spatial scales: the municipality of Bab-Ezzouar, the neigh-
borhood as a “local climate zone” (Stewart and Oke 2012;
Stewart et al. 2014) and finally the urban blocks. The cal-
culation method was based on quantitative and qualitative
data characterizing the local urban morphology and physi-
ology. For the morphological aspects, the urban areas were
characterized by the urban form, the socio-spatial organi-
zation and the typology of fabrics. The physiological aspects
were characterized by the functional organization, the eco-
nomic activities and the urban metabolism. We identify and
evaluate parameters representing each aspect and their score
was determined according to their refreshing impact.
The two main indexes tend to highlight concrete actions
aiming to stabilizing and/or reducing the urban heat stress
effect, not only by addressing its impacts on the urban space
and natural resources (water, air, biodiversity, wastes), but
also by reducing the anthropogenic heat in addition to
enhancing the thermal comfort within urban neighborhoods.
3 Results and Discussion
Within Bab-Ezzouar municipality, we defined the objectives
of improving of the thermal capacities of absorption and
adaptation in connection with the components of the filter of
thermoregulation as follows: (1) absorption capacity (pro-
tection against heat, energy sufficiency and sanitary protec-
tion), (2) adaptation capacity (thermal adjustments, energy
efficiency and sanitary prevention).
The parameters answering these objectives and related
indicators were crossed through multi-scales matrices in
order to determine critical areas of weakness. The level of
urban resilience face to the heat is assessed according to the
predefined scale. This study has been able to reveal the
temporal necessity of cooling the space in the municipality
of Bab-Ezzouar. The crucial need to refresh by short term
enable us to suggest some urgent actions, with the
Towards a Thermoregulation Filter Facing the Urban Heat Stress …
implementation of measures of refreshment on the three
spatial scales: the city, the neighbourhood and the block,
which could be integrated into the urban planning opera-
tional tools. The second major outcome could be the need to
establish a thermal comfort by the middle term in the various
spacial scales, with social acceptance degree verification.
4 Conclusion
The objective of this study was to identify and test the
new assessment method of the local urban resilience face
to the urban heat stress, based on two dimensions (i.e. the
absorption capacity and the adaptation capacity). The
study of Bab-Ezzouar municipality in Algiers showed
that the interactions between different urban parameters
were able to contribute to reduce the urban heat and
outline the thermoregulating filter profile, for the opera-
tional urban management use.
Indeed, absorption and adaptation strategies are nec-
essary for urban areas particularly in the perspective of
future climate change and the probable increment of
urban heat stress (Lauf et al. 2012; Dugord et al. 2014).
These strategies target the reduction of the vulnerability
of the population and improve the resilience efficiency to
heat progressively. Our research provided useful inputs to
both urban planners and decision makers actions, in order
to help them in prioritizing adaptation heat measures and
improving the resilience of urban areas. Further, it would
be convenient to evaluate the potential of local thermal
transformability in the long run, as this kind of
prospective should be necessary to improve the proactive
resiliency thanks to urban thermoregulation process.
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New Tyranny? Reflection about the potentials and limits of the
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Kim YH, Baik JJ. Daily maximum urban heat island intensity in large
cities of Korea. Theor Appl Climatol. 2004;79:151–64.
Lauf S, Haase D, Hostert P, Lakes T, Kleinschmit B. Uncovering
land-use dynamics driven by human decision-making—a combined
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Environ Model Softw. 2012;27(28):71–82.
Ministry of Interior, Hungary VATI-Hungarian Nonprofit Ltd., For
Regional Development and Town Planning. Climate friendly cities
—a hand book of the tasks and possibilities of European cities n
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Papanastasiou DK, Melas D, Kambezidis HD. Air quality and thermal
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 Impact of the Neonicotinoid Insecticide,
Actara®, on the Shrimp Palaemon adspersus:
Biomarkers Measurement

Hinda Berghiche, Khaoula Touati, Salima Chouahda,

and Noureddine Soltani

Keywords
Toxicology Palaemon adspersus Neonicotinoïds Thiamethoxam Biomarkers

1 Introduction after 96 h and were used for the enzymatic assay of

Since their commercial introduction in the early 1990s,
Neonicotinoids have quickly become the most commonly
used class of insecticides in the world. Thiamethoxam as an
end-use product of Actara® (25 g of thiamethoxam in 100 g
of insecticide) is a widely used in the Northeast Algerian
region against Insects and Cereal Suckers, Fruit Trees and
vegetable crops. The current study was intended in esti-
mating sublethal concentrations (LC10, LC25) of Actara®(25
WG of thiamethoxam) and to specify in laboratory condi-
tions their effects on the enzymatic activity on the shrimp
Palaemon adspersus (Decapoda, Palaemonidés) considered
as a bioindicator of pollution.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Shrimps and Treatment
glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and acetylcholinesterase
(AChE), respectively.
3 Glutathione S-Transferase Activity
Determination
GST activities were determined with the soluble fraction as
enzyme source. GST activities toward 1- chloro-2,
4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) were measured (Habig et al.
1974). Flesh fragments were homogenized in sodium;
phosphate buffer (0.1 M, pH 6) and centrifuged (14,000 g,
30 min). 200 µl of the resulting supernatant was added to
1.2 ml of reaction mixture containing 1 Mm CDNB and
5 Mm reduced glutathione (GST) in the homogenization
buffer. Changes in absorbance were recorded at 340 nm.
Enzyme activities were expressed as µM/min/mg proteins.

P. adspersus were sampled in the lagoon El-Mellah 4 Determination of Cholinesterasic Activity

(north-east Algeria) and reared in laboratory conditions.
The insecticide was added to the rearing water of
P. adspersus adults at different concentrations (0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4
and 5 mg/L) and mortality was recorded after 96 h of
exposure. Then, the compound was used at two concentra-
tions corresponding to CL10 and CL25. The samples (flesh
and head) were performed in individuals of P. adspersus
H. Berghiche (&)
K. Touati
S. Chouahda
N. Soltani
Laboratory of Applied Animal Biology, Department of Biology,
Faculty of Sciences, Badji-Mokhtar University of Annaba, 23000
Annaba, Algeria
e-mail: hindabentoubal@hotmail.ca
The AChE activity was determined using acetylthiocholine
as a substrate (Ellman et al. 1961). Heads were homogenized
in the following solution containing 38.03 mg ethylene
glycol tetraacetic (EGTA), 1 ml Triton X-100, 5.845 g NaCl
and 80 ml Tris buffer (10 Mm, pH 7). After centrifugation
(9000 g, 5 min), the AChE activity was measured in aliquots
(100 µl) of resulting supernatants added to 100 µl of 5-5′
dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DNTB) in Tris buffer
(0.01 M, pH 8) and 1 ml Tris (0.1 M, pH 8). After 5 min,
100 µl acetylthiocholine was added. The measurements
were conducted at a wavelength of 412 nm with a run time

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 533

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_162
534 H. Berghiche et al.

Table 1 Toxicity of Actara® (thiamethoxam) against the shrimp P. adspersus: The data are expressed in terms of lethal concentration (LC) after
96 h of exposure with the corresponding 95% fiducial limits (95%FL). R2: coefficient of determination
Concentrations Values (mg/L) Fiducial limits (95%) R2
LC10 0.30 (0.11–0.57) 0.97
LC25 0.65 (0.35–1.00)
Hill Slope 0.21 (0.93–2.10)

Table 2 Effect of Actara® (thiamethoxam: LC10 = 0.3; LC25 = 0.64 mg/L) on glutathione S-transferases (GST) activity (µM/min/mg protein) in
adult shrimps, P. adspersus after 96 h of exposure. Data are expressed as means ± SD (n = 5). In each stage, mean values followed by different
letters are significantly different (p < 0.05)
Hours Control Actara® (LC10) Actara® (LC25)
24 A 0.63 ± 0.083 a A 1.31 ± 0.36 b A 1.37 ± 0.094 b
48 AB 0.84 ± 0.08 a A 1.40 ± 0.28 b A 1.42 ± 0.13 ab
72 B 1.31 ± 0.28 a A 1.44 ± 0.03 a B 3.62 ± 0.26 b
96 B 1.67 ± 0.76 a B 3.58 ± 0.30 b B 3.88 ± 0.40 b

Table 3 Effect of Actara® (thiamethoxam: LC10 = 0.3; LC25 = 0.64 mg/L) on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity (µM/min/mg protein) in
adult shrimps, P. adspersus after 96 h of exposure. Data are expressed as means ± SD (n = 5). In each stage, mean values followed by different
letters are significantly different (p < 0.05)
Hours Control Actara® (LC10) Actara® (LC25)
24 A 0.13 ± 0.03 a A 0.08 ± 0.03 b A 0.12 ± 0.02 a
48 A 0.13 ± 0.20 a A 0.05 ± 0.02 b AB 0.11 ± 0.02 a
72 A 0.10 ± 0.005 a A 0.07 ± 0.02 a AB 0.11 ± 0.01 a
96 AB 0.15 ± 0.02 a A 0.09 ± 0.02 b B 0.08 ± 0.01 b

of 20 min. Simultaneously, the total protein content was
quantified according to Bradford et al. (1976), using bovine
serum albumin as a standard.
5 Statistical Analysis
The measurement of the enzymatic activity (lM/min/mg
protein) of the glutathione S-transferases (GST) and acetyl-
cholinesterase (AChE) was performed in the control and
treated series after 96 h of exposure. The results revealed a
significant increase in the activity of GST and a significant
decrease in AChE activity (Tables 2 and 3).

The statistical analyses were performed using prism version 7 Conclusion

7.00 for Windows (GraphPad software, La Jolla California,
USA, www Graphpad.com). The homogeneity of variances
was checked by Bartlett’s and Brown-Forsythe tests. Non
linear regression and two-way ANOVA followed by a post
hoc HSD Tukey test were used.
All these results indicate that thiamethoxam at sublethal
concentrations showed a sensitive toxicity to shrimp with
dose effect and disrupts different enzymatic activities
causing inhibition of the AChE and induction of GST.
Thiamethoxam can present secondary effects on this
non-target shrimp species.

6 Results and Discussion References

The insecticide was added to the rearing water of
P. adspersus adults at different concentrations (0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4
and 5 mg/L) and mortality was recorded after 96 h of
exposure. The results obtained after the statistical analysis
revealed a toxicity of thiamethoxam to shrimp with a dose
effect, and the sublethal concentrations were in order of 0.30
and 0.64 mg/L (LC10, LC25) (Table 1).
Bradford MM. A rapid and sensitive method for the quantification of
microgram quantities of protein utilising the principe of protein-dye
binding. Anal Biochem. 1976;72:254–78.
Ellman GL, Courtney KD, Abdres V, Featherstone RM. A new and
rapid colorimetric determination of acetylcholinesterase activity.
Biochem Pharmacol Physiol. 1961;38:84–90.
Habig WH, Pabst MJ, Jacobi WB. The first enzymatic step in
mercapturic acid formation. J Biol Chem. 1974;1974(249):7130–9.
 Occurrence and Enhanced Removal of Heavy
Metals in Industrial Wastewater Treatment
Plant Using Coagulation-Flocculation
Process

Zied Marzougui, Mohamed Damak, Boubaker Elleuch,

and Abdelhamid Elaissari

Keywords
Enhanced removal Heavy metals Wastewater treatment Coagulation-flocculation

before its discharge. In this study, monthly samples taken

1 Introduction
Heavy metal pollutants in aquatic environments cause a
severe threat to public health and ecological systems (Wang
et al. 2010; Ambashta and Sillanpää 2010). Cadmium, zinc,
copper, nickel, lead, mercury and chromium are often
detected in industrial wastewaters, which originate from
metal plating, mining activities, tanneries, surface treatment
processes, paint manufacture, and photographic industries
(Beljaj et al. 2014), etc. The presence of metals in industrial
wastewater is one of the main causes of water and soil
pollution. Accumulation of these elements in wastewater
depends on a number of local factors such as the industry
type. Therefore, WTP company was considered as a pattern
in this study. It was mainly renowned as a brass-producing
company (Sinks, bathroom fixtures, fittings for water and
sanitation gas …). The effluents are rich with heavy metals
derived from brass lingo trained by zinc copper nickel and
lead, besides the use of chromium in the treatment of
metallic pieces (Fu and Wang 2011; Semerjian and Ayoub
2003). However, the company has a local wastewater
treatment plant to reduce inorganic and organic pollutants
Z. Marzougui (&)
A. Elaissari
University of Lyon, University Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS,
LAGEP UMR 5007, 43 boulevard du 11 November 1918,
F-69622, Villeurbanne, France
e-mail: marzougui_zied@hotmail.com
M. Damak
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Applied Chemistry
and Environment Research Unit, Boulevard de l’Environnement,
5000 Monastir, Tunisia
Z. Marzougui
B. Elleuch
Laboratory of Environmental Engineering and
Ecotechnology GEET, National School Engineer of Sfax,
University of Sfax, 3052 Sfax, Tunisia
from wastewater entering the studied company WTP were
analyzed in 2016 to determine effluent characteristics. The
objective was to review the potential of coagulation process
for the treatment of industrial effluents, especially the
removal of heavy metals from aqueous environments.
2 Materials and Methods
Monthly samples taken from wastewater entering the studied
company WTP were analyzed to determine effluent charac-
teristics. Water samples were analyzed for heavy metals
using automatic absorption spectrometry (ICE 3000 Series).
the samples were dried in oven at 105 °C for 24 h.
Sub-samples were subsequently digested with 5 mL con-
centrated HNO3 at 160 °C till colorless solution was
obtained. After cooling, the suspensions were filtered and
filtrate was adjusted to 50 mL with double deionised water.
Additionally, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and the
biological oxygen demand (BOD5) were determined with the
reactor digestion using a HACH DR 2010 analyzer and the
manometric method with a respirometer (BSB-controlled
Model OxiTop WTW) respectively. According to AFNOR,
pH was measured using pH meter (INOLAB WTW Model
720). SS measured by vacuum filtration of the samples,
according to JIS K 0102.14.1.
3 Results and Discussion
The study of the coagulation-flocculation system perfor-
mance included the evaluation of the treated waters quality
in comparison to the Tunisian water quality standards for
emission into the sewerage system (Table 1). The average

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 535

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_163
536 Z. Marzougui et al.

Table 1 Physico-chemical characteristics of WTP effluent

Parameters Tunisian Unit 01/2016 02/2016 03/2016 04/2016 05/2016 06/2016 07/2016 08/2016 10/2016 12/2016
standards
ONAS
DBO5 400 mg 4 11 21 2 40 15 33 9 36 12
O2/l
DCO 1000 mg 63 36 150 85 48 42 30 47 115 220
O2/l
SS 400 mg/l 6.2 2.6 113 3.2 48 4 2.2 8.8 6.2 9.8
pH 6.5  pH / 7.3 8 8.25 8.2 8.4 7.95 8.1 8.5 8.5 8.35
 9
Cr6+ 0.5 mg/l 1.09 0.029 0.416 0.06 0.2 0.06 0.006 0.82 3.18 1.08
Cr3+ 2 mg/l 0.05 0.03 0.49 0.25 2.55 0.04 0.016 0.038 0.295 0.026
Cl− 700 mg/l 1077 1084 1083 1064 1116 1227 1086 1036 958 870
Ni2+ 2 mg/l 5.42 3.44 1.07 3.51 0.33 4.7 0.962 0.2 2.28 1.606
Pb 2+
1 mg/l 0.2 5 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Cu2+ 1 mg/l 0.05 5 0.05 0.05 0.005 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
2+
Fe 5 mg/l 0.1 0.134 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Zn2+ 5 mg/l 0.138 0.118 0.055 0.05 0.05 0.13 0.05 0.067 0.05 0.05
Oil and 30 mg/l 4 12.5 12 0 0.1 0 2.2 0 248.3 5
grease

Table 2 Treatment WTP with Removal ratio (%) Pb Cr Zn Cu Ni

Al2(SO4)3.18H2O
pH 8.5; dose 0.03 g/1 100 97.53 96.59 98.73 49.12
pH 8.5; dose 0.08 g/1 100 96.96 95.34 99.16 54.39
pH 8.5; dose 0.13 g/1 100 97.77 95.99 100.00 52.88
pH 6.5; dose 0.03 g/1 100 90.78 91.45 97.30 38.08
pH 6.5; dose 0.08 g/1 100 93.54 94.79 97.99 41.14
pH 6.5; dose 0.13 g/1 99.85 90.24 89.94 94.25 42.93
pH 4.5; dose 0.03 g/1 98.72 82.08 81.56 90.62 34.18
pH 4.5; dose 0.08 g/1 98.26 90.50 84.56 97.32 42.06
pH 4.5; dose 0.13 g/1 93.26 88.54 88.20 95.38 39.99

values obtained in the effluent for pH, COD, BOD5, SS,
were in agreement with the limits of the Tunisian recom-
mendations. However, some of the compounds, the effluent
residual loads were above the values required by standards.
The high amounts of Cl− and Ni2+ outflow can be partially
explained by their relatively elevated concentrations in the
raw influent. In spite of the advantages cited in the literature,
there are inherent limitations to the effectiveness of the
flocculation process for industrial wastewater treatment. In
some cases, it may not be possible to achieve the desired
outflow concentration due to the high natural background
levels of the concerned contaminants.
The Jar tests conducted to optimize the pH (between 4.5
and 8.5) yielded data on heavy metals removal efficiencies
with effect of coagulant dose (varying between 0.03 g/L and
0.13 g/L). The results, presented in Table 2; Fig. 1, show
that Aluminum sulfate increased the removal ratio of heavy
metals, except for the nickel ion. In fact, a low Ni removal
ratio (between 34 and 41%), was achieved within a pH range
of 4.5 and 6.5 and a coagulant dose of 0.03–0.08 g/L. The
optimum coagulant dose on the nickel removal was 0.1 g/L
and at pH of 6.6 efficiency. However, the results of treatment
with Ferrous sulphate, presented in Table 3; Fig. 2, show
that the removal ratio of heavy metals was lower than the
Occurrence and Enhanced Removal of Heavy Metals … 537

Fig. 1 Effect of pH and

coagulant dose on the Ni removal
by Al2(SO4)3.18H2O

Table 3 Treatement WTP with Removal ratio (%) Pb Cr Zn Cu Ni

FeSO4.7H2O
pH 4.5; dose 0.03 g/1 20.78 43.65 12.12 20.21 2.51
pH 4.5; dose 0.08 g/1 25.99 44.33 15.06 23.57 2.31
pH 4.5; dose 0.13 g/1 32.40 46.79 19.61 27.77 5.77
pH 6.5; dose 0.03 g/1 74.41 78.94 89.86 88.77 67.02
pH 6.5; dose 0.08 g/1 68.89 75.75 88.43 88.54 69.71
pH 6.5; dose 0.13 g/1 71.53 76.50 86.59 88.08 67.18
pH 4.5; dose 0.03 g/1 57.82 52.39 49.45 49.38 65.61
pH 4.5; dose 0.08 g/1 52.76 53.61 52.80 53.07 48.36
pH 4.5; dose 0.13 g/1 41.64 45.96 35.60 33.96 37.68

Fig. 2 Effect of pH and

coagulant does on the Ni removal
by FeSO4.7H2O

one treated with Aluminum sulfate. The optimum coagulant
dose on the nickel removal was 0.03 g/L and at pH of 6.6.
The removal ratio was 78%.
4 Conclusion
The study showed that some of the WTP compounds
were present at trace levels, their contents in the treatment
plant influent were shown to be quite variable. The WTP
plant was obviously effective in the removal of heavy
metals from industrial wastewater. The studied metal
concentrations, except for Ni(II), were reduced to their
specific permissible limits set for wastewater in Tunisia.
That is why additional proper treatment based on scien-
tific approaches should be considered. Adsorption by
zeolite (Yousef et al. 2011) can be used as an adjunct to
coagulation-flocculation for Cl− removal.
538
References
Ambashta RD, Sillanpää M. Water purification using magnetic
assistance. J Hazard Mater. 2010;180:38–49.
Belhaj D, Ghrab S, Medhioub M, Kallel M. Performance evaluation of
an industrial wastewater treatment plant in South-Eastern Tunisia.
Desalin Water Treat. 2014.
Fu F, Wang Q. Removal of heavy metal ions from wastewaters.
J Environ Manage. 2011;92(3):407–18.
Z. Marzougui et al.
Semerjian L, Ayoub GM. High-pH–magnesium coagulation–floccula-
tion in wastewater treatment. Adv Environ Res. 2003;7(2):389–403.
Wang J, Zheng S, Shao Y, Liu J, Xu Z, Zhu D. Amino-functionalized
Fe3O4@SiO2 core–shell magnetic nanomaterial as a novel adsor-
bent for aqueous heavy metals removal. J Colloid Interface Sci.
2010;349:293–9.
Yousef RI, El-Eswed B, Ala’a HA. Adsorption characteristics of
natural zeolites as solid adsorbents for phenol removal from
aqueous solutions: kinetics, mechanism, and thermodynamics
studies. Chem Eng J. 2011;171:1143–9.
 Impact of Wind on the Temporal Distribution
of Rotifers in the Foum El Gherza Dam

Nassima Doukhandji, Somia Hamil, and Abdeslem Arab

Keywords
Wind Distribution Rotifers Suspended matter Climate factor
Algeria

D ¼ n=V ð1Þ
1 Introduction
D number of individuals contained in a volume V
Heterogeneous distributions of zooplankton originate from N number of individuals found in a sample
various processes, some of which can be attributed to
The average wind speed measured in km/h on the same
internal factors; that is, they are related to the activity and
day of sampling was provided by the Biskra meteological
swimming behaviour of the animals (Folt and Burns 1999).
station. Water samples collected by a reversal Niskin-type
Other causes are linked to external factors, which force
bottle for physico-chemical analysis, which were analysed in
organisms to be transported passively, such as by
laboratory to determine concentrations of suspended matter
wind-driven currents (Rinke et al. 2009). The primary
(MES). Other parameters (temperature and dissolved oxygen
objective of our work was to identify the wind influence of
(DO)) were measured in situ using a multi-analyser of the
the temporal distribution of rotifers in a dam under a Saharan
type WTW 340i and transparency by a Secchi disk.
climate. The objective of our study is to identify the wind
influence in the temporal distribution of rotifers in a dam
under a Saharan climate.
3 Results and Discussion

The water temperatures varies seasonally. The average water

2 Materials and Methods
Plankton samples were collected monthly between July 2007
and August 2009, using a 50 lm mesh net. Samples were
fixed in 5% formalin solution. Rotifers were identified and
counted using conventional light microscopy and appropri-
ate identification keys. The calculation of the density was
achieved according to the formula (1):
N. Doukhandji (&)
A. Arab
Laboratory Dynamics and Biodiversity, University of Science and
Technology Houari Boumediene, Algiers, Algeria
e-mail: nassi.meriem@yahoo.fr
S. Hamil
Laboratory of Animal Eco-Biology, Upper Normal School of
Kouba Bachir El Ibrahimi, Algiers, Algeria
e-mail: dj.soumia@hotmail.fr
temperatures is 21.5 °C, in winter it dropped to 10 °C
(December) and increased to 31 °C in summer (July). DO in
summer (1.80 mg L−1) was low compared with winter
(11.68 mg L−1). The summer oxygen deficiency is a result
of elevated values in salinity and temperature, which pre-
vents the O2 dissolution (Sacchi et al. 1971). Transparency
values varied between 0.24 and 2.30 m, were inversely
proportional to the amount of suspended matter. Prowse and
Talltng (1958) considered resuspension of lake sediments by
bioturbation or wind (related to low depth) would cause high
suspended matter values (The depth varies between 0.8 and
11 m).
The temporal evaluation of the wind speed with species
density and species richness is shown in Fig. 1. We noticed
that the density of species increases when the wind speed is
high. This is confirmed by the Pearson correlation test.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 539

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_164
540
Fig. 1 Temporal evaluation of wind speed with species density and specific richness
It indicates that there is a positive and significant correlation
between species density and wind speed, especially during
the period 2007–2008. r = 0.60 (p value = 0.01). On the
other hand, the specific richness decreases with the increase
of the wind speed.
The increase in the density of rotifers species with the
wind speed in May is related to the high suspended matter
loads (r = 0.30, p = 0.22). which consists of organic matter,
including bacteria the main food source of rotifers (Thou-
venot et al. 2000) and inorganic matter (resuspension of
sediments silt). This indirectly affects the abundance of
rotifers by the decrease of their predators.
N. Doukhandji et al.
The rise in the specific richness was observed with the
decrease in wind speed. This was related to the increase in
transparency (r = 0.27, p = 0.30) which allows light pene-
tration necessary for the production of phytoplankton
(Randall et al. 2004).
4 Conclusion
Wind influences indirectly the richness, density and
temporal distribution of rotifers species. This climatic
factor is considered to be a «limiting factor» of rotifers
reproduction.
Impact of Wind on the Temporal Distribution of Rotifers …
References
Folt CL, Burns CW. Biological drivers of zooplankton patchiness.
Trends Ecol Evol. 1999;14:300–5.
Prowse G, Talltng J. The seasonal growth and succession of plankton
algae in the White Nile. Limnol Oceanogr. 1958;3:222–38.
Randall DC, Fleck NL, Shneerson JM, File SE. The cognitive-enhancing
properties of modafinil are limited in non-sleep-deprived middle-aged
volunteers. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2004;77:547–55.
541
Rinke K, Huber AMR, Kempke S, Eder M, Wolf T, Probst WN,
Rothhaupt KO. Lake-wide distributions of temperature, phyto-
plankton, zooplankton, and fish in the pelagic zone of a large lake.
Limnol Oceanogr. 2009;54:1306–22.
Sacchi CF, Testard P, Lamotte M. Écologie animale: organismes et
milieu. France: Doin; 1971.
Thouvenot A, Debroas D, Richardot L, Jugnia B, Dévaux J. A
study of changes between years in the structure of plankton
community in a newly flooded reservoir. Arch Hydrobiologia.
2000;149:131–52.
 Effect of Copper on the Physiological
Parameters of Broad Bean (Vicia faba L.)

Benouis Slimane, Houcine Abdelhakim Reguieg Yssaad,

El Haj Bouziani, Djoudi Abdelhak, Imane Cherief, and Amrane Fatiha

Keywords
Copper Vicia faba Phytotoxic Soil Physiological parameter

1 Introduction and/or at the level of the aerial parts and is characterized by

Anthropogenic, industrial and agricultural activities can be
the cause of an accumulation of metals in the environment
and in particular in soils. The contribution of metals to soil is
generally made either by atmospheric deposition or by direct
application to the soil or indirectly via vegetation, and
materials concentrated in metals. The plants require for their
growth and development certain metal ions such as, for
example, copper. These ions enter into the composition of
certain enzymes where they serve as co-factors. This ele-
ment, necessary in small quantity, however, is toxic or even
lethal when present in high concentrations (Hänsch and
Mendel 2009). When the Cu content increases in the soil, the
Cu content observed in the plant can reach a critical con-
centration, variable according to the plant species, from
which symptoms of phytotoxicity appear. In plants, phyto-
toxicity can be expressed at the root level (rhizotoxicity)
B. Slimane (&)
H. A. Reguieg Yssaad
I. Cherief
A. Fatiha
University of Mostaganem, Mostaganem, Algeria
e-mail: slimane_benouis@yahoo.fr
H. A. Reguieg Yssaad
e-mail: reguiegyha@hotmail.fr
I. Cherief
e-mail: imane.cherief92@gmail.com
A. Fatiha
e-mail: amrane.fatiha@yahoo.fr
E. H. Bouziani
University of Constantine, Constantine, Algeria
e-mail: eh.bouziani@gmail.com
D. Abdelhak
University of El Oued, El Oued, Algeria
e-mail: agrodjoudi@hotmail.com
molecular, metabolic and/or different levels of organization
of the entire plant (ISO 2006). It is in this context that the
present work whose major objective is to analyze the
parameters of the broad bean (Vicia faba) face to metal stress
induced by the copper.
2 Materials and Methods
The experimentation is driven under a greenhouse in glass,
and the tests carried out are conducted in the laboratory of
the biodiversity and the conservation of water and soil,
University of Mostaganem, Algeria.
2.1 Preparation of Culture Substrate
The culture substrate is composed of a soil collected at a
depth of 20 cm at the level of the Experimental Farm,
sieved, and mixed well for homogenizing this culture med-
ium. A sample is taken to determine the retention capacity of
the water that is in the order of 30%, and another sample to
determine their physical and chemical properties (Table 1).
The seeds of Vicia faba are sterilised in germination.
2.2 Application of the Metal Stress
The solutions of CuSO4, 5H2O are prepared and applied
once before planting. The application of the metal stress is
done depending on the dry weight of the soil, during 02
months. The doses of the CuSO4, 5H2O selected are, 200,
400, 600, 800 and 1000 mg/kg soil.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 543

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_165
544 B. Slimane et al.

Table 1 Physical and chemical pH (AFNOR X31-103 Sol/Eau: 2/5) 8.59

property of soil uses
Conductivity Electric (dS/m) (Iso: 11265 Soil/water: 1/10) 162
Matière Organique (%) (Méthode De Walkley) 1.78
U.S.D.A Texture: Sable limineux

Table 2 Probability “P” of the The variables Probability (p)

analysis of the variance of the
physiological parameters of the Chl a 0.0222 * Significant
variety is studying Chl b 0.07112 NS Not significant
Proline 0.00051 *** Very highly significant
Dry weight root 0.00095 *** Very highly significant
Dry weight aerial part 0.35931 NS Not significant

2.3 The Experimental Device 3 Results and Discussion

The pots are distributed according to 06 lots. The first lot
serves as an indicator (D0) and five other undergo a metal
stress, increasing intensities, 200 ppm (D1), 400 ppm (D2),
600 ppm (D3), 800 ppm (D4) and 1000 ppm (D5). This
treatment consists of 24 pots, representing four replicates for
each lot of treatment. Irrigation water is substituted once
each three times by a nutrient solution type of commercial
ACTIVEG.
2.4 The Parameters Measured
2.4.1 Dosage of Chlorophyll Pigments
The concentrations of chlorophyll a (Chl a) and (Chl b) are
determined by spectrometry.
3.1 Effect of Copper on Photosynthetic
Pigments
3.1.1 Chlorophyll a
The results achieved (Table 2) show that the increase of
doses of copper applied causes a regression of the amount of
chl a. The analysis of the data obtained (Table 2), show that
the expression of this characteristic is influenced by the
application of metal stress with (P < 0.05).
The application of D3 and D5 save the most low content
in chl a, with a rate of reduction which reached respectively
45.35 and 44.46% in relation to the D0. In the batches, D1,
D2, D4, the regressions of the chl a are respectively 8.19,
8.92 and 9.72 mg/g, thus expressing reductions of the order
of 19.78, 12.63 and 4.79% (Fig. 1).

2.4.2 Determination of Proline 3.1.2 Chlorophyll b

The method used is that of Dreier and Göring (1974), it
determines the optical density at (528 nm). The values
obtained are converted into content of proline (mg/g FM).
2.4.3 Calculating the Dry Weight of the Aerial
Part and Root
The dry biomass of the aerial parts and the root is deter-
mined after the passage in the oven for 48 h at 80 °C at the
end of the experiment.
2.5 Statistical Treatment
The statistical analysis focuses on the analysis of variance to
a single factor in randomization, and on the comparison of
the averages obtained by the test of Newman-KEULS.
The study of the results obtained (Table 3) shows that the
increasing application of copper causes distinct variations
from Chl b through the different doses. The analysis of the
data obtained (Table 3), shows that the expression of this
characteristic is weakly influenced by copper (P > 0.05).
The D1, D2, D4, mark a slight variation in Chl b with
11.22 mg/g for D1, 11.76 mg/g for D2 and 10.90 mg/g for
D4, in contrary, for the D3 and D5 we obtained a high
reduction of this parameter by report D0.
The measurement of the chlorophyllous content of the
pigment allows us to assess the toxicity of copper to the
plants of the broad bean. The reduction of the chlorophyll in
the plant under Treatment of copper may be due to the
inhibition of enzymes acting on the synthesis of chlorophyll
or of chlorophyll degradation (Mourato et al. 2009). The
decrease in the rate of chlorophyll in plants exposed to
Effect of Copper on the Physiological Parameters … 545

14.00

Content of chl b (mg/g)

12.00

Content of chl a (mg/g)

12.00
10.00 10.00
8.00 8.00
(mg/g) Chl a
6.00 6.00 Chl b
4.00 4.00
2.00 2.00
0.00 0.00 Cu (ppm)
Cu (ppm)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Fig. 1 The Evolution of the medium levels of chl a and chl b (mg/g) in function of the dose of copper

Table 3 The levels of chl a in Dose of Cu (ppm) chl a (mg/g) Evolution (%) chl b (mg/g) Evolution (%)
mg/g of leaves of broad bean
exposed to copper D0 10.23 ± 0.84A – 11.43 ± 1.9 –
D1 8.19 ± 1.45A −19.78 11.22 ± 0.91 −1.83
D2 8.92 ± 1.33A −12.63 11.76 ± 0.92 +2.88
D3 5.59 ± 3.47A −45.35 6.59 ± 4.47 −42.34
D4 9.72 ± 1.78A −4.79 10.90 ± 1.18 −4.63
D5 5.67 ± 2.79A −44.46 7.71 ± 4.52 −32.54

Table 4 Proline concentration in Dose of Cu (ppm) Proline (µg/g) Evolution (%)

(µg/g) of the leaves of the broad
bean exposed to copper D0 70.03 ± 18.72B –
D1 98.82 ± 16.44B +41.11
D2 70.86 ± 21.04B +1.18
D3 82.19 ± 23.99B +17.36
D4 116.94 ± 19.55A +66.98
D5 134.35 ± 52.71A +91.84

copper is a very common phenomenon and is assumed as
preliminary to the inhibition of photosynthesis. Several
studies have shown that the copper affects photosynthesis.
Benouis and Reguigue (2016) study shows a decrease in the
quantity of Chl a and b in two varieties of broad bean (Sidi
Aïch and Super Aguadulce).
3.1.3 Effect of Copper on the Proline Content in
‘Broad Bean’ Leaves
The results (Table 4), show that the proline content increases
bean accumulate substantial quantities of proline in their
leaves, and especially in the high doses D4 and D5, with
averages between 116 and 134 µg/g. Several studies detec-
ted an increase of the proline following exposure to the
stress of copper, in Vicia faba (Aleksandra et al. 2013),
Canavalia ensiformis, and among Coffea Arabica (Andradea
et al. 2010).
200.00
proline content (μg)

depending on the increased doses of the copper applied. The 150.00

analysis of the variance (Table 4) reveals that the variations 100.00 Proline
of the levels in proline greatly depend on the intensity of the
50.00
copper (P < 0.05) (Fig. 2).
The proline accumulation is commonly observed when 0.00
Cu (ppm)
there is an environmental stress such as the presence of 0 200 400 600 800 1000

heavy metals, the oxidative stress, and the drought. Thus, the
Fig. 2 Evolution of the medium levels of proline (µg/g) in function of
average results obtained show that the plants of the broad the dose of copper
546 B. Slimane et al.

Table 5 Dry weight part air and Cu (ppm) Dry weight part air (g) Evolution (%) Dry weight root (g) Evolution (%)
root in (g) of the broad bean
exposed to copper D0 4.22 ± 2.35A – 0.77 ± 0.18A –
D1 4.22 ± 1.90A 0 0.72 ± 0.22A −6.49
D2 4.10 ± 0.92A −2.84 0.75 ± 0.13A −2.59
D3 4.15 ± 1.10A −1.65 0.79 ± 0.13A +2.59
D4 3.8 ± 0.29A −9.95 0.38 ± 0.09B −50.64
D5 2.95 ± 0.60B −30.09 0.37 ± 0.09B −51.94

Fig. 3 The evolution of the dry 7

Dry weight aerial part (g)

weight part air and root of the 1
6

Dry weight Root (g)

broad bean (g) depending on the
dose of copper 5 0.8
4 0.6
3
0.4
2
0.2
1
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
Dry weight aerial part Dry weight root

3.1.4 Effect of Copper on the Dry Weight
of Aerial Part and Root
According to the results obtained (Table 5), the dry aerial
matter and the root decrease depending on the doses of
copper. This decrease is proving to be very considerable for
the metal processing D4 and D5, with a decrease of around
50% compared to the D0 for root, and which reaches 30% in
the D5 for the dry aerial matter part. In the case of an
exhibition at the Cu by the soil solution, the plants initially
concentrate Cu in the roots and these are the bodies that are
the first to suffer the impacts of Cu (Cuypers 2000) and
which are the most affected. The decrease in the growth of
the roots has consequently led to a decrease of the plant and
therefore a reduction in water and nutrients. The inhibition
of the root growth can be explained by the lignification
process. When the Cu is in excess into the cells of the roots,
the concentration of H2O2 and the quantities of peroxidases
involved in the synthesis of lignin increase (Lin et al. 2005)
(Fig. 3).
4 Conclusion
According to our results, the application of increasing
doses of copper on the growth of the broad bean Vicia
faba caused a disturbance of the photosynthetic activity
expressed by the decrease in the amounts of chlorophyll a
and b. The decrease of this function accompanies and
explains the reduction of the dry matter of the plant. On
the other hand, a proline accumulation in the leaves of the
plant is considered as a biomarker of stress. The increase
in the plant is a physiological thick back in the face of
several environmental stresses.
References
Aleksandra NS, Alina K, Marta KC, Janina G, Agnieszka ZR.
Accumulation of heavy metals and antioxidant responses in Vicia
faba plants grown on monometallic contaminated soil. Environ Sci
Pollut Res. 2013; 20:1124–34.
Andradea SAL, Priscila LG, Ricardo A, Azevedob Adriana PD, Sil-
veirac MA, Schiavinatoa PM. Biochemical and physiological changes
in jack bean under mycorrhizal symbiosis growing in soil with
increasing Cu concentrations. Environ Exp Bot. 2010;68:198–207.
Benouis S, Reguigue H-AH. Phytotoxicity of copper on the physio-
logical parameters of two varieties of broad bean (Vicia faba). In:
International Conference on Agricultural, Civil and Environmental
Engineering (ACEE-16). Istanbul, Turkey; 2016.
Cuypers A. Phytotoxic concentrations of copper and zinc induce
antioxidative defence in Phaseolus vulgaris, cv. Limburgse vroege:
a comparative study. Diepenbeek, Belgium: Limburgs universitair
centrum; 2000.
Dreier W, Göring M. Der einfluss hoher salzkonzentration auf
verschieden physiollogische parameter von maiswurzeln. Wiss Z.
der Humboldt Univ Berlin Math Naturwiss R. 1974; 23:641–4.
Effect of Copper on the Physiological Parameters …
Hänsch R, Mendel RR. Physiological functions of mineral micronu-
trients (Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, Ni, Mo, B, Cl). Curr Opin Plant Biol.
2009;12:259–66.
ISO. Soil quality—guidance for the selection and application of
methods for the assessment of bioavailability in soil and soil
materials. ISO/DIS 17402 Geneva, Switzerland; 2006.
547
Lin CC, Chen LM, Liu ZH. Rapid effect of copper on lignin
biosynthesis in soybean roots. Plant Sci. 2005;168:855–61.
Mourato MP, Martins LL, Campos-Andrad MP. Physiological
responses of Lupinus lutetus to different copper concentrations.
Biol Plant. 2009;53:105–11.
 Field Assessment of Sewage Sludge
as Sustainable Agriculture Practice

Rim Baccar, Rajia Kchaou, Yassine Hidri, Saloua Rejeb, and Jalel Bouzid

Keywords
Organic waste Sewage treatment plant Soil Triticale Nutrients

1 Introduction the sewage treatment plant of Beja (North-West of Tunisia),

The safe disposal of sewage sludge is one of the major
concerns worldwide (Singh and Agrawel 2010). In Tunisia,.
sewage sludge generation has significantly increased in
recent years (245 thousands m3 of dried sewage sludge in
2010 compared to 99 thousand m3 in 2002) and its man-
agement is still a significant problem. Among the proposed
strategies for sewage sludge management and according to
the report of the National Urban Wastewater Treatment
Program, agricultural application of sewage sludge remains
one of the methods. It is used not only to solve the problem
of disposal but also to increase productivity in agriculture
thanks to its organic waste content as a source of nutrients
together with other organic constituents (Martinez et al.
2003). However, this practice should be monitored for its
environmental risk due to the presence of noxious sub-
stances such as heavy metals and pathogens. Moreover crops
responses to sludge application vary by source, application
rate, plant species, soil type, weathering conditions and
application management (Al Zoubi et al. 2008). In this
context, the present field study was conducted to assess the
potential effect of three sewage sludge rates, provided from
R. Baccar (&)
J. Bouzid
Laboratory of Environmental Engineering and Eco Technology,
University of Sfax-Tunisia, ENIS, BP 1173, 3038 Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: rym.baccar@tunet.tn
R. Kchaou
Y. Hidri
Regional Field Crop Research Center, BP 350, 9000 Beja, Tunisia
S. Rejeb
National Research Institute of Rural Engineering, Water and
Forest, BP 10, 2080 Ariana, Tunisia
on a soil and forage crop, namely triticale “X Triticosecale
Wittmack”.
2 Materials and Methods
The experiment was conducted on field at the experimental
station of the Crops Regional Research Center Beja,
North-West of Tunisia. Sewage sludge (SS) was collected
from an urban sewage treatment plant (STP) located in Beja.
SS parameters (i.e. metal contents and pathogens) were in
the standard Tunisian range (NT106.2 2002). The treatments
included three rates of SS (6, 12 and 18 t/ha), mineral fer-
tilizer A (100 kg N/ha) and unamended plots (0 t/ha) which
served as control, with four replicates for a final total of 20
plots. After 15 days of sewage sludge stabilization, soil
samples were collected in triplicate (0–20, 20–40 cm) for
some physico-chemical analysis in the beginning of triticale
cycle. For plant growth parameters (shoot length) and bio-
mass determination, one linear meter was selected randomly,
from each treatment, and hand harvested at 60 and 90 days
after sowing. The collected samples at final harvest were
analyzed for nutrients (N and P) and trace metals (Cd, Cu,
Zn). All physico-chemical analyses of soil and plants were
carried out in accordance with standard methods.
3 Results and Discussion
The soil pH decreased but conductivity (EC) increased under
the different sewage sludge treatments. This variation was
significant at 12 and 18 t/ha of sewage sludge application
compared to control (Table 1). Singh and Agrawal (2010)

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 549

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_166
 550

Table 1 Effect of different sewage sludge treatments on some physico-chemical characteristics of soil
Treatment pH EC (ms/cm) OM (%) N (%) P2O5 (ppm) K2O (ppm)
0−20 cm 20−40 cm 0−20 cm 20−40 cm 0−20 cm 20−40 cm 0−20 cm 20−40 cm 0−20 cm 20−40 cm 0−20 cm 20−40 cm
Control
8.12a 8.09ab 0.4d 0.45d 2.68cd 2.37d 0.18c 0.168c 45.63ef 39.94f 902.30abc 798.32c
A 8.05ab 8.05ab 0.44d 0.45d 2.49d 2.36d 0.17c 0.161c 51.47cde 47.21def 882.91bc 801.85c
ab bc c c bcd bcd b ab bc bcd abc
SS1 (6 t/ha) 8.03 7.98 0.76 0.87 2.91 2.79 0.29 0.34 58.73 55.89 958.69 934.02abc
c
SS2 (12 t/ha) 7.9 7.9c 1.13b 1.18b 3.05abc 3.03abc 0.37a 0.35ab 62.52cb 57.55bcd 1034.48ab 902.30abc
c c a a ab a a a a a a
SS3 (18 t/ha) 7.86 7.87 1.36 1.46 3.45 3.28 0.42 0.39 77.21 67.97 1066.2 990.41ab
Means with different letters in each group show significant difference at p < 0.05 Duncan’s test
R. Baccar et al.
Field Assessment of Sewage Sludge as Sustainable Agriculture … 551

Fig. 1 Effect of different SS treatments on shoot length and biomass of triticale before 60 (first harvest) and 90 days (second harvest) of sowing
(Mean of three replicates), Bars with different letters in each group show significant difference at p < 0.05

also found a reduction in pH and an increase of EC due to SS
addition at different rates in the soil. The organic matter, P
(P2O5) and K (K2O) contents of soil enhanced due to SS
amendments with a significant increase in the presence of the
highest rate of SS3 (18 t/ha). However no significant vari-
ation was observed after chemical fertilization (A).
Shoot length and plant biomass increased significantly at
all SS treatments compared to control (Fig. 1). Maximum
increase was observed at SS3 (18 t/ha) at 60 and 90 days after
sowing. Increments in these parameters at different SS rates
may be attributed to the availability of nutrients through
sewage sludge. Indeed, the results showed that phosphor
content in plants increased significantly after 60 days of
sowing with the highest rate of sewage sludge: 18 t/ha. This
result is in accordance with those of Mahdy et al. (2007) who
reported a significant increase in total plant biomass of corn
plant grown at different amendment rates of sewage sludge.
The N and P contents in root, shoot and grain of triticale
plant at final harvest are compiled in Table 2. The results
show that N and P concentrations increased with the increase
of sewage sludge rates in the different organs of the triticale
compared to control and significantly in the grains with 79%
for N at SS3. Thus, it can be deduced that the majority of
nitrogen provided from the sludge was accumulated in the
above ground part of the triticale and essentially in grains.
The improvement of nitrogen content after sewage sludge
amendment has been widely reported in the literature
(Moreno et al. 1996; Kchaou et al. 2011). These results
corroborate also with those of Igoud (2001) who showed that
the phosphorus content of Pinus maritima and Acacia cya-
nophyla increased with the increase of sewage sludge doses.
Heavy metal contents (Cd, Cu and Zn), at different parts of
plants and at final harvest showed that their concentration
were highest in roots than other plant parts (Table 3). The Cd
values obtained in this work (0.11–1.46 mg/kg) are lower
than the non toxic value in plants (1.9 mg/kg) implying that
Cd was not present in the sewage sludge. Cu is an essential
element in plants growth. However, it can cause toxic effects

Table 2 Effect of treatments on N and P contents (%), on the root, shoot and grain of triticale at final harvest
Root Shoot Grain
Treatment N (%) P (%) N (%) P (%) N (%) P (%)
a a a b c
Control 1.99 0.07 3.08 0.02 7.85 0.08ab
(±0.32) (±0.02) (±0.85) (±0.01) (±0.76) (±0.01)
A 2.97a 0.05a 3.79a 0.02b 8.31bc 0.07b
(±0.75) (±0.01) (±0.89) (±0.01) (±2.30) (±0.01)
SS1 (6 t/ha) 2.77a 0.06a 3.98a 0.07a 11.94abc 0.09ab
(±1.12) (±0.02) (±0.77) (±0.01) (±2.32) (±0.01)
SS2 (12 t/ha) 3.09a 0.07a 3.88a 0.07a 12.79ab 0.08ab
(±1.04) (±0.01) (±1.07) (±0.02) (±2.27) (±0.01)
SS3 (18 t/ha) 2.85a 0.07a 4.16a 0.07a 14.03a 0.10a
(±1.8) (±0.01) (±1.58) (±0.01) (±1.92) (±0.01)
Values are mean of four data (±SE)
Means with different letters in each group show significant difference at p < 0.05 Duncan’s test
552 R. Baccar et al.

Table 3 Selected heavy metal concentrations in root, shoot and grain for different treatments and at final harvest (Mean of four replicates ±SE)
Element Treatment Root Shoot Grain
Cd C 1.462 ± 0.33a 0.2 ± 0.14a 0.287 ± 0.17a
A 1.537 ± 0.19a 0.35 ± 0.08a 0.25 ± 0.12a
SS1 1.175 ± 0.36a 0.279 ± 0.16a 0.158 ± 0.13a
SS2 1.1 ± 0.24a 0.262 ± 0.14a 0.265 ± 0.16a
SS3 1.25 ± 0.29a 0.112 ± 0.03a 0.275 ± 0.12a
Cu C 8.65 ± 2.22a 0a 2.25 ± 0.80a
A 10.162 ± 2.13a 0.25 ± 0.43a 2.975 ± 0.62a
SS1 8.491 ± 3.37a 0.195 ± 0.34a 2.712 ± 0.66a
SS2 6.612 ± 2.36a 0.525 ± 1.05a 2.975 ± 0.90a
SS3 11.087 ± 7.01a 0.537 ± 0.45a 2.475 ± 0.63a
Zn C 154.7 ± 78.52a 37.762 ± 15.92b 60.137 ± 11.74a
A 138.937 ± 5.74a 41 ± 14.09ab 59.812 ± 10.58a
SS1 137.675 ± 53.89a 43.912 ± 17.36ab 56.033 ± 8.76a
SS2 112.687 ± 13.98a 67.687 ± 20.19a 62.162 ± 5.46a
SS3 168.537 ± 68.48a 41.475 ± 18.58ab 58.512 ± 5.49a

in stem and leaf tissues if its concentration exceeds 20 mg/kg
(Borkert et al. 1998). Our results show that the highest value
of Cu (11.08 mg/kg) was obtained in the roots in the presence
of the highest sludge dose (18 t/ha) and which was found to
be non-toxic. Although Zn presented the highest concentra-
tion in the different parts of the plant, its content remains
below the toxic concentration (230 mg/kg) in the above
ground part according to Borkert et al. (1998).
4 Conclusion
Long-run experiments should be continued to evaluate
the effect of using organic waste, sewage sludge, on
triticale productivity and soil fertility without any envi-
ronmental risk and for the development of a sustainable
agriculture practice.
References
Al Zoubi MM, Arslan A, Abdelgawed G, Pejon N, Tabaa M,
Jouzdan O. The effect of sewage sludge on productivity of crop
rotation of wheat, maize and vetch and heavy metals accumulation
in soil and plant in Aleppo governorate; 2008.
Borkert CM, Cox FR, Tucker MR. Zinc and copper toxicity in peanut,
soybean, rice and corn in soil mixtures. Commun Soil Sci Plant
Anal. 1998; 29, 2991e3005.
Igoud S. Valorisation des boues résiduaires issues des stations
d’épuration urbaines par leur épandage dans les plantations
forestières. Rev Energ Ren Production et Valorisation-Biomasse.
2001; 69–74.
Kchaou R, Naceur Khalil N, Gharbib F, Rjeba MN, Henchib B,
Destanic JP. Efficience de l’utilisation de l’azote des boues
résiduaires par le sorgho fourrager. Eur J Sci Res. 2011; 54 1:78–
82. ISSN 1450-216X.
Mahdy AM, Elkhatib EA, Fathi NO. Cadmium, copper, nickel, and
lead availability in biosolid amended alkaline soils. Aust J Basic
Appl Sci. 2007;1(4):354–63.
Martinez F, Cuevas G, Calvo R, Walter I. Biowaste effects on soil and
native plants in a semiarid ecosystem. J Environ Qual.
2003;32:427–79.
Moreno JL, García C, Hernández T, Pascual JA. Transference of heavy
metals from a calcareous soil amended with sewage-sludge compost
to barley plant. J Bioresource Technol. 1996;55(3):251–8.
NT 106.20. Matières fertilisantes- Boues des ouvrages de traitement des
eaux usées urbaines. Normes Tunisiennes Enregistrées. 2002.
Singh RP, Agrawal M. Variations in heavy metal accumulation, growth
and yield of rice plants grown at different sewage sludge
amendment rates. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2010;73:632–41.
 Contamination by Selected Trace Elements
in Groundwater of Azzaba District
in Northeast of Algeria
Moussa Benhamza, Abdelaziz Laraba, and David Landry



Keywords
Groundwater Pollution
1 Introduction
The study area is located in the North of Algeria on the
Northern side of the numidian chain, 30 km away from
Skikda and 3–10 km from Azzaba. The study area is a part
of the Northern Numidian mercurial and polymetallic As–
Hg–Sb–Pb–Zn belt that is located in Azzaba district,
northeast Algeria (Benhamza 2007).
The hydrogeology of the area is characterized by two
aquifers. The Oligocene phreatic water table where the
aquiferous rocks are fissured sandstones alternating with
beds of clay; and the Paleocene Eocene deep confined
aquifer which is largely developed in the area, with a
groundwater associated with sandstone, limestone, breccia
conglomerate, fissured cavernous limestone and the cal-
careous sandstone of the Paleocene. The two aquifers are
separated by impermeable layer of Palaeozoic and Lutetian
Priabonian. The latter forms the top of cinnabar rock min-
eralization (Benhamza et al. 2006).
M. Benhamza (&)
A. Laraba
Laboratory of Geodynamic and Natural Resources, University of
Badji Mokhtar—Annaba, B.P 12 Annaba, Algeria
e-mail: moussa_benhamza@yahoo.fr
A. Laraba
e-mail: abdlaraba@yahoo.fr
D. Landry
Laboratoire des Sciences de l’Environnement et de
l’Aménagement, Faculté des Sciences, Université d’Angers, UFR
Sciences, 2 boulevard Lavoisier, Cedex 01, 49045 Angers, France
e-mail: david.landry@univ-angers.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_167


Norms Mineral speciation
2 Materials and Methods
Fifteen springs in both aquifers were analyzed to identify the
major trace elements. The analyses were carried out in the
laboratories of the Petrochemical Complex of Skikda and
Boumerdes (Algiers) in July 2012.
The dosing processes were deduced from the methods of
standard analyses. The determination of mercury was carried
out into two stages. The first consisted in oxidizing all kinds
of mercury in a bivalent state using an acid digestion to
obtain elementary mercury. Mercury was extracted by bub-
bling dry air in the solution. The gas mixture was then sent
to the atomic absorption spectrophotometer without flame
(Rodier 1984;Charlot 1978; Telliard 2002).
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Groundwater Trace Element
To evaluate the impacts of natural and anthropogenic sour-
ces on groundwater in terms of heavy metal contaminations,
groundwater samples were also analyzed.
3.1.1 Mercury
The levels of mercury occurring in the groundwater and
surface water were less than 0.5 µg L−1. The WHO guide-
line value for total mercury was 0.001 mg L−1. The
groundwater mercury distribution map of the area has shown
that the high values are located in the mining field of Ismail.
The maximum contents (80 µg L−1) are located in drillings
of the Oligocene aquifer. These values are very high
according to the standard tolerated for the Hg, which is
1 µg L−1.
553
554
Fig. 1 Saturation indices of selected mineral species of Azzaba
groundwater
Fig. 2 Saturation indices of selected mineral species of Azzaba
groundwater
A part of the mercury contents in water has resulted from
recycling of atmospheric Hg by rainfall, in which a major
part has originated from the hydric rejection of the plant
(Benhamza et al. 2006; OMS 1980).
3.1.2 Lead
Previous studies have shown that the maximum level in
groundwater is 0.08 mg L−1. In the current study, lead con-
centrations have increased to more than 0.08 mg L−1. The
enrichment of this element with peak values as shown in the
mining field of Ismail might be from geogenic origin due to the
dissolution of Galena PbS (Benhamza et al. 2006; OMS 1980).
3.2 Speciation
The program MINTEQ version 4 has been used to calculate
the degree of saturation.
M. Benhamza et al.
The saturations indexes values reveal that the ground-
water of the studied field was saturated with respect to cal-
cite, dolomite and aragonite, which decreased in the
direction of the regional flow towards the centre and
north-northeast direction. The centre of the field showed an
under saturation with respect to anhydrite and halite (Fig. 1).
The minerals of Hg, As and lead were under saturated in the
groundwater related to the study area (Fig. 2).
4 Conclusion
The region of Azzaba is a zone of contamination by
heavy metals. Mercury among other metals is regarded as
an environmental problem of this area by its potential
impact on the environment and also on the health of
people.
The high Hg contents in the analyzed water were up to
80 µg L−1. The analyses results have shown maximum
levels of Pb 0.08 mg L−1. In addition, levels of lead in
groundwater and surface water were less than 50 µg L−1.
The values of the saturation indices have shown that
the groundwater of the study area was saturated with
respect to calcite, dolomite and aragonite and
under-saturated with respect to anhydrite and halite.
The Hg minerals, Arsenic and lead were under
saturated.
References
Benhamza M. Contribution de la géophysique à l’étude hydrogéolo-
gique de la zone mercurielle Nord Numidique (Azzaba), Nord Est
Algérie. Conséquences de l’exploitation des gisements mercuriels
sur l’environnement. Thèse de doctorat d’état de l’université
d’Annaba, Algérie; 2007. 174 p.
Benhamza M, Kherici N, Nezzal A. Hydrochemistry of groundwater in
the mercurial zone Northern numidic (Azzaba), North East Algeria:
evaluation of the mercurial contamination on the population. The
third International conference on the Water Resources in the
Mediterranean Basin Tripoli Lebanon 1–3 November; 2006, 5 p.
Charlot, G. Dosages Absorptiométriques des éléments minéraux.
Masson, Paris, New York, Barcelone, Milan; 1978. 443 p.
OMS. Exposition aux métaux lourds: Limites et recommandations
d’exposition professionnelle; Rapport d’un groupe de l’OMS; 1980.
Rodier J. Analysis of water; natural water, waste water, sea Water,
7eme edition, Ed Dunod, Paris; 1984.
Telliard WA. Engineering and Analysis division (4303) U.S Environ-
mental Agency Protection. Method 1631, Revision C: Mercury in
toilets by oxidation, Purging and too, and Cold Vapor Atomic
Spectrometry fluorescence; 2002.
 Assessment of the Bioaccumulation Capacity
of Heavy Metals of the Species: Quercus Ilex L
Tree Plant Garden of El Hamma-Algeria
for Use in Phytoremediation

Nadjib Benosmane, Keltoum Namani, and Manal Saichi

Abstract
Present work aims to assess the potential of phytoremediation of tree species namely:
Quercus ilex L

– The determination of concentration of certain heavy metals (Pb, Zn, Cu, Ni and Cd) in
the leaves, shoots of both trees and soil
– The pollution index calculated show that the soils of the urban site are more polluted
than the rural site soils.

Keywords
Phytoremediation Quercus ilex L Heavy metals AAS Soils pollution

1 Introduction weatherling of minerals, erosion and volcanic activity while

Environmental pollution by heavy metals has become a
serious problem in the world. Heavy metals are essentially
non biodegradable and therefore accumulate in the envi-
ronment, but the accumulation of heavy metals in soils and
waters poses a risk to the environment and human health.
Heavy metals concentrations beyond threshold limits have
adverse health effects because they interfere with normal
functioning of the living system. Heavy metals enter the
environment from natural and anthropogenic sources (Ali
et al. 2013). The most significant natural sources are
N. Benosmane (&)
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University
M’Hamed Bougara de Boumerdes (UMBB), Avenue de
l’indépendance 35000, Boumerdes, Algeria
e-mail: nadjibbenosmane@yahoo.fr
N. Benosmane
Laboratoire de Chimie Organique Appliquée, Faculty of
Chemistry, USTHB, BP 32 El-Alia, 16111 Alger, Algeria
K. Namani
M. Saichi
Département de Biologie des Populations et des Organismes,
Faculté Des Sciences de La Nature et de La Vie, Université de
Blida, Blida, Algeria
antheopogenic source include mining, smelting, electro-
plating, use of pesticides and (phosphate) fertilizers as well
as biosolids in agriculture sludge dumping, industrial dis-
charge, and atmospheric deposition (Fulekar et al. 2009). In
many urban areas of the world, motor vehicle traffic is a
major source of air pollution contributing to 50–75% of total
emissions (WHO 2005). Urban forests and trees in the urban
environment can improve air quality through filtering and
uptake of gases and particles. Plants can absorb contami-
nants from the environment in different ways (uptake, sta-
bilization and translocation of materials) (Yang et al. 2008).
During the last decades, phytoremediation has grapped
researchers’ attention because of being cheaper than other
common methods and also being in harmony with envi-
ronment. Some heavy metals such as lead (Pb) and cadmium
(Cd) that are not essential nutrients in organisms cause high
toxicity for plants and animals, can be removed from envi-
ronment by plants, as well Pb and Cd can concentrate in
aerial organs (leaves and shoots) of some plants (Modrze-
jewska and Wyszkowski 2014; Yay et al. 2008). The main
objective of our study was to evaluate the ability of the plant
Quercus ilex L in the remedy against certain heavy metals
(Pb, Zn, Cu, Ni and Cd) from air and soil in garden El
Hamma as urban site and National Park of Chrea as rural site

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 555

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_168
556
Fig. 1 Location of investigation
area: a urban site, b rural site
located in Algeria. The selected trees were extensively
planted in Algeria and exposed to varying extents of Cd and
Pb due to industrial and motor vehicle traffic.
2 Materials and Methods
The urban study site is located in the garden El Hamma city
of Algeries (36° 43′N, 03° 05′E), based on the traffic con-
ditions and exposed to pollution, we chose the garden El
Hamma as it has a high traffic rate Fig. 1. The rural site was
the Chrea forest, an area at a distance of about 50 km from
the capital of algeria. (36° 19′N, 03° 02′E). At each site 10
Quercus ilex L trees of a height of about 8–10 were selected.
Leaves and shoots samples were collected about 4–5 m
above the ground in April 2014, soil samples from 0 to
30 cm in depth. The plant samples were oven-dried at 70 °C
for 72 h and subsequently ground into powder for chemical
N. Benosmane et al.
analyses. The soil samples (1.0–1.5 kg) were air-dried for 2
weeks and sieved through a 2 mm for further analyses. For
determining the concentration of heavy metals in leaves and
shoots, leaves samples were thoroughly washed in tap water
and rinsed with double distilled water to eliminate surface
contamination. The plant was digested with perchloric acid
and nitric acid (1:4) solution. The samples were left to cool
and contents were filtered through Whatman filter paper
No. 42. Each sample solution was made up to a final volume
of 25 ml with distilled water (Tokalioglu et al. 2003). For
soil samples metal extraction was conducted with aqua regia
according to the NF X 31-151 procedure (AFNOR 1994).
The concentrations of heavy metal in soil, and plant samples
were determined with an atomic absorption spectropho-
tometer (Varian 110) fitted with a specific lamp for a par-
ticular metal using appropriate drift blanks. Detection limits
was set at 0.01 for Cu, 0.005 for Zn, 0.01 for Cd, 0.02 for
Pb, and 0.02 for Ni.
Assessment of the Bioaccumulation Capacity of Heavy Metals … 557

Table 1 Heavy metals concentrations in soil, leaf and shoot of Quercus ilex L tree from an urban and rural sites
Elements Soils Leaves Shoots
The average of concentration Urban Rural Urban Rural (lg g−1) Urban Rural (lg g−1)
(lg g−1) (lg g−1) (lg g−1) (lg g−1) (lg g−1)
Pb 50.96 ± 7.65 26.24 ± 4.67 0.386 ± 0.05 0.225 ± 0.034 0.256 ± 0.04 0.135 ± 0.024
Zn 47.41 ± 6.43 44.64 ± 5.78 27.79 ± 3.25 21.09 ± 3.25 21.65 ± 3.76 18.54 ± 4.67
Ni 13.15 ± 3.84 24.46 ± 3.45 6.52 ± 0.67 1.51 ± 0.23 5.78 ± 0.54 0.65 ± 0.28
Cd 0.432 ± 0.03 N.D 0.15 ± 0.01 N.D 0.26 ± 0.02 N.D
Cu 49.96 ± 7.37 38.38 ± 5.86 25.32 ± 3.87 14.76 ± 2.64 22.78 ± 4.05 11.64 ± 3.63
N.D Not Detected (below limit of detection)

3 Results and Discussion
The concentration (lg g−1) of heavy metals in the leaves and
shoots of the studied species as well as the soil of study area
are shown in Table 1. The total amounts of Cd, Pb, Zn, Cu
and Ni in the soil are low and the pollution rate could not be
revealed as a problem, then soils from the urban site con-
tained higher amount of heavy metals than those of the rural
site (Table 1). The concentrations were still within regula-
tory limits defined for soil in WHO 2006.
The significant difference between shoot opposite of
leaves introduce a transporting process from leaves to shoots
in all of samples by the end of April. The concentration of
Pb in aerial organs of the tree was higher than Cd. This could
be due to the fact that the concentration of Pb in the soil was
higher than Cd. there was no significant difference in
absorption for both heavy metals between leaves and shoots.
It seems that the little amount of pollutants in soil of the
study area is the most important factor for lower absorption
of heavy metals in the leaves and shoots of the tree.
4 Conclusion
We demonstrated that Quercus ilex L tree is more
valuable for Zn, Cu and Ni accumulation in this habitat,
in spite of the high traffic, it is clear that the total amount
of contaminants in this regions is apparently low and the
pollution rate could not be revealed as a threshold sen-
sitivity. This may be due to the wind effect that moves the
pollution strongly. The Quercus ilex L can be used
successively to the accumulation of these contaminants
for phytoremediation.
References
Ali H, Khan E, Sajad MA. Phytoremediation of heavy metals—
concepts and application. Chemosphere. 2013;91:869–81.
Fulekar M, Singh A, Bhaduri AM. Genetic engineering strategies for
enhancing phytoremediation of heavy metals. Afr J Biotechnol.
2009;8:529–35.
Modrzejewska B, Wyszkowski M. Trace metals content in soils along
the state road 51 (Northeastern Poland). Environ Monit Assess.
2014;186:2589–97.
Tokalioglu S, Kartal S, Birol G. Application of three stage sequential
extraction procedure for the determination of extractable metal
content in highway soils. Turk J Chem. 2003;27:333–46.
WHO. Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, oeone, nitrogen
dioxide and sulphur dioxide. Global update. 2005.
Yang X, Feng Y, He Z, Stoffella PJ. Molecular mechanisms of heavy
metal hyperaccumulation and phytoremediation. J Trace Elem Med
Bio. 2008;18:339–53.
Yay OD, Alahga O, Tuncel G. Multivariate statistic to investigate metal
contamination in surface soil. J Environ Manage. 2008;18:581–94.
 Effect of Salinity and Compost of Aleppo
Pine Pinus halepensis L on the Proline
and Chlorophyll Content of the Bean Vicia
faba L Minor

Tayeb Nouri, Houcine Abdelhakim Reguieg Yssaad, Hadj Bouyahia,

Keira Nouar, Nabil Ghenami, and Ahmed Latigu

Keywords
Salinity Bean Compost of Alep pine Proline Chlorophyll

1 Introduction material used is a bean (Vicia faba L minor), a local cultivar

Salinity has always increased in agricultural soils where
irrigation is employed in arid and semi arid areas
(Djerroudi-Zidane et al. 2010). Abiotic stresses factors such
as drought, heat and soil salinity cause significant crop yield
losses by limiting plant growth on diverse crop species
(Abbruzzese et al. 2009). Plant salt-tolerance expressed by
morpho-physiological characteristics (Pessarakli 2002).
The presence of abiotic stress, such as salinity causes an
accumulation of proline (Djerroudi-Zidane et al. 2010). It
allows the formation of protection membranes and enzyme
systems, especially in young plant organ (Islam et al. 2009).
Proline seems to play a role in maintaining pressure cytosol
and vacuole pH regulation (Ottow et al. 2005). In Algeria,
Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis L.) covers more than 850,000
ha. This species which is present in all the bioclimatic stages,
from the littoral to the Saharan Atlas, finds its optimum
growth mainly in semi-arid zones. Its great plasticity and
robust temperament make it a pioneer in the great refor-
estation (Ottow et al. 2005).
2 Materials and Methods
The experiments were carried out in a biology laboratory and
environmentally controlled green house located at Naama
University Center, Algeria (33°16′36.67″, 0°19′8.54″O) and
lasted from November 2016 to May 2017. The vegetable
T. Nouri (&)
H. A. Reguieg Yssaad
H. Bouyahia
K. Nouar

N. Ghenami
A. Latigu
Laboratory of Biodiversity and Conservation of Soils and Waters,
University Center Salhi Ahmed Naama, Naâma, Algeria
e-mail: nouritayeb@yahoo.fr
Sidi Aisch provided by the ITGC of Constantine, Algeria.
The seeds were disinfected with 8% bleach for 10 min and
rinsed several times with distilled water to remove any trace
of chlorine.
Substrate consisted of topsoil (CE = 0.20 ms/cm,
pH = 7.2, % OM = 0.21 and CEC = 11.25 meq/100 g).
These soils having underwent several preparations by drying
and sieving to remove plant debris, to obtain than fine ele-
ment. Sowing took place in cylinder filled with five kilograms
of each substrate used. The Irrigation was performed with
distilled water. The water holding capacity was determined by
the difference between the quantity of water supplied by
irrigation and that recovered after 24 h. Reserve easily water
used corresponded between 30 and 60% of the water retention
capacity. This means 350 and 700 mL cylinder −1. Plants
were watered three times a week, twice with deionized water
and once in the nutrient Hoagland solution diluted to 1 ppt.
The Plants were stressed by three salinity classes 3, 6 and
9 ms/cm and combined with three treatments of the compost
Pine Aleppo Pinus halepensis L (0.10 and 20%).
Determination of chlorophyll content: Chlorophyll
content was determined according to the method developed
by Coombs et al. It was carried out in the mixture of acetone
and ethanol (75 and 25%) in volume and 80 and 20% in
concentration. An amount of 0.01 g fresh leaf samples was
added to 10 ml of a mixture of acetone and ethanol of vol-
umes Respectively 75 and 25% with two concentrations of
80 and 20%. After 10 min of centrifugation at 5000 rpm at
4 °C. Spectrophotometric reading was taken at 645 and
663 nm wavelengths. Data were assessed in formulae:
Chl a (lg/g MF) = 12.7  DO (663) – 2.59  DO (645)
 V/(1000  W).

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_169
560
Fig. 1 Effect of salinity and Aleppo pine compost on chlorophyll content (a) and proline content (b) of Vicia faba L minor
Chl b (lg/g MF) = 22.9  DO (645) – 4.68  DO (663)
 V/(1000  W).
Chl(a + b) (lg/g MF) = Chl a + Chl b
V: volume extracted solution and W the weight of fresh
material of the sample
Proline analyses: The leaf tissue proline content was
measured following the method of Bergman and Loxley
(1970). Thus, 100 mg of fresh leaf material was homoge-
nized in 2 ml of 40% methanol, and then heated in a water
bath at 85 °C for 60 min. The absorbance was measured at
505 nm in a spectrophotometer
The experimental design was adopted to two factors,
compost of Pine Alepo with 3 doses 0, 10 and 20% and the
other salinity with 4 classes 0, 3, 6 and 9 ms/cm.
Statistical analysis: The experiment was arranged in a
completely randomized design with four replications and the
data collection and calculation were analyzed using
STAT BOX 6.40. It was confirmed by Statistica 7 computer
programs and the comparison of means were tested for
significance using Student—New mean test, at 0.05 level of
probability.
2.1 Results and Discussion
Chlorophyll content: The analysis of the variance at the
threshold of an error a = 0.05 of the effect of salinity shows
a significant effect (P = 0.04132) on the total chlorophyll
content of Vica faba L, Interaction of compost pine
Alep-salinity compost showed no significant effect
(P = 0.61304). The level of chlorophyll was decreased as
the salt stress increased (9 ms/cm) with a reduction rate of
42% compared to batches that had not received any saline
dose.
The highest values of this pigment were noted in plants in
the 20% Aleppo Pine compost substrates treated with high
salt concentrations (6 and 9 ms/cm).
T. Nouri et al.
2.2 Proline Content
Proline content in the plants of Sidi Aisch cultivar reached its
maximum 7.37 and 7.07 lmol 100 mg−1 at a dose of 3 and
6 ms/cm in substrates treated with 10% of Alepeo pine
compost, respectively (Fig. 1). This high accumulation was
due to, first, the high salt dose and secondly the nature of the
sodium-substrate rich in sodium. It provoked and increased
osmotic pressure in the soil solution. This explained the high
concentration of proline in response to salt stress. The results
were consistent with those of (El Midaoui et al. 2007).
3 Conclusion
During our work we tried to define the combined effect of
salinity and Aleppo pine compost on the bean Vicia faba
L cultivar Sidi Aisch under controlled conditions. The
addition of 10 and 20% of Aleppo pine compost signif-
icantly improved the chlorophyll rate and proline content
in plants to 6 ms/cm salinity. It would be more beneficial
to develop an in-depth study on this free natural biolog-
ical resource by performing microbiological and bio-
chemical analyzes on the plant level. It would, also, be
desirable to carry out an enzymatic and genetic study in
order to master the role of Aleppo pine compost on
agricultural yield in the conditions of salinity
References
Abbruzzese G, Beritognolo I, Muleo R, Piazzai M, Sabatti M,
Mugnozza GS, Kuziminsky E. Leaf morphological plasticity and
stomatal conductance in three Populus alba L. genotype subjected
to salt stress. Environ Exp Bot. 2009;66:381–8.
Bergman I, Loxley R. New spectrometric method for the determination
of proline in tissues hydrolysates. Anal Chem. 1970;42:702–6.
Djerroudi-Zidane O, Belkhodja M, Bissati S, Hadjadj S. Effect of salt
stress on the proline accumulation in young plant of Atriplex
halimus L. and Atriplex canescens (Pursh). Nut Eur J Sci Res. 2010;
41:249–260.
Effect of Salinity and Compost of Aleppo Pine …
El Midaoui M, Benbella M, Houssa AA, Ibriz M, Talouizte A.
Contribution to study of some mechanisms salinity adaptation in
sunflower grown (Helianthus annus L.). Rev HTE No. 136. 2007;
pp: 29–34.
Islam MM, Hoque MA, Okuma E, Banu MNA, Shimoishi Y,
Nakamura Y, Murata Y. Exogenous proline and glycinebetaine
increase antioxidant enzyme activities and confer tolerance to
cadmium stress in cultured tobacco cells. J Plant Physiol.
2009;166:1587–97.
561
Ottow EA, Brinker M, Teichmann T, Bfritz E, Kaiser W, et al. Populus
euphratica displays apoplectics sodium accumulation, osmotic
adjustment by decreases in calcium and soluble carbohydrates and
develops leaf succulence under salt stress. Plant Physiol.
2005;139:1762–72.
Pessarakli M. Physiological responses of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum
L.) to salt stress. In: Pessarakli M, editor. Handbook of plant and
crop physiology. 2nd ed. New York, USA: Marcel Dekker Inc.
2002; pp. 681–696.
 Impact of Soil Properties on Groundwater
Contamination Risks by Nickel and Lead

Mohamed Abdelwaheb and Sonia Dridi-Dhaouadi

Keywords
Contamination Groundwater Adsorption Static experiments Dynamic experiments
Heavy metal The soil

1 Introduction (NO3)2.6H2O dissolved in the distilled water in order to

The use of treated wastewater for agricultural soils irrigation
is an alternative to the water shortage affecting Tunisia.
However, treatment plants rarely take into account the
elimination of heavy metals such as lead and nickel which
are very toxic to the environment (Demirbas 2008) and
especially to surface and groundwater. In Tunisia, the heavy
metals in urban waste water coming principally from
domestic detergents, street run off and hospital waste. Two
of the most problematic heavy metals, Nickel and Lead,
have been found in waste water in significant quantities. In
addition, the solid metals waste discharged from the surface
treatment industries without any prior treatment, also cause
soil contamination. It is therefore important to quantify the
risk for groundwater contamination by studying the metal
behavior through different types of soil. Indeed, the nature of
the soil plays an important role as a barrier to prevent
pollution from reaching the groundwater.
2 Materials and Methods
Static experiments were achieved in order to determine the
maximum retention capacity as a function of clay content,
which varies from 0 to 20%. They were carried out by
contacting 2 g of soil in 20 ml of metal solution for 24 h.
The metal cations were used in the form of Pb (NO3)2 and Ni
M. Abdelwaheb (&)
S. Dridi-Dhaouadi
Faculté des Sciences, UR13ES63 Chimie Appliquée et
Environnement, Université de Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
e-mail: Abdelwaheb.Mohamed1@gmail.com
obtain metal concentrations varying from 0 to 1000 mg/l for
lead and from 0 to 100 mg/l for nickel. The tests were
performed at a constant temperature (18–21 °C). The mix-
ture was centrifuged (3000 rpm) for 10 min, and the
remaining metal ions not adsorbed in the supernatant liquid
were acidifated to pH = 2 by concentrated HNO3 and
determined with Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy.
Dynamic experiments were carried out in order to
determine the risk of flow pollution on underground water
contamination. The flow of solutions through the soil col-
umn was achieved by gravity (top to bottom). The experi-
mental device generally consisted of a stainless steel column
(30 cm long and 2.5 cm in diameter) and a fraction collector
for flow monitoring.
The hydrodynamic behaviour of sandy soil columns was
done with the chloride ion in the NaCl form. This solute is
generally considered to be a good tracer of the flow because
it does not interact with the solid matrix. The flow moni-
toring was carried out by conductivity and allowed us to
evaluate the hydrodynamic characteristics such as the resi-
dence time distribution (RTD), the porous volume and
porosity.
Soils were prepared by mixing sand collected from
Skanes (Monastir) beach and a known content of clay col-
lected from Oued El Guelta (Ouardanine—Monastir).
3 Results and Discussion
Figure 1 shows the results of the batch experimental study of
nickel and lead retention on the sand with different percent-
ages of clay (from 0 to 20%). The points are experimental

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_170
564 M. Abdelwaheb and S. Dridi-Dhaouadi

(a) Nickel isotherms (b) ComparaƟve Lead and Nickel isotherms

Fig. 1 Effect of soil clay content onto static adsorption of Nickel and Lead

Fig. 2 Dynamic adsorption of

Nickel and Lead onto sand

while the curves represent the Langmuir (continuous curves) C0 the metal initial concentration
and Freundlich (discontinuous curves) models. Vt the total volume the metal solution which percolated
These results show that metal retention increases with soil by gravity
clay content (Fig. 1a). However, nickel ion represents a Ci the concentration of each fraction
greater risk for water contamination since it is less retained Vi the volume of each fraction
by sandy and clayey soils than Lead (Fig. 1b). On the other M mass of sand in the column
hand, Freundlich model (discontinuous curves) fitted better
the experimental isotherms except for sandy soil (0% clay). Thereby, the retained amount of Lead and Nickel by sand
Indeed, the metal adsorption onto clayey soil increases were evaluated at 192 and 172 µmol/g respectively. These
constantly with the initial metal concentration. results show that the flow of water contaminated with heavy
Figure 2 shows the results of the dynamic experimental metals through sandy soil results in a high retention of the
retention onto sand of Nickel and Lead simultaneously latter. This high retention capacity can not be revealed by
present in the solution. static adsorption experiments.
The displacement between the tracer breakthrough curve
and those of the metal ions indicates the retention of the 4 Conclusion
latter. Indeed, the adsorbed amount of metal is calculated The results of this study show that the adsorption data of
according to the formula: the two metals were better correlated with the Freundlich
P model than that of Langmuir. The order of the adsorbent
C0 Vt  Ci Vi
qads ¼ affinity for the metal ion was: Pb(II) > Ni(II) for all clay
m
Impact of Soil Properties on Groundwater Contamination …
percentages in soils, so the risk of groundwater contam-
ination by nickel is higher.
The metal adsorbed quantities are larger in the
dynamic mode probably because the gravity flow of an
aqueous solution of metal allows a better soil/pollutant
contact than a static mode agitation.
References
Gómez-Nieto B, Gismera MJ, Sevilla MT, Procopio JR. Fast sequential
multi-element determination of major and minor elements in
environmental samples and drinking waters by high-resolution
continuum source flame atomic absorption spectrometry. Analytica
Chimica Acta. 2015;854:13–9.
565
Gupta SS, Bhattacharyya KG. Immobilization of Pb(II), Cd(II) and Ni
(II) ions on kaolinite and montmorillonite surfaces from aqueous
medium. J Environ Manage. 2008; 87:46–58.
Klay S, Charef A, Ayed L, Houman B, Rezgui F. Effect of irrigation
with treated wastewater on geochemical properties (saltiness, C,
Nand heavy metals) of isohumic soils (Zaouit Sousse perimeter,
Oriental Tunisia). Desalination. 2010;253:180–7.
Mishra SR, Chandra R, Jipsi Kaila A, Savariya Darshi B. Kinetics and
isotherm studies for the adsorption of metal ions onto two soil types.
Environ Technol Innov. 2017; 7:87–101.
RECORD, Etude de l’adsorption-désorption de polluants organiques
dans les sols. Approche méthodologique et application au penta
chlorophénol et aux hydrocarbures aromatiques polycycliques.
1997; 223 p.
Sayen S, Guillon E. Aging effect on Zn retention on a calcareous soil:
column experiments and synchrotron X-ray micro-spectroscopic
investigation. Sci Total Environ. 2014;487:545–56.
 Evaluation of Hepatotoxicity: Nickel
on an Indicator Model of Pollution
(Oryctolagus cuniculus)

Toualbia Nadjiba, Salmi Aya, and Rouabhi Rachid

Keywords
Nickel Oryctolagus cuniculus Enzymatic Metabolic Metal Oxidative stress

1 Introduction catalysts, the formation of other nickel compounds) (USGS

Heavy metals do not all present the same risk due to their
effects on the organisms, their chemical, physiochemical and
biological properties. Their toxicity is very variable and their
impact on the environment is very different (Reddad et al.
2002). The metals transferred to humans can be the cause of
an oxidative stress which represents one of the factors
potentiating the genesis of pluri-factorially diseases such as
cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, rheumatism asthma, can-
cer and neurodegenerations diseases (Cadmium et al. 2008).
In fact, the risk on human health is associated with the
properties of heavy metals which pollute the water, the
atmosphere, the food and the soil. The nickel compounds are
important in modern industry and are used in electroplating
and for the production of battery nickel cadmium and elec-
tronic equipment. The nickel alloys, as stainless steel, are
used in the production of tools, machinery arms and devises,
they are also used to flow coins and produce jewel and
medical prostheses (Garrett 2000). The pure nickel can be
polished, forged, welded, rolled and inert corrosion by the
air, water, acids, alkalis and many organic solvents
non-oxidizing Rouabhi et al. (2009). Salts of nickel are used
in electroplating, ceramics, pigments and feedstock (e.g.:
2006). Nickel is commonly used in many industrial pro-
cesses and implications ecotoxicological important (Nickel
1986).
Rabbits of different varieties have been used to establish
experimental models that are very useful in various spheres
of biomedical research (embryology, toxicology, virology)
and they are frequently used routinely in serology because
they readily produce antibodies against a multitude of anti-
gens (Fadila et al. 2009).
In our work, we tried to demonstrate the effect of nickel
chloride at two concentrations 250 and 500 ppm on rabbits.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Animals
For our experiments, we chose to work on rabbits Orycto-
lagus cuniculus. All rabbits were males weighing between
1.5 and 1.8 kg. Animals were kept under constant conditions
of temperature about 25 ± 3 °C and humidity 35 ± 5%.
The total body weight was daily recorded before and during
the experiments. There was a gain in body weight and an
increase of food consumption indicating the good conditions
of laboratory.

T. Nadjiba (&)
S. Aya
R. Rachid

Department of Applied Biology, Larbi Tebessi University,
12000 Tebessa, Algeria 2.2 Experimental Design
e-mail: nanatoualbia@yahoo.com
S. Aya We have handled 15 rabbits. These rabbits were divided in 2
e-mail: ayaslmi13@yahoo.fr lots of 5 rabbits and we kept five rabbits as control. The
R. Rachid treatments began on the 15th day (adaptation period of
e-mail: r_rouabhi@yahoo.fr rabbits) all treatments are per Os (p.o) as follow:

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_171
568
Lot1: controls no treatments
Lot2: treated with NiCl2 at 250 ppm for 90 days of treatment
Lot3: treated with NiCl2 at 500 ppm for 90 days of
treatment.
After 90 days of treatment, the rabbits were sacrificed. The
liver was recovered, collected, weighed and stored for the
determination of certain biochemical metabolites and certain
oxidative stress parameters (GSH, GPx, CAT, MDA, GST).
2.3 Dosing Methods
2.3.1 Extraction and Dosage of Proteins
The method used for protein assay is Bradford (1976) using
BSA (Bovine Albumin Serum) as the standard.
2.3.2 Determination of Glutathione GSH
The determination of glutathione realized by Weckbeker and
Cory (1988). The principle of this determination is based on
measuring the absorbance of 2nitro-5-mercapturique.
2.3.3 Determination of Glutathione Peroxidase
(GPx)
The enzymatic activity of GPx was measured by the method
of Flohe and Gunzler (1984). Using H2O2 as substrate.
2.3.4 Determination of Glutathione
S-Transferase Activity (GST)
The measuring of glutathione s transferase activity was
determined by the method of Habig et al. (1974). It is based
on the conjugation reaction between GST and a substrate
2.3.5 Determination of Activity Catalase (CAT)
The spectrophotometric determination of catalase (CAT) ac-
tivity is carried out according to the method of Cakmak
(1991).
3 Results and Discussion
The Oxidative stress is typically defined as an imbalance in
the balance between antioxidant defense systems and the
production of ROS in favor of these systems (Favier 2003).
In our work, we have shown an increase in the level of
liver proteins. This result confirms the study of the exposure
of rabbits to environmental stress (Cadmium, Copper and
Zinc) can modify the metabolism of proteins and their
syntheses at the level of liver (Harabawy et al. 2014).
Oxidative stress is assessed by measuring non-enzymatic
antioxidant activities (GSH) enzymatic antioxidant activities
(GST, CAT) and the lipid peroxidation is evaluated by MDA
T. Nadjiba et al.
measurement. The results for the measured biomarkers show
in rabbits (O. cuniculus) at two concentrations of NiCl2 for a
period of 3 months compared to controls a decrease in GSH
level at the hepatic level an increase of GST GPx and CAT.
Nickel causes a disturbance on the level of MDA and an
increase in haptic protein, and we have also demonstrated a
neurotoxic effect of NiCl2 that translates into a decrease in
Acetylcholine Esterase (AchE) activity.
The Oxidative stress in the cell can be induced either by
increased production of ROS or inhibition of the antioxidant
defense system. This balance between the production and
catabolism of oxidants is essential for the maintenance of the
biological integrity of the tissues (Fatima and Mahmood
2007).
GPx is a key antioxidant enzyme that regulates the level
of ROS (GPx is able not only to reduce hydrogen peroxide
to water, but also hydro peroxides resulting from the oxi-
dation of unsaturated fatty acids) and thus protects the cells
Against the damage caused by nickel Rouabhi et al. (2009).
MDA is a secondary product generated during the oxi-
dation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (Misra et al. 1991). Our
results show an increase in the level of hepatic MDA in
rabbits treated with a high dose of NiCl2 (150 mg/kg/day)
compared to control rabbits, which is a marker of lipid
peroxidation. Our results confirm those of (Xie et al. 1995)
who found an alteration in antioxidant status in
nickel-treated rats. This alteration is accompanied by an
increase in lipid peroxidation and a decrease in cellular GSH
level.
In our study we showed a dose-dependent and highly
significant decrease in the activity of AchE in treated snails,
these results being confirmed by the work of Wang et al.
(2009).
4 Conclusion
The study of the toxicity of heavy metals such as nickel
would therefore be of great interest both to public health
and to help evaluate the real economic yield of these
substances.
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microgram quantities of protein utilizing the principal of
protein-dye binding. Anal Biochem. 1976;72:248–54.
Cakmak ET. Effects of aluminum on lipid peroxidation, superoxide
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nation par le cadmium, le chrome, le mercure et le plomb des
produits de la pêche marocaine prélevés en mer Méditerranée. Rev
Med Vet. 1992;143:49–56.
Evaluation of Hepatotoxicity: Nickel on an Indicator Model …
Fadila K, Houria D, Rouabhi R, Reda DM. Cellular response of pollution
bioindicator model (Ramalina farinacea) following treatment with
fertilizer (NPKs). Am-Eurasian J Toxicol Sci. 2009;1:69–73.
Fatima S, Mahmood R. Vitamin C attenuates potassium
dichromate-induced nephrotoxicity and alterations in renal brush
border membrane enzymes and phosphate transport in rats. Clin
Chim Acta. 2007;386(1):94–9.
Favier A. Le stress oxydant: Intérêt conceptuel et expérimental dans la
compréhension des mécanismes des maladies et potentiel thérapeu-
tique. Mécanismes biochimiques. L’actualité Chimique. 2003;
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Flohe L, Gunzler WA. Analysis of glutathione peroxidase. Methods
Enzymol. 1984;105:114–21.
Garrett RG. Natural sources of metals to the environment. In:
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Libbey Eurotext; 2000. p. 508–10.
Habig WH, Pabst MJ, Jacobi WB. The first enzymatic step in
mercapturic acid formation. J Biol Chem. 1974;249:7130–9.
Harabawy AS. Mosleh YY The role of vitamins A, C, E and selenium
as antioxidants against genotoxicity and cytotoxicity of cadmium,
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niloticus. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2014;104:28–35.
Misra M, Rodriguez RE, Kasprzak KS. Nickel induced lipid peroxi-
dation in the rat: correlation with nickel effects on antioxidant
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Nickel SWF. Handbook on toxiciry of inorganic compounds (Siegel H,
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Reddad Z, Gerente C, Andres Y, Cloirec P. Absorption of several metal
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Rouabhi R, Djebar H, Djebar MR. Impact of Flufenoxuron, an IGR
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Rouabhi R, Djebar H, Djebar MR. Toxic effects of combined molecule
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 Effect of Coal Fly Ash on Vegetative Growth,
Photosynthetic Pigmens and Heavy Metal
Content of Helianthus annuus L.

Nilakantha Dash, Gayatri Nahak, and Rajani Kanta Sahu

Keywords
Fly ash Helianthus Growth and yield Heavy metals

1 Introduction waste pollution. FA and other coal combustion byproducts

Coal-fired power plants generate fly ash (FA) whose ele-
mental composition (both nutrient and toxic elements) varies
due to types and source of used coal (Camberato et al. 1997).
In most instances FA consists of macro-nutrients, Na, K, P,
and Fe and micronutrients, Co, B, Zn, Cu, and Mn. Heavy
metals like Pb, Ni, Cr, Cd and a few more, also occur
abundantly and have the potential to cause
contamination/toxicity (Fytianos et al. 2001). Further, plant
micro-nutrients at high concentrations can cause metal tox-
icity (Miller et al. 2000). Although mobilized elements from
dumped FA masses are potential sources of nutrients for
plants there is a universal concern regarding heavy metal
contaminations of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems may
also occur (Miller et al. 2000).
In India, about 80-million metric tons of FA is generated
annually from thermal power stations with only a minor part
used now for preparing bricks, ceramics and cements. Fly
ash pond occupies an additional 100 ha land each year. Over
flooding of fly ash water in rainy season to adjacent areas,
like rice fields and other crop fields inevitably become
contaminated, thus potentiating grave problems. Utilization
of fly ash in agriculture is one of the options to reduce solid
N. Dash (&)
Department of Chemistry, Panchayat College, Dharmagada,
Kalahandi, Odisha, India
e-mail: niladash@gmail.com
G. Nahak
Department of Biotechnology, KIIT School of Biotechnology,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
R. K. Sahu
Department of Botany, B.J.B (A) College, Bhubaneswar, Odisha,
751014, India
have been used as nutrients supplements to crop soil in India
and several countries (Miller et al. 2000; Mishra et al. 2009).
Lower amendment levels of FA caused enhancements of
both growth and yield while adverse effects at higher levels
were observed for several crops including maize, soybean,
barley, cabbage, apple, alfalfa, beet (Koracak 1995; Miller
et al. 2000). Further, higher levels of macro and
micro-nutrients in FA have been shown to affect growth and
yield of several crops in USA, Europe and India adversely,
i.e., Maize and soybean (Mishra and Shukla 1986), barley
and cabbage (Korcak 1995), apples (Fail and Wochok 1977)
and soybean (Allen et al. 1974). The present study aims to
show the effect of FA on growth, yield and elemental status
of Hellianthus annus L. in coastal lands of south Odisha,
India.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Analysis of Fly Ash and Soil
The composition of electro-statically precipitated FA
obtained from Talcher Thermal Power Station in Odisha,
India, an unweathered condition, is as follows: sand, 15.5%;
silt, 72.5%; clay, 13.0%; and pH, 7.4. The amounts of ele-
ments are (mg/kg): Na, 800; K, 840; Fe, 425; P, 68; Ni, 190;
Co, 670; Pb, 20; Zn, 340; Mn, 450; Cu, 700; Cr, 505 and Cd,
131. About 30–40% of FA is generated from the used coal in
Odisha, India (Sen and Kumar 1995). The soil of the
experimental field was sandy loam with pH 6.8, in a
soil/water mixture at the ratio of 1:2.5. The electrical con-
ductivity (EC) of soil samples 269 [lmol/(L
cm)] was
determined by a digital conductivity meter (Digison model

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 571

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_172
572
D1-909, Elico, Bombay, India). Nitrogen content (0.3%)
was estimated with 8 g sun-dried soil by the Kjeldahl
method (Parkinson and Allen 1975). Organic carbon
(OC) content of the soil samples determined by potassium
dichromate in acid medium in 5 g soil samples was 18%.
Phosphorus in 10 g soil sample aliquots was 45 mg/kg,
determined with Bray’s solution and fluoride. After an
addition of chlorostannous acid solution (0.1 mol/L), the
optical density at 660 nm was noted with a spectropho-
tometer (Systronics 105, Bombay, India), detailed elsewhere
(Mishra et al. 2005). Leaves from plants at 45 d after
transplantation (DAT) were used for biochemical analysis
with 50 mg fresh weight leaf samples, as described by
Mishra et al. (2007). The water holding capacity (WHC),
and cation exchange capacity (CEC) were as detailed by
Mishra et al (2007).
2.2 Field Preparation and Fly Ash Treatment
The experimental fields were repeatedly ploughed to com-
pletely remove the rhizomes, roots of perennial grasses and
shrubs. Then the field was left to be dried under sun for a
week and then ploughed again. After 2–3 times thoroughly
ploughed, experimental plots of 1  1 m2 sizes were pre-
pared. The experimental plots were uniformly spaced by
8 inch high and 1 ft wide ridge throughout. Soil samples
were collected at a depth of 5–10 cms, air dried and stored
for further analysis. All the experimental plots were mixed
thoroughly with cow dung compost @ of 7.5 T/H. Then the
plots were amended with fly ash @ 5, 10, 20, 40, 80 TH. The
fields were watered by sprinkling lightly so as to leave the
soil with enough moisture for germination. Disease free
healthy sun flower seeds were procured from the agriculture
office, Jeypore (District: Koraput), Odisha, India. Five
replicates of 100 seeds each were soaked overnight and next
day sown in the field. Sprouting was observed six days after
sowing. Germination counts were recorded on each alter-
native day. 100 healthy seeds were selected from the soaked
seeds. These seedlings were sown in the respective experi-
mental plots with uniform spacing as per agronomic prac-
tice. All the experimental plots as well as the control plots
were maintained alike.
3 Results and Discussion
Results of field experiment on growth and yield of Helian-
thus due to fly ash treatment at the rate of 5–80 T/H
increased germination percentage and seedling height at
20 T/H. Shoot height increased gradually from 5 to 40 T/H
while 80 T/H was toxic and decreased the plant height from
its control. Significant increased in number of leaves, leaf
N. Dash et al.
area, grirth and diameter of flower were observed at 20 T/H
(p < 0.001). However number of seeds per plant increased at
5 T/H and decresed at 80 T/H. Fresh weight and dry weight
of plants increased in all the treatments except 80 T/H. There
was no significant increase in Chlorophyll a contents in any
of the treatments. Chlorophyll b content increased at 40 T/H
and Chlorophyll c content at 20 T/H. Catalase and Peroxi-
dase activity with increase with FA treatment.
Field experiments, carried out with Helianthus annus L.
grown in FA amendments, clearly indicated that growth of
sun flower crop was significantly increased by FA, particu-
larly around 40 T/H FA for H. annus L. Similarly results of
growth enhancements by FA have been recorded for several
crops, grown in other countries (Koracak 1995). Ecological
studies in effects of FA contaminating terrestrial and aquatic
habitats have also been well documented (Mishuntinand and
Shilinikova 1971). Similarly increase in growth and yield of
numerous crops and vegetables like Medicago sativa, Hor-
deum vulgare, Zea mays, Sorghum bicolor, Echinochola
crusgalli, Dacus carota, Allium cepa, Phaseolus vulgaris,
Brassica oleracea (Aggarwal et al. 2009) have been
observed by various researchers. The presence of essential
plant nutrients such as K, Mg, S and micronutrients make
FA a source of important plant nutrients which influences
the plant growth (Muduli et al. 2014).
The observed decline in yield at higher FA levels may be
linked to metal toxicity caused by accumulation of Mn, Pb,
Co, Fe in plant tissues as in other crops (Koracak 1995). The
toxic elements were in concentration of low level in the
presently used FA level. In the present study reported heavy
metal level in the leaves of sun flower plant was not about
threshold concentrations determined to that of crucifers
(Davies 1992).
Based on the data obtained it could be concluded that the
soil amended at 20–40 T/H not only improved the physical
properties of the soil but also contributed to the better
growth and yield of sun flower. Simultaneously contami-
nation of heavy metal ions was found progressive with doses
of FA remaining below the threshold levels. Keeping in view
of the heavy metal toxicity FA should be used with bio-
logical reagents for better yield and lesser toxicity.
4 Conclusion
As we aim for clean environment, on-going research must
continue to assess suitable/sustainable management
strategies of FA disposal. But agricultural soil, ultimately,
is less suitable than any other sustainable use, which
would help sequester the inherent metal-loads, preventing
ground water contamination from FA. Moreover,
metal-ions inherent in FA should not get accumulated in
food due to its disposal, for the basic fact that several
metals entail the problem of the persisting biohazard of
Effect of Coal Fly Ash on Vegetative Growth, Photosynthetic …
bio-concentration during passage in food chain, as these
do not get degraded to innocuous substances like CO2
and water.
References
Aggarwal S, Singh GR, Yadav BR. Utilization of flyash for crop
production: effect on the growth of wheat and sorghum crops and
soil properties. J Agric Phys. 2009;9:20–3.
Calmano W, Hong J, Forstner U, Hong J. Binding and mobilization of
heavy metals in contaminated sediments affected by pH and redox
potential. Water Sci Technol. 1993;28:53–8.
Camberato JJ, Vance ED, Someshwar AV. Composition and land
application of paper manufacturing residuals. In: Rechcigl J,
MacKinnon H, editors. Agricultural uses of byproducts and wastes.
Washington DC: ACS; 1997. p. 185–203.
Davies BE. Inter-relationships between soil properties and the uptake of
cadmium, copper, lead and zinc from contaminated soils by radish
(Raohanus sativusL.). Water Air Soil Pollut. 1992;63:33–342.
Fail JL, Wochok ZS. Soybean growth on flyash amended strip mine
spoils. Plants and soil. 1977;48:437–84.
Fytianos K, Katsianis G, Triantafyllou P, Zachariadis G. Accumula-
tion of heavy metals in vegetables grown in an industrial
area in relation to soil. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 2001;67(3):
423–30.
573
Korcak RF. Utilization of coal combustion by-products in agriculture
and horticulture. In: Agricultural utilization of urban and industrial
by-products. Amer Soc Agri Madison. WI; 1995. p. 107–30.
Miller DM, Miller WP, Dudka S, Sumner ME. Characterization of
industrial by-products. In: Dick WA et al (eds) Land application of
agricultural, industrial, and municipal by-products. SSSA Book
series: 6, SSSA, Madisoon, WI; 2000. p. 107–119.
Mishra M, Sahu RK, Padhy RN. Growth, yield, metabolism and
elemental status of rice (Oryza sativa L.) grown in fly ash amended
soils. Ecotoxicology. 2007;16:271–8.
Mishra M, Sahu RK, Sahu SK, Padhy RN. Effect of vermicomposted
municipal solid-wastes on growth, yield and heavy metal contents
of rice (Oryza sativa L.). Fresen Environ Bull. 2005;14:584–90.
Mishra LC, Shukla KN. Effect of flyash deposition on growth
metabolism and dry matter production of maize and soybean.
Environ Poll (Ser A). 1986;42:1–13.
Mishuntinand EN, Shilinikova VK. Biological fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen. London: McMillan; 1971. p. 215.
Muduli SD, Nayak BD, Dhal NK, Mishra BK. Atmospheric CO2 se-
questration through Mineral carbonation of flyash. Greener Journal
of Physical Sciences. 2014;4(1):273–8.
Parkinson JA, Allen SE. A wet oxidation procedure suitable for the
determination of N and mineral nutrients in biological materials.
Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal. 1975;6(1):1–11.
Sen S, Kumar A. NTPC’s experience in utilization of coal ash. In:
Proceedings of workshop on fly ash management in the state of
Orissa. Bhubaneswar, Orissa; 1995. p. 103–21.
 Isolation and Characterization of Some
Chlorpyriphos-Degrading Bacteria from
Pertaining to Different Ecological Niches
of the “Ouargla” Province

Nabiha Aloui, Samia Bissati, and Houria Ouled-Haddar

Keywords
Degradation Chlorpyrifos ethyl Microorganisms Soil Ain Moussa
Ouargla

1 Introduction 2007). Worth citing among these pesticides is the chlor-

The organic compounds, persistent in the different environ-
mental spheres, have various origins. These compounds’
impact on different ecosystems is highly dependent on their
interactions with the surrounding environment. Among the
organic contaminants involved in chemical pollution are
xenobiotics or phytosanitary compounds, introduced into the
environment via anthropogenic activity, mainly agriculture,
in a bid to improve crop production yields (Scheuner 1992).
Actually, two aspects prevail as to the use of pesticides, with
completely contradictory consequences. Indeed, on reducing
damage to crops through pests, pesticides contribute
noticeably to the degradation of surface water and ground-
water quality, along with the contamination of the soil and
the atmosphere. In fact, the practice of applying pesticides is
nowadays facing several environmental pollution and human
health related problems (Calvet and Barusso 1994). Hence,
the pesticides’ liability to degradation by soil microorgan-
isms turns out to stand as a critically important concept in
terms of both agronomy and the environment (Cáceres et al.
N. Aloui (&)
Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Nature and Life
Science, University of Ghardaïa, Bounoura, Algeria
e-mail: alouinabiha@yahoo.fr
S. Bissati
Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Nature and Life
Science, University Kasdi Merbah of Ouargla, Ouargla, Algeria
e-mail: samia.bouafia@yahoo.fr
H. Ouled-Haddar
Laboratory of Molecular Toxicolgy, Faculty of Nature and Life
Science, University Mohamed Seddik Benyahia of Jijel, Jijel,
Algeria
e-mail: houledhaddar@yahoo.fr
pyrifos ethyl, an organophosphorus insecticide widely used
in plant protection (Rani et al. 2008).
2 Materials and Methods
Soil samples were collected from the agricultural area of
“Ain Moussa”, sited in the province of Ouargla, an arid zone
in South-east Algeria.
Soil physicochemical and microbiological analyses were
performed in accordance with the standard guidelines
(Hamdi-Aïssa and Girard 2000; Garnier and Denis 2007).
The isolation process of chlorpyrifos-degrading bacteria
was carried out on minimum mineral (MM) medium, sup-
plemented with chlorpyrifos ethyl at a final concentration of
35 mg/L (Maya et al. 2011).
Macroscopic, microscopic as well as biochemical char-
acterization were performed using classical techniques
(Gram stain, respiratory and metabolic profile).
Growth in presence of chlorpyrifos ethyl (35 mg/L), as a
unique carbon and energy source, was monitored through
MM liquid medium by measuring absorbance at 660 nm for
5 days at 30 °C in a shaking incubator. Similarly, the effect
of pesticide concentration and pH on bacterial growth was
evaluated in the same conditions.
3 Results and Discussion
Soil analysis is a procedure undertaken to characterize the
composition and the physicochemical quality as well as the
organic matter, as primordial elements affecting the soil

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 575

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_173
576
overall behaviour, which enticed us to analyze and quantify
it. The attained results appeared to indicate that the soil is
characterized with a low moisture level (20%), a slight
persistence of alkaline pH (7.6), an electric conductivity of
about 2.1 dS/m and a range of organic matter of approxi-
mately 2.48%. Microbial enumeration revealed the presence
of approximately 1.85  109 CFU/g of soil on nutrient agar.
Nine bacterial isolates were obtained on MM medium in
presence of 35 mg/L of chlorpyriphos-ethyl. The bacterial
cells’ macroscopic observation was carried out after 24–48 h
of incubation at 37 °C. The entirety of the isolated bacteria
were Gram-negative bacilli.
Based on the biochemical profile, these isolates were
assumed to pertain to the following genera: Escherichia
(S1), Pseudomonas (S2, S4, S6, S8 and S9), Acinetobacter
(S7), Moraxella and/or Bordetella (S3, S5). Only the strain
S1 was identified as Escherichia coli. Actually, the investi-
gation achieved results proved to corroborate the previously
conducted studies’ documented findings, highlighting the
implication of different species of Enterobacteriaecae in the
degradation of the insecticides’ organophosphorus com-
pounds, mainly chlorpyrifos (Maya et al. 2011).
Growth monitoring, in presence of chlorpyrifos, proved
to reveal well that the entirety of the nine isolates were able
to grow in the MM medium in presence of chlorpyrifos, at a
concentration of 35 mg/l as a sole source of carbon and
energy, as compared to their growth in the control (con-
taining 1 g/L of glucose). The growth kinetics’ associated
variability, observed with respect to the nine isolates, might
well be related to the enzymatic system predominant in the
various bacterial genera as well as the degradation pathway.
Early elaborated studies have discovered that the environ-
mental conditions, in which the isolates are enriched, turn
out to be crucial for the selection of appropriate strains not
only through the desired enzyme degradation systems, but
also via specific regulatory degradation mechanisms
(Kertesz et al. 1994).
The effect of the pesticide’s different levels of high con-
centrations (50, 100, 200 and 400 mg/L) on the growth of
the isolate S6 was tested. It was discovered that the highest
growth rates were obtained at 100 and 200 mg/L of the
pesticide, indicating that the isolate could tolerate important
concentrations in the environment. Noteworthy, however, a
maximum growth was showed at the level of pH 7, while
lower rates were recorded with respect to pH 5.5 and 8.5. As
N. Aloui et al.
reported by Several researchers, an optimal biodegradation
of chlorpyriphos takes place at the level of neutral pH (Singh
et al. 2003).
4 Conclusion
Relying on the achieved results, one might well conclude
that the nine isolated bacteria appeared to be liable to
tolerate high chlorpyriphos levels, as a sole source of
carbon and energy, suggesting that their capability of
biodegrading it partially or completely. Noteworthy,
however, this process could not be confirmed unless more
in-depth chemical analysis would be carried out. In
addition, these isolates could be successfully employed in
in situ bioremediation of chlorpyriphos-contaminated
agricultural soils.
References
Cáceres T, He W, Naidu R, Megharaj M. Toxicity of chlorpyrifos and
TCP alone and in combination to Daphnia carinata: the influence of
microbial degradation in natural water. Water Res. 2007;41
(19):4497–503.
Calvet R, Barusso E. Retention and bioavailability of pesticides in soil.
In: Copin A, Houins G, Pussemier L, Salembier JF, editors.
Environmental behaviour of pesticides and regulatory aspects COST.
Rixensart, Belgique; European study Service; 1994. p. 61–71.
Garnier F, Denis F. Bactériologie médical: Techniques usuelles: Cocci
à Gram positif. Masson. Chapitre. 2007;29(251):254.
Hamdi-Aïssa B, Girard MC. Utilisation de la télédétection en régions
sahariennes, pour l’analyse et l’extrapolation spatiale des pédo-
paysages. Sécheresse. 2000;3:179–88.
Kertesz MA, Cook AM, Leisinger T. Microbial metabolism of
sulfurand phosphorus-containing xenobiotics. FEMS Microbiol
Rev. 1994;15(2–3):195–215.
Maya K, Singh RS, Upadhyay SN, Dubey SK. Kinetic analysis reveals
bacterial efficacy for biodegradation of chlorpyrifos and its
hydrolyzing metabolite TCP. Process Biochem. 2011;46
(11):2130–6.
Rani MS, Devi KVLPS, Madhuri RJ, Aruna S, Jyothi K, Narasimha G,
Venkateswarlu K. Isolation and characterization of a
chlorpyrifos-degrading bacterium from agricultural soil and its
growth response. Afr J Microbiol Res. 2008;2(2):26–31.
Scheuner I. Transformation and degradation of pesticides in soil. In:
Ebing W editors. Chemistry of plant protection. Terrestrial bevavior
of pesticides. Berlin: Springer; 1992. p. 23–75.
Singh BK, Walker A, Morgan JAW, Wright DJ. Effects of soil pH on
the biodegradation of chlorpyrifos and isolation of a
chlorpyrifos-degrading bacterium. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2003;69(9):5198–206.
 Effects of Gold Nanoparticles
on the Mediterranean Clams Ruditapes
decussatus: Chemical and Biochemical
Investigations
Badreddine Sellami, Imen Bouzidi, Wiem Saidani, Amine Mezni,
David Sheehan, and Hamouda Beyrem



Keywords
Gold nanoparticles Ruditapes decussatus
1 Introduction
Gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) are largely used in the medical
sector as a new tool in analytical tests and drug delivery
systems (Yih and Al-Fandi 2006). Even though Au NPs are
non toxic, inert and biocompatible, they have been chara-
terized to have a kind of biological activity at the nanoscale.
Owing to their extensive usage, Au NPs may well contribute
significantly to aquatic environmental pollution (Lapresta-
Fernández et al. 2012). Mediterranean clam Ruditapes
decussatus, has been used as a pollution indicator due to its
tolerance against contaminants (Sellami et al. 2015). These
species are abundant and well commercialized around the
Mediterranean Sea. Besides, although considerable effects
B. Sellami (&)
Institut National des Sciences et Technologies de la Mer, Tabarka,
Tunisia
e-mail: sellamibadreddine@gmail.com
I. Bouzidi
W. Saidani
H. Beyrem
Laboratoire de Biosurveillance de l’Environnement (LBE), Unité
d’Ecotoxicologie et d’Ecologie Côtière (GREEC), Faculté des
Sciences de Bizerte, 7021 Zarzouna–Bizerte, Tunisia
A. Mezni
Unit of Research 99/UR12-30, Department of Chemistry, Faculty
of Sciences of Bizerte, 7021 Jarzouna, Tunisia
A. Mezni
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Taif University,
Taif, Saudi Arabia
D. Sheehan
Department of Biochemistry, Environmental Research Institute,
University College Cork, Western Gateway Building, Western Rd,
Cork, Ireland
D. Sheehan
Khalifa University of Science and Technology, PO
Box 127788Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_174



Shell Oxidative stress Biomarkers
prove to associate NPs with adverse environmental effects,
little information is provided on how these compounds
might interact with bivalve’s shells. As a pioneering study,
the present study is aimed to evaluate response of some
stress oxidative enzymes and chemical interaction between
NPs and shells in Ruditapes decussatus, following exposure
to different gold NP concentrations.
2 Materials and Methods
The triangular gold NPs (Tr-Au NPs) were produced by a
modified polyol process involving a surface regulating poly-
mer: polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). Briefly, 25 mL of tri-
ethylene glycol (ACROS Organics, 98%) solution, containing
0.038 mmol of hydrogen tetrachloroaurate (III), trihydrate
(HAuCl4
3H2O), and 0.05 molar ratio of PVP (K30 from
Sigma-Aldrich) to HAuCl4 were mixed and heated to 150 °C.
The mixture was preserved at the same temperature, for
30 mn, under constant agitation. In order to investigate the
effects of the Tr-Au NPs in the Mediterranean Clams Rudi-
tapes decussatus, various Tr-Au NPs suspension solutions
were prepared with different concentrations. For the animal
treatment, five individuals were placed in each tank filled with
3 L of sea water, obtained from the sampling site (salinity 37,
temperature 18 °C, oxygen at 6.5 mg/L), containing 5 and
10 µg/L of Tr-Au NPs respectively. A control series without
Tr-Au NPs was run in parallel. Each experimental setting was
conducted in triplicate. The exposure treatments were labelled
as follows: Tr-Au1 for 5 µg/L gold concentration and Tr-Au2
for 10 µg/L gold concentration. The synthesized nanoparticle
characteristics were studied via transmission electron micro-
scopy (TEM), using a JEOL-JFC 1600 microscope operating
at 200 keV and with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
577
578
(EDX). Selected area electron diffraction (SAED) patterns
were also acquired in order to determine the nanoparticles
facets’ crystallographic orientation. The optical absorption
spectra of diluted Tr-Au NPs solution were performed on a
Perkin-Elmer Lambda 11 UV/VIS spectrophotometer. Protein
content was estimated through the method of Bradford (1976).
Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was assessed through
the enzyme’s liability to inhibit auto-oxidation of pyrogallol
(Marklund and Marklund 1974). The catalase (CAT) activity
was measured by absorbance decrease at 240 nm due to H2O2
consumption, in accordance with the method of Aebi (1974).
As for the glutathione S-Transferase (GST) activity, it was
measured at 340 nm in conformity with the method devised by
Habig et al. (1974). Concerning the lipid peroxidation, it was
predicted in terms of thiobarbituric acid reactive species
(TBARS), by malondialdehyde (MDA), as standard, using the
Buege and Aust (1978) method. Protein carbonyl levels were
also investigated via the Levine et al. (1990) method.
3 Results and Discussion
Most of the nanoparticles are in the form of equilateral tri-
angular prisms, with an average edge length of 150 nm.
The EDX analysis, administered on the as- prepared sample,
Fig. 1 TEM images (a, b) and EDX spectrum (c) of pure clams shell, (d, e) TEM image and EDX of exposed clams to Tr-Au2 NPs
B. Sellami et al.
proved to confirm that the Tr-Au NPs entirely consist of
gold. The hexagonal symmetrical spots of the SAED pattern
indicate clearly that gold nanoplates are single crystals and
the incident electron beam is perpendicular to {111} facet of
the tested plate. The optical absorbance spectrum of the
as-prepared colloidal solution revealed an extinction band
with a maximum intensity of around 720 nm, due mainly to
the contribution of in-plane dipole SPR absorption of ani-
sotropic products, in which the oscillation of free electrons
was strongly restricted in the planar structure. Regarding the
pure shell detailed structure, the TEM images appeared to
show an alternation of homogeneous light and dark layers,
with an average length of 1 µm, as indicated by the scale bar
of 300 nm (Fig. 1). The structure seems to look like a
complex cross-lamellar structure.
The EDX spectrum seems to highlight well the compo-
nents and the purity of biological clams’ shell, as essentially
composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) which is in general
about 95 wt% and less than 5 wt% organic materials.
The EDX spectrum proved to confirm the presence of gold
nanoparticles (Au element is detected) in the clams shell
following the exposition. The Ca and O elements refer to the
shell’s aragonite structure composition (CaCO3). Regarding
the presence of Cu, it is due to the copper grid used in the
TEM/EDX experiments. The size of gold and clams shell
Effects of Gold Nanoparticles on the Mediterranean Clams …
underwent some changes. Indeed, the size of pure Tr-Au
NPs had been of a range of 150 nm, which turned into a
range of about 300 nm following the exposure. This phe-
nomenon might well have its explanation, firstly, in the fact
that the clams shell display a porous structure (Yang et al.
2011). Indeed, based on the work elaborated by Yang et al.
(2011), the pore size could well range from 300 to 500 nm.
On the other hand, it was discovered that gold nanoparticles
might well bioaccumulate once the clams were exposed to
Au NPs, forming aggregate particles (Pan et al. 2012). The
size increase of gold nanoparticles from 150 (pure Tr-Au
NPs) to 300 nm (in the Tr-Au exposed clams) could have its
justification in the bioaccumulation of the Tr-Au NPs in the
clams shell pores following exposure to gold nanoparticles.
These results sound critically important for the understand-
ing of the clams’ reactivity in environmental medium. In this
respect, García-Negrete et al. (2013) documented that
agglomerates could well be formed for Au NPs in artificial
seawater. This review is also focused on the impact of Tr-Au
NPs on health, particularly on antioxidant biomarkers, while
addressing potential risks of exposure to this nanoparticle on
non-target species R. decussatus. SOD, CAT and GST are
involved in the defense against oxidative stress. Tr-Au NPs
induced an overall increase in the antioxidant enzymes in
both gills and digestive gland on concentration and time
dependent manner. This result underlined the sensibility
digestive to Tr-Au NPs, and one could well assume that the
reactive oxygen species were produced as a result of Tr-Au
NPs uptake by this organ, and it is widely known that NPs
are capable of crossing cell membranes, leading to cell
Fig. 2 Effect of 7 days Tr-Au
NPs treatment on
malondialdehyde and protein
carbonyls levels in gills and
digestive gland of R. decussatus
579
damage. Additionally, their pronounced effect on the
digestive gland following short term exposure may well
suggest that Tr-Au NPs were concentrated in digestive gland
at rates exceeding those relevant to gill (García-Negrete et al.
2013). A different pattern of variation in CAT activity
between gills and digestive gland was also noticed. Our data
proved to corroborate with a previously conducted study
highlighting that gold nanoparticle may cause oxidative
stress in bivalves, especially, in the digestive gland (Tedesco
et al. 2010). NPs are also known to interact with thiol-groups
perceived in several antioxidants, which once disrupted
could result in the inhibition/inactivation of enzymes (SOD
and CAT), leading to significant oxidant stress (Lapresta-
Fernández et al. 2012). The GST has already been associated
with the metabolism of NPs in bivalves and identified as a
metabolic pathway for NPs metabolism. In the present
study, GST activity was discovered to increase from
0.74 ± 0.1 nmol/min/mg proteins detected in gill of control
clams to 1.26 ± 0.28 nmol/min/mg proteins in gill of
Tr-Au1 treated groups, and to 1.33 ± 0.42 nmol/min/mg
proteins in gill of Tr-Au2 treated groups, showing significant
differences compared to control (p = 0.045; p = 0.023). Our
data also appeared to conform with a previously conducted
study indicating a significant increase of GST activity in
accordance with the exposure period and tested NPs con-
centrations (Cid et al. 2015). Malondialdehyde (MDA) and
protein carbonyl levels were considered as molecular
mechanisms involved in nanoparticles-induced toxicity
(Tedesco et al. 2010), and its predictive importance as a
biomarker for oxidative stress and lipid peroxydation is
580
indicated in various investigations. Tr-Au NPs appeared to
help in significantly increasing (p < 0.05) protein carbonyl
and MDA levels with regard to both concentrations and both
tissues, as compared with control levels (Fig. 2).
4 Conclusion
The present work is intended as a modest contribution to
the intense debate about the nano-toxicity of Tr-Au NPs
in R. decussatus. Several toxicological endpoints were
observed, triggered either by Tr-Au NPs: (i) morphologi-
cal changes in shells, by NPs (ii) significant increases in
the SOD, CAT and GST activities in digestive gland and
gill in concentration and time-dependent manner, or by
(iii) increase on the MDA and protein carbonyl levels in
both organs following seven days of exposure to NPs.
Consequently, exposure to Tr-Au NPs proves to disrupt
the oxidant/antioxidant balance in the organs of R.
decussatus, leading to the induction of oxidative stress,
proteins carbonylation levels and cells damage. Addi-
tionally, considering the increase of nanotechnology, the
present study helped provide valuable information
regarding the interaction between NPs and shells, dis-
playing potential risk for mollusks bivalves. Still, certain
questions remain incompletely answered, and further
investigations as to the mechanism of nanomaterial
bio-transformation and interaction with biomolecules of
marine organisms seem imposed.
References
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 Fusarium Brachygibbosum and Fusarium
Chlamydosporum Causing Wilt and Die-back
of Olive in Tunisia

Rahma Trabelsi, Radhouene Gdoura, and Mohamed Ali Triki

Keywords

Disease symptoms Fusarium brachygibbosum Fusarium chlamydosporum
Olive tree (Olea europaea) Dieback disease

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

The dieback and wilting symptoms induced by complex
soilborne fungi has caused considerable economic losses in
olive orchards in Tunisia (Boulila and Mahjoub 1994; Triki
et al. 2006, 2009, 2011; Gharbi et al. 2014, 2015). Among
these fungi, Fusarium species may cause disease in olive
trees.
The observations together with the increase of inquiries
received by the Olive Tree Institute of Tunisia, led us to
investigate the etiology of this disease, to perform
pathogenicity tests of the different Fusarium species recov-
ered from olive orchards and their identification based on
morphological and molecular features. However, Fusarium
species have been recorded from several parts of the world
and they are known to be pathogenic to many plants
(Boughalleb et al. 2005; Mehl and Epstein 2007). In Tunisia,
Ayed (2005) demonstrated the pathogenicity of Fusarium
spp. on potato plants. Despite the importance of the olive
growing sector in Tunisia, this area is threatened by different
species of soilborne pathogenic fungi, such as Fusarium spp.
R. Trabelsi
Mohamed AliTriki (&)
Laboratoire de Recherche: Amélioration and Protection des
Ressources Génétiques de l’Olivier, Sfax BP1087, Institut de
l’Olivier, IRESA, Université de Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: trikimali@yahoo.fr
R. Gdoura
Unité de Recherche toxicologie - Microbiologie Environnementale
and Santé (UR11ES70), Faculté des Sciences de Sfax, Université
de Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
The isolates of Fusarium spp. were done from the collar and
roots of young olive trees collected from several olive
growing area and showing symptoms of wilt and dieback.
Their identification and their pathogenicity were confirmed
by the plant protection laboratory of the Olive Tree Institute
of Tunisia (Triki et al. 2009).
Pathogenicity of the collected Fusarium spp. isolates was
performed on two-year-old olive plants (cv. Chemlali)
(Rodriguez-Jurado et al. 1993; Triki et al. 2011; Gharbi et al.
2014). Fungal inoculum was prepared from 10-day-old
cultures grown in PDA medium. The conidial suspension
was adjusted to 106 conidia/ml. Plant roots were washed,
dried and dipped for one hour in the prepared conidial sus-
pension. After inoculation, olive plants were transplanted
into new polyethylene pots containing a sterile substrate
(peat: sand, 1:1 v/v).
The estimation of the area under disease progress curve
(AUDPC) was calculated as described previously (Campbell
and Madden 1990). AUDPC values were used to classify
isolates of the different Fusarium species. Analysis of vari-
ance was performed with a least significant difference with
SPSS software (IBM Software) to determine the variability
among isolates.
3 Results and Discussion
Isolations performed from roots, stems and collar of wilted
olive plants collected from several olive-growing areas
during a survey of olive diseases conducted in 2011, allowed

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_175
582
the recovery a high frequency of Fusarium spp. where 104
isolates were recovered compared to the other species.
Two types of colonies were identified based on their
morphological and microscopic features as Fusarium, these
have been shown as important phytopathogenic species
associated to dieback symptoms of olive trees.
Colonies of Fusarium brachyggibosum were white to
pink with abundant aerial mycelium. All the isolates pro-
duced curved macroconidia, with 3–5 marked septa per
spore and 25.5  5.00 lm size. Microconidia were abun-
dant, relatively curved, and fusiform, with 0–2 septa per
spore (11.5  4 lm). Spherical chlamydospores (11 lm
diam) were found either single or grouped in chains
(Al-Mahmooli et al. 2013). Fusarium chlamydosporum
colonies were white and flocculose, with relatively dense
mycelium. All the isolates produced thick-walled micro-
conidia, which are curved and short (2.5 µm  10–20 µm).
Fusiform microconidia were abundant, with mean size of
2  7–9.5 lm. Chlamydospores were abundant, and
grouped in chains or clusters. The identification was con-
firmed by PCR amplification of internal transcribed spacer
(ITS) regions using ITS1/ITS4 primers (White et al. 1990)
and the partial sequence of translation elongation factor 1a
(TEF-1a) gene. The PCR products were sequenced, the ITS
and TEF-1a sequences were deposited in the GenBank
database under the accession numbers (KU528849;
KU528845) for ITS regions and (KU863560; KX090395)
for TEF-1a. These sequences analysis revealed 98 and 97%
homology respectively with F. brachygibbosum and F.
chlamydosporum.
The species of F. brachygibbosum and F. chlamydospo-
rum have not yet been published in Tunisia as pathogens of
olive trees. Cross sections from plants inoculated by these
isolates showed an intense browning of the vascular tissues.
4 Conclusion
In conclusion, the results of the present study stated that
these species of Fusarium might be important pathogens
agents causing the wilt and dieback of olive trees in
Tunisia. Although further studies on cross pathogenicity
by predicting the virulence of isolates collected from
other crops towards olives will provide crucial
R. Trabelsi et al.
information to be used for rotations of the annual crops
that are grown within or adjacent to olive orchards. This
information will help the farmers to decide which crops
may not be suitable for their fields.
References
Al-Mahmooli IH, Al-Bahri YS, Al-Sadi AM, Deadman ML. First
report of Euphorbia larica Dieback caused by Fusariumbrachygib-
bosum in Oman. Plant Dis. 2013;97(5):687.
Ayed F. La flétrissure fusarienne de la pomme de terre: comportement
variétal approches de lute chimique and biologique. Mastère en
Protection des Plantes and Environnement de l’Institut Supérieur
Agronomique de Chott-Mariem, Tunisie, 2005; p. 85.
Boughalleb N, Armengol J, El Mahjoub M. Detection of races 1 and 2
of Fusariumsolani f. sp. cucurbitae and their distribution in
watermelon fields in Tunisia. J Phytopathol. 2005;153:162–8.
Boulila M, Mahjoub M. Inventory of olive diseases in Tunisia. EPPO
Bull. 1994;24:817–23.
Campbell CL, Madden LV. Introduction to plant disease epidemiology.
NY: Wiley-Interscience; 1990. p. 532.
Gharbi Y, Alkher H, Triki MA, Barkallah M, Bouazizi E, Trabelsi R,
Fendri I, Gdoura R, Daayf F. Comparative expression of genes
controlling cell wall-degrading enzymes in Verticillium dahliae
isolates from olive, potato and sunflower. Physiol Mol Plant Pathol.
2015;91:56–65.
Gharbi Y, Triki MA, Jolodar A, Trabelsi R, Gdoura R, Daayf F.
Genetic diversity of Verticillium dahliae from olive trees in Tunisia
based on RAMS and IGS-RFLP analyses. Can J Plant Pathol.
2014;36:491–500.
Mehl HL, Epstein L. Identification of Fusarium solani f. sp. cucurbitae
race 1 and race 2 with PCR and production of disease-free pumpkin
seeds. Plant Dis. 2007;91:1288–92.
Rodriguez-Jurado D, Blanco-Lopez MA, Rapoport HF, Jimenez-Diaz
RM. Present status of Verticillium wilt of olive in Andalusia
(southern of Spain). EPPO Bull. 1993;23:513–6.
Triki MA, Rhouma A, Khabou W, Boulila M, Ioos R. Recrudescence
du dépérissement de l’olivier causé par les champignons telluriques
en Tunisie. Proceeding of Olivebioteq 2009.
Triki MA, Hassaïri A, Mahjoub M. Premières observations de
Verticillium dahliae sur l’olivier en Tunisie. EPPO Bull.
2006;36:69–71.
Triki MA, Krid S, Hsairi H, Hammemi I, Ioos R, Gdoura R, Rhouma A.
Occurrence of Verticillium dahliae defoliating pathotypes on olive
trees in Tunisia. Phytopathol Mediterr. 2011;50:267–72.
White TJ, Bruns TD, Lee S, Taylor JT. Amplification and direct
sequencing of fungal ribosomal genes for phylogenetics. In:
Innis MA, Gelfand DH, Sninsky JJ, White TJ, editors. PCR
protocols. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1990. p. 315–22.
 Paper Industry Effluent Short and Long
Effect on Soil Heavy Metals Accumulation
and Phytoremediation

Abdelkader Ltifi, Neila Saidi, Mokded Rabhi, James Downer,

Abderrazak Smaoui, Chedly Abdellly, and Amor Hafiane

Keywords
Accumulation Contaminated soil Heavy metals Phytoremediation
Toxicity

1 Introduction heavy metal transfer to animal mainly in rural areas where

Heavy metal contamination of soil may pose risks for men
and environment. Soil may accumulate heavy metals
through emission, thus creating risks to plants, animals, and
humans (Uluturhan and Kucuksezgin 2007). Some industries
reject their wastewater without prior treatment. Over the
years, the soil may accumulate high degree pollution and
these industries resort to change the release of their reject
from one site to another. In the vicinity of the pollution
source, the presence of wild resistant plants to high content
of heavy metals suggests a possible exploitation of such
plants in phytoremediation and possible discovery of new
indicators of t pollution. Restoration of polluted soil by
intensifying the plant cover may minimize pollution. It will
be inevitably to isolate the perimeter of the study to ovoid
these plants are the animals’ (Liu et al. 2013) main food
source.
2 Materials and Methods
Plant and soil sampling. Three sampling sites were consid-
ered (i) Site RC: recently-contaminated site that received the
rejected effluent of (STPA) for more than 5 years (ii) Site
FC: formerly-contaminated site that received the rejected
effluent of (STPA) since more than 30 years (iii) Site UC:
uncontaminated site serving as a control. For each site, at
least 2-kg samples were collected from the soil horizon
(30 cm in depth) from the base of each uprooted plant. Soil
samples were cleaned of stones and twigs, packed in poly-
ethylene bags and transported to laboratory for analysis.

3 Results and Discussion

Cynodon dactylon and Phragmites communis were the most

A. Ltifi (&)
N. Saidi
A. Hafiane
Laboratory of Membrane and Environment Technologies Borj
Cedria Tunisia, P.O. Box 2738020 Borj-Cedria, Tunisia
e-mail: ltifiabdelkader@gmail.com
M. Rabhi
A. Smaoui
C. Abdellly
Laboratory of Extremophile Plants, Centre of Biotechnology of
Borj Cedria (CBBC), P.O. Box 9012050 Hammam-Lif, Tunisia
M. Rabhi
College of Science and Arts in Nairiyah, University of Hafr Al
Batin, Nairiyah, 31981, Saudi Arabia
J. Downer
University of California, Cooperative Extension 669 County
Square Drive, Suite 100, Ventura, CA 93003-805, USA
effective in accumulating metals, mostly Cd, Cu and Ni.
These plant species are considered hyperaccumulators, as
they take up considerable quantities of heavy metals from
the soil by their root system. The capability of these four
wild plant species to accumulate Cd, Cu and Zn was in the
following order: Cynodon dactylon > Phragmites commu-
nis > Hertia cheirifolia > Juncus maritimus. For Ni, the
order is Phragmites communis > Cynodon dactylon > Jun-
cus maritimus > Hertia cheirifolia. None of the studied
species was a lead (Pb) hyperaccumulator. Various reports

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_176
584
identified Cynodon dactylon as a potential accumulator of
heavy metal in shoots.
4 Conclusion
The results of this study provide baseline data in water of
paper industry effect on soil. In fact, the present study
showed that this effluent has a fertilizing effect when
added to the soil in RC site. However Cd pollution in soil
receiving this effluent in both RC and FC soil sites
samples, exceeding the permissible limit in soil limited
value recommended by the European Union. In addition
pollution by Zn and Ni in RC was determined. Nickel
(Ni) and Pb concentrations were within the permissible
A. Ltifi et al.
EU limits in all soils. Promising heavy metals accumu-
lation was confirmed by the use of Cynodon dactylon,
Phragmites communi, Hertia cheirifolia, Juncus mar-
itimus wild plant covering the studied area.
References
Liu X, Song Q, Tang Y, Li W, Xu J, Wu J, Wang F, Brookes PC.
Human health risk assessment of heavy metals in soil - vegetable
system: a multi-medium analysis. Sci Total Environ. 2013;463–
464:530–40.
Uluturhan E, Kucuksezgin F. Heavy metal contaminants in Red
Pandora (Pagellus erythrinus) tissues from the Eastern Aegean Sea,
Turkey. Water Res. 2007;41:1185–92.
 Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment
Arising from Consumption of Salad Crops
Irrigated with Contaminated Water
by Human Sewage in the Infulene Valley

Mario Tauzene Afonso Matangue, Honissimo Tisai David Saize,

and Lateiro Salvador de Sousa

Keywords
Non-parametric boostrapping Salad crops Monte carlo samplings QMRA
Risk

1 Introduction infection due the consumption of these crops. The target

The Maputo city (Mozambican Capital), has about 2 million
inhabitants and is located in semi-arid zone with Annual
mean rainfall of 800 mm. Due to water scarcity, the veg-
etable producers use the contaminated water with sanitary
sewage in the valley of the infulene collected in Maputo city
and transported through a drainage channel to the Mualuzi
river where it passes in the suburban region of infleune
towards the Indian Ocean. The main salad crops produced
are: tomato, onion, garlic, lettuce, and cabbage and are
commercialized in several markets in the city of Maputo.
However the risk of infection by several pathogens due to
the consumption of these salad crops is still unknown. The
objective of this work was to determine the risk of annual
infection by viruses, bacteria, protozoans and human worms,
caused by the consumption of salad crops (lettuce, tomato
and onion), irrigated with water contaminated by sanitary
sewage.
2 Materials and Methods
The data collection was carried out from January to
December 2016 in Maputo and manipulated at Higher
Polytechnic of Gaza-Mozambique, using the stochastic
techniques of quantitative microbial risk assessment. This
assessment consisted in determining the annual risk of
M. T. A. Matangue (&)
H. T. D. Saize
L. S. de Sousa
Instituto Superior Politecnico de Gaza-Mozambique, Chokwe,
Mozambique
e-mail: mathauz@yahoo.com.br
group was the population of Maputo City. As reference
microorganisms we used: (i) Vibrio cholerae for bacteria
group, (ii) Cryptosporidium parvum for protozoans group,
(iii) norovirus from viruses group and (iv) Ascaris lumbri-
coides as human worms group in compliance with 2006
WHO guidelines except for Vibrio cholera herein referenced
in lieu of Campylobacter because it is the most infectious
food and waterborne bacteria in Mozambique (Dalsgaard
et al. 2001). As Vibrio cholera and Campylobacter are both
bacteria, then we assumed that the range relation between
Vibrio cholerae and E. coli is the same with Campylocater
as stated in the 2006 WHO guidelines which is 0.1–1
Campylobacter: 105 E. coli. The exposure models were
constructed based on the volume of water remaining in the
plant and the empirical relations between number of patho-
gens and indicator microorganisms (E. coli) according to
Mara et al. (2007), Teunis et al. (1996), Navarro et al.
(2009), Hamilton et al. (2006), Baker et al. (2014).
As for the dose-response models, the exponential model
was used for protozoans, beta-Possion for bacteria and
human worms and Gaussian hypergeometric function for
viruses. The annual infection risk estimates were performed
in program R 3.1.2 (CoreTeam) by Monte Carlo (Latin
hypercubes) sampling technique involving 10,000 iterations.
The goodness of fit was performed using Anderson darling
test on consumption data collected through inquiry in
Maputo City and the quality of contaminated water (E. coli
per 100 mL) data. The first comprised 350 persons and the
second of 22 samples of contaminated water and last a
non-parametric boostrapping involving 10,000 iterations
was also performed over the collected data.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 585

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_177
586
3 Results and Discussion
According to goodness of fit, both collected data (con-
sumption and quality of contaminated water expressed by
E. coli per 100 mL) best fitted the log-normal distribution
with the following parameter for each salad crop: (a) Lettuce
was log-normal (59.39, 23.72); Tomato was log-normal
(63.55, 47.87) and Onion was lognormal (9.94, 11.6) while
the quality of contaminated water expressed by E. coli per
100 mL was log-normal (2254069.2, 305229.6). The results
of the annual risk of infection are shown in Table 1
expressed by the median and 95th percentile.
The WHO 2006, assumes as tolerable disease burden
−6
10 DALY pppa and according to defined exposure sce-
narios, the results indicate that the consumption of these
salad crops would result in greater risks than the tolerable
levels (<10−3 pppa) for all pathogens as showed by both
medians and 95th percentiles for lettuce, tomato and onion,
except Cryptosporidum parvum whose annual risk estimates
are below the reference risk levels for tomato and onion
tolerable risks for both the medians and the 95th percentiles.
The risk in tomato and onion was lower because the volume
of water remaining in the crops after irrigation is also lower
since these crops have a smooth surface that retains little
water. High risks were observed in the lettuce and the most
virulent pathogen was Vibro cholerae with 100% probability
of infection in exposure scenario involving lettuce con-
sumption. For the same salad crops, the Ascaris lumbri-
coides and norovirus presented the same magnitude of
infection. Pavione et al. (2013), had similar results when
they used the QMRA applied to irrigation of salad crops
(lettuce, kale, rocket, spinach, green pepper, parsley and
broccoli) with waste stabilization pond effluents in Brazil,
where the use of effluents containing 103–104 E. coli per
100 mL, resulted in median rotavirus infection risk of
approximately 10−3 and 10−4 pppy and the corresponding
95th percentile risk estimates were around 10−2. Baker et al.
(2014), concluded, that rotavirus was the dominant source of
gastroenteritis risk, exceeding the  10−4 DALY health
target across all scenarios associated with consumption of
street food salads (lettuce, cabbage and spring onion) in
Table 1. Median and the 95th percentile values of annual infection risks according to the QMRA from the consumption of salad crops irrigated
with contaminated water
Salad Pathogens
crops Norovírus Crypto
Median 95th Median 95th
Lettuce 6.03  10−1 9.89  10−1 1.81  10−3 7.91  10−3
Tomato 2.50  10−2 1.66  10−1 5.03  10−5 3.00  10−4
−3 −2 −5
Onion 8.21  10 5.86  10 1.57  10 1.20  10
M. T. A. Matangue et al.
Kumasi, Ghana. The sensitivity analysis of Vibrao cholerae
is illustrated in the Fig. 1.
In the same Fig. 1, the sensitivity analysis pointed to the
reduction of pathogens between the harvest and the con-
sumption and the pathogenic relation per E. coli as the
variables of greater impact in the estimation of risk, indi-
cating the need for reliable data of these parameters. On the
other hand, the consumption of salad crops, the quality of the
water given by E. coli per 100 mL and the volume of water
remaining in the vegetables had less impact on the annual
risk estimates. Conversely, Pavione et al. (2013), came to the
conclusion that the pathogenic relation per E. coli was the
variables of greater impact in the risk estimation.
The results prominently confirm that the reduction of
pathogens in wastewater in Infulene Valley is needed either
by washing the salad crops with tap water before serving or
by low cost wastewater treatment technologies such as sta-
bilization ponds, anaerobic systems (Upflow Anaerobic
Sludge Blanket Reactor, Anaerobic baffled reactor, anaero-
bic filters) or others that are appropriate to Mozambique,
capable to produce effluents containing 103–104 E. coli,
which is an internationally acceptable quality range criterion
for salad crop irrigation.
Moreover, tackling the subject in Infulene Valley through
QMRA tools could be a reasonable start towards the for-
mulation of Mozambican standards for wastewater use, thus
adding further evidence for the validation of the WHO
guidelines from Mozambique and possibly other
Sub-Saharan African countries where the knowledge of the
risk of infection from consuming salad crops irrigated with
wastewater is rare and inconsistent.
4 Conclusion
By using non-parametric bootstrapping it was possible to
identify that the log-normal distribution was more
adjusted to the data related to the consumption of salad
crops and E. coli. Through the stochastic modeling, the
annual infection risk estimates were higher for Vibrao
cholerae when associated with lettuce consumption for
both median and the 95th percentile estimates. The most
Vibro Cholerae Ascaris
Median 95th Median 95th
1.00 1.00 3.39  10−1 8.29  10−1
2.97  10−1 8.86  10−1 1.31  10−1 5.71  10−1
−4 −1 −1 −2
1.09  10 5.18  10 4.44  10 2.55  10−1
Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment Arising from Consumption …
Fig. 1. Rank correlation
coefficient of inputs to the
estimation of annual risk of
infection by Vibrao cholerae
arising from lettuce consumption
important input variable in the risk estimate was the
reduction of pathogens between harvest and consump-
tion. Thus, it is recommended for the decision-makers to
strengthen the prevention measures in Maputo city,
related to pathogens reduction in salad crops especially in
the interval time between harvest and consumption. This
measure could include washing salad crops several times
before consuming, adding a disinfectant such as chlorine
in the washing water and other methods.
References
Barker SF, Philip P, Drechsel P. Gastroenteritis risks associated with
consumption of street food salads in Kumasi, Ghana: Evaluation of
methods to estimate pathogen dose from water, produce or food
quality. Sci Total Environ. 2014;48:130–42.
Dalsgaard A, Forslund A, Sandvang D, Arntzen L, Keddy K. Vibrio
Choleare O1 outbreak isolates in Mozambique and South Africa in
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1998 are multiple-drug resistant, contain the STX element and the
aadA2 gene located on class 1 integrons. J Antim Chem.
2001;48:827–38.
Hamilton AJ, Stagnitti F, Premier R, Boland AM, Hale G. Quantitative
microbial risk assessment models for consumption of raw vegeta-
bles irrigated with reclaimed water. Appl Environ Microbiol.
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Mara DD, Sleigh PA, Blumenthal UJ, Carr RM. Health risks in
wastewater irrigation: Comparing estimates from quantitative
microbial risk analyses and epidemiological studies. J Water Health.
2007;5:39–50.
Navarro I, Jimenez B, Cifuentes E, Lucario S. Application of Helminth
ova infection dose curve to estimate the risks associated with
biosolid application. J Water Health. 2009;7:31–44.
Pavione DMS, Bastos RKX, Bevilacqua PD. Quantitative microbial
risk assessment applied to irrigation of salad crops with waste
stabilization pond effluents. Water Sci Technol. 2013;67:1208–15.
Teunis PFM, Van Der Heijden OG, Van DER Giessen JWB,
Havellar AH. The dose response relation in human volunteers for
gastro-intestinal pathogens. Rijksinstituut voor volksgezondheid en
Millieu: RIVM, 1996, 97p (Technical Report 284550002).
 A Naïve Bayesian Network Approach
to Determine the Potential Drivers
of the Toxic Dinoflagellate Coolia monotis
in the Gulf of Gabès, Tunisia

Wafa Feki-Sahnoun, Hasna Njah, Moufida Abdennadher,

Asma Hamza, Nouha Barraj, Mabrouka Mahfoudi, Ahmed Rebai,
and Malika Bel Hassen

Keywords
Coolia monotis Proliferation Naïve bayesian network Environmental factors The
Gulf of Gabès

1 Introduction harmful epiphytic dinoflagellate was thought to produce

cooliatoxin (Holmes et al. 1995), to have hemolytic activity
Coolia monotis has occurred recently in many coastal areas (Pagliara and Caroppo 2012) and to be toxic to mice
of the Gulf of Gabés (South of Tunisia) as potentially toxic (Holmes et al. 1995). The prediction of the C. monotis
marine phytoplankton. It was reported in water column proliferation is a relevant task to help optimize management
reaching 3  105 Cells L−1 (Feki et al. 2008) and attached decisions in marine coastal water. Our goal, from the
on the phanerogam plants (Ben Brahim et al. 2013). This national phytoplankton monitoring program REPHY
(REseau du PHYtoplancton) data, was to identify the phy-
W. Feki-Sahnoun (&)
M. Abdennadher
A. Hamza
toplankton community composition, the physical and mete-
M. Mahfoudi orological variables that are the most incriminated in the C.
Institut National des Sciences et Technologies de la Mer, Centre
monotis proliferation when it yields an alerting threshold and
de Sfax, Rue Madagascar, BP 1035, CP 3018 Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: wafafeki@yahoo.fr highlight the month and the site that are the most affected by
the species proliferation assuming a set of stable conditional
M. Abdennadher
e-mail: moufidaabdennadher@yahoo.fr independencies along the Gulf of Gabès coasts. The devel-
opment of Naive Bayesian network allows us to establish a
A. Hamza
e-mail: asma.hamza@instm.rnrt.tn model of C. monotis, referring to the parameters previously
cited, so as to define its ecological attributes.
M. Mahfoudi
e-mail: mabroukamahfoudi@yahoo.fr
W. Feki-Sahnoun
M. Abdennadher
Université de Sfax, Faculté des Sciences de Sfax, Route Soukra 2 Materials and Methods
Km 3,5, BP 802, CP 3018 Sfax, Tunisia
H. Njah Data were collected in the framework of the National
Faculté des Sciences Économiques et de Gestion de Sfax, Route Phytoplankton Monitoring Program in the shellfish harvest
de l’Aéroport Km 4, Sfax, Tunisia areas from 1997 to 2007 in the Gulf of Gabés. Fifteen sites
e-mail: njah.hasna@gmail.com
were weekly sampled and phytoplankton was enumerated
N. Barraj
M. B. Hassen with Uthermöhl method. The enumerated phytoplankton
Institut National des Sciences et Technologies de la Mer (INSTM),
community consisted of dinoflagellates, diatoms,
28 rue 2 mars 1934, 2025 Salammbô, Tunisia
e-mail: barraj.nouha@instm.rnrt.tn Cyanobacteria and Euglenophyceae. Hydroclimatic param-
eters were simultaneously collected. Meteorological data
M. B. Hassen
e-mail: belhassen.malika@instm.rnrt.tn were provided by the National Tunisian Meteorological
Institute. The tide amplitude in this coast was obtained from
A. Rebai
Centre de Biotechnologie de Sfax, BP 802-3019Sfax, Tunisia Tunisian Hydrographic and Oceanographic Services. All
e-mail: ahmed.rebai@cbs.rnrt.tn hydro-meteorological parameters were discretized into three

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 589

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_178
 590

Table 1 The biological and hydro-meteorological parameters discretized into intervals

Rain Evap (mm) AirT (°C) Insol (h) Humid (%) AtmP (Pa) Tide (m) WatT (°C) Sal Cool Phytoplankton
(mm) groups
a=0 a < 20 a < 10 a<8 a < 52 a < 1011 a=0 a < 14 a < 37 a  500 a = absent
b>0 20  b  50 10  b  30 8  b  10 52  b  80 1011  b  1019 0 < b  1.5 14  b < 29 37  b < 42.5 n = [100-500] p = present
c > 50 c > 30 c > 10 c > 80 c > 1019 c > 1.5 c  29 c  42.5
Rain rainfall, Evap evaporation, AirT air temperature, Insol insolation, Humid humidity, AtmP atmospheric pressure, Tide tide amplitude, WatT water temperature, Sal salinity, Cool coolia
monotis
W. Feki-Sahnoun et al.
A Naïve Bayesian Network Approach to Determine the Potential …
Fig. 1 Naive Bayesian network plot depicting the relationships between Coolia monotis proliferation and biological, physical and meteorological
parameters in various sampling months and sites of the Gulf of Gabès
classes except for the rainfall where two classes were used
(presence/absence) as well as the main phytoplanktonic
groups (Table 1). The scheme was chosen for Coolia
monotis using alert/non-alert (a-n) of the species to assess
the factor affecting the species proliferation when it yielded
an alerting threshold more than 500 cells L−1 (Table 1).
A Naive Bayesian network consists of a graphical structure
and a probabilistic description of the statistical independency
relationships among variables. This is graphically repre-
sented by a hierarchical structure where the class node is the
parent of all attribute nodes. Therefore, the NB is proba-
bilistically defined by the conditional probabilities of each
attribute given the class. It was learned using the R package
«bnlearn». The Maximum A Posteriori estimation for esti-
mating the Conditional Probability was adopted. SamIam
(Sensitivity Analysis, Modeling, Inference And More soft-
ware) was used in order to ensure an interactive visualization
of the probability variation in the obtained NB models.
3 Results and Discussion
C. monotis proliferation was mainly accompagned by dia-
toms and dinoflagellates (Fig. 1). It was demonstrated that
C. monotis co-occurs with benthic diatoms and the dominant
dinoflagellates in this area (Feki-Sahnoun et al. 2014). The
model shows that C. monotis proliferation took place mainly
in the Northern (S3-S4) and Southern (M4-M3) parts of the
591
Gulf of Gabès (Fig. 1). Such a statement has already been
pointed out in a previous work using multivariate analyses
(Feki-Sahnoun et al. 2014). It was established that C.
monotis described elsewhere as epiphytic/epibenthic species
was recorded along Southern Sfax and Northern Medenine
coasts and was mainly proliferated in Posidonia meadows as
reported in this region by Ben Brahim et al. (2013). This
region was characterized by a strong tide amplitudes
(Feki-Sahnoun et al. 2014) leading to the turbulence and
mixing which might result in sediment resuspension and,
therefore, could increase the epiphytic/epibenthic species
such as C. monotis as well as the benthic diatoms. This
hypothesis was confirmed by the species proliferation when
the tide amplitude level was hight and atmospheric pressure
level was low (Fig. 1). The probability of salinity exceeding
42.5 was very high (above 82%) when C. monotis prolif-
erates (Fig. 1). Several literature sources pointed out that C.
monotis occurred in high salinity (Armi et al. 2010). This
trend was maintained regarding high evaporation level
exceeding 50 mm (Fig. 1). This could be explained by the
interdependency between evaporation and salinity described
elsewhere (Feki-Sahnoun et al. 2017). C. monotis prolifer-
ates mainly during winter and early spring (Fig. 1) and the
probabilities increase for the lowest water and air tempera-
ture levels (Fig. 1), opposing the established idea that water
temperature was usually high at the time of the C. monotis
blooms which can occur during summer (Armi et al. 2010).
These authors found that C. monotis appears to be
592
eurythermal and euryhaline and blooms can occur in rela-
tively warm and low turbulence environments during peri-
ods of high irradiance in the North of Tunisia.
4 Conclusion
C. monotis proliferation can be predicted with an accuracy
range derived from knowledge of the main forcing vari-
ables. The present study provided an insight into the
understanding of the cause-and-effect relationships
between the physical, meteorological variables and the
species proliferation. The monitoring work from an
11-year dataset from the Gulf of Gabès has made it pos-
sible to contribute to the decrypting of the spatial and
temporal distribution and to identify the phytoplankton
community that are potentially involved in the species
biomass accumulation. It has mainly been pointed out the
high salinity, tide amplitude and evaporation levels asso-
ciated with reduced rainfall, water temperature, air tem-
perature and atmospheric pressure levels, as the main
predictive variables, identified a potential “hot spot” of C.
monotis proliferation in this area and investigated the
possible mechanism of this phenomenon. Any further
initiative of modeling and predicting C. monotis prolifer-
ation will be built on the obtained results and will depend
on the understanding of the appropriate physical processes
and scales. Moreover, the results and the model structure
can be easily adopted by stakeholders and managers.
W. Feki-Sahnoun et al.
References
Armi Z, Turki S, Trabelsi E, Maiz NB. First recorded proliferation of
Coolia monotis (Meunier, 1919) in the North Lake of Tunis
(Tunisia) correlation with environmental factors. Environ Monit
Assess. 2010;164:423–33.
Ben Brahim M, Hamza A, Ben Ismail S, Mabrouk L, Bouain A,
Aleya L. What factors drive seasonal variation of phytoplankton,
protozoans and metazoans on leaves of Posidonia oceanica and in
the water column along the coast of the Kerkennah Islands, Tunisia?
Mar Pollut Bull. 2013;71:286–98.
Feki-Sahnoun W, Hamza A, Mahfoudi M, Rebai A, Bel Hassen M.
Long-term microphytoplankton variability patterns using multivari-
ate analyses: ecological and management implications. Environ Sci
Pollut Res. 2014;21:11481–99.
Feki-Sahnoun W, Hamza A, Njah H, Barraj N, Mahfoudi M, Rebai A,
Bel Hassen M. Bayesian network approach to determine environ-
mental factors controlling Karenia selliformis occurrences and
blooms in the Gulf of Gabès, Tunisia. Harmful Algae.
2017;63:119–32.
Feki W, Hamza A, Bel Hassen M, Rebai A. Les efflorescences
phytoplanctoniques dans le golfe de Gabès (Tunisie) au cours de dix
ans de surveillance (1995–2005). Bull Inst Natl Sci Tech Oceanogr
Peche Salammbo. 2008;35:105–16.
Holmes MJ, Lewis RJ, Jones A, Hokama AM, Hoy W. Cooliatoxin, the
first toxin from Coolia monotis (Dinophyceae). Nat Toxins.
1995;3:355–62.
Pagliara P, Caroppo C. Toxicity assessment of Amphidinium carterae,
Coolia cfr. monotis and Ostreopsis cfr. ovata (Dinophyta) isolated
from the northern Ionian Sea (Mediterranean Sea). Toxicon.
2012;60:1203–14.
 Contaminant-Driven Habitat Fragmentation:
Should Ecological Risk Assessments Include
Avoidance and Recolonisation Testing?

Rui Ribeiro, Matilde Moreira-Santos, José Paulo Sousa, and Cristiano

V.M. Araújo

Keywords
Ecotoxicology Ecotoxicity testing Environmental stressor Emigration Habitat
disturbance Repellent

1 Introduction rates. The current ecotoxicological approach also disregards

The ecotoxicological characterisation of chemicals, effluents,
residues, and contaminated sites is almost exclusively per-
formed using forced-exposure tests, caging organisms in
the laboratory, in outdoor mesocosms or in the field. At
each chemical concentration, effluent dilution or natural
sample, specific biological responses are measured and
concentration-response relationships are derived. This
approach neglects the possibility of organisms to emigrate
from contaminated areas to adjacent un- or less disturbed
habitats. From a toxicological point-of-view, each emigrat-
ing individual is safe from suffering physiological effects,
but, from an ecotoxicological perspective, high-level bio-
logical entities (population, community, ecosystem) are as
adversely affected as if each emigrant were killed. Further-
more, at the metapopulation and landscape levels, the out-
come of contaminant-driven migration can be even worse
than lethality, because communities in refuge habitats may
potentially be under increased competition and predation
R. Ribeiro (&)
M. Moreira-Santos
J.P. Sousa
CFE—Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life
Sciences, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
e-mail: rui.ribeiro@zoo.uc.pt
M. Moreira-Santos
e-mail: matilde.santos@zoo.uc.pt
J. P. Sousa
e-mail: jps@zoo.uc.pt
C. V. M. Araújo
Department of Ecology and Coastal Management, Institute of
Marine Sciences of Andalusia (ICMAN–CSIC), 11510 Puerto
Real, Spain
e-mail: cristiano.araujo@icman.csic.es
ecologically relevant aspects of an ecotoxicological
characterisation: population recovery and recolonisation
temporal patterns. Besides identifying these problems of
realism insufficiency, to appraise knowledge gaps on
contaminant-driven avoidance and recolonisation, to identify
already available methodological and conceptual tools and to
put forward recommendations for regulators’ use and for
future research was what this essay aimed at.
2 State of the Art
A standardised test procedure looking at spatial avoidance
by soil earthworms is already available (ISO 2008), but it is
only intended as a rapid screening method to evaluate soil
habitat function and not as a tool to predict migration pat-
terns among adjacent habitats. Contrarily to soils or sedi-
ments, the much more spatially homogenous contaminant
distribution in the water column of both lotic and lentic
systems qualifies their populations to be prone to
contamination-driven emigration. Although avoidance from
several contaminants by a wide range of aquatic organisms
has been investigated (Araújo et al. 2016), data are far too
scarce to allow any generalisation on its sensitivity in
comparison with other sublethal and lethal endpoints. For
example, on the one hand, daphnids took only 12 h to avoid
several pulp mill effluents at dilutions similar to those
reducing their reproduction after 21 days of exposure (Rosa
et al. 2008). On the other hand, tadpoles started avoiding
copper at near lethal concentrations (Araújo et al. 2014).
A variety of laboratory experimental setups has been used
to quantify avoidance by aquatic organisms, some of which

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_179
594
with a clear concern to realistically simulate field scenarios
of contamination, namely by using multi-compartmented
non-forced exposure chambers with a concentration gradient
instead of dual-compartmented exposure chambers. The
spatial scaling uncertainty associated to laboratory-to-field
extrapolations is not expected to be a problem. A certain
contaminant concentration will be eventually avoided by x%
of organisms no matter the gradient length—the avoidance
spacelessness hypothesis, but the time to achieve an equi-
librium could differ substantially (unpublished data).
Only a few studies achieved the calculation of median
avoidance concentrations (Araújo et al. 2016), allowing the
integration of avoidance with other endpoints, to derive
ecologically relevant predictors of effects at the population
level. Specifically, integrating the proportion of emigrants
and of dead organisms provide the magnitude of the
population immediate decline, while the feeding inhibition
of the non-migrant survivors provide the depression of the
population consumption. Utmost useful is that, in a recov-
ering habitat and in the absence of conflicting stimuli (e.g.,
less competitors, less predators), the contaminant concen-
tration allowing a recolonisation by x% of organisms is
expected to be the same that is avoided by 100-x%—the
avoidance-recolonisation hypothesis (unpublished data).
3 Future Perspectives
Spatially and temporally up-scaling observations and pre-
dictions to comprise migration patterns is, in our opinion,
crucial for better manage and conserve biodiversity and
R. Ribeiro et al.
ecosystem functioning, when dealing with already or
prospectively contaminated habitats. Despite its scarcity,
already gathered data are enough to recommend avoidance
and recolonisation testing to be included in ecological risk
assessment schemes of both chemicals and contaminated
sites. This perspective corresponds to a paradigm shift in
ecotoxicology, conceptually expanding from contaminant-
as-a-venenum (Paracelsus dixit) to contaminant-also-as-
a-repellent, which prompts research on contaminant-driven
total or partial habitat fragmentation.
References
Araújo CVM, Moreira-Santos M, Ribeiro R. Active and passive spatial
avoidance by aquatic organisms from environmental stressors: a
complementary perspective and a critical review. Environ Int.
2016;92:405–15.
Araújo CVM, Shinn C, Moreira-Santos M, Lopes I, Espíndola ELG,
Ribeiro R. Copper-driven avoidance and mortality by temperate and
tropical tadpoles. Aquat Toxicol. 2014;146:70–5.
ISO. Soil quality—avoidance test for determining the quality of soils
and effects of chemicals on behaviour—part 1: test with earthworms
(Eisenia fetida and Eisenia andrei). ISO 17512-1. Geneva: Interna-
tional Organization for Standardization; 2008.
Rosa R, Moreira-Santos M, Lopes I, Picado A, Mendonça F, Ribeiro R.
Development and sensitivity of a 12-h laboratory test with Daphnia
magna Straus based on avoidance of pulp mill effluents. Bull
Environ Contam Toxicol. 2008;81:464–9.
 Biodegradation of the Antibiotics
Oxytetracycline and Enrofloxacin
by Microbial Communities from Douro
Estuary (Portugal) Sediments

Harrabi Malek, Diogo A. M. Alexandrino, Marisa R. Almeida,

Ana P. Mucha, Fatma Aloulou, Elluech Boubaker, and Maria F. Carvalho

Keywords
Antibiotics Biodegradation Environmental pollution

1 Introduction sediment sample derived from one of the two locations

Antibiotics are usually used to treat a large number of human
and animal diseases. Statistics show that consumption of these
compounds in Europe has reached 10,000 tons per year (Yang
et al. 2009). Fluoroquinolones and tetracyclines constitute
two of the most widely used classes of these pharmaceutical
drugs. Several studies emphasize the poor removal of these
compounds during WWTP treatments, allowing them to be
introduced in the environment and inducing ecosystem
damage. Thus, knowledge on the biodegradation of such
compounds by environmental microorganisms has become a
priority. The goal of this work was to investigate the capacity
of microbial communities native to an estuarine environment,
to biodegrade enrofloxacin (ENR) and oxytetracycline
(OXY), individually and in mixture.
(Granja and Afurada) of the Douro estuary (Porto, Portugal)
sampled for the study. These locations were chosen because
they are subjected to different levels of anthropogenic
pressure. Every 10 days, microbial cultures were sampled for
analysis of antibiotics concentration in the culture medium
and were diluted to half with a fresh medium. The experi-
ments were conducted in triplicate using acetate as a
co-substrate (400 mgL−1). The cultures were incubated at
room temperature, in static conditions and protected from
light. Biodegradation of the antibiotics was monitored by
HPLC. In parallel, experimental controls were established to
estimate the abiotic degradation of ENR and OXY, as well
as their adsorption potential, and were incubated under the
same conditions of the microbial cultures.

3 Results and Discussion

2 Materials and Methods
Biodegradation experiments were conducted in batch mode
for 2 months, with ENR and OXY being supplemented
individually and in mixture, at a concentration of 1 mgL−1.
Culture flasks containing 50 mL of a minimal salts medium
(Alexandrino et al. 2017) were inoculated with 5 g of a
H. Malek
F. Aloulou
E. Boubaker
National School of Engineer of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
D. A. M. Alexandrino
M. R. Almeida
A.P. Mucha

M. F. Carvalho (&)
Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research,
University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões,
Avenida General Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos,
Portugal
e-mail: mcarvalho@ciimar.up.pt
In this study, ENR and OXY were removed at different
extents by the microbial communities derived from the two
estuarine sediments. While complete removal of OXY was
always achieved, ENR removal percentages varied between
70 and 90%, whether when individually supplemented or in
mixture.
Contrarily to what was found for ENR, abiotic mecha-
nisms had a significant role in the removal of OXY: ENR
was not removed in the abiotic controls, while OXY showed
removal percentages of ca. 41%.
At the moment, we are investigating the effect of the
target antibiotics on the dynamics of the microbial com-
munities derived from the two sediments used in this study.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 595

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_180
596 H. Malek et al.

4 Conclusion thanks the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific

Overall, this work showed that microbial communities Research-Tunisia.
from estuarine environments have potential for removing
the target antibiotics, though additional results are needed
to support this conclusion. References

Acknowledgements M.F. Carvalho wishes to acknowledge Investi-
gator FCT program supported by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tec-
nologia (FCT) (IF/00791/2013), Fundo Social Europeu and Programa
Operacional Potencial Humano. This work was implemented in the
framework of the structured program of R&D&I INNOVMAR—
Innovation and Sustainability in the Management and Exploitation of
Marine Resources (reference NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000035),
namely within the research line ECOSERVICES, supported by the
Northern Regional Operational Programme (NORTE2020), through the
European Regional Development Fund (ERDF).M. Harrabi wish to
Alexandrino DAM, Mucha AP, Almeida CMR, Gao W, Jia Z,
Carvalho MF. Biodegradation of the veterinary antibiotics enro-
floxacin and ceftiofur and associated microbial community dynam-
ics. Sci Total Environ. 2017;581–582:359–68. doi:10.1016/j.
scitotenv.2016.12.141.
Yang Q, Zhang J, Zhu K, Zhang H. Influence of oxytetracycline on the
structure and activity of microbial community in wheat rhizosphere
soil. J Environ Sci. 2009;21:954–9. doi:10.1016/S1001-0742(08)
62367-0.
 Part IV
Water Resources Assessment, Planning,
Protection and Management
 Gabes Jeffara Aquifers Management
in Relation with Oasien Ecosystems

Jean-Francois Vernoux, Faten Horriche, Rhida Ghoudi,

Slah Abdedaiem, and Mekki Hamza

Keywords
Gabes Jeffara aquifers Oasien ecosystems Hydrodynamic modeling
Water resources management

1 Introduction Integrated Water Resources Management, analysis of water

The socio-economic development of the Jeffara of Gabes,
located in the southeast of Tunisia, has led to a strong
exploitation of the coastal aquifers groundwater which has
induced a drying up of the springs that supplied the oases
(Fig. 1). The objective of the study was to improve the
management of groundwater resources in the Gabes area,
taking into account the needs of socio-economic activities
and the sustainable preservation of coastal oasis ecosystems.
2 Materials and Methods
consumption, irrigated agricultural production systems and
oasis ecosystems.
An important part of the study was devoted to the
development of a hydrodynamic flow model of the Djeffara
aquifers which is used as a future groundwater management
tool considering different recharging or exploitation scenar-
ios. This model has been built with Processing Modflow,
gathering data on geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, rain-
fall, piezometry, withdrawals and spring flowrates. All the
data processed in the study were integrated in a GIS,
including harmonized geological maps, satellite photos and
irrigated perimeters.

The study, of a multidisciplinary nature, integrates several

components from knowledge of groundwater resources, with 3 Results and Discussion
a 3D geological model and a hydrodynamic model,
The geological model has enabled to update the complex
structural scheme to better understand the relations between
J. F. Vernoux (&)
BRGM, B.P. 3600945060 Orléans cedex 2, France the aquifer systems of the North-Western Sahara Aquifer
e-mail: jf.vernoux@brgm.fr System (NWSAS) and the Jeffara Plain. It also shows a
F. Horriche correlation between the main faults and the distribution of
CERTE, Technopole de Borj-Cédria, BP 273-8020 Soliman, hot springs in the region of El Hamma and in the Jeffara
Tunisia plain.
e-mail: faten.horriche@topnet.tn
The conceptual model of the aquifer system of the
R. Ghoudi Djeffara of Gabes has necessarily to be simplified in relation
CRDA de Gabes, rue Abou Kacem Chebbi, 6019 Gabès, Tunisia
to the geological model; it consists of 3 layers (Fig. 2):
e-mail: r.ghoudi@gmail.com
S. Abdedaiem
– Aquifer 1: The superficial aquifer contained in the qua-
IRA, Ennahal, 6051 Gabès, Tunisia
e-mail: sabdedayem@yahoo.com ternary formations and which is exploited by surface
wells.
M. Hamza
Gabès, Tunisia – Aquifer 2, 3 & 5: The deep layers of Djeffara and Zeuss
e-mail: hamza.mekki48@gmail.com Koutine, which are exploited by deep wells.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 599

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_181
600 J.-F. Vernoux et al.

Fig. 1 Map of the study area showing the boundaries of the aquifer and locations of the oases

– Aquifer 4: The aquifer of the Continental Intercalary

(CI) which is not exploited at the level of the study area.
It will be used for the transfer of water from the CI to the
Djeffara.

The model was calibrated in a steady state with reference

Fig. 2 Conceptual model of Gabes Jeffara aquifers
to the piezometric measurements measured in 1970. The
piezometric maps plotted by the model confirm the hydro-
dynamic functioning of the groundwater and the drainage of
the groundwater downstream of the wadis, at the level of the
wetlands and springs. The model was calibrated in transient
state during the period 1972–2014, i.e. 44 phases of one year
each, using chronicles of more than 200 wells and
piezometers. Groundwater inflow from the CI, calculated in
Gabes Jeffara Aquifers Management in Relation with Oasien Ecosystems
Fig. 3 Scenarios of future water
demand (green: for agriculture;
blue: for drinking water)
1970 and 2000 are consistent with those calculated in pre-
vious studies (UNESCO 1972; OSS 2003; Besbes et al.
2005). According to the present model, the CI inflow is
calculated at 0.3 m3/s in 2014.
The analysis of current and future water consumption was
carried out with existing data, processing of satellite images
and surveys of farmers. Current water requirements are
estimated at 125 mm3 in 2014 (baseline year), of which 82%
is for the irrigated perimeters for a total irrigated area of
more than 14,000 ha. Non-agricultural water requirements
are estimated at 22 mm3 in 2014, of which 13 mm3 are
devoted to domestic use. Water requirements for the indus-
trial and tourism sectors are low and represent only 7% of
total requirements. Three scenarios were predefined for the
future (A: trend, B: pessimistic, C: optimistic) (Fig. 3). By
2040, future irrigation water needs are estimated at best at
215 mm3/year (scenario C) and at worst at 517 mm3/year
(scenario B). Considering the assumptions in the trend sce-
nario, these needs would be 286 mm3/year in 2040.
The study of the functional levels of oasis ecosystems
enabled to define the links between the ecosystems and the
groundwater of the Tunisian Jeffara aquifers and to propose
a protocol for monitoring the water-oasis ratio, through a
number of indicators and predefined parameters.
Finally, an Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM) approach was carried out, with the main objective
of defining scenarios of water demand combined with sce-
narios of groundwater withdrawal decrease, reinforcement of
groundwater recharge and use of alternative water resources.
601
These scenarios will be tested with the hydrodynamic model
in order to see their impact on groundwater levels and spring
flowrates.
4 Conclusion
The multidisciplinary approach implemented (geology,
hydrogeology, modeling, socio-economics, oasis ecol-
ogy, integrated water resources management) enabled us
to understand the functioning of the oases and the aquifer
system of the Jeffara of Gabes and to develop operational
tools to improve the management of this aquifer system.
These tools will be used to test different scenarios of
changes in water consumption and water use, based on a
reduction in groundwater withdrawals and the use of
alternative resources.
Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge financial
support from FFEM (French Facility for Global Environment) and AFD
(French Agency for Development).
References
Besbes M, Bouhlila R, Pallas P, Pizzi G, Ayoub A, Babasy M, El
Barouni S, et Horriche F. Etude sur modèles mathématiques de la
Djeffara tuniso-libyenne. OSS; 2005.
OSS. Système Aquifère du Sahara Septentrional: Modèle mathéma-
tique, vol. IV. OSS; 2003.
UNESCO. Etude des ressources en eau du Sahara septentrional. Projet
ERESSl; 1972.
 Management of the Laayoune-Dakhla Deep
Aquifer System (South Sahara, Morocco)

Sidi Mokhtar El Kanti, Bouabid El Mansouri, and Youssef Arjdal

Keywords
Laayoune Dakhla aquifer system Non-renewable groundwater Management
Hydraulic basin agency

1 Introduction hydrological functioning and the establishment of a con-

The Laayoune Dakhla Aquifer System (LDAS) covers
approximately 120,000 km2 of the Sahara south of Morocco
(Fig. 1). No recent significant groundwater recharge is detect-
able (Edoulati 2013). The Sahara’s socio-economic develop-
ment has been supported in large measure by its intensive use
of groundwater including non-renewable fossil water.
This paper focused on the Sahara’s management and use
of non-renewable groundwater for satisfying its water
demands and the tools it uses to minimize negative impacts
on the aquifer System. Issues of sustainability on water
demands were also discussed, especially to meet the con-
tinued development of the Moroccan Sahara.
2 Materials and Methods
The synthesis of the geological (Elbatal 2010), hydrogeo-
logical (185 wells) and geophysical data (2200 VES,
383 km of seismic land) has allowed us to know the
Sidi MokhtarEl Kanti (&)
Hydraulic Basin Agency of Sakia El Hamra and Oued Ed-Dahab,
Laayoune, Morocco
e-mail: elkanti01@gmail.com
B. El Mansouri
Geosciences Laboratory of Natural Resources, Faculty of
Sciences, University Ibn Tofail, Kenitra, Morocco
e-mail: b_elmansouri@yahoo.fr
Y. Arjdal
Applied Geology and Geo-Environment Laboratory, University
Ibn Zohr, Agadir, Morocco
e-mail: youssef.arjdal@gmail.com
ceptual model of the aquifer system with the help of GIS
technology. In addition, the creation of the Hydraulic Basin
Agency (HBA) in 2009, which includes the representatives
of all main stakeholders and the renewed water law 36-15
adopted in 2015 facilitated the management of the water
resources in the Sahara.
3 Results and Discussion
The volume of LDAS reserves is between 200 and 1000
billion cubic meters (BCM) of water of very uneven quality
(between 1 and 30 g/l). The average annual recharge is about
four orders of magnitude less than that, or about 65 million
cubic meters (MCM). Thus, the apparent velocities obtained
vary between 5 and 7 m/year. The reservoir can reach 10
bars in artesianism and 82 °C, respectively as hydraulic
pressure and water temperature.
The current global water demand is estimated to
45 MCM, and by 2040 it will reach almost 187 MCM with
irrigation accounts for 35 and 80%, respectively.
Non-renewable groundwater resources supplied about 50%
of current water demands and desalination plants represent
about 30% of the total current domestic and industrial
demands. Liquid wastewater discharges throughout the basin
is currently estimated to approximately 14 MCM/year, and
would reach 22 MCM/year in 2030. Once cleaned, these
waters could constitute a potential resource for watering
green areas, and possibly irrigation (HBA of Sahara 2010).
In the Sahara, the water resources use has been super-
vised by the HBA. The management goal has been oriented
towards orderly utilization of aquifer with quantitative and

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 603

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_182
604
Fig. 1 a Saturated thickness of the LDAS
qualitative monitoring of the groundwater (Fig. 2).
The HBA has adopted an Integrated Water Resources
Management tools to implement its short- and long-run
water strategies in coordination with the Ministry of water
and all the other stakeholders.
The most negative impact on LDAS is located in the
Dakhla Bay where it concentrates 80% of total area irrigated
and the average decrease of the water level is about
1.5 m/year over the last 10 years. The HBA carried out a
localized numerical modelling and a Dakhla groundwater
Sidi Mokhtar El Kanti et al.
contract was signed by the stakeholders to safeguard the
groundwater and develop the socio-economic activities of
the Dakhla Bay.
The HBA is working on all investigations for the estab-
lishment of a numerical modelling of LDAS. It will proceed
to the sensitization and the activation of the water police to
apply the principles user pays and polluter pays. It will
proceed at use of treated wastewater for the irrigation of
green areas, also the use of renewable energies for future
desalination plants.
Management of the Laayoune-Dakhla Deep Aquifer …
Fig. 2 Cumulative wells of
LDAS
4 Final Remarks
The Moroccan Sahara is a hyperarid area that has been
relying, and to a great extent is expected to continue to rely,
on non-renewable groundwater resources to support its
comprehensive socioeconomic, agricultural and industrial
developments. Understanding the characteristics of these
aquifers, the area has attempted, with varying success levels,
to manage the use of groundwater resources by controlling
aquifer development, well licensing and drilling control,
agriculture policy modification, and production of
non-conventional water resources. To avoid additional
negative impacts on aquifers from excessive groundwater
withdrawals, corrective demand management measures are
necessary, in addition to increasing of water supplies by
seawater desalination and the reuse of treated wastewater
effluents. New institutions under the newly established
Ministry of Water have been established to better manage
605
the Sahara water sector. Other arid areas can benefit from the
experiences of the Moroccan Sahara in groundwater man-
agement to support its socio-economic development.
Acknowledgements The authors thank the members of the Hydraulic
Basin Agency Sakia El Hamra and Oued Ed-Dahab, for their collab-
oration and for documents that were available to us.
References
Edoulati N, et al. Contributions of chemical and isotopic tools for
understanding the groundwater modes recharge and flow in the
lower Cretaceous aquifer in the Moroccan Sahara. J Water Resour
Prot. 2013;5(2):183–99. doi:10.4236/jwarp.2013.52020.
Elbatal Y et al. Sismo-structural study of the Tarfaya-Boujdour Basin
Onshore. Afrique Sci. ISSN 1813-548X, 2010; 49–59.
HBA of Sahara. Master plan for integrated management water
resources in the Sahara hydraulic basin; 2010.
 Assessment of the Impact of Climatic
Variability and Human Activities
on Groundwater Quality: Case of Mitidja
Plain, North of Algeria
Abdelkader Bouderbala



Keywords
Groundwater quality Alluvial aquifers
pollution
1 Introduction
The Mitidja plain is situated in the North of Algeria. It
extends over an area of about 1450 km2. It is bordered in the
east by the Mediterranean Sea, and in its northern part by the
Sahel mountains (260 m l.a.s). Whereas, in the south it is
bordered by the Blida Atlas (1630 m l.a.s), and in the west
by the mountains of the Dahra (1560 m l.a.s). It lies between
latitudes 36° 25′N and 36° 48′N, and between longitudes 2°
32′ E and 3° 20′ E. The plain of Mitidja hosts a vivid
agricultural economy, which becomes prosperous by the
existing water resources and topography features, endowed
with vast fertile and gently-sloping lands. It is occupied by
cereals, vegetables, fruit trees and other crops (Khouli and
Djabri 2011; Bouderbala 2015). It consists of two aquifers
which represent the main source of drinking water for sev-
eral cities around the plain, and they are also used for the
irrigation of the plain. The upper aquifer consists of fine
grained (clay) and coarse grained (gravel and sand) sedi-
ments and it is alluvial, coastal and unconfined aquifer. The
low confined aquifer of Astian (Upper Pliocene) consists
mainly of limestone and sandstone with a continental origin.
2 Materials and Methods
For the characterization of possible climatic fluctuations, an
analysis of the rainfall data for long period (from 1905 to
2010) was carried out in the study area.
A. Bouderbala (&)
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Khemis Miliana,
Khemis Miliana, Algeria
e-mail: bouderbala.aek@gmail.com
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_183



Climate variability Human activities Nitrate
An analysis of the drawdown of groundwater over a long
period of exploitation (from 1972 to 2013) has been carried
out in order to see the level of depth in the groundwater in
relation to the alluvial aquifer.
The hydrogeochemistry of the Mitidja aquifer has been
considered in terms of the major ionic constituents Ca2+,
Mg2+, Na+, K+, Cl−, SO42−, HCO3−, NO3− and of the
physical parameters (pH, EC and temperature). Samples
from all wells were collected in 500 mL polyethylene bot-
tles, following the standard guidelines (Kumar 2012).
3 Results and Discussion
The analysis of the annual rainfall data of Hamiz dam station
located in the Mitidja plain for a long period (from 1905 to
2010) shows a noticeable decrease of annual precipitation, as
shown by the trend line. This reduction is estimated at about
20% (Fig. 1). It shows also an important annual irregularity
in time, with an alternation of drought and wet years.
These drought years have as a consequence a decrease of
piezometric level of the alluvial aquifer due to the overex-
ploitation of groundwater, which deteriorate the groundwater
quality and advancement of the seawater intrusion in the
coastal area of Mitidja plain.
The proliferation of wells (exploitation) and the persistent
drought (large rainfall deficit) in the Mitidja plain for the last
two decades have a negative impact on the quality and
quantity of groundwater (Fig. 2). The main direction of
groundwater in the plain, follows the main depression ori-
ented from West to East, towards the Mediterranean Sea.
The map of the decline of the groundwater level in this
aquifer from the year 1973 to 2013 shows a marked decrease
607
608
Fig. 1 Annual rainfall variability
for Hamiz station (1905–2010)
Fig. 2 Map of groundwater level decline from 1973 to 2013
in the piezometric level, with remarkable depressions in this
aquifer especially in the wellfields.
The hydrogeochemical analysis of groundwater shows
high values of electrical conductivities, chlorides and
sodium, with the dominance of sodium-chloride groundwa-
ter type in the coastal aquifer sector. That confirms the
persistence of seawater intrusion phenomenon, which exis-
ted since the eighties in this plain.
A. Bouderbala
4 Conclusion
The Mitidja aquifer constitutes an important reservoir of
groundwater that has been used for more than a century
for the agricultural and domestic purposes. However, the
anarchical exploitation together with the drought years in
this last decade caused a decrease of piezomectric levels
and a deterioration of groundwater quality in this plain.
The goal of this study is to show the impact of the climate
Assessment of the Impact of Climatic Variability and Human …
variability on groundwater resources in this coastal
aquifer. The analysis of the annual rainfall data of plu-
viometric station located in this area for a long period
shows a marked decrease of annual precipitation, with a
reduction of about 20%. This has caused a decrease of
piezomectric levels for more than 20 m and seawater
intrusion in the coastal sector of the plain to nearly 2 km
inside the aquifer.
609
References
Bouderbala A. Groundwater salinization in semi-arid zones: an
example from Nador plain (Tipaza, Algeria). Environ Earth Sci.
2015;73(9):5479–96.
Khouli MR, Djabri L. Impact of use of agricultural inputs on the quality
of groundwater case of Mitidja plain (Algeria). Geographia
Technica. 2011;11(2):35–44.
Kumar CP. Climate change and its impact on groundwater resources.
Int J Eng Sci. 2012;1(5):43–60.
 Groundwater Economics in Arid Regions:
Abu Dhabi Emirate Case Study

Mohamed A. Dawoud

Keywords
Groundwater Recharge Groundwater economics Water management
Desalination Treated wastewater

1 Introduction total recent withdrawals. The total present annual abstraction

In arid and semiarid regions groundwater is scarce, limited
and non-renewable but it is a vital resource that supports a
variety of societal uses and benefits. With growing demand
due to extensions in agriculture and domestic sectors,
groundwater resources are coming under greater pressure
following reductions in surface water yields, due to reduced
rainfall and over abstraction. Over abstraction, due to
increasing demand or climate change-driven changes in
spatial distribution of precipitation, can result in a reduction
in groundwater quantity and a deterioration in quality.
Increased population and economic development inevitably
result in an increase in the generation of waste products and,
if disposed of inappropriately, these have the potential to
contaminate groundwater resources and lead to degradation
and economic costs. This creates the need for a higher profile
regulatory and management regime for these limited
groundwater resources. Given climate variability and the
environmental challenges, the importance of groundwater as
a resource is ever-increasing in arid regions (EAD 2013a).
Abu Dhabi emirate is an arid region facing the challenges of
renewable fresh water scarcity. At present (2014), ground-
water use accounts for about 63% of total water demand in
the Emirate, with the remaining portion of demand being
met through desalinated (28%) and recycled water (9%).
Groundwater is used mainly for agriculture, forestry sectors,
which together have accounted for over 95% of total annual
withdrawals. Agriculture alone has accounted for 80% of
M. A. Dawoud (&)
Water Resources, Environment Agency-Abu Dhabi,
P.O. Box 45553 Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
e-mail: mdawoud@ead.ae
from the groundwater aquifers is about 2300 million cubic
meters. However the annual natural recharge to the aquifer
systems ranges between 90 and 140 million m3 only (EAD
2013b). Numerous wellfields abstract groundwater of vari-
ous qualities and in some areas massive over-abstraction has
resulted in alarming groundwater declines and a severe
deterioration in groundwater quality. This policy has led to a
reduction in the groundwater table which caused numerous
shallow wells to go dry and impact the farms (Dawoud
2014). It is estimated that there are still 641 km3 ground-
water resources available (saline, brackish and fresh), but
only less than 3% of this reserve is fresh and, based on
current abstraction rates, both fresh and brackish reserves
will be depleted within the next 50 years. The purpose of this
study is to assess the economic value of groundwater
resources in the Abu Dhabi Emirate. A dynamic
hydro-economic optimization model was developed and
applied. This model evaluates the net benefits and economic
tradeoffs across alternative water by simulating groundwater
reserves and withdrawals for different regions, time periods,
and development sectors. Using this model, the value of Abu
Dhabi’s groundwater resources was estimated (in total and
per cubic meter).
2 Materials and Methods
Due to over abstraction of non-renewable groundwater
resource, its quality was deteriorated and there was a severe
drop in groundwater tables during the last 20 years (Fig. 1).
However it is still the main resource for irrigation and
contributes with about 62% out of total water use in the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 611

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_184
612 M. A. Dawoud

agriculture and the ecosystem services provided by forests:

carbon storage, wildlife habitat, cultural heritage, and road
protection; non-use value equal to the cost of establishing
the strategic reserve as insurance against future threats or
shocks (Brown 1997). Combining the four demand sectors:
agriculture, forestry, amenity and strategic reserve (Fig. 2), a
dynamic optimization model was developed to maximize the
total value of consumptive and non-consumptive ground-
water use over a long time horizon of 100 years (Allen et al.
1998) (Fig. 3).

Fig. 1 Detriration of groundwater quality in Abu Dhabi Emirate

3 Results and Discussion

emirate (Heal 2003). It is important to value the groundwater The Total economic value of groundwater reserve in Abu
resources economically to understand its value against other Dhabi Emirate was estimated within the range of 440–780
alternatives water resources (Baker and Murray 2009). Billion AED (Table 1), and the marginal economic value
Groundwater use value is equal to the market returns from ranges 4.5–6.0 AED/m3 compared with 7.0 AED/m3 for

AED Value of Water AED Value of Water

in Period 1 in Period 2

MNV1

A
MNV2 /(1+r)
Pw
B C D

W* W1
W2
Fig. 2 Conceptual diagram of groundwater valuation model

Fig. 3 Groundwater economic valuation

Groundwater Economics in Arid Regions: Abu Dhabi Emirate Case Study 613

Table 1 Total groundwater Discount Agriculture Forestry Amenity Strategic Groundwater Total
value over 100 year (in Billion rate value value value reserve consumption economic
AED) value costs value
3% 164 74 233 372 63 781
5% 129 19 71 304 51 472
8% 93 4 21 365 41 443

Fig. 4 Marginal groundwater 60

value (in AED/m3)
50
40
AED/m3
30
20
10
0
1 6 11 16 21 26
Simulation Year
3% Discount 5% Discount 8% Discount

wastewater and 11.3–15 AED/m3 for desalinated water References

(Fig. 4). So it seems that.
4 Conclusion
Groundwater is a vital resource in arid region such as
Abu Dhabi and calculating the groundwater value can
help for a better understanding and sustainable use of this
resource. Many actions should be taken by the govern-
ment to sustain these resources in the future such as:
• Future agricultural policy including prices and costs
• Estimating food security benefits of irrigated agriculture
• Future non-market values for forest ecosystem services
• Future population growth rates and composition
• Climate change impacts on the groundwater resources
• Reform the legal and intuitional water sector framework
including groundwater regulation and legislations
• Infrastructure investment options
• Greenhouses, more efficient irrigation systems, and new
innovative technologies in agriculture sector etc.
Allen RG, Pereira LS, Raes D, Smith M. Crop evapotranspiration—
guidelines for computing crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation
and Drainage Paper 56. FAO; 1998.
Baker JS, Murray BC. Groundwater management in the presence of
GHG mitigation incentives for agriculture. American Agricultural
Economics Association; 2009.
Brown S. Estimating biomass and biomass change of tropical forest: a
primer. Rome: Food and Agriculture Association of the United
Nations (FAO); 1997.
Dawoud MA. Three dimensional geodatabase based model for
groundwater Aquifer storage and recovery pilot experiment.
AWC J. 2014;2:55–102.
Environment Agency-Abu Dhabi (EAD). Assessment of affected
forests in the Western Region; 2013a.
Environment Agency-Abu Dhabi (EAD). Water resources management
strategy for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. High Level Strategy and
Action Plan for the Efficient Management and Conservation of
Water Resources; 2013b.
Heal G. Optimality or sustainability? In: Stiglitz JE, Arnott R, editors.
Economics for an imperfect world: essays in Honor of Joseph E.
Stiglitz. Cambridge: MIT Press; 2003.
 A New Model (DRASTIC-LU) for Evaluating
Groundwater Vulnerability in Alluvial
Aquifer of Upper Cheliff (Algeria)
Djelloul Zafane, Benyoucef Gharbi, and Abdelkader Douaoui



Keywords
Groundwater Vulnerability
1 Introduction
Groundwater is an essential resource in both Algeria and the
rest of the world. Considered an important source of water
supply in semi-arid areas, groundwater has several advan-
tages over surface water, they are generally characterized by
higher quality, better protected against chemical pollutants,
less subject to fluctuations seasonal and permanent, and
more evenly spread over large areas as surface water.
Given the demands and opportunity of groundwater as a
resource in semi-arid regions where our study area belongs
alluvial aquifer of Upper Cheliff-Algeria, it is in fact not
surprising that this resource has been too often badly
exploited and managed. The consequences of these practices
vary widely but can include lowering the groundwater level
due to excessive pumping, and the deterioration of their
quality aspect related to anthropogenic pollution.
The quality of groundwater in the study area is generally
subject to considerable potential for contamination. It is also
characterized by intense farming, poor outcome wastewater.
In addition, the intensity of exploitation, often characterized
D. Zafane (&)
B. Gharbi
University of Khemis Miliana, Theniet-el-had Road,
Khemis-Miliana, Algeria
e-mail: Zafane38@hotmail.fr
B. Gharbi
e-mail: gharbi.benyoucef1@yahoo.fr
D. Zafane
B. Gharbi
A. Douaoui
Laboratory of Agricultural Production and Sustainable
Valorization of Natural Resources, University of Khemis Miliana,
Theniet-el-had Road, 44225 Khemis-Miliana, Algeria
e-mail: aekdouaoui@gmail.com
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_185


DRASTIC-LU Khemis Miliana plain
by the irrational use of water, puts pressure on groundwater
reserves. Therefore, we proved a clear need for rapid
recognition techniques, explicit technology that allows for
an effective and sustainable protection of this resource.
2 Materials and Methods
Twenty(20) sampling points (boreholes, wells and
piezometers) were selected for the study area. The sampling
was done over the years 2010–2014 for the month of May
(low water period) assisted by the ANRH Khemis Miliana
team. Water samples were collected in bottles and polythene
and were analyzed in the laboratory of Blida ANRH for 11
parameters, i.e., temperature, pH, electrical conductivity
(EC), (TDS), dissolved oxygen (DO), total alkalinity (TA),
total hardness (TH), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+),
chloride (Cl−), nitrate (NO3−) analysis physicochemical was
conducted by conventional methods. TDS is calculated
indirectly EC 0.64  EC (S/cm).
The accuracy and reproducibility of analytical measure-
ment and ion balance concerning the studied ions were
±5%. The background maps of the study area were prepared
using a Landsat satellite image, using Arc GIS software
10.2.
The UTM projection system was used to locate the
position of each sample point and the coordinates were
imported to the GIS platform for the preparation of the base
map. Geochemical results are shown on the diagram piper
Trilinear and of Scoeller-Berkalov’s using diagramR, and to
assess the dominance mechanisms hydro geochemical faces
of the study area.
615
616
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Final Map of Vulnerability
as the Model-DRASTIC-LU
The method that was used to develop the map of the intrinsic
vulnerability of groundwater to pollution is carried by eight
parameters, called Model-mapping DRASTIC-LU. Several
maps were developed and then superimposed, the depth of
the water level, impact of the vadose zone, hydraulic con-
ductivity and land use are the most effective parameters
compared to net recharge, aquifer and type of Ground. The
vulnerability of groundwater potential contamination map
Fig. 1 Mapping the vulnerability to pollution of the alluvial aquifer of the plain Khemis Miliana
D. Zafane et al.
was generated (see Fig. 1), the analysis of this map shows
that 68% of the area is characterized by a low degree of
vulnerability, 15% of the total area by an average degree of
vulnerability, while 1% of the area has a high vulnerability
zone. Analysis of the card notes that about 16% of the study
area is located in the very small vulnerable area. Parts of the
South West and North of the study area are characterized by
a high sensitive area.
Most of the plain of khemis Miliana is characterized by a
low degree of vulnerability, which represents the total area
of the plains; Upstream dominating the game and most of the
southern part between Oued Massine and Deurdeur. We can
see clues that range between 100 and 150, for the area that
A New Model (DRASTIC-LU) for Evaluating …
lies between the town of Ain Sultan and Khemis Miliana is
also affected by the degree of vulnerability.
From the result of the final vulnerability map, obtained by
applying the DRASTIC-LU method, we note that southern
plains and growing to the southern border, and the
South-western part, are areas the most vulnerable, and
therefore most at risk of groundwater contamination. Map of
groundwater vulnerability is used as an effective tool for
preliminary planning, policy and operational levels of the
decision making process for the management and protection
of groundwater.
4 Conclusion
Map of groundwater vulnerability is used as an effective
tool for preliminary planning, policy and operational
levels of the decision making process for the management
and protection of groundwater.
617
References
Alam F, Rashid A, F Ahmad D. A new model (DRASTIC-LU) for
evaluating groundwater vulnerability in parts of central Ganga
Plain, India; 2012.
Bong N, Meziani S. Application des SIG and de technique de
spatialisation pour l’identification, l’évaluation and le développe-
ment des ressources en eaux souterraines de la plaine de Khemis
Miliana (Mémoire de Master Université de Khemis Miliana); 2013.
Chandoul IR, Bouaziz S, Dhia HB. Groundwater vulnerability
assessment using GIS-based DRASTIC models in shallow aquifer
of Gabes North (South East Tunisia). Arab J Geosci. 2015;8
(9):7619–29.
Carreras X, Fraile J, Garrido T, Cardona C. Groundwater vulnerability
mapping assessment using overlay and the DRASTIC method in
Catalonia. In: Experiences from ground, coastal and transitional
water quality monitoring. Berlin: Springer; 2015. p. 117–34.
Djémin JÉ, Kouamé JK, Deh KS, Abinan AT, Jourda JP. Contribution
of the sensitivity analysis in groundwater vulnerability assessing
using the DRASTIC method: application to groundwater in Dabou
region (southern of Côte d’Ivoire). J Environ Prot. 2016;7(01):129.
 Geochemical Characteristics of Groundwater
and Its Suitability for Irrigation in the Lower
Cheliff Plain, Algeria

Abdelhamid Bradaï, Abdelkader Douaoui, and Ibrahim Yahiaoui

Keywords
Lower Cheliff Groundwater irrigation Residual alkalinity Cokriging

1 Introduction the localities of Ouarizane, Djdiouia, Hmadna, and Guer-

The poor quality of groundwater irrigation is an important
problem in the arid and semi-arid regions as well as for the
Lower Cheliff plain (Algeria) as it is a direct cause of soil
salinization and reduces crop productivity. The groundwater
irrigation monitoring and assessment can be very useful for
the social sustainable development and safety under extreme
events. Hence, groundwater irrigation should be investigated
(BradaÏ et al. 2016); the assessment result will be an
important guidance for local groundwater management
under an emergent event.
2 Materials and Methods
The Lower Cheliff plain is located in the downstream
western part of the Cheliff Basin and extends over more than
60 000 ha, including 40 000 ha of irrigation schemes around
A. Bradaï (&)
Natural and Live Sciences Faculty, Water and Environment
Laboratory, University of Chlef, Chlef, Algeria
e-mail: bradai.hamid@gmail.com
A. Douaoui
University Center of Tipaza, Laboratory of CPSVNR – U, Khemis
Miliana, Algeria
e-mail: aekdouaoui@gmail.com
I. Yahiaoui
Faculty of Nature, Life and Earth Sciences, Laboratory of
CPSVNR – U, Khemis Miliana, Algeria
e-mail: ibyahiaoui@gmail.com
ouaou (Bradaï et al. 2012). During the months of June and
July 2009, 88 water samples were collected from wells used
for irrigation and then analyzed. The analyzed parameters
were: (i) 38 wells were analyzed for cations (Ca2+, Mg2+,
Na+, K+) and anions (Cl−, SO42−, CO32−, HCO3−); (ii) 88
wells were analyzed for electrical conductivity (EC).
A Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was performed
on the chemical data for a better understanding of the
groundwater hydrochemistry. Multivariate techniques have
also been applied to groundwater hydrochemistry by sev-
eral authors and proved to be very efficient in under-
standing a number of geochemical processes (Yitbarek
et al. 2012).
The composition of groundwater used for irrigation in the
Lower Chelif was plotted in concentration diagrams against
chloride, which does not interact with the solid matter and
was consequently used as a tracer. When the concentration
of a particular chemical component increases at a lower rate
than chloride, it indicates mineral precipitation. When calcite
precipitates, sepiolite and the gypsum the RACSG of irriga-
tion water is positive, alkalinity increases faster than calcium
modality and displays a majority ion behavior according to
the RACSG concept. When the RACSG is negative, alkalinity
increases more slowly than calcium modality and displays a
minority ion behavior. Ion behavior relies on alkalinity
either directly for calcium or magnesium in the case of
calcite or sepiolite precipitation, or indirectly in the case of
gypsum precipitation as sulfate, and calcium will behave in
the opposite way.

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_186
620 A. Bradaï et al.

3 Results and Discussion 32

E1 : ARscg>0
30 E2 : ARscg<0

Fort 3
28
The PC1-PC2 plane discriminates two groups of samples: A

Pouvoir alcalinisant [SAR]

26
and B. The diagram Fig. 1a relative to the precipitation of 24
Calcite, Dolomite and Gypsum shows that these three min- 22

Moyen 2
erals are likely to be precipitated in the case of the waters of 20
18
group A than in group B. On the other hand, the Halite
16
precipitates in the waters of group B then that the monovalent 14
cations (especially the Na) remain in solution in the case of 12
the waters of group A (Fig. 1b). The precipitation of Ca and 10

Faible 1
Mg which are well involved in the precipitation of Calcite, 8
6
Dolomite and Gypsum in the case of group A will
4
undoubtedly cause the depletion of these ions of the solution 2
during evaporation. This state, and under the effect of the 0
20 100 250 750 2250 5000 10000
concentration, will cause the divalent cations (Ca and Mg) of
the exchange complex (clay) to be removed and replaced by 0 1 2 3 4 5
the monovalents (Na especially). The enrichment of the clays Conductivité en μS/cm
in sodium causes a physicochemical dispersion and thus a
physical degradation of the irrigated soil (Sumner 1993). Fig. 2 Projection of the evaporation simulation results of E1 and E2
The residual alkalinity approach revealed two types of on the RIVERSIDE diagram
water, the impact of which on soil degradation is distinctive:
the first type (RACSG > 0), which is always positive due to for assessing the quality of irrigation water. This is well shown
the gypsum precipitation, also marks a risk of sodisation of by the simulation of evaporation of two types of water at a
soils. In the second type (RACSG < 0), the main risk is soil sign of residual generalized opposite alkalinity (Fig. 2).
salinization, which, on the other hand, reduces the risk of Finally, we tried to achieve the spatial distribution of
salinization even in the presence of a high SAR. The waters generalized residual alkalinity (RACSG) using cokriging
of the first type mark the diluted waters of group A whereas method. The cokriging is an interpolation technique that
the second type is the main characteristic of group B. allows us to better estimate map values by kriging if the
The assessment of the suitability of groundwater for irri- distribution of a secondary variate (RACSG) sampled more
gation by the sign of generalized residual alkalinity has shown intensely than the primary variate (EC) is known. If the
great significance and confirms some criticism to the criteria primary variate is difficult or expensive to measure, then

(a) (b)
100

Groupe A
Groupe B
Log[(Ca+Mg)] (mmolc/L °

Log (Na + K) (mmolc/L)

30

10

Groupe A

Groupe B

1 3
1 10 100 3 30
Log [(SO4 + HCO3)] (mmolc/L) Log (FC)

Fig. 1 Calcite, Dolomite, Gypsum precipitation diagram (a); Halite precipitation diagram (b)
Geochemical Characteristics of Groundwater and Its
Fig. 3 Spatial distribution of
ARCSG obtained using cokriging
method
cokriging can greatly improve interpolation estimates with-
out having to more intensely sample the primary variate.
Figure 3 shows the spatial distribution of ARCSG using
cokriging method.
4 Conclusion
The sign of residual alkalinity, which is a simple deter-
mined parameter, was more effective in giving the
groundwater ability for irrigation and predicting the risks
of using it in soils. From a manager’s perspectives, these
results have important implications on the Lower-Cheliff
plain environmental and agriculture sustainability.
621
References
Bradaï A, Douaoui A, Hartani T. Some problems of irrigation water
management in Lower-Cheliff plain (Algeria). J Environ Sci Eng A
2012; 271–8.
Bradaï A, Douaoui A, Bettahar N, Yahiaoui A. Improving the
prediction accuracy of groundwater salinity mapping using indicator
Kriging method. J Irrig Drainage Eng 2016; 142(7).
Sumner ME. Sodic soils, new perspectives. Aust J Soil Res.
1993;31:683–750.
Yitbarek A, Razack M, Ayenew T, Zemedagegnehu E, Azagegn T.
Hydrogeological and hydrochemical framework of Upper Awash
River basin, Ethiopia: with special emphasis on inter-basins
groundwater transfer between Blue Nile and Awash Rivers. J Afr
Earth Sci. 2012;65:46–60.
 Groundwater Depletion in Tunisian Arid
Regions: Causes, Consequences and Possible
New Policy Instruments

Hacib El Amami and Taoufik Hermassi

Keywords
Groundwater Overexploitation Policy Instrument Local users Control

1 Introduction depletion where the rate is 126% (Ben Guesssim 2014,

In the central and southern parts of Tunisia, where surface
water is both scarce and random, groundwater is the only
source of irrigation. Favorable marketing opportunities for
various crops and easy and heavily subsidized availability of
water lifting technology launched in the arid and semi-arid
regions have led to a real intensive groundwater extraction,
tapping reserves which could not be reached with older
technologies. Current estimates show that 100,000 wells
were dug and about 50% of the agricultural area
(430,000 ha) is being irrigated by surface wells (DGRE
2014). This development is largely based on private
investment although the government has facilitated this
development through the provision of several incentives.
Groundwater has transformed rural economies through
improved crop productivity and diversification, rising
incomes of groundwater farmers as well as agricultural
laborers, and value-added post-harvest processing. Such
rapid growth, however, has had serious environmental
implications. In a virtual absence of effective regulation, the
large scale adoption of surface wells has led to enormous
extraction rates of groundwater, often exceeding natural
recharge rates. This overexploitation has led to a rapid
depletion of groundwater resources which has been obvious
from the dramatic lowering water tables and the drying up of
many surface wells. Overall, up to a quarter of shallow
aquifers has been estimated to be at risk due to groundwater
H. El Amami (&)
T. Hermassi
National Institute for Rural Engineering, Water and Forests,
Aryanah, Tunisia
e-mail: hacib.amami@gmail.com
T. Hermassi
e-mail: taoufikharmassi77@yahoo.com
2015). The policies adopted by Tunisia so far to preserve
groundwater have had little success in the sense that they
have not been able to reduce the continuous and widespread
overexploitation of this resource throughout the country.
Today, Tunisia faces the challenge of changing groundwater
policy in order to address this problem. However, under-
standing and analyzing the causative factors for the observed
declines in the groundwater levels, is a necessary prerequi-
site for adopting new policies. The overall objective of this
study was to (a) identify and analyze the main factors con-
tributing to groundwater depletion, (b) quantify the impact
of the depletion on farmers’ incomes of different classes and
(c) identify and discuss possible new policy instruments for
sustainable use of groundwater.
2 Materials and Methods
In order to take into account the diversity of factors that can
influence groundwater depletion, the study was conducted in
three sites located in different climatic and socio-economic
contexts in Tunisia: Kasserine, Sidi Bouzid and Kairouan.
A total of 73 farmers were randomly selected through the
three sites. The interviews were conducted from September
2016 to March 2017. A structured research questionnaire
was developed and administered to the selected sample in
each area to obtain information on the evolution of irrigation
via groundwater (history and current situation use). The first
part of the questionnaire deals with the investment in wells,
water depth, well yields, grown crops, water irrigation
technologies and energy used to pump water etc. Farmers
were also asked about the possibilities of deepening the
existing wells or digging of new wells as well as the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 623

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_187
624
associated cost and the current crops grown. The respon-
dents were requested to suggest some possible solutions to
save groundwater and give their view about some new
instruments. Based on the results of the descriptive analyses
a set of variables were identified as hypothetical factors
affecting groundwater depletion.
The second part of the questionnaire extracts detailed
information on cropping patterns, area under irrigated crops,
the level of inputs used for each crop at different production
stages and their costs: seeds, fertilizers, labor, mechaniza-
tion, pesticides, pumped water and cost. The collected data
was used in a first step to generate enterprise budget: pro-
duction cost, gross margin and economic water rent for each
growing crop and each representative farm. In a second step,
it was used as input for economic model optimization,
developed for a representative farm for each perimeter to
analyze the impact of groundwater depletion on farmers’
income.
3 Results and Discussion
This study showed that water table level is falling quickly
throughout the three study sites with a fall ranging between
0.5 m and 1 m per year. In some zones, the
over-exploitation is more than 150% and the decrease is by
about 1.2 m per year. Due to this decline in water table
depth, the totality of farmers reported that they have to
deepen their wells regularly, once every 2–3 years,
increasing thus the energy requirement to extract one cubic
meter which has an additional impact on pumping cost.
Farmers were asked to indicate what factors they considered
responsible for this depletion. Our results indicated that the
wide adoption of subsidized water-saving technologies (drip
irrigation), seems to be one of main causative factors. More
than 67% of farmers reported that they have extended their
irrigated area up to 2 times, after the conversion of their
irrigation system from surface or furrow irrigation to drip
Fig. 1 Farmers’ Behavior after
adopting water-saving
technologies
H. El Amami and T. Hermassi
irrigation (Fig. 1). This is due to the fact that potentially
irrigable land is abundant in these areas relative to available
water resources. Thus, the adoption of modern technologies
has made it easy to irrigate new land which could not be
carried out with older technologies (surface and furrow
irrigation). Other farmers (39%) reported keeping the same
irrigated area but increasing the volume of water irrigation
allocated to crops in order to increase yields. Overall, it was
found that 54% of surveyed farmers reacted to “water sav-
ing”, resulting from the conversion to modern technologies,
both by extending the irrigated areas and increasing the
irrigation volume for crops.
Similar findings were reported by Ward and
Pulido-Velasquez (2008) who indicated that, contrary to the
generally accepted view, water-saving technologies do not
always reduce the overall water use.
Our results also showed that in the three areas the
large-scale shift observed from diesel pumps to electric
pumps appeared to be another main factor contributing to the
accelerated rate of groundwater depletion. Indeed, in
water-scarce areas, the cost of irrigation represents the major
component of the variable cost. This cost depends mainly on
the aquifer water-capacity, depth of the water table and
particularly on the energy prices. According to the economic
theory, a profit maximizing producer would use water to the
point where the marginal product value of water is equal to
the marginal cost of the additional unit of pumped water. As
a result, the demand curve of irrigation water for a given
crop is downward sloping, indicating that, as the cost of
pumping water (which is positively correlated with fuel
price) increases, the amount of irrigation water used in the
crop production decreases. If the energy prices became high
relative to prices commodities crops, the producers would be
forced to cease the activity or to shift to another source of
energy. Facing the escalating diesel prices experienced by
Tunisia since 2007, most famers in the study area, as well as
in other parts of the country, have shifted from using diesel
pumps to electric pumps. Table 1 shows that the pumping
Groundwater Depletion in Tunisian Arid Regions: Causes … 625

Table 1 Pumping cost per cubic Category Unit Diesel pumps Electric pumps
meter of water: comparison
between Diesel pumps and Amortized pumps cost (1) TNDa 134 36
electric pumps Operating cost (2) Annual maintenance cost TND 500 200
Annual energy cost TND 3750 1255
Total pumped groundwater (3) m3/year 18,000 18,000
Annual total pumping cost (4) = (1) + (2) TND 4384 1491
3
Pumping cost per cubic meter (5) = (4)/(3) TND/m 0.243 0.083
a
TND Tunisian Dinar  0.412 USD in 2017

cost of irrigation water by electric powered pumps is three 4 Conclusion

times lower than that pumped by diesel powered pumps.
In addition to this comparative advantage, electric pumps
have lower operating and maintenance cost and introduces
flexibility in managing the time and the duration of irriga-
tion. These results were much in line with others obtained in
different countries of the world (Kumar 2005; Shah 2009).
Inherited land sharing has also played a role in increasing
the number of wells and interference between them, but this
is less clear than the two mentioned factors.
Results revealed that unsustainable water pumping results
in significant economic losses for farmers, materialized by
additional investment in irrigation, increased pumping costs
and reduced income. These additional costs are much more
important for farmers of small holdings. Indeed, the invest-
ment cost in irrigation, including amortized cost of well,
pump set and accessories, was the highest for small farmers
with 374 TND/ha, followed by medium with 107 TND/ha.
For large farms this cost is only 50 TND/ha, which is 7.5
times lower than that observed for small farmers. This is
because small farmers have to bear the same amount of
investment on drilling new or deepening the existent well, as
that of large farmers, but large farmers have the possibility to
irrigate more area given their large size of holding and thus
enjoy the benefits of scale economies. The cost per cubic
meter of water extracted, including both the cost of energy
and amortized cost of investment in irrigation, was also
highest for small farmers with 0.162 TND, followed by
medium farmers with 0.117 TND and large farmers with
0.112 TND. Thus, the pumping cost per cubic meter
increases, as the irrigated area decreases, implying that eco-
nomic access to groundwater becomes increasingly in favor
of large farmers. Small farmers may lose access to ground-
water, further exacerbating inequalities in rural society.
This study has shown that the conversion of the irrigation
system to drip irrigation as well as the switching from
diesel pumps to electrical pumps, were the main causative
factors of groundwater overexploitation in the center of
Tunisia. Since regulatory instruments adopted so far have
shown their limitations, this study suggests the involve-
ment of local users, with the assistance of CRDA, to
ensure effective control on groundwater extraction.
Farmers have shown clear preferences to this new
approach. Together with this policy, the Government
should work to create other economic opportunities in
these regions to alleviate pressure on groundwater
resources, exclusively caused by horizontal and vertical
extension of irrigated agriculture. Currently, irrigated
agriculture provides the main source of revenue and jobs
for local populations.
References
Ben Guessim A. Les ressources en eau en Tunisie (en Arabe). Journée
nationale sur « L’eau dans le développement » , UTAP, Tunis,
2014; 21 Avril 2014.
Ben Guesssim A. For a new vision of the underground water
management. In: Workshop on: valorization of scientific research
achievements in water sector, 17–18 Mar Gammart, Tunisia; 2015.
DGRE. Annuaire piézomètrique de la Tunisie. Ministère de l’Agricul-
ture et des Ressources hydrauliques, 2014, 329p.
Kumar MD. Impact of electricity prices and volumetric water allocation
on energy and groundwater management: analysis from western
India. Energy Policy. 2005;33:39–51.
Tushar S. Taming the anarchy: groundwater governance in South Asia.
Resources for the Future, Washington, DC. 2009; 305 p.
Ward FA, Pulido-Velasquez M. Water conservation in irrigation can
increase water use. Proc Nat Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105(47):18215–
20.
 Efficiency of Aquifer Artificial Recharge
from Hill Dam by Analytical Method

Zouheira Ibn Ali and Moncef Zairi

Keywords
Artificial recharge Analytical method Statistical analysis Piezometry

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Tunisian areas suffer from regular water shortage and the
increase of groundwater exploitation rates, causing a con-
tinuous decrease of groundwater level as a consequence of
aquifers overexploitation (Triki et al. 2013). As a matter of
fact, the Tunisian government has undertaken the imple-
mentation of a ‘‘National Strategy of Surface Runoff
Mobilization’’. This current active policy has led to the
appearance of many new artificial recharge sites with several
techniques and methods. It is frequently claimed that infil-
tration through stream bed during flood events is the main
form of recharge in arid and semi arid environments (Nis-
wonger et al. 2008; Noorduijn et al. 2014). Artificial
groundwater recharge using water from hill dams is widely
used in order to improve the natural regime of the ground-
water recharge, (BelHadj Salem et al. 2012). The hill dams
are designed for flood water storage that will be slowly
released for infiltration down in the stream bed. However,
quantifying the contribution from stream bed infiltration to
the water resources management is a challenging problem in
such water-scarce country.
The main objective of this paper was to develop a method
for artificial recharge study by using the direct analytical
method for infiltration assessment in the evaluation of the
most important factors that control groundwater recharge via
statistical approaches.
Z. Ibn Ali (&)
M. Zairi
Laboratory LR 3E, National Engineering School of Sfax,
PB: 1173-3038 Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: zouheiramed@yahoo.fr
M. Zairi
e-mail: moncef.zairi@enis.rnu.tn
The Nadhour–Saouaf syncline, located in northern Tunisia
extends over an area of 400 km2 and lies between mountain
ranges in the North and the Northwest and an alluvial range
in the South. The climate of the study area is mostly semi-
arid, with a hot dry summer and a wet winter. The mean
annual rainfall is about 400 mm; this is much lower than the
potential evaporation which exceeds 1560 mm year−1. The
mean annual temperature is around 18 °C. The complex
geological conditions and high relief of the syncline area
favoured the development of a dense hydrographic network.
Hence, several wadis are present and run across the basin.
They are characterized by fluvial deposits consisting of
highly permeable coarse sediments. Most of the information
were gathered from the CRDA of Zaghouan city. The
information was related to hydrogeology, rainfall, ground-
water levels, groundwater abstraction, and artificial recharge
data. The recharge campaign of 2006 was used for this
investigation. During the period from 1st March to 15th
August 2006, an artificial groundwater recharge operation
was conducted in Nadhour-Saouaf basin using released
water from the Saadine hill dam. The water flow is con-
trolled by four runoff gauging stations (R1, R2, R3 and R4)
(Fig. 1). Therefore, the stream bed was divided into three
reaches (R1R2, R2R3 and R3R4) with lengths of 3, 3.7 and
4.8 km respectively. Each reach flows into its own down-
stream. During the recharge operation an average of 97
stream flow measurements were conducted with a flow rate
(Q) ranging from 171 to 9000 m3 day−1. By monthly
groundwater level monitoring in piezometers close the
recharge site, the behavior of the groundwater level resulting
from the artificial recharge was analyzed.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 627

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_188
628
Fig. 1 Location of the study area on the right and schematic representation of the stream reaches on the left
The direct analytical method uses the water budget model
to estimate the stream infiltration.
The water budget model equation is as follows:
I ¼ Qin  Qout  ET
where I is the stream infiltration [L3T−1], Qin is the upper
flow [L3T−1], Qout is the lower flow [L3T−1], and ET is the
evapotranspiration [L3T−1].
Considering Eq. (1) the infiltrated volume was calculated
using Eq. (2):
Vinf ¼ Vin  Vout  Ve
The evaporation volume was calculated using actual
evaporation daily data measured in the nearest meteorolog-
ical station (INM 2006).
Then, the infiltration velocity Iv [LT−1] was calculated
using Eq. (3):
Iv ¼ ðVinf =dayÞ=S
where S is the reach area [L2].
The procedure of differential flow gauging was used to
determine surface water and groundwater exchanges
(McCallum et al. 2012). In the study site the artificial
recharge consists in releasing water from the hill dam in the
stream bed. The available data for potential groundwater
artificial recharge case includes observed stream flows and
evaporation data during 167 days. The infiltration index; the
stream slope, the unsaturated zone thickness, the infiltration
pond, the stream slope, the stream geometry and the water
flow rate were considered the most important factors that
control recharge.
Z. Ibn Ali and M. Zairi
3 Results and Discussion
The direct analytical method was used to characterize the
distribution of the stream infiltration. During the application
ð1Þ of this method the infiltration velocity and volume for each
stream reach was determined. The water flow measured in
the runoff gauging stations was plotted to find the discharge
hydrograph. The discharge hydrograph can be divided into
four stages. The first stage was completed during the first 15
days. The first flow rate was 28 l s−1 during 5 days and then
an average flow rate of 100 l s−1 was recorded during the
ð2Þ last ten days. There was a water flow that exceeded the third
reach and was measured at the gauging station 4. The second
stage of the water release was also completed on the 83rd
day with the largest duration. To avoid water flow over the
third reach, the flow rate was regularized at values ranging
from 85 to 110 l s−1. For this stage, the average infiltration
velocity in the reach one, two and three was respectively of
ð3Þ 5  10−2 m day−1, 11  10−2 m day−1 and 6.4  10−2
m day−1. Consequently, no water flow was observed beyond
the fourth runoff gauging station R4. However, the third
water release stage was used to fit the maximum flow rate
that can be used as well as to knowing that there should not
be any flow beyond the fourth runoff gauging station R4.
This option was adopted to attempt the optimum infiltration
capacity. Its duration was 17 days and the highest flow rate
used was 204 l s−1 with an average flow rate measured at the
third reach of 47 l s−1 (Fig. 2). The average infiltration
velocities in the reach one, two and three were respectively
11.4  10−2, 8.4  10−2 and 9  10−2 m day−1. The
average infiltration velocities in sections one, two and three
were 8  10−2, 9.7  10−2 and 6  10−2 m day−1
Efficiency of Aquifer Artificial Recharge from Hill Dam …
Fig. 2 Flow hydrograph measured at four gauging stations (R1, R2,
R3, and R4) along the Saadine wadi
respectively (Fig. 3). Hence, the efficient flow rate of the
water releasing from the Saadine dam was around 120 l s−1.
The potential percentage of the recharge volume estimated
by the analytical method was 90% of total water volume
Fig. 3 Infiltration velocity in the reaches R1–R2 (a), R2–R3 (b), and
R3–R4 (c)
629
Fig. 4 Groundwater level variations in piezometers Pz1 and Pz4 of
Nadhour-Saouaf aquifer
released. The relationship between factors: the infiltration
index; the stream slope, the unsaturated zone thickness, the
infiltration pond, the stream slope, the stream geometry and
the water flow rate that control infiltration in the stream bed
reaches was conducted via statistical analysis. The Pearson’s
correlation matrix and the PCA demonstrate that: the infil-
tration ponds and stream bed geometry are the most deter-
mining factors as they are highly correlated to the infiltration
index with a correlation coefficient of 0.91 and 0.99
respectively.
The variations of groundwater level during 2000–2011
period for the piezometers Pz1 and Pz4 were used to assess
the recharge effects on the aquifer hydrodynamic. The
piezometer Pz1 showed a limited groundwater increase in
response to the operation of artificial recharge in April and
May 2006. Since 2007, the groundwater level has continu-
ously declined due to the over-exploitation of groundwater.
Thus, artificial the recharge effects appeared to be limited in
both time and space (Figs. 3 and 4).
4 Conclusion
The presented method aims to assess potential ground-
water artificial recharge and its most controlling factors.
To try the highest infiltration velocity in the stream bed,
the optimum water flow release was determined through
the measured hydrograph. Hence, the efficient water flow
rate of the water releasing from the Saadine dam was
around 120 l s−1. The average infiltration velocity in
sections one, two and three was 8  10−2, 9.7  10−2
and 6  10−2 m day−1 respectively. The statistical anal-
ysis showed the important role of the infiltration pond
number and the stream bed geometry in the recharge
process.
630
References
BelHadj Salem S, et al. Natural and artificial recharge investigation in
the Zéroud Basin. Central Tunisia: impact of SidiSaad Dam storage.
Environ Earth Sci. 2012;66(4):1099–110.
McCallum JL, et al. Quantifying groundwater flows to streams using
differential flow gaugings and water chemistry. J Hydrol. 2012;416–
417:118–32.
Niswonger RG, et al. Method for estimating spatially variable seepage
loss and hydraulic conductivity in intermittent and ephemeral
Z. Ibn Ali and M. Zairi
streams. Water Resour Res 2008; 44 https://doi.org/10.1029/
2007wr006626.
Noorduijn SL, et al. Estimating seepage flux from ephemeral stream
channels using surface water and groundwater level data. Water
Resour Res. 2014;50:1474–89.
Triki I, et al. Groundwater levels time series sensitivity to pluviometry
and air temperature: a geostatistical approach to Sfax region,
Tunisia. Environ Monit Assess. 2013; https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10661-013-3477-8.
 Integrated Multi-criteria Evaluation
and Weighted Overlay Analysis
in Assessment of Groundwater Potentiality
in Segui Region, Southern Tunisia

Mohamed Haythem Msaddek, Dhekra Souissi, Yahya Moumni,

Ismail Chenini, and Mahmoud Dlala

Keywords
Groundwater potentiality Multi-criteria evaluation Weighted overlay analysis
GIS/remote sensing Segui Tunisia

1 Introduction climatological, geological and pedological data were vec-

The Segui region, situated in the southeastern part of Gafsa
city, in the south of Tunisia, and characterized by an arid
climate, suffers from water resources scarcity due to an
excessive demand on domestic utilization and agricultural
activity. To avoid the problem of water resource availability
in this region, it is important to identify the areas where
groundwater resupplying is performed (Dinesh Kumar et al.
2007). This paper presented the investigation and mapping of
groundwater potentiality by integrating surface influencing
factors (Sophocleous 2002) and multi-criteria evaluation with
the contribution of the weighted overlay analysis. Therefore,
integration of remote sensing with GIS for preparing various
thematic layers with assigned weightage, rate and score
assisted the identification of potential groundwater zones.
2 Materials and Methods
torised and used to establish thematic maps. All
pre-treatment and processing of Landsat OLI/TIRS image
were executed by means of ENVI 5.1 software and
PCI GEOMATICA 2015 software. ArcGIS 10.2.2 software
enabled data vectorisation and SRTM processing. It was
used to superimpose data layers and achieve the different
maps. It was applied to interpolate different maps of spatial
variation (density maps) (Msaddek et al. 2016).
To determine groundwater potential zone, the weights of
different factors for groundwater potential and the score
under various characteristics were assessed (Dasho et al.
2017) based on the characteristics of the Segui basin. This
study uses lineaments, land use, lithology, drainage, slope,
soil, rainfall and geomorphology as the eight-significant
factors influencing groundwater potential. A multi
influencing factors method was used considering the inter-
active influence and interrelationship between these the
factors and their effects (1).

ðMajoreffect þ MinoreffectÞ
This study mainly used multi-criteria analysis of different Score assigned ¼ P  100
parameters based on remote sensing, Geographic Informa- ðMajoreffects þ MinoreffectsÞ
tion System (GIS) and SRTM data to evaluate groundwater ð1Þ
potentiality (Fenta et al. 2015). The used remotely sensed
The mathematical method of weighted overlay analysis
data were extracted form Landsat-8 OLI/TIRS satellite
was used to derive the final groundwater potentiality map
images. The digital elevation model (DEM) was obtained
and to calculate groundwater potentiality index in accor-
from images of SRTM30-1Arc second. The meteorological,
dance with the mathematical Eq. (2) (Machiwal et al. 2011):
M. H. Msaddek (&)
D. Souissi
Y. Moumni
I. Chenini

X
M. Dlala
Pg ¼ Pxw  Pxr ð2Þ
UR13ES26, Paléoenvironnement, Géomatériaux et Risques
Géologiques, Faculté des sciences de Tunis, Université de Tunis
El Manar, 2092 Tunis, Tunisia x Influencing factors
e-mail: mmhaythem@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 631

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_189
632
The subscripts «w» and «r» indicate weights and rates,
respectively.
3 Results and Discussion
The groundwater potential zones for the study area were
generated through the integration of various thematic maps
of lineaments, land use, lithology, drainage, slope, soil,
rainfall and geomorphology using remote sensing and GIS
techniques. The demarcation of groundwater potential zones
for the study area was made by grouping the interpreted
layers through weighted multi influencing factor and finally
assigning different potential zones. The groundwater poten-
tial zone of this study area can be divided into four grades,
namely very good, good, poor, and very poor. The
groundwater potential map demonstrates that the excellent
groundwater potential zone is concentrated mainly in the
eastern region of the study area due to the distribution of
alluvial plains and agricultural land with high infiltration
ability. The application of the mathematical method of
weighted overlay analysis to calculate groundwater poten-
tiality index permitted to calculate the effect of factors on
groundwater capacity. It indicates that slope and rainfall play
an important role in groundwater potential. Lithology, geo-
morphology and lineaments density also help the infiltration
ability of the groundwater system. Soil and drainage density
have moderate effect on groundwater capacity, but the land
use factor has a small effect on groundwater potential.
4 Conclusion
The present study proposed a specific method based on
multi-criteria evaluation to asses groundwater potential
zones integrating weighted overlay analysis, remote
M. H. Msaddek et al.
sensing and GIS. Eight factors were combinated to
elaborate a final map of groundwater potential zones in
Segui region (lineaments, land use, lithology, drainage,
slope, soil, rainfall and geomorphology). This method
allowed the identification of four different zones accord-
ing to their groundwater potential, namely; very good,
good, moderate, and poor. The results reveal a high
groundwater potential in the study area. The effect of
each influencing factor on groundwater capacity was
computed. This method can be used for developing
policies for sustainable utilization of the groundwater
resources.
References
Dasho OA, Ariyibi EA, Akinluyi FO, Awoyemi MO, Adebayo AS.
Application of satellite remote sensing to groundwater potential
modeling in Ejigbo area, Southwestern Nigeria. Model Earth Syst
Environ 2017; 1–19.
Dinesh Kumar PK, Gopinath G, Seralathan P. Application of remote
sensing and GIS for the demarcation of groundwater potential zones
of a river basin in Kerala, southwest coast of India. Int J Remote
Sens. 2007;28(24):5583–601.
Fenta AA, Kifle A, Gebreyohannes T, Hailu G. Spatial analysis of
groundwater potential using remote sensing and GIS-based
multi-criteria evaluation in Raya Valley, northern Ethiopia. Hydro-
geol J. 2015;23(1):195–206.
Machiwal D, Jha MK, Mal BC. Assessment of groundwater potential in
a semi-arid region of India using remote sensing, GIS and MCDM
techniques. Water Res Manage. 2011;25(5):1359–86.
Msaddek MH, Moumni Y, Chenini I, Mercier E, Dlala M. Fractures
network analysis and interpretation in carbonate rocks using a
multi-criteria statistical approach. Case study of Jebal Chamsi and
Jebal Belkhir, South-western part of Tunisia. J Afr Earth Sci.
2016;123(2016):99–109.
Sophocleous M. Interactions between groundwater and surface water:
the state of the science. Hydrogeol J. 2002;10(1):52–67.
 Optimal Groundwater Sampling Design
for Nitrate Monitoring by Geostatistical
Analysis and Vulnerability Mapping

Ibtissem Triki, Nadia Trabelsi, Imen Hentati, and Moncef Zairi

Keywords
Groundwater monitoring Optimization Nitrate Cokriging Vulnerability

1 Introduction These methods can be classified as simulations,

The approaches for groundwater monitoring network design
can be classified as hydrogeologic and statistical (Loaiciga
et al. 1992). In the hydrogeologic approach, the network is
designed based on the calculations and the judgment of the
hydrogeologist without using advanced statistical methods
(Loaiciga et al. 1992). This approach is applied to
site-specific applications, usually after application of vul-
nerability assessment through composite Geographical
Information System (GIS) (Preziosi et al. 2013). The
advantage of this approach is that the physical information of
hydrogeological systems is fully considered and the key
monitoring sites will not be missed. The disadvantage,
however, is the lack of a quantitative criterion necessary to
determine the number of observation wells required in the
first place (Mogheir et al. 2006).
For the statistical approaches, several methods have been
adopted to consider the monitoring network design problem.
I. Triki (&)
Laboratoire Eau, Energie et Environnement,
Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: triki_ibtissem@yahoo.fr
N. Trabelsi
Nadia Trabelsi Laboratoire Eau, Energie et Environnement,
Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: nadysonia@yahoo.fr
I. Hentati
Imen Hentati Laboratoire Eau, Energie et Environnement,
Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: imenhentati@yahoo.fr
M. Zairi
Moncef Zairi Laboratoire Eau, Energie et Environnement,
Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: moncef.zairi@enis.rnu.tn
variance-based techniques and probability techniques.
Essentially, the difference among them is in the formulation
of the objective function to be optimized (Passarella et al.
2003). One of the most extensively used approaches is the
variance-reduction approach based on kriging or co-kriging
(Passarella et al. 2003).
The main advantage of the variance reduction is that the
estimation variance does not depend on the measured
parameter values but only on the location of the measure-
ment points. The main drawback of this method is that it
does not consider hydrogeological settings that have a sig-
nificant effect on contamination risk (Wu 2004). Hence, the
design of a groundwater quality monitoring system will be
effective if both hydrogeological and geostatistical factors
can be considered simultaneously (Baalousha 2010;
Júnez-Ferreira et al. 2016).
This study proposed a sequential methodology to assess
and redesign a regional groundwater quality monitoring
network integrating vulnerability assessment with geosta-
tistical tools.
2 Materials and Methods
In this study, the assessment of the groundwater quality
monitoring wells was achieved for nitrate, considered as a
major groundwater contaminant in the investigated area.
Two sets of measured values of the nitrate data were
obtained from two sampling periods conducted during April
2012 and December 2004.
This paper proposed a sequential methodology to assess
and redesign a regional groundwater quality monitoring
network integrating vulnerability assessment with

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 633

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_190
634
geostatistical tools. A specific vulnerability map of the study
area was created using the Susceptibility Index (SI) method
and GIS capabilities in order to classify areas that are most
vulnerable to contamination. Then, cokriging estimation
variance (CEV) of nitrate concentration was performed to
identify areas of high variance as potential locations for
monitoring well implementation. To find the optimal loca-
tion for additional samples; which will yield the lowest
CEV, the following sequential search algorithm was applied
in five steps:
a. The study area was divided into 2039 square elements of
2 km  2 km and the nitrate data was estimated on the
grid using block cokriging.
b. Then, the CEV was calculated at the grid nodes using the
full set of coordinates of the April investigation and the
auxiliary December investigation. Since data full sets
were used, the CEV would be used as reference values in
the following steps;
c. The optimum locations of additional monitoring wells
can be determined sequentially by computing new esti-
mation variances and identifying the grid location with
the highest estimation variance;
d. An iterative procedure was adopted to minimize the
variance of estimation subject to accuracy of 45 mg/L.
This value was used as a maximum permitted standard
deviation of the estimation error over the whole area. The
45 mg/L is an arbitrary chosen value fixed, by com-
parison with the mean standard deviation of the data to
maintain the order of magnitude.
e. On the basis of the maximum value allowed of the
variance, the standard deviation of the estimation error
(ri) was calculated to test each alternative network. The
optimisation process was implemented considering the
number of added wells.
The final step in the proposed methodology was to
compute the monitoring priority index (MPI) as the sum of
the vulnerability index and the cokriging standard deviation.
It was then possible to identify the areas where the current
level of monitoring was adequate and areas where additional
monitoring well were necessary.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 The SI Groundwater Vulnerability Map
The classified SI vulnerability map shows three classes. The
low vulnerability zones occupy 8%, the moderate vulnera-
bility zones occupy 38% and the high vulnerability ones
I. Triki et al.
occupy 55% of the total area. The space distribution of the
vulnerability classes indicates that the higher degrees of
vulnerability are primarily localized in the northwest (Reg-
ueb) and the northeast of the study zone (El Hencha). The
high vulnerability of these areas may be attributed to the
shallow water depth, ranging from 3 m to 14 m below land
surface, a relatively high recharge rate and the extensive
agricultural land use practices such as irrigated perimeters
and permanent crops.
The decrease of vulnerability from high to moderate
class, in the rest of the zone except for a small zone (8%)
with low vulnerability, is essentially due to a lower perme-
ability of the aquifer, a deeper groundwater table and a land
use of less polluting character.
3.2 Optimal Multivariate Geostatistical Analysis
of the Groundwater Nitrate Concentration
Monitoring Network
The next step consisted in evaluating the cokriging estima-
tion variance (CEV) using the full sets of coordinates of the
2012 investigation (34 observation wells) and the auxiliary
2004 investigation (98 wells) in order to evaluate the sam-
pling efficiency of the groundwater nitrate monitoring net-
work. Hence, six scenarios were illustrated by identifying
the number and location of wells yielding the standard
deviation of the estimation error to a required limit.
Starting from the initial situation with 34 monitoring
wells measured in April 2012, the kriging prediction stan-
dard deviation is lower in areas covered by the existing
network but the maximum standard deviation is located
along the northwest boundaries of the study area, resulting
from the limited number of wells available in these locations.
Hence, the current level of monitoring may be considered
insufficient to characterize anthropogenic potential of nitrate
pollution sources within the Sfax superficial aquifer. The
further alternative will focus on reduction of the cokriging
estimation variance in area with higher value using more
densely data set established at December 2004 (scenario 2).
The largest reductions occurred in areas with a high density
of the auxiliary sampling wells. However, the boundaries of
the study area, not covered by the monitoring network, show
the maximum of cokriging standard deviation in the north-
west aquifer boundary. In order to reduce the average cok-
riging standard deviation to reach the predefined accuracy of
45 mg/L, new observation wells were sequentially suggested
in uncovered locations where the estimation variance was at
maximum. These additional wells were added step by step
and sequences of 18, 59, 94 and 123 wells were respectively
added to the initial network (scenarios 3, 4, 5 and 6).
Optimal Groundwater Sampling Design for Nitrate Monitoring …
For these scenarios, the mean of the prediction errors was
reduced by 24.5% by adding 18 wells to the existing net-
work and 40% by adding 123 wells.
3.3 Prioritizing Groundwater Nitrate
Monitoring Locations
Once the groundwater vulnerability zones and the sampling
efficiency of the groundwater nitrate monitoring network
have been assessed. The MPI map was generated using a
combination of vulnerability and cokriging standard devia-
tion maps. The highest MPI index represented a high vul-
nerability area with high spatial uncertainty as far as the
observation wells density decreases. The areas with the
higher values of MPI should be monitored more rigorously
than those with lower indices. The MPI contour map shows
that the 68% of the total areas of the Sfax superficial aquifer
has an index between 5 and 6 and consequently need to be
monitored. In such areas no monitoring wells were installed
but a rapid change in the groundwater nitrate was expected.
On the other hand, no additional monitoring was needed in
areas where the MPI classes varied from 2 to 4. However,
the wells of the existing network localized in the lower MPI
areas were retained due to availability of historical water
level data.
In order to evaluate the validity of the proposed new
network configuration, based upon geostatistical optimiza-
tion, GIS was utilized to spatially join the MPI map and the
new suggested wells for nitrate concentration monitoring in
the Sfax aquifer. Among the 123 proposed wells, 89%
coincide with the high class in the MPI map, and only 11%
of the wells with the medium class. Hence, 109 new wells
were suggested to be added to the existing network, which
allowed an effective assessment of nitrate pollution in the
study area.
4 Conclusion
This paper described the application of a sequential
monitoring design procedure based on cokriging and
vulnerability mapping to optimize the spatial configura-
tion of a groundwater nitrate concentration monitoring
network.
The susceptibility index, using GIS techniques, proved
to be a powerful tool to assess the groundwater vulner-
ability to nitrate pollution. The high vulnerability degrees
635
depend on high groundwater net recharge, flat topogra-
phy as well as the dominance of the agricultural and
industrial activities causing groundwater contamination.
The cokriging algorithm provides a satisfactory rep-
resentation of aquifer nitrate contamination from two sets
of nitrate concentration sampled at two different times.
The uncertainty in the evaluation of the spatial estimation
of the scattered observations of nitrate concentration can
be reduced using additional information of the same
parameter at another time. The cokriging estimation
variance is then a useful tool to select optimum location
for additional monitoring wells to gain further informa-
tion on the spatial extent of the contaminant field. Thus,
123 new wells were suggested in the target zones with
higher cokriging standard deviation. However, the
hydrogeological characteristic of the aquifer was not
considered in the cokriging approach. Therefore, the
vulnerability map was then combined with cokriging
standard error map using GIS tools to generate a classi-
fied map delineating the area needing additional moni-
toring wells in the network. Indeed, all the proposed well
configurations were evaluated and the most informative
were placed in the high class area of the MPI map. Hence,
the best suited monitoring network for the study area will
consist of 109 wells considered as favorable for both cost
and benefit considerations.
References
Baalousha H. Assessment of a groundwater quality monitoring network
using vulnerability mapping and geostatistics: a case study from
Heretaunga Plains, New Zealand. Agric Water Manag. 2010;97
(2):240–6.
Júnez-Ferreira H, González J, Reyes E, Herrera GS. A geostatistical
methodology to evaluate the performance of groundwater quality
monitoring networks using a vulnerability index. Math Geosci.
2016;48:25–44.
Mogheir Y, Singh VP, de Lima JLMP. Spatial assessment and redesign
of a groundwater quality monitoring network using entropy theory,
Gaza Strip, Palestine. Hydrogeol J. 2006;14(5):700–12.
Passarella G, Vurro M, V D’aggostino, MJ Barcelona. Cokriging
optimization of monitoring network configuration based on fuzzy
and non-fuzzy variogram evaluation. Environ Monit Assess.
2003;82(1):1–21.
Preziosi E, Petrangeli AB, Giuliano G. Tailoring groundwater quality
monitoring to vulnerability: a GIS procedure for network design.
Environ Monit Assess. 2013;185(5):3759–81.
Wu Y. Optimal design of a groundwater monitoring network in Daqing,
China. Environ Geol. 2004;45(4):527–35.
 Hydrochemical Analysis and Evaluation
of Groundwater Quality of an Alluvial
Aquifer. Algeria

Tarek Drias, Chemseddine Fehdi, and Moufida Bellouala

Keywords
Hydro-geo-chemistry ACP/PCA Alluvial aquifer Salinity Tebessa Algeria

1 Introduction deposits from plioquaternary age. This aquifer is overlying

Quality of groundwater is equally important to its quantity
owing to the suitability of water for various purposes. Water
quality analysis is an important issue in groundwater studies.
Variation of groundwater quality in an area is a function of
physical and chemical parameters that are greatly influenced
by geological formations and anthropogenic activities (Bel-
khiri and Mouni 2012). Contaminants can easily reach the
groundwater through soils and are rapidly transported over
large distances.
The purpose of this study is twofold. The first is to study
the hydrogeological regime in this area—with the help of
chemical and data. Such studies can help constrain hydro-
geological regimes which are poorly covered by water-level
data. The second purpose is to evaluate the present status of
water quality in the area. This will help both in present water
resource planning in the area as well as provide a baseline
for future water quality evolution studies. The Tebessa area
straddles two groundwater level aquifers; the limestone
aquifer, and the alluvial aquifer. In general, the shallow
groundwater in Merdja area is found in the alluvial fan
T. Drias (&)
Laboratory of Mobilization and Water Resource Management,
University of Batna 2, Fesdis, Algeria
e-mail: drias@gmail.com
C. Fehdi
Department of Geology, Cheikh El Arbi Tebessi University,
12002 Tebessa, Algeria
e-mail: fehdi@yahoo.fr
M. Bellouala
Laboratory of Natural Risks and Land Use, University of Batna 2,
Fesdis, Algeria
e-mail: Moufida.belloula@yahoo.fr
geologic formations consist of cenomanien marly layers and
form aquicludes. The recharge to the aquifer takes place in
the highlands of Dyr, Bouroumane from east and Doukkane
from the west.
2 Material and Methods
The hydrochemical properties of groundwater samples (26
samples) collected from the alluvial aquifer system. The
experimental data, corresponding to May 2010 (Drias 2013),
were obtained from field surveys and from chemical analy-
ses performed in the laboratory.
2.1 Multivariate Statistical (Principal
Component Analysis PCA)
Statistical computations were made using STATISTICA 7.0
software (USDA 1988). Principal component analysis
(PCA) is a powerful tool that attempts to explain the vari-
ance of a large dataset of intercorrelated variables with a
smaller set of independent variables.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Statistical Analysis (Principal Component
Analysis PCA)
The following discussion will showing the fact of these
results in the context of groundwater movement, water types,
water-rock interactions and origin of salinity. The different

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_191
638 T. Drias et al.

water samples have been classified according to their

chemical composition using the Piper diagram (Piper 1944).
According to this, the most of the samples belongs to
Chlored, sulphate, calcic, magnesian waters family (Fig.1),
however confirms in this period, the incidence of geology on
the quality of water. The sulfates and chlorides are related to
the anthropic activity and the nature of the rocks.
Application of the principal component analyses for the
water sample indicates that the first three principal compo-
nents together account for 72.63% of the total variance in the
dataset. The eigenvalues of the first three principal compo-
nents (>1) can be used to assess the dominant hydro
geochemical processes. The concentrations of Na, Cl, HCO3,
SO4 and EC show high positive loadings (0.50–0.94) and
appears to characterize the salinity of groundwater. In the
second principal component NO3 and K, have high positive
loadings (0.68–0.83), this component characterize the pol-
lution of the aquifer. The maps related to the first and second
main component, are established taking into account the
Fig. 1 Piper trilinear diagram of water chemistry in the study area
values of the sample point on both components, they reveal:
A strong salinization (Fig. 2a), due to the dissolute one of
the evaporitic rocks of Djebissa and Belekfif mounts and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) values for irrigation water
also the clays sediments in center part of the plain. and the extent to which sodium is absorbed by the soils. If
A Groundwater pollution (Fig. 2b), due to the use of nitro- water used for irrigation is high in sodium and low in cal-
gen (N) fertilizers in agriculture and infiltration of wastew- cium, the cation exchange complex may become saturated
ater and, in the district of El Merdja, Bekkaria, El with sodium, which can destroy the soil structure owing to
Hammamet and Morsott. dispersion of clay particles (Singh 2002). The SAR and
electrical conductivity values plotted on the US salinity
diagram reveal the presence of the three following classes:
3.2 Irrigation Water Quality Good Classe (C2S1): This class represent the weak
salinity, it is located in the region of El Hammamet and
The US Salinity Laboratory Staff (Richard 1954) proposed Bekkaria which results from the carbonated rocks; Medium
irrigation specifications for evaluating the suitability of water (C3S1): It includes, fairly mineralized water with average
for irrigation use. There is a significant relationship between risks of salinization and weak alkalization; Low (C4S1):

(a) (b)

0Km 5Km 10Km

Fig. 2 Isofactors maps related to a the salinity, b the pollution, in study area
Hydrochemical Analysis and Evaluation of Groundwater Quality …
This class is located in the center of the plain; it is charac-
terized by of strong mineralizations, and presents an risks of
salinization, and average alkalization.
4 Conclusion
This study was conducted to evaluate factors regulating
groundwater quality in an area with agriculture as main
use. Twenty six groundwater samples have been collected
from Tebessa-Morsott area (Algeria) for hydrochemical
investigations to understand the sources of dissolved ions
and assess the chemical quality of the groundwater.
Majority of the groundwater samples belongs to Chloride,
sulfate, calcium and magnesium waters family (Cl−,
SO42−, Na2+, Mg2+, Ca2+) however confirms in this per-
iod, the incidence of geology on the quality of water. The
sulfates and chlorides are related to the anthropic activity
and the nature of the rocks. Principal component analysis
was applied to groundwater quality data sets, and gener-
ated two clusters (the first one related to salinity and the
second one related to pollution). The values of sodium
absorption ratio SAR and electrical conductivity of the
639
ground water were plotted in the US salinity laboratory
diagram for irrigation water. Most of the samples fall in
C3S1 and C4S1 quality with high salinity hazard and low
sodium hazard.
References
Belkhiri L, Mouni L. Hydrochemical analysis and evaluation of
groundwater quality in El Eulma area, Algeria. Appl Water Sci.
2012;2:127–33 (Springer, Berlin).
Drias T. Hydrogéologie du bassin versant de l’oued ksob (Tébessa).
Vulnérabilité et protection de la ressource. Thèse de Doctorat en
science. USTHB. Alger; 2013. 135P.
Piper AM. A graphic procedure in geochemical interpretation of water
analysis. Trans Am Geophys Union. 1944;25(6):914–28.
Richard LA. Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. In:
Agricultural handbook, vol. 60. Washington, DC: USDA; 1954.
P. 160.
Singh AK. Quality assessment of surface and sub-surface water of
Damodar river basin, India. J Environ Health. 2002;44:41–9.
STATISTICA 7.0 for Windows. USDA, Natural Resources Conserva-
tion Services, 1999. Soil taxonomy: a basic system of soil
classification for making and interpreting soil surveys. In: Agricul-
ture handbook, vol. 436. Tulsa: StatSoft, Inc.; 1998. P. 871.
 Building Constrained (3D) Geostatistical
Models Case of the Triassic Sandstone
Aquifer System (SE Tunisia)

Mohamed Amin Hammami, Hayet Chihi, and Ghislain De Marsily

Keywords

3D geostatistical model Kriging with inequality constraints Intrinsic model Facies
variation Triassic sandstone aquifer

All sorts of relevant data have been integrated in this

1 Introduction
Describing the distribution of aquifer units in 3 dimensions
can be intricate especially in heterogeneous environments.
In our case, the investigations of the Sahel el Abebsa area
revealed a considerable thickness and facies variation
within the Triassic Sandstone aquifer, likely related to the
structural setup of the area. The primary objective of this
work was therefore to provide a good 3D geometrical
representation of the aquifer system honoring geology and
available data.
2 Materials and Methods
The entire work can be split into three steps: (i) data base
conception and data mining; (ii) geological study; and
(iii) geostatistical modeling of the aquifer system units.
M. A. Hammami (&)
H. Chihi
Georesources Laboratory, Water Researches and Technologies
Center, Soliman, Tunisia
e-mail: amin.hammami.igs@gmail.com
H. Chihi
e-mail: hayet_chihi@yahoo.fr
G. De Marsily
Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06, UMR 7619
METIS, 75005 Paris, France
G. De Marsily
CNRS, UMR 7619 METIS, 75005 Paris, France
G. De Marsily
EPHE, UMR 7619 METIS, 75005 Paris, France
work. Geological data of the Triassic Sandstone aquifer are
available in a variety of formats: geological maps (National
office of mines), water boreholes (Regional offices of Agri-
culture development) and exploratory petroleum wells
(Tunisian company of Petroleum activities ETAP) with
lithostratigraphic descriptions, lithostratigraphic sections
(Yahyaoui 2007) and seismic data (ETAP). The performed
geological study thoroughly described the structure through
the construction of lithostratigraphic cross-sections. Building
the fault framework map improved the understanding of the
structural configuration of the Triassic Sandstone aquifer but
also set constraints for the modelling procedures during the
variographic analysis and the kriging phase for more accu-
rate outcomes.
A detailed Geostatistical modeling analysis was then
achieved. Usually, traditional estimation means can com-
promise the accuracy of the proposed model especially if
other potent factors are at stake like the lack and/or irregu-
larity of data and the spatial (stationary or nonstationary)
behavior of the studied reservoir properties. In this regard, a
kriging with Inequality constraints approach can be
rewarding (Chihi et al. 2014). This method provided a set of
lucrative means to enhance sampling through conditional
simulations, thus granting wells that do not reach the desired
surface a second use and making them relevant to the
modeling. Intrinsic variogram models (Chilès and Delfiner
2012) were used to adjust long-distance behaviour evoking a
drift further improving geologic interfaces modelling. Con-
sequently, the geostatistical integration of geologic inter-
pretation (e.g. fault framework, outcrop restrictions) and
intrinsic models allowed building a model capable of geo-
statistical uncertainty evaluation.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 641

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_192
642
3 Results and Discussion
The model, backed by the geological study, explicitly por-
trayed the general southeast ward and northeast ward col-
lapsing trends controlled by normal NE SW and NW SE
major faults. The aquifer system is divided into several
structural units. Each compartment has a different geomet-
rical behavior and consequently, distinct hydrogeological
features due to lateral facies variation and to the fact that the
series are thicker and more complete towards the southeast
and the north.
All the calculated geological interfaces delimiting the
aquifer system units (Upper Permian, Lower Triassic, Lower
to Middle Triassic and Upper Triassic Tops) clearly show a
similar deepening trend. Older surfaces are collapsing at a
faster pace though, pointing to a thickening of the Triassic
reservoir units mostly towards the southeast.
On the other hand, a cascade of NE SW oriented horst
and graben features was shaped. These structures are bound
to the local NE SW faults conditioning the preservation and
the extension of the aquifer units within each compartment.
The detailed comprehensive analysis of the structural
setup allowed the definition and grouping of the hydros-
tratigraphic units, considering all geological characteristics
throughout the aquifer and mainly in the vicinity of its
borders and fault discontinuities. Hydraulic communications
between the different units could therefore be improved or
M. A. Hammami et al.
hindered thus redirecting water circulation. This would lead
to interesting consequences on groundwater flow and water
infiltration mechanisms.
4 Conclusion
The 3D geometrical model of the Triassic Sandstone
aquifer system showed that the investigated area is char-
acterized by a structural setting that moderates groundwater
flow in the aquifer formations. The model demonstrated a
southeastern and northern collapsing trend and character-
ized the thickening of the lower Triassic aquifer and the
intermediate clays confining it. This representation also
allowed us to make speculations about fluid circulations, to
be developed with facies and a hydrodynamic simulations
based on the reservoirs geometry.
References
Chihi H, Jeannée N, Yahyaoui H, Belayouni H, Bedir M. Geostatistical
optimization of water reservoir characterization, case of the “Jeffra
de Medenine” aquifer system (SE Tunisia). Desalin Water Treat.
2014;2(10–12):2009–16.
Chilès JP, Delfiner P. Geostatistics: Modeling spatial uncertainty. New
York: Wiley; 2012.
Yahyaoui H. Nappe des Grès du Trias de Sahel El Ababsa de
Médenine: Aspects Hydrogéologiques et Proposition d’une Gestion
Durable. Tunisia: DGRE; 2007.
 Exploitation of the Main Aquifer Units
in the Biskra Region: Analysis of the Current
Situation and Prospects for Rationalization
of Their Use in Agriculture

Nasser-Eddine Soualili, Gabriela Mihaela Afrasinei, Yacine Louadj,

Nouara Degui, and Salah Belghemmaz

Keywords
Analysis Agriculture Inventory Rationalization Sahara

1 Introduction
The development of the Saharan regions is imperatively
conditioned by the persistence of water resources and their
possibility of use over time (Haouchine et al. 2010). About
89% of the water resources are used by the agricultural
sector and the existing industries are low water users
(Bouammar 2010). Indeed, knowledge of the geochemical
quality of groundwater in the Sahara is paramount because
salinity is often linked to aridity (Schoeller 1959). The water
in the various Saharan regions, particularly those in the
center and north (Ouargla, El Oued, Biskra), is poor and the
salt content may exceed 7 g/l of dry residue (Oued Rhir
region) (Boutouga 2012). This high salt content coupled
N.-E. Soualili (&)
Y. Louadj
N. Degui
Department of Agronomic Sciences, Ferhat ABBAS University,
Sétif-1, Sétif, Algeria
e-mail: n.soualili@mail.com
Y. Louadj
e-mail: pedologist899@gmail.com
N. Degui
e-mail: degui.n38@gmail.com
Gabriela MihaelaAfrasinei
Remote Sensing and GIS TeleGIS Laboratory, Department of
Chemical and Geological Sciences, University of Cagliari,
Cagliari, Italy
e-mail: afrasinei_gabriela@yahoo.com
S. Belghemmaz
Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Ferhat ABBAS
University, Sétif-1, Sétif, Algeria
e-mail: sbelghemmaz@yahoo.fr
with the presence of a water table near the soil surface is one
of the main causes of soil sterilization in several agricultural
zones (Durand 1958; Halitim 1973).
The region of Biskra is one of the Saharan regions of
Algeria with a strong agricultural potential (Assassi et al.
2017), in particular those of the Continental Intercalary
(CI) or Albian, the Mio-Pliocene (MP), the Terminal Com-
plex (CT) and the Quaternary groundwater table (OSS
2003). Nearly 65,000 ha in this region are irrigated by the
waters of about 11,000 boreholes and peasant wells (ANRH
2000 in Bouziane and Labadi 2009). The Exploitation of
these aquifer systems goes back to more than 50 years or
even a century in some areas of this region, such as
El-Ghrous, which is part of Tolga, M’zirâa depends on Sidi
Okba and also in the irrigated areas of the plain of
El-Outaya. The evolution of the water mobilization rate of
these aquifer units is constantly increasing, notably with the
development of date palm cultivation, market gardening
(especially tomatoes) and plasticulture (DSA 2013; MADR
2013).
This situation deserves to be considered in order to know
whether, after half a century, irrigation water management is
a key element in the current practice of farmers or its use is
empirical and sometimes subject to Risk of loss. Our study
focused on the inventory of aquifer systems and the pre-
sentation of the positive and negative aspects that have
marked the evolution of their exploitation.
2 Materials and Methods
This study was carried out in the Biskra region located in a
Saharan part of the South East Algeria (Fig. 1).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 643

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_193
644
Km
0 5 10
Fig. 1 Geographical location of Biskra and location of the study sites
This is a simple survey that is not accompanied by a
questionnaire. The results of the survey were compared with
those drawn from reports and documents as well as the work
carried out in the region.
It was conducted using a two-pronged approach. The first
is principal and it was of bibliographical order. It was
devoted to the collection of scientific and technical infor-
mation on the subject from the old and recent documents that
we could have. The second component is based on consul-
tations and visits to agricultural organizations and water
services as well as to farmers and managers of
hydro-agricultural sites. In this approach, three pilot sites
were identified as follows: Site 1, which includes the Tolga
Oases and the Biskra ITDAS2 (Western Zeb) Experimental
Farm, Site 2, which contains the oases of Sidi Okba (Eastern
Zeb) and site 3 represented by the El-Outaya plain
(north-west of Biskra), which covers about 33,000 ha. These
large sites have been selected in this study because, in
addition to their invaluable contribution to agricultural pro-
duction, they are endowed with more technical know-how
and are well equipped in terms of management resources.
Visits to these sites constitute a secondary step in this work.
They aim to gather the opinions of the direct actors who are
the farmers on the water exploitation mode, its quality as
well as the problems encountered in the management of
these sites. This helped us to take stock of the potential risks
and obstacles related to the use of groundwater on the future
of agriculture and the environment of this region of the
Sahara.
N. E. Soualili et al.
El Outaya
BISKRA
3 Results and Discussion
This study on the potentials of the Algerian Sahara in
groundwater allowed us to make a global assessment on the
most exploited aquifers and on the major problems that
characterized the use of water in agriculture. It has been
found that the irrigation water requirements are constantly
growing (Table 1). This is justified by state aid and incen-
tives for agricultural investment in the Sahara since 2000
(Bouammar 2010; DSA 2013).
These agricultural development assistance programs have
led to an increase in irrigated area through the creation of
new oasis areas and irrigation perimeters.
This boom in Saharan agriculture, specifically in the
Biskra region, has certainly consolidated the share of agri-
cultural investment in the country’s economic growth. But
this progress hides in most cases a terrible reality. On the one
hand, there is the overexploitation of water resources, such
as the albian aquifer (Bouziane and Labadi 2009), and on the
other hand, the appearance of various problems such as the
deterioration in chemical quality (Bouziane and Labadi
2009), the spread of soil salinization in the oases of Tolga,
Sidi Okba and even those of the irrigated perimeters of the
El-Outaya plain. A similar finding was reported by Dosso
(1980) in Syria. Other consequences attributed to the
“waste” of irrigation water (Table 2), such as the degrada-
tion of soil quality, the accumulation of water due to lack of
drainage, and pollution have also arisen (Bouhoun 1997;
Djili 2008).
Exploitation of the Main Aquifer Units in the Biskra Region … 645

Table 1 Removals evolution in Aquifers Periods

Million m3/s
1950 1970 2000
Eocene limestone 65 102 134
Mio-pliocene 8 13 211
Pontien 1 4 9
Phreatics 27 47 101
Total 101 166 455
Source ANRH (2005)

Table 2 Chemical Waters origin Soluble elements (méq/l)

Characteristics of water in
El-Outaya and ITDAS sites Cl−1 Ca+2 Mg+2 CO−2
3 HCO3− NO3− SO−2
4 Na+ K+
Dam-reservoir (Secondary 9 10.2 7.1 0.02 1.42 0.14 15.45 9.84 0.37
Terminal)
Drilling ITDAS 28.9 11.6 51.5 0 2.3 0.87 23.92 29.16 0.36
Dam-reservoir (Main 9.3 10.48 5.52 0.04 1.34 0.17 14.08 10,02 0.37
Terminal)

The decline in agricultural production, especially that of
the dates, is only the corollary of the mismanagement of
water and soil (Ayers and Westcot 1988).
4 Conclusion
The increased and sometimes untimely use of water
resources in the Algerian Sahara is the primary cause of
the emergence of serious situations such as the degrada-
tion of soil quality by salinization and the loss of con-
siderable quantities of water, absence of drainage. Only a
rational management of this resource is capable of
boosting agricultural development in this region. Other
immediate actions include the rehabilitation of degraded
sites, the practice of leaching, and the installation and/or
rehabilitation of drainage systems and the economy of
water through the modernization of irrigation systems.
References
Assassi S, Daoudi A, Lejars C. Les profits «excessifs» des com-
merçants de fruits et légumes: réalité ou préjugé infondé? Le cas de
la tomate primeur à Biskra. Cah. Agric. 2017;26:25002.
Ayers RS, Westcot D. La qualité de l’eau en agriculture. Bull FAO Irrig
Drain. 1988. 170 p.
Bouammar B. Le développement agricole dans les régions sahariennes:
Etude de cas de la région de Ouargla et de la région de Biskra.
Thèse Doctorat, Université KASDI Merbah, Ourgla (algérie). 2010.
266 p.
Boutouga F. Ressources et essai de gestion des eaux dans le Zan Est de
Biskra. Mém. Magister, Université Badji Mokhtar, Annaba
(Algérie). 2012. 136 p.
Bouziane MT, Labadi A. Les eaux profondes de la région de Biskra
(Algérie). EJSR. 2009;25(4):526–37.
Daddi Bouhoun M, Brinis L. Etude de la dynamique des sels solubles
dans un sol irrigué Gypso-Salin : cas d’une palmeraie de la cuvette
de Ouargla. 2004.
Dosso M. Géochimie des sols salés et des eaux d’irrigation.
Aménagement de la Basse Vallée de l’Euphrate en Syrie: Université
Paul Sabatier de Toulouse (Science). 1980. 180 p.
Durand JH. Les sols d’Algérie. Ed. S.E.S. Alger. 1958. 244 p.
Halitim A. Etude expérimentale de l’amélioration des sols sodiques
d’Algérie. Thèse Doctorat U.E.R des sciences biologiques. 1973.
Haouchine A, Boudoukha A, Haouchine FZ, Nedjai R. Cartographie de
la recharge potentielle des aquifères en zone aride : Cas de la plaine
d’El Outaya, (Biskra, Algérie). EUROJOURNALS. 2010;45(4):1–
13.
OSS. Système Aquifère du Sahara Septentrional. Une conscience de
bassin. Hydrogéologie, vol. II. 2ème édit. 2003. 322 p.
Schoeller H. Hydrogéologie des régions arides, progrès récents.
Unesco: France; 1959. 127 p.
 Ground Water Quality Characterization
in the South of Algeria (Tindouf Region)—In
Excess Fluorine

Nouria Nabbou, Meriem Belhachemi, Touhami Merzougui,

Yahia Harek, Bahous Nasri, and Ikram Mokadam

Keywords
Groundwater Fluoride Tindouf region Water quality Hydrochemical facies
Contamination

1 Introduction and skeletal fluorosis as well as osteoporosis (Othman et al.

The contamination of water resources available for house-
hold and drinking purposes with heavy elements, metal ions
and harmful microorganisms is one of the major serious
health problems (Karunanidhi et al. 2013). The fluoride is to
scale as one of the pollutants of geological origin more
frequently met in ground water. Fluoride containing miner-
als exist naturally in the earth crust causing soluble fluoride
salts to continuously enter into groundwater. It is well
known that water containing fluoride ions at low concen-
tration of about 1 mg/l has beneficial effects on teeth by
preventing and reducing tooth decay. However, drinking
water with high fluoride ions concentration causes dental
2014). The fluoride Concentrations encountered in the main
aquifers in northern Algerian Sahara frequently exceeds the
WHO standards, and reach in majority 3 mg/l. This is the
origin of lesion disorders or functional reaching dental bone
system (endemic fluorosis), especially in the eastern part of
the Northern Sahara (Miller-Ihli et al. 2003). Considering
this factor and taking into account the importance of public
health, this study was designed to understand the status of
fluoride in groundwater of a part of western Algerian Sahara,
Tindouf region. The physico-chemical parameters of the
taken water samples were determined in collaboration with
the Adrar ANRH laboratory (Water Resources National
Agency laboratory).

T. Merzougui
Department of Hydraulics, Faculty of Technology, University of
Tahri Mohamed Bechar, Bechar, Algeria
2 Materials and Methods
e-mail: touhamime@yahoo.fr
• Study area
Y. Harek
Inorganic and Environmental Chemistry Research Laboratory,
University of Aboubekr BELKAID Tlemcen, Tlemcen, Algeria Tindouf is a province which covers an area of approximately
e-mail: yahiaharek@yahoo.fr 159,000 km2, is located in the southwest of Algeria, in the
B. Nasri far west of the desert region Saoura, south of Hamada,
Water Resources National Agency Laboratory Adrar, Adrar, between the meridians 5°–9° W; and the parallels 26°–28°
Algeria
North. It is limited to the north by Morocco border, northeast
e-mail: bnasri14@gmail.com
by the Bechar province, west by the non-autonomous terri-
N. Nabbou (&)
M. Belhachemi
I. Mokadam
tory of Western Sahara, to the east by the Adrar province and
Chemistry and Environmental Sciences Laboratory, University of
Tahri Mohamed Bechar, Bechar, Algeria south by Mauritania. Its population was estimated in 2010 to
e-mail: nabbounouria@yahoo.fr 59,898 inhabitants. Tindouf area is part of the desert climate
M. Belhachemi zones, characterized by an annual air temperature of 24 °C
e-mail: bel_meriem@yahoo.fr that ranges from 45 °C in July to 5 °C in January. The
I. Mokadam regional rainfall is unevenly distributed throughout the area
e-mail: ikram.mokadam@gmail.com and varies seasonally with an average of 50 mm/year. Due to

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 647

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_194
648
Fig. 1 Geological section of Tindouf Basin
the evaporation rates and high infiltration and the flat
topography of the region, can be clearly define a water
drainage system. Natural discharge of water occurs mostly at
the lowest topographical levels in the wadis and sebkhas.
From the morphological point of view, the territory of the
province consists of vast stretches flat and monotonous
Fig. 2 Fluoride content map of
Tindouf city
N. Nabbou et al.
(Hamada), with the exception of some residual reliefs
(−50 m elevation). The river system is characterized by
large wadis (O. El Ma, O. Sobti, O. Tartrat, O. Menkrines,
etc. …) which often remain dry throughout the year. They
turn into real torrents after heavy rainfall, characteristic of
desert regions (Hani 2003). Tindouf basin is a vast synclinal
axis roughly oriented East–West. The heart of the syncline is
occupied by deposits of the Mio-Pliocene (Hamada) based
on Paleozoic formations (Carboniferous, Devonian, Silurian,
Ordovician and Cambrian). The South and South Eastern
part of the Tindouf territory consists of volcanic and meta-
morphic rocks of the Massif Yetti-Eglab (Miller-Ihli et al.
2003). Stratigraphically, the difference formations are rep-
resented in Fig. 1.
• Methodology and sampling analysis
The analysis of water chemistry is an essential supplement to
the hydrogeological study of groundwater and therefore the
management of water resources. It allows providing exten-
sive information on the aquifer, the nature of the banking,
power and circulation areas, and the potability of the water.
To achieve these objectives we conducted an inventory of
water points of the province, located water points by GPS
and took samples for physico-chemical analyses and the
determination of fluorine content. Our study focused on 56
collective bore wells distributed over four aquifers. The
reasons for the choice of groundwater are based on the
importance of human exploitation in the study region and the
risk factors such as water pollution: the lack of sewerage
Ground Water Quality Characterization in the South of Algeria … 649

system (use of pit latrines as excreta disposal system), lack
of drinking water network, the location next to agricultural
land. Groundwater sampling was carried out once in month
from December 2011 to March 2015 in Tindouf area. The
samples were filled in the polyethylene bottles (1500 ml)
washed with distilled water and rinsed with the sample
before collection. Methods of collection and analysis for
groundwater samples were essentially based on the guideline
of the Standard Method of Analysis (Rodier 2009). Fluoride
Fig. 3 Triangular diagram Piper companion of aquifers
concentration was determined using the emission spec-
trometry inductively coupled plasma (ICP-AES).
3 Results and Discussion
The fluoride concentration in fifty six (56) bore wells waters
of Tindouf area varies between 0.16 and 3.31 mg/l in upper
Ordovician, Westphalian complex—Tertiary, upper Visean
and Continental Tertiary aquifer. From this result, the
boreholes water obtained from the study area have been
classified into four groups as low (0.1–0.5 mg/l) 6% of bore
well waters, medium (0.5–1.5 mg/l) 20% of bore well
waters, high (1.5–2 mg/l) 38% of bore well waters, and very
high (2–4 mg/l) 36% of bore well waters, the four groups are
represented in a fluoride content map (Fig. 2). These ground
waters are destined to the drinking waters. The fifty six
(56) bore wells waters are located in Tindouf city and Oum
El Assel. The geochemical trend of groundwater in the study
area demonstrates that sodium is the dominant cation
(Na+ > Ca+2 > Mg+2 > K+) and sulphate is the dominant
anion (SO−2 − − − −
4 > Cl > HCO3 > NO3 > F ) (Fig. 3). The
Correlation analysis was employed to understand the inter-
relationship between fluoride and other Fourteen (14) phy-
sico chemical parameters represented in Table 1. They are
taken into account, for the comparison of water points with
nearby chemical characteristics. We can say that there is a
good correlation between the studied variables and fluoride.
The fluoride concentration in groundwater depends upon the
such factors as climate, relief, evaporation, precipitation,
geology, and geomorphology of the area. It is generally
accepted that groundwater is enriched in F− due to pro-
longed water–rock interactions (Venkatramanan et al. 2015).

Table 1 Correlation matrix of the Continental Tertiary aquifer waters

Variables pH EC Ca Mg Na K Cl SO4 NO3 HCO3 Th TAC NO2 F
pH 1
EC 0.090 1
Ca −0.039 0.469 1
Mg −0.154 0.411 −0.389 1
Na 0.265 0.850 0.302 0.151 1
K 0.472 −0.0.39 0.112 −0.439 0.146 1
Cl 0.069 0.908 0.525 0.354 0.745 −0.122 1
SO4 0.144 0.839 0.462 0.258 0.736 0.103 0.637 1
NO3 0.276 0.498 0.251 0.235 0.417 −0.245 −0.650 0.232 1
HCO3 −0.199 0.073 −0.460 0.444 0.086 −0.147 −0.144 −0.046 −0.326 1
TH −0.168 0.806 0.456 0.640 0.423 −0.315 0.788 0.657 0.442 0.044 1
TAC −0.195 0.164 −0.392 0.454 0.164 −0.145 −0.071 0.051 −0.283 0.986 0.116 1
NO2 0.041 −0.021 0.064 −0.105 0.047 −0.080 −0.022 0.006 −0.106 0.048 −0.056 0.022 1
F −0.045 0.186 0.089 0.078 0.129 −0.039 0.099 0.185 −0.002 0.248 0.143 0.258 −0.057 1
650 N. Nabbou et al.

The aquifer analysis was performed in a centered reduced

Fig. 4 Variable and individual Projections of Continental Tertiaryon
the factorial plane F1/F2
PCA. According to the Kaiser criterion, only two factors
were selected (F1 and F2) which represents 54% of the total
variance (Fig. 4). F1 is positively determined by (EC, NO3,
Cl, Ca, Mg, Na, HCO3 and F). This is the contamination
factor highlighting a mineralization of water by the disso-
lution phenomenon of the rocks. So, F1 factor defines a
general mineralization axis of water. It is observed that the
ratios of Na+/Ca+, Na+/Cl− and NO3− are increased with
reference to the increase in fluoride concentration (Fig. 5a, c,
d) in all the Tindouf aquifers. The present study area rep-
resents very high fluoride content with a maximum of
3.31 mg/L in Tindouf groundwaters which are source of
drinking water. Thus, it is concluded that the geological
location is one of the most important factors affecting
groundwater quality. Physicochemical parameters analysis
showed that most physicochemical parameters exceeded the

Fig. 5 Relationship among fluoride and other elements in the groundwater of Tindouf aquifers
Ground Water Quality Characterization in the South of Algeria …
permissible limit cited in Algerian standards and WHO
standards. There is a considerable increase in chloride,
sodium total hardness, fluoride, nitrate and sulfate. It shows
that there is a possible contamination of groundwater of
Tindouf region.
4 Conclusion
The analysis revealed that the groundwater of the area
needs certain degree of treatment before consumption,
and it also needs to be protected from the perils of con-
tamination. In addition, facing the rarefaction of the
resources in alimentary waters of good quality in South of
Algeria (Sahara), the treatment of the waters with a great
content of fluoride will become a necessity to protect the
health of people. This detailed study of water quality in
this region is necessary to recommend the most appro-
priate treatment technology.
651
References
Hani AI. Identification of underground flow paths in the aquifer
systems of the Tindouf basin and the Annaba-Bouteldja plains.
Hydrology of lite Mediterranean and Semiarid Regions Proceedings
of an international symposium held at Montpellier, April, 2003.
IAI IS Publ. no. 278; 2003.
Karunanidhi G, Vennila M, Suresh SKS. Environ Sci Pollut Res.
2013;20:7320–33.
Miller-Ihli NJ, Pehrsson PR, Cutrifelli RL, Holden JM. J Food Comp
Anal. 2003;16:621–8.
Othman CO, Naimani PJY, Sahani NM. Technol Soc. 2014;2(5):115–20.
Rodier J. The analysis of the water. 9th ed. Paris: Dunod; 2009.
Venkatramanan S, Chung SY, Rajesh R, Lee SY, Ramkumar T,
Prasanna MV. Comprehensive studies of hydrogeochemical pro-
cesses and quality status of groundwater with tools of cluster,
grouping analysis, and fuzzy set method using GIS platform: a case
study of Dalcheon in Ulsan City. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2015;22
(15):11209–23.
 Assessment of Different Irrigational Practices
on Managing the Nitrogen Loss
into the Groundwater Using HYDRUS-1D
Numerical Software Gaza Strip as a Case
Study—Palestine

Abukmeil Reem, Guizani Mokhtar, Ito Ryusei, and Funamizu Naoyuki

Keywords
Water scarcity Wastewater reuse Irrigation management Nitrate loss HYDRUS-1D
numerical software Grain sorghum

1 Introduction Sorghum, a staple plant in Gaza, is a candidate plant to be

Elevated nitrate levels in the Gaza strip, Palestine ground-
water were and still are a major problem. The over fertil-
ization of the Gaza strip sandy soil along with the discharge
of non-treated wastewater leads to the rapid leaching of
nitrates into the groundwater. The groundwater contamina-
tion with nitrate leaves Gaza, an extremely water scarce area,
with no safe drinking water supply alternative. As the
domestic wastewater is an important source of plant nutri-
ents, it has become crucial to consider its integration in
agricultural irrigation as a substitute of commercial fertilizer.
Therefore, monitoring the nitrogen content must be consid-
ered as an integral part of the planned fertilization program
to limit leaching losses to the groundwater. Therefore, irri-
gated agriculture requires specific practices to increase water
and nitrogen use efficiency at the right time. Nutrient uptake
by plants is among the management practices of great
interest and needs to be evaluated for Gaza case study.
A. Reem (&)
Graduate School of Engineering, Hokkaido University,
Sapporo, Japan
e-mail: reemadeeb1989@hotmail.com
G. Mokhtar
I. Ryusei
F. Naoyuki
Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
e-mail: g_mokh@yahoo.fr
I. Ryusei
e-mail: ryuusei@eng.hokudai.ac.jp
F. Naoyuki
e-mail: funamizu@eng.hokudai.ac.jp
G. Mokhtar
Global Institute for Collaborative Research and Education,
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
evaluated for its ability to reduce nitrogen leaching. In a
semi-arid climate, comparable to the Gaza case, Sorghum
served as a phytoremediation plant and has been success-
fully used to remove sodium salts from the sandy soil of
Burkina Faso (Hijikata et al. 2014). Thus, this present study
aimed to assess the fate of nitrogen in the sandy soil of Gaza
where grain sorghum is planted. Pot experimental investi-
gation under controlled conditions was carried out to
observe how nutrients move and obtain several parameters
required in the following parts of the study. Then a simu-
lation was carried out using HYDRUS-1D numerical soft-
ware. After models calibration, several irrigation scenarios
were considered to estimate the optimal irrigation practices.
The different irrigation scenarios used different ratios of
nutrient rich wastewater and groundwater as well as different
irrigation time, duration and continuity patterns. In this
study, water contents and inorganic nitrogen in soil samples
and leachate, plant growth, bioaccumulation and transloca-
tion factors of nitrogen were investigated.
2 Materials and Methods
Pot Experiments were carried out in this study to appropri-
ately assess soil, water, and nutrients dynamics in sandy soil.
The experiments were conducted under controlled conditions
at the Hokkaido University experimental greenhouse (43° 04′
11.6′′ N, 141° 20′22.4′′ E), Sapporo, from July 2014 to
September 2014. It consisted of 90 cm long columns with
15-cm diameters. Twelve (12) sorghum planted pots were
prepared. A schematic diagram of the experiment is shown in
Fig. 1. A daily irrigation with 6 mm/day of distilled water

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 653

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_195
654 A. Reem et al.

and 8 weeks). Plant samples were divided into stems, leaves

and roots for the subsequent analysis. Plant samples were
washed and dried at 60 °C for 5 days, then grounded using a
mortar and pestle for the subsequent analysis of nitrogen.
Bioaccumulation and translocation factors (BAF, TF) of
nitrogen were investigated. The measured results from pot
experiments were used to calibrate the HYDRUS-1D model
in terms of the soil water contents, leachate, NH4+-N and
NO3−-N concentrations in soil and leachate water with no
water or osmotic stress. The soil surface boundary was rep-
resented by atmospheric boundary conditions, while the bot-
tom of the column was represented by a free drainage
conditions. Measurement values were compared with the
results of HYDRUS-1D simulation with the mean absolute
error (MAE), and the root mean square error (RMSE) for
further investigation of water content and nitrogen movement
in the soil (Šimůnek et al. 2008). Table 1 summarizes the
criteria and scenarios for each criteria used for the simulation
in addition to the fixed parameters in each running scenario.

3 Results and Discussion

A low water content analysis, the results were observed at

Fig. 1 Layout of the conducted experiment
applied by drip irrigation, with an exception for 4 days irri-
gated with 5 mm/day of Hoagland solution as a nitrogen
source (230 and 115 mg of TN respectively). Each two
weeks, three (3) planted pots were broken for the subsequent
eight weeks for soil samples and leachate (analysis at 2, 4, 6
the upper part of the soil near the drip irrigation spots owing
to the low penetration of water caused by the limited root
water uptake. As a result, this caused a higher water content
in the deeper parts of the soil column. However, after the 4th
analysis, the water content analysis results at the deeper parts
of the soil decreased mainly because of the root water
uptake, where the roots were above 50 cm. The same results
were concluded by Guizani et al. (2016) and referred the
reasons to the root water uptake. Measurements show that

Table 1 Simulation criteria and scenarios

Simulation Scenarios Simulation Fixed parameters
conditions
Criterion 1: Irrigation i. Constant intensity • Day time • 90% Ground water (GW), 10% Treated waste water
intensity irrigation (TWW)
ii. Different Intensity = Function •1h
(growth) irrigation/day
Criterion 2: Irrigation i. Day time irrigation • Constant • Intensity = Function (growth)
time intensity
ii. Night time irrigation •1h • 90% GW, 10% TWW
irrigation/day
Criterion 3: Irrigation i. 1 h irrigation • Constant • Intensity = Function (growth)
duration intensity
ii. 3 h irrigation •1h • Night time irrigation
irrigation/day
iii. 24 h irrigation • 90% GW, 10% TWW
Assessment of Different Irrigational Practices on Managing …
Fig. 2 Experimental water profile (%)
Fig. 3 Soil ammonium-nitrogen (mmol/l)
cumulative water volume leachate reached to 4, 7, 9 and
11 cm respectively for the four cultivation periods. These
values correspond to 12, 21, 27 and 32% respectively of the
total applied water as shown in Fig. 2. Inorganic nitrogen
analysis shows that NH4+-N was decreasing in deeper soil
due to the transformation to the NO3−-N form. However,
they also show a drop of the NO3−-N concentration between
2nd and 4th week compared to the 6th and 8th weeks as
shown in Fig. 3.
Plant analysis shows that shoot weight was increasing
with the TN increase in soil. The TF of TN has expressed a
linear decrease with increasing TN content in soil
655
Fig. 4 Soil nitrate-nitrogen (mmol/l)
(R2 = 0.62). The TF for the TN changed from 3 to 11. The
results show a TF larger than 1 suggesting that the nitrogen
could effectively translocate from the roots to the shoots.
BAF ranged from 0.3 to 5.3, suggesting considerable
bioaccumulation of TN from soil even in low TN soils. The
result shows TF > 1 means grain sorghum could be labeled
as TN-hyper-accumulator. HYDRUS-1D model calibration
and validation were carried-out by minimizing MAE and
RMSE of the measured water and nitrogen leachates with
the simulated ones. The tuned soil parameters were com-
pared to values reported in the literature. Moreover, other
parameters such as soil water retention parameters (hr and
hs) were obtained from laboratory-determined as 0 and
0.3 cm3 cm−3 respectively. The calibrated values are a
(cm−1) 0.075, n (−) 1.2, l (−) 0.5, Ks (cm h−1) 37.5,
Disp. (cm) 4.5, Diff. (cm2/h) 0.96–1.96. For NH4+-N and
NO3−-N, the solute calibrated parameters are respectively as
follows: Kd (mg−1cm3) 3.5,0; lw (h−1) 0,0.0072; ls (h−1)
0,0; lg (h−1) 0,0; l′w (h−1) 0.0008,0.008; l′s (h−1) 0.0004,0;
l′g (h−1) 0,0.012; Ƴw (mg cm−3 h−1) 0, 1E-006; Ƴs (h−1) 0,0;
Ƴg (mg cm−3 h−1) 0,0. The model was successfully cali-
brated (Fig. 4).
After validation, HYDRUS 1-D software used to simulate
the fate of nitrogen in Gaza strip under different irrigation
scenarios. Atmospheric and free drainage boundary condi-
tions were defined at the surface and at the bottom of each
pot. Atmospheric boundary conditions were specified using
daily values of irrigation and evapotranspiration.
The meteorological data for the simulation period from
July to August was adopted from Al-Najar (2011). The sim-
ulation results show a reduction rate of NO3−-N loss reaches
656
Fig. 5 Leaching loss of NO3−-N under different and constant Irriga-
tion water intensities
Fig. 6 Leaching loss of NO3−-N of day and night time irrigation for
the constant intensity
up to 88% of different intensity. This is due to the different
irrigation intensities directly related to a function of the plant
growth, which leads to a significantly less leaching loss than
the constant irrigation practice as shown in Fig. 5. While a
reduction rate of NO3−-N loss reached to 22% if the irrigation
practice is in the night-time as shown in Fig. 6. This is mainly
referred to the soil temperature at the time of irrigation.
However, for the different intensity application, losses were
more evenly distributed through the day. Throughout the
simulation period, the different intensity schemes show no loss
A. Reem et al.
Fig. 7 Leaching loss of NO3−-N of different duration application at
constant intensity
Fig. 8 Effects of irrigation continuity on the leaching loss of NO3−-N
of different irrigation intensities
difference between day-time and night-time application.
These results show a reduction rate of 3% of NO3−-N loss into
leachate achieved in a case of 24 h of irrigation for the different
intensity of irrigation as shown in Fig. 7.
Figure 8 shows the irrigation continuity impacts on
reducing the NO3−-N leaching loss. The simulation results
show that irrigation of 24 h had the lower NO3−-N loss into
the leachate by 89% reduction rate compared with the 3-h
continuous irrigation. Further, the results also show that
irrigation application of 3 h intermittently decreased the
leaching loss of NO3−-N by 87% compared to the 3-h
continuous irrigation. Thus, the best applicable scenario with
Assessment of Different Irrigational Practices on Managing …
lowest NO3−-N loss is different irrigational intensity for 3 h
intermittent irrigation application.
4 Conclusion
Larger than one BAF and TF values indicated that grain
sorghum is potentially useful for up-taking the TN from
soil/groundwater and introduce the grain sorghum as
TN-hyper-accumulator plant. The study successfully
calibrated the HYDRUS 1D software in order to validate
the model to study the impacts of different irrigation
practices on reducing the leaching loss of NO3−-N after
irrigational reuse of treated wastewater for Gaza case.
Several scenarios of irrigation intensity, irrigation timing,
and irrigation duration were simulated using
HYDRUS-1D numerical software. The simulation results
of different irrigation intensities reduced the NO3−-N loss
into leachate by 89%. Moreover, HYDRUS-1D software
showed that 22% of NO3−-N loss reduced in case of
night-time irrigation for the constant intensity. For the
duration of irrigation impacts on the NO3−-N loss into the
leachate, the results show that the different intensities of
24-h irrigation had the lowest NO3−-N loss by 3%
657
reduction. Finally, we can conclude that the best irriga-
tional reusing practice achieved by HYDRUS-1D soft-
ware as according to the available amount of treated
wastewater and adequate irrigational working scheme is:
blending ratio 90% groundwater and 10% treated
wastewater, with different irrigational intensities for 3-h
intermittent irrigation applications.
References
Al-Najar H. The Integration of FAO-CropWat Model and GIS
techniques for estimating irrigation water requirement and its
application in the Gaza Strip. Nat Resour. 2011;2:146–54.
Guizani M, Fujii T, Hijikata N, Funamizu N. Salt removal from soil
during rainy season of semi-arid climate following an assumed salt
accumulation from previous cultivations fertilized with urine.
Euro-Mediterr J Environ Integr. 2016.
Hijikata N, Fuji T, Sangare D, Sou M, Ushijima K, Funmaizu N. Salts
monitoring and management for human urine fertilization and
treated greywater irrigation in Sub-Sahel region. J Arid Land Stud.
2014.
Šimůnek J, van Genuchten MTh, Šejna M. Development and
applications of the HYDRUS and STANMOD software packages,
and related codes. J Vadose Zone. 2008;7:587–600.
 Assessment of Groundwater Quality
for Irrigation in Chelghoum Laid Area
(Eastern Algeria)
Abdelhamid Khedidja, Abderrahmane Boudoukha, and Samir Djenba



Keywords
Assessment Groundwater
1 Introduction
Agriculture in our study area represents the first
socio-economic activity. It is therefore necessary to consider
that for an effective water management. Variation of
groundwater quality in an area is a function of physical and
chemical parameters that are greatly influenced by geologi-
cal formations and anthropogenic activities (Khedidja and
Boudoukha 2013). In the present study, the physiochemical
quality of groundwater has been assessed and dissimilar
index methods were used like EC, SP, SAR, RSC, PI and
KR with reference to their suitability for irrigation. The
groundwater quality of the semi-arid region of Chelghoum
Laid was evaluated for suitability of irrigation; The intensity
of salinization process depends on the characteristics of the
soil, water quality, conditions of employment and in par-
ticular the efficiency of the drainage system (Debieche 2002;
Khedidja and Boudoukha 2016). The drought of the last
decade has created an agricultural deficit due to the high
evapotranspiration, influencing the salinity of the water. In
this situation thirty groundwater samples were collected at
identical locations from deeper bore wells. The concentra-
tions of physicochemical parameters of pH, electrical
A. Khedidja (&)
S. Djenba
Natural Hazards and Land Use Laboratory, University of Batna,
Ptt Benyahie Abderrahmane, Mila, Algeria
e-mail: khedi73@yahoo.fr
S. Djenba
e-mail: samirdjenba@yahoo.fr
A. Boudoukha
Applied Hydraulics Research Laboratory, University of Batna,
Batna, Algeria
e-mail: boudoukha_abderrahmane@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_196



Quality Irrigation Chelghoum Laid
conductivity (EC), total hardness (TH), Ca, Mg, Na, K,
HCO3, SO4, Cl and NO3 have been analyzed.
2 Materials and Methods
The various geological, geophysical and hydrogeological
studies conducted in the region (CGG 1973; Khedidja 2016)
showed the existence of three permeable geological forma-
tions allowing the formation of an aquifer in Mio-Pliocene, it
outcrops over a large part of the land, which was charac-
terized by lacustrine limestone, red marl, silt and red sands.
All these formations present very variable facies with a
thickness of 100–150 m.
The aquifer studied is characterized by a converging flow.
It is also characterized by closed curves piezometric in the
West–East direction which coincides with the morphology
of the bedrock (Khedidja 2016). The piezometric curves are
very close to the west and to the east reflecting an average
hydraulic gradient of the order of 3%, which implies a low
permeability. In the center and in the east of the study
region, the curves are more spaced reflecting a lower
hydraulic gradient of the order of 1%. This low gradient is
due to the good hydrodynamic characteristic of the field.
2.1 Collection of Water Samples and Analytical
Procedure
The campaign of sampling was carried out during the end of
the period of high water (May 2016). Thirty-(30) samples
were taken at water points (wells and borehole) from deeper
bore wells (average depth 40 m (Fig. 1). Chemical analyses
were performed at the laboratory of the treatment plant of
659
660
Batna and a private laboratory of soil analysis and irrigation
water. Chemical elements that were measured are: calcium
(Ca+2), magnesium (Mg+2), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+),
bicarbonate (HCO3−), sulfate (SO−2 −
4 ), chloride (Cl ), nitrate
−
(NO3 ). Assay methods used are: colorimetry, flame pho-
tometer and colorimetric- spectrophotometer (Rodier 2016;
APHA 1995). The temperature (T), electrical conductivity
(EC) and pH were measured on field using a portable
multi-parameter instrument. The accuracy of the chemical
analysis was verified by calculating ion-balance errors where
the errors were generally around 10% for all the samples.
The concentrations were interpreted and calculated with
irrigation indexes using the following formula of SP, SAR,
RSC, PI and KR.
3 Results and Discussion
The chemical composition of groundwater depends largely
on the type of rocks, the flow direction, the depth of the
static level and the climate (Bencer et al. 2016). The results
are obtained from hydrogeochemical analysis of water
samples of the study area as presented in Table 1 and the
summary statistics of the different indexes of groundwater
quality are presented in Table 2.
Fig. 1 Map of the natural
conditions of the study area:
geology and piezometry (May
2007)
A. Khedidja et al.
3.1 Salinity Index
The samples are categorized under good quality to permis-
sible quality (Bauder et al. 2007). Electrical conductivity
(EC) is the measure of salt content of water in the form of
ions. The salinity index of the groundwater samples was
computed using the measured electrical conductivity value.
The EC value is measured in micro-semens per centimeter.
The EC values range from 490 to 3960 S/cm with an
average value 1411.03 S/cm. It is found that 10% of the
samples are unsuitable water salinity quality and 66% of the
samples have crossed the permissible limit, but saline waters
in 16.66% of the sample location were dominant in the area
according to the WHO standard 2004 (WHO 2006).
3.2 Water Chemical Facies
The analysis results worn on the Piper diagram confirms the
common origin of these waters. They are grouped into a
single pole influenced by the dissolution of evaporite for-
mations. This solution has generated several chemical ele-
ments, including sulfates, chlorides, calcium, magnesium. In
going from west to east the waters tend to pole sulfated
anionic. All water points represented the triangle related to
Assessment of Groundwater Quality for Irrigation … 661

Table 1 Statistical Parameters Units Minimum Maximum Average SD CV(%) WHO (2006)
characteristics of the
physico-chemical parameters of T °C 16.3 18 17.03 0.50 2.93 25
water in the groundwater of pH 6.6 7.6 7.02 0.22 3.21 7–8.5
Chelghoum Laid. April 2016
EC lS/cm 490 3960 1411.03 913.76 64.75 750
+2
Ca mg/l 69.25 396.38 165.31 83.46 50.49 75
Mg+2 mg/l 16.68 211.08 62.91 47.05 74.78 30
+
Na mg/l 9.8 135.9 41.40 32.71 79 50
K+ mg/l 4.5 12 7.38 2.12 28.8 10
HCO3− mg/l 101 488 220.18 78.35 35.58 300
SO−2
4 mg/l 27 785 300.44 205.63 68.44 250
Cl− mg/l 17.75 337.7 171.15 111.17 64.95 250
NO3− mg/l 4 88 37.05 23.37 63.08 50
TH mg/l 20 440 186.81 115.22 61.67 600
CV Coefficient of variation; SD Standard deviation

Table 2 Statistics analysis of Index Units Minimum Maximum Average SD CV (%)

different indexes of groundwater
Na % 4 36 12.17 7.18 58.99
SAR % 20 256 69.31 51.25 73.95
PI % 11 46 25.58 8.92 34.87
KR % 0.013 0.24 0.05 0.04 86.79
RSC % −29.95 −3.94 −9.95 6.66 66.92
CV Coefficient of variation; SD Standard deviation

3.3 Sodium Absorption Ration and Percent

Sodium

3.3.1 Percent Sodium

Fig. 2 Piper diagram. April 2016
cations begin in the middle (mixed part) have a tendency
toward sulfates and calcium pole (Fig. 2).
Salinity can cause substantial adverse effects due to the
binding of sodium chloride salts by soil colloids. Sodium
then exerts a harmful effect on vegetation, indirectly, by
degrading the physical properties of the soil (Richards
1954). Due to this action, the soil becomes compact and
asphyxiating for plants (Joshi et al. 2009; Ismail et al. 2015).
When the concentration of Na + ions in a soluble state in
the soil is important, these ions frequently replace Ca++ in the
absorbing complex. Water loaded with salts can cause this.
The risk is determined from the value of absorbable sodium
“Sodium Absorption Ratio” (SAR). For the same conduc-
tivity, the risk is even greater when the coefficient is higher.
According to Wilox diagram the samples in Fig. 3 show
that the 66.66% are good quality, 16.16 are excellent quality,
6.66 are doubtful and 10% are unsuitable for irrigation
(Fig. 3). Sodium hazard was an important factor in irrigation
water quality. In the study area all the groundwater samples
have SAR values within the excellent class and acceptable for
irrigation. The classification for SAR is given (Wilcox 1955).
662
Fig. 3 Suitability of groundwater for irrigation in Wilcox diagram
The postponement of SAR values depending on the
electrical conductivity Richard diagram (Fig. 4) among us to
say that the groundwater in the area, belong to two classes.
This is of acceptable quality from C3-S1 and poor quality of
C4-S1. So we can say that the groundwater in the study area
can be used without risk to soil with high salinity risk in the
eastern part and a risk of low Sodicity (Miller and Gardiner
2007). The water suitable for irrigation of salt-tolerant crops
on well-drained soils (Saleh et al. 1999).
3.4 Residual Sodium Carbonate
proposed by the concept of residual sodium carbonate
(RSC) for the measurement of high carbonate waters, the
classification for RSC is given. In the present study area,
RSC values are within the falling safe, hence, all water
samples are considered safe for irrigation (Eaton 1950).
In addition to the SAR and Na %, the excess amount of
carbonate and bicarbonate in groundwater, as well as the
Fig. 4 Classification of water for irrigation according to the SAR
method
A. Khedidja et al.
amount of calcium and magnesium can influence the suit-
ability of groundwater for irrigation.
The groundwater having RSC > 2.50 is not suitable for
irrigation purposes. The samples have RSC less than 2.5
indicate suitability for irrigation.
3.5 Permeability Index
A criterion for assessing the suitability of water for irrigation
was based on PI water and can be classified as Class I,
Class II and Class III orders. Class I and Class II water was
categorized as good for irrigation with 75% or more maxi-
mum permeability. Class III water was unsuitable with 25%
of maximum permeability According to the permeability
index values of Doneen’s chart (Doneen 1964). All the
samples fall under class 1 and reflect suitability for irrigation
purposes (Fig. 5).
3.6 Kelly’s Ratio
Based on Kelly’s ratios (Kelly 1963) ground water was
classified for irrigation, Kelly’s ratio was more than 1 indi-
cating an excess level of sodium in water; therefore the water
Kelly’s ratio of less than 1 was suitable for irrigation. In the
study KR values fall within the safe category; hence, the
groundwater quality is suitable for irrigation.
Fig. 5 Doneen (1964) classification for irrigation water based on the
permeability index
Assessment of Groundwater Quality for Irrigation …
4 Conclusion
Evaluation of groundwater quality for irrigation were
carried out using different index methods like SP, SAR,
RSC, PI, KR and EC; among these, the majority of index
results were similar to SP, SAR, RSC, PI, and KR
implying that the 100% of the groundwater samples were
excellent to good. But, only based on EC, 80% of the
samples fall under the high salinity category (751–
2250 µS/cm); it is suitable for horticultural crops.
Therefore, the results were concluded, that the study area
groundwater quality was in general suitable for irrigation.
It is observed from the analyzed results that the ground-
water quality was diminutive and changed due to a lesser
amount of rain fall, runoff, infiltration and rock water
interaction in the study are as for the suitability of these
waters for irrigation, we find that the waters of the study
area can be used safely on the ground.
References
APHA. American Public Health Association, AWWA (American
Water Works Association), and WPCF (Water Pollution Control
Federation). Standard methods for the examination of water and
waste water. 19th ed. New York, USA; 1995.
Bauder JW, Bauder TA, Waskom RM, Scherer TF. Assessing the
Suitability of Water (Quality) for Irrigation—Salinity and Sodium;
2007.
Bencer S, Boudoukha A, Mouni L. Multivariate statistical analysis of
the groundwater of Ain Djacer area (Eastern of Algeria). Arab J
Geosci. 2016;9:248. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-015-2277-6.
CGG. Geophysical Survey Area Chelghoum Laid, DHW Mila, Algeria,
1973.
Debieche TH. Changes in water quality (salinity, nitrogen and heavy
metals) due to salt pollution, agricultural and industrial. Application
to the lowlands of Seybouse North-East of Algeria, Ph.D. thesis, U.
F.R. Science and Technology, University of Franche-Comte; 2002.
p. 235.
Doneen LD. Notes on water quality in agriculture. Department of Water
Science and Engineering, University of California, Water Science
and Engineering; 1964. p. 400.
Eaton FM. Significance of carbonate in irrigation water. Soil Sci.
1950;67:112–33.
663
Handa BK. Description and classification of media for hydrogeo-
chemichal investigation. In: Symposium on groundwater studies in
arid and semi-arid regions; 1969.
Ismail E, Zaki R, Kamel A. Hydrochemistry and evaluation of
groundwater suitability for irrigation and drinking purposes in west
El-Minia district, North upper Egypt. In: Eighteenth international
water technology conference, IWTC18 Sharm ElSheikh, 12–14 Mar
2015.
Joshi DM, Kumar A, Agrawal N*. Assessment of the irrigation water
quality of river Ganga in Haridwar district. Rasayan J Chem. 2009;2
(2):285–92. ISSN: 0974-1496.
Kelly WP. Use of saline irrigation water. Soil Sci. 1963;95(4):355–39.
Khedidja A. Caractérisation des paramètres hydrodynamiques de
l’aquifère de Tadjnanet—Chelghoum Laid et impact de la pollution
des eaux de surface sur les eaux souterraines. Thèse de Doctorat en
Sciences. University of Batna 2; 2016.
Khedidja A, Boudoukha A. Risk assessment of agricultural pollution on
groundwater quality in the high valley of Tadjenanet-Chelghoum
Laid (Eastern Algeria). Sci Eng Desalin Water Treat. 2013;51:
292–301.
Khedidja A, Boudoukha A. Statistical and hydrochimical characteriza-
tion of the shallow aquifer of Tadjnanet—Chelghoum Laid (Eastern
Algeria). Larhyss J. 2016;28:181–197. ISSN 1112-3680.
Lindhjem H. Environmental economic impact assessment in China:
problems and prospects. Environ Impact Assess Rev. 2007;27(1):
1–25.
Miller RW, Gardiner DT. Soils in our environment. 9th ed. Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall-Inc.; 2007 07458. ISBN
0-13-020036-0, Table 15-6, p. 452. Source: R.S. Ayers and D.W.
Richards LA. Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. In:
Agriculture Handbook, vol. 60. Washington D.C.: USDA; 1954.
p. 160.
Rodier J. Analysis of water, waters, waste water, sea water. 8th ed.
Paris: Dunod; 1996. p. 430.
Saleh A, Al-Ruwaih F, Shehata M. Hydrogeochemical processes
operating within the main aquifers of Kuwait. J Arid Environ.
1999;42:195–209.
Todd DK. Groundwater hydrology. 3rd ed. New York: Wiley; 1995.
Vila JM. Geological Map of the East of Algeria, Sheet No. N-0-Setif
3-4 in the 200-000th, Department of Geological Map of Algeria,
1977.
Wilcox LV. Classification and use of irrigation water. Circular No. 969.
Washington: US Department of Agriculture; 1955. p. 19.
World Health Organization (WHO). Guidelines for drinking-water
quality. 3rd ed. vol. 1—Recommendations. Geneva; Word Health
Organization; 2006.
 Statistical Characterization of Groundwater
Quality in Jijel Plain Area (Northeastern
Algeria)

Abdelmadjid Boufekane and Omar Saighi

Keywords
Hydrochemistry Statistical analysis Water quality Jijel plain

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Water quality is controlled by many factors including cli-
mate, soil topography and water rock interaction. These
factors lead to a variation in the chemical composition and
groundwater facies (Nasri et al. 2015).
In the literature, many studies have focused on the
hydrogeochemical process of groundwater using statistical
analyses. In recent times, multivariate statistical methods
have been employed to extract significant information from
hydrochemical datasets in compound systems. These tech-
niques can help resolve hydrological factor such as aquifer
boundaries, groundwater flow paths, or hydrochemical
components (Seyhan et al. 1985; Suk and Lee 1999; Locsey
and Cox 2003; Alwathaf et al. 2013), identify geochemical
controls on composition (Reeve et al. 1996; Adams et al.
2001; Alberto et al. 2001).
In Jijel plain, the study area, groundwater faces enormous
pressure due to high population and rapid industrial growth.
The area lies between latitudes 36° 65′ N and 36° 85′ N and
longitudes 05° 70′ E and 06° 05′ E (Fig. 1). The objective of
this work is to identify the main process controlling the
geochemical evolution of groundwater in Jijel plain using
multivariate statistical method: Principal Component Anal-
ysis (PCA).
A. Boufekane (&)
Water and Environmental Engineering Laboratory, Higher
National School of Hydraulics, P Box 31, 09000 Blida, Algeria
e-mail: boufekane_ab@yahoo.fr
O. Saighi
Faculty of Earth Sciences and Country Planning, University of
Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene, Algiers, Algeria
e-mail: osaighi@hotmail.com
In this study, the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was
applied to the groundwater data set to examine relations
between water properties analysed and identify the factors
that influence the concentration of each one. This method
can help to simplify and organize large data set to support
meaningful insight.
The statistical analysis was performed using the software
Origin Pro 9.0. All the data have been standardized applying
standard statistical procedures. The analyzed data corre-
spond to the month of May 2012 campaign and come from
106 monitoring points. The targeted parameters in this study
are Ca+2, Mg+2, Na+, K+, HCO3−, Cl−, SO42−, NO3− and the
Electrical Conductivity (EC).
3 Results and Discussion
106 samples analyses results were used to evaluate water
classification in Jijel plain. The correlation matrix of these
samples is shown Table 1.
The highest correlation coefficient was noticed between
Ca, Mg and SO4 (Table 1) which indicates gypsum solution.
This high correlation suggests that sulphate and magnesium
derived from dissolution of gypsum wile sodium originates.
This formation is located in the south of Jijel plain.
A high correlation coefficient was noticed for the follow-
ing: Cl, Na and EC (Table 1). This high correlation can be
due to the dissolution of the minerals (position near the sea).
Table 2 presented the parameters eigenvalue, their vari-
ance percentage and variance cumulative.
The eigenvalue exceeds one; it explains 49.65% of the
total variance (Table 2 and Fig. 2).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 665

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_197
666 A. Boufekane and O. Saighi

Fig. 1 Location map of study area and groundwater point

Table 1 Correlation matrix of Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ Cl− SO42− HCO3− NO3− EC
water samples 2+
Ca 1−
Mg2+ 0.783 1
+
Na 0.472 0.538 1
K+ 0.038 −0.005 0.108 1
−
Cl 0.629 0.576 0.884 0.037 1
SO42− 0.895 0.766 0.641 0.103 0.645 1
HCO3− 0.706 0.370 0.338 0.199 0.252 0.493 1
NO3− −0.231 0.123 0.047 0.200 0.064 −0.210 −0.288 1
EC 0.632 0.540 0.823 0.100 0.791 −0.432 0.419 −0.128 1
Bold values giving the best correlation

Table 2 Eigenvalue, % total Components F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9

variance
Eigen value 4.47 1.46 1.01 0.64 0.53 0.42 0.27 0.17 0.04
%Total 49.65 16.27 11.22 7.13 5.84 4.63 2.97 1.88 0.40
variance
Cumulative % 49.65 65.93 77.15 84.28 90.12 94.75 97.72 99.60 100.00
Statistical Characterization of Groundwater Quality …
Fig. 2 Loading plot of variable
Factor (F1) explains 49.65% of the total variance and is
highly positive associated with Na, Cl and EC. This factor is
related to the dissolution of the minerals, which is the result,
on the one hand, the contamination by the sea water
(coastline) in the north of the plain, and on the other hand,
the anthropic contamination (the agglomerations discharges)
in the rest of the plain.
Factor (F2) presents 16.27% of the total variance and is
characterized by a positive loading in Ca, Mg and SO4. The
high positive loading in Ca suggests the importance of dis-
solution of gypsum rocks in the south of the study area.
4 Conclusion
The Principal Component Analysis (PCA), which is a
multivariate data analytical technique, was used to extract
related variables and infer the processes that control water
chemistry (Nwankwoala et al. 2014).
667
One hundred and six water samples were collected
from Jijel plain area in northeastern Algeria. The saline
water, the anthropic contamination and the cationic
exchange reaction with dissolution of gypsum deposit are
the major factors controlling the quality of groundwater
area.
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Seyhan E, Van De Griend AA, Engelen GB. Multivariate analysis and
interpretation of the hydrochemistry of a dolomitic reef aquifer,
northern Italy. Water Resour Res. 1985;21(7):1010–24.
Suk H, Lee KK. Characterization of a ground water hydrochemical
system through multivariate analysis: Clustering into ground water
zones. Groundwater. 1999;37(3):358–66.
 Nitrate Impact on the Groundwater Quality
Degradation in Arid Areas (Timiaouine
Region South of Algeria)

Bahous Nasri, Ali Benatiallah, Sliman Kaloum, and Sara Soulimani

Keywords
Nitrate Groundwater quality Timiaouine region Mineralization

1 Introduction transhumance between the Sahelo-Sudanese zones and the

Water is one of the important sources for the survival of
living species on the earth. As earth has only a limited
number of water resources for drinking purposes, people in
rural and urban areas are getting affected by consuming
contaminated water that leads to water-borne diseases
(Sathyamurthy et al. 2016). Groundwater is of great
importance for many countries in the world, where most
drinking water comes from aquifers. Aquifers have provided
inexpensive drinking water for populations, a fact that can be
associated with improvements in public health parameters
and many other socioeconomic benefits. Nevertheless, at
present, the most important challenge is to achieve sustain-
able management of groundwater in places where the quality
of the resource is threatened (Foster et al. 1998;
Reynolds-Vargas et al. 2006). Nitrate is the most common
contaminant in groundwater, and is primarily derived from
leaching of synthetic fertilizer and sewage, especially in
areas with low and medium population density. In rural
areas, houses are not served by sewerage systems; they
rather rely on sanitation systems such as latrines and septic
tanks (Reynolds-Vargas et al. 2006). In the region of
Timiaouine where an arid climate prevails, groundwater is a
vital resource and sometimes the only source of fresh water
available. This region is purely pastoral, characterized by
camelin herds and livestock. It constitutes an area of
Algerian Sahel. The demand for water in this region is
therefore increasingly important and the possibilities for
economic development in this region are linked to the
development of its water resources (Dialog 2003). In this
area, groundwater pollution by nitrate increases the risk of
deterioration in the quality of water resources and creates a
health risk for the rural population, which is most often
sourced directly from the aquifer. The purpose of this study
was to assess the state of nitrate contamination of ground-
water and identify the potential causes of this pollution.
Besides, it suggested possible and proportionate solutions to
the peculiarities of this region.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Location and Characterization of Study Area
The commune of Timimoune which constitutes the study
area is located at the extreme south of the country Algeria,
between the parallels 1° 48′ East and 20° 22′ North, near the
Algerian-Malian border. It stretches over 950 km south-east
of Adrar, and 150 km south-east of Bordj Badji Mokhtar
dune, 465 km south-west of Tamanrasset and 1820 km
south of Algiers (Dialog 2003).

B. Nasri (&)
A. Benatiallah
S. Kaloum 2.2 Sampling and Measurements

Laboratory Energy, Environment and Information Systems,
University Ahmed Draïa Adrar, 01000 Adrar, Algeria
In this study, a total of 152 water samples From active wells
e-mail: bnasri14@gmail.com
were collected for testing. In the period between 12
B. Nasri
S. Soulimani December 2010 and 03 February 2011. The survey chose the
National Hydraulic Resources Agency, BP 364, 01000 Adrar,
Algeria representative sampling sites based on the overall state of

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 669

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_198
670
groundwater quality and pollution obtained from previous
studies. Before sample collection, the clean plastic contain-
ers were flushed three times with sample water. All of the
water samples were collected from the wells, and kept in
bottles and stored at 4 °C and then transferred to laboratory
of ANRH Adrar for analysis.
2.3 Analytical Methods
The physicochemical analyzes concerned the following
parameters: The in situ monitored indices include water
temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, Other total dis-
solved solids (TDS), nitrate (NO3−), were analyzed in the
laboratory of ANRH. The results of the 152 water samples
are listed in Table 1.
3 Results and Discussion
The results of the water sample analyses are presented in
Table 1. These samples exhibit temperature values in the
range of 23.1–30 °C. The pH of the water varied between
6.1 and 8.3, with a mean value of 7.47, most of which can be
defined as alkalescent water. These results also show that
98% of the analyzed waters comply with WHO standards
(WHO 2011) and Algerian standards (MRE 2011). The
electrical conductivity ranged from 0.24 to 5.12 ms/cm, with
mean value of 1.145 ms/cm for hand dug wells, with 95% of
the waters analyzed comply with the recommended OMS
standards and in agreement with the Algerian standards.
TDS in the study area ranges from 170 to 3245 mg/l with an
average value of 787.73 mg/l. Based on the WHO standards,
81% of the hand dug wells are fresh and desirable for
drinking (TDS < 1000) and 92% are conform with Algerian
standards (TDS < 1500). The measured parameters were
compared with Guidelines for drinking water quality (WHO
2011).
3.1 Nitrate Distribution in the Study Area
Nitrates are the subject of this study and are one of the main
causes of the quality groundwater degradation. They
Table 1 Mean analytical values Parameters T °C
in mg/l
Min 23.1
Max 30
Avg. 27.67
Algerian standards 25 °C
B. Nasri et al.
originate mainly from diffuse agricultural pollution.
Domestic and urban wastewater contributes locally to the
contamination of aquifers by nitrate, but fertilization by the
application of chemical or organic nitrogenous fertilizers and
intensive livestock (animal waste), are the main cause.
Nitrates themselves present no particular health hazard; it is
their transformation into nitrite in the stomach which can be
toxic. In the study area nitrate values range from 4 to
535 mg/l with a median value 167.10 mg/l. The maximum
nitrate concentration of up to 535 mg/l was obtained from a
well P109. Based on the WHO (2011) and Algerian guide-
line limits of 50 mg/l of nitrate, about 93% wells show
nitrate concentration beyond the recommended limit
(Fig. 1).
3.2 Nitrate Sources
Nitrate can reach both surface water and groundwater as a
consequence of agricultural activity (including excess
application of inorganic nitrogenous fertilizers and man-
ures), from wastewater treatment and from oxidation of
nitrogenous waste products in human and animal excreta,
including septic tanks. Nitrite can also be formed chemically
in distribution pipes by Nitrosomonas bacteria during stag-
nation of nitrate-containing and oxygen-poor drinking-water
in galvanized steel pipes or if chloramination is used to
provide a residual disinfectant and the process is not suffi-
ciently well controlled (WHO 2009). In the study area most
groundwater nitrate are derived from pollution point sources
such as onsite sanitation (Uncontrolled septic tanks), kraals,
and other places where livestock congregate, especially at
stock watering points (intensive use of camels and flocks
around water resources). No agricultural activity was
observed in this region. It can also be said that the majority
of the wells are not protected against direct pollution (dead
animals, plants), or indirect (piles of manure and droppings
in the vicinity of the well). Specifically, it has been observed
that there is too much manure around the wells, and that all
the wells did not undergo any maintenance such as clearing,
or treatment such as disinfection, liming, prose brick. In
addition most of the wells are filled with debris (plastic
waste, wood … etc.). The existence of latrines in the
dwelling may also contribute to the enrichment of these
waters by nitrate.
pH Conductivity in mS/cm TDS in mg/l NO3− in mg/l
6.1 0.24 170 4
8.3 5.12 3245 535
7.47 1.145 787.73 167.10
6.5–8.5 2.8 1500 50
Nitrate Impact on the Groundwater Quality Degradation …
Fig. 1 Map of groundwater nitrate distribution
3.3 Toxicity of Nitrate on Humans
The toxicity of nitrate to humans is mainly attributable to its
reduction to nitrite. The major biological effect of nitrite in
humans is its involvement in the oxidation of normal Hb to
metHb, which is unable to transport oxygen to the tissues.
The reduced oxygen transport becomes clinically obvious
when metHb concentrations reach 10% and above of normal
Hb concentrations; the condition, called methaemoglobi-
naemia, causes cyanosis and, at higher concentrations,
asphyxia. The normal metHb level in humans is less than
2%; in infants under 3 months of age, it is less than 3%
(WHO 2009). Some N-nitrosated compounds or nitrosami-
nes have carcinogenicity in animals and could cause cancer
in humans. In the longer term, too large an assimilation of
nitrate by humans could have other consequences:
Anti-thyroid effect, effect on behavior, reproduction, Vaso-
motor disorders, hypertension (epidemiological correlation),
decreased liver storage of vitamin A, destruction of vitamins
B1 and E. Nitrate can also harm the health of aquatic
organisms or the humans that consume them. However, the
actual risk in humans is not demonstrated in normal western
food and health conditions and is no longer accepted (Amina
and Benyettou Fatima 2015). Congenital malformations
have been related to high nitrate levels in drinking-water in
Australia; however, these observations were not confirmed.
Other studies also failed to demonstrate the relationship
671
between congenital malformations and nitrate intake
(Manassaram et al. 2007).
3.4 Nitrate Removal Treatment Technologies
Elevated nitrate concentrations in drinking water sources
present a potential risk to public health. To this purpose the
treatment of drinking water must be carried out using
appropriate techniques. Removing nitrate from water is
generally not easy, since nitrate is a stable and highly soluble
ion with low potential for coprecipitation or adsorption.
These properties make it difficult to remove using conven-
tional water treatment technologies such as lime softening
and filtration. More sophisticated technologies chemical
denitrification, ion exchange, reverse osmosis, electrodialy-
sis, catalytic denitrification, and biological denitrification can
be used to remove nitrate from drinking water (Kapoor and
Viraraghavan 1997).
These techniques are generally expensive and require a
lot of energy, solar distillation is an important alternative
which actually removes nitrate from the drinking water
sources. And especially this region is characterized by
nomadic character where the population is in the form of
small agglomerations around the water points and do not
even have electricity. The solar distillation becomes a
promising technique and interesting alternative for the
672
production of drinking water because it is a simple tech-
nology, requires no qualified workforce for maintenance
work, low energy consumption, and the installation of dis-
tillation units has no special requirements.
4 Conclusion
The results obtained in this study made it possible to
evaluate the physico-chemical quality of groundwater in
the region of Timiaouine in southern Algeria. They also
showed that the groundwater in this area is not suitable
for consumption as drinking water. Based on the rec-
ommendations of WHO (2011) and the Algerian refer-
ence limits of 50 mg/l nitrate, about 93% of wells have a
nitrate concentration above the recommended limit. This
parameter poses a potential public health risk and sig-
nificantly degrades the quality of groundwater to be used
as drinking water. It was also found that The analyses of
the other physicochemical parameters carried out in this
work showed that temperature, pH, electrical conductiv-
ity and TDS can be considered admissible and have no
impact on water quality.
Overall, this study reaffirmed groundwater pollution
from the Timiaouine aquifer due to the intensification of
livestock and camelin farming, septic tanks. In particular
that the region does not have a sanitation network, a
slaughterhouse or a public dump. Furthermore, the
majority of the wells are not protected against direct
pollution (dead animals, plants), or indirect (piles of
manure and droppings near the well). In the face of this
alarming situation, it is important to monitor water quality
by means of adapted tools in order to correct and preserve
the water table, on the one hand, and to eliminate the
nitrate by an efficient and adaptable economical treatment
B. Nasri et al.
with the specification of this region, such as solar distil-
lation since groundwater remains the most important
source for the supply of drinking water to this region.
References
Amina HM, Benyettou Fatima Z. Impact de quelques paramètres
(lumière, obscurité, température) sur la cinétique de dégradation des
nitrate dans quelques légumes locaux pendant l’entreposage.
Université Khemis Miliana: Université Khemis Miliana; 2015.
Dialog. Service Hydro Geo. Couverture géophysique par prospection
electrique à Timiaouine (Sud - Est Tanzrouft). Wilaya d’Adrar.
Rapport Interne, Adrar: ANRH Adrar; 2003, p. 103.
Foster SSD, Lawrence A, Morris B. Groundwater in urban develop-
ment: assessing management needs and formulating policy strate-
gies, vol. 390. World Bank Publications; 1998.
Kapoor A, Viraraghavan T. Nitrate removal from drinking water—
review. J Environ Eng. 1997;123(4):371–80.
Manassaram DM, Backer LC, Moll DM. A review of nitrate in drinking
water: maternal exposure and adverse reproductive and develop-
mental outcomes. Cienc Saude Coletiva. 2007;12(1):153–63.
MRE, Ministre Des Ressources En Eau. Décret exécutif N° 11-125 du
17 Rabie Ethani 1432 correspondant au 22 mars 2011 relatif à la
qualité de l’eau de consommation humaine. Journal officiel N° 18
du 23 mars 2011 (JOURNAL OFFICIEL), 2011;18:6–9.
Reynolds-Vargas J, Fraile-Merino J, Hirata R. Trends in nitrate
concentrations and determination of its origin using stable isotopes
(18O and 15N) in groundwater of the western Central Valley, Costa
Rica. Ambio J Hum Environ 2006;35(5):229–36.
Sathyamurthy R, El-Agouz SA, Nagarajan PK, Subramani J, Arunk-
umar T, Mageshbabu D, Madhu B, Bharathwaaj R, Prakash N.
A review of integrating solar collectors to solar still. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev. 2016;. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.223.
World Health Organization, et al. Boron in drinking-water: Background
document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water
Quality; 2009.
World Health Organization. Guidelines for drinking-water quality.
4th ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2011.
 Water Geochemistry for a Sand Aquifer
of the Complex Terminal in the Northern
Algerian Sahara (Case of the Lower Oued
Rhir Valley)

Idir Menad Houari and Imed Eddine Nezli

Keywords
Geochemistry Sand aquifer Complex terminal Northern Sahara Oued Rhir
Concentration factor

1 Introduction the recharge and palaeorecharge modalities of this system.

The groundwater resources in the Algerian northern Sahara
are represented by two superimposed major aquifers: the
Continental Intercalaire (CI) and the Complex Terminal (CT).
The waters of these aquifers pose serious physical and
chemical quality problems; they are highly mineralized and
very hard. The understanding of the mechanisms these waters
acquire their chemical composition has become an important
and vital stake in recent years for the protection and the
management of our environment. Several previous studies
have highlighted that the groundwater of this region has a very
important salinity, especially the waters of the Complex Ter-
minal. These studies have focused on geological recognition
(Bel et al. 1966; Busson 1972; Fabre 1976), and the hydro-
geology (Cornet 1964; Bel et al. 1969). Castany (1982) of the
aquifer system of the Complex Terminal and Continental
Intercalaire of the Northern Sahara. While others have eval-
uated the water potential of the system, proposing various
scenarios of its exploitation in the medium and long-run
(UNESCO 1972; Nesson 1978; OSS 2003). The age and flow
velocity of the waters, as well as the possible mixtures in a
system, were determined using isotopic natural tracing
(carbon-14, chlor-36, oxygen-18, Deuterium, tritium) applied
to the aquifer system (CI and CT) of the northern Sahara
(Guendouz 1985; Edmunds et al. 2003; Guendouz et al. 2003).
Conrad et al. (1970), Ould Baba Sy (2005), have focused on
Other studies, carried out by Nezli et al. (2009), have focused
on the geochemical evolution of the waters.
The objective of our work was to contribute to the study
of aspects related to the geochemistry of the Complex Ter-
minal, from the South (Touggourt) to the North (Still); from
the upstream to the downstream (zones of the chotts), along
the presumed axis of flow of the waters. We nevertheless
limited our field of investigation to the Mio-Pliocene aquifer
of the Complex Terminal.
2 Materials and Methods
Twenty-two (22) water samples from the Mio-Pliocene
aquifer were collected, the location of the sampled points
covered an area of about 200 km (Fig. 1), from Blidet Amor
(Touggourt) to (Chott Merouane and Melghigh) depending
on the direction of the flow (South/North). The following
parameters: hydrogen potential (pH), temperature (T °C) and
electrical conductivity (CE) were measured in situ, imme-
diately after the sample was taken. The physico-chemical
parameters of the water were carried out in the laboratory.
Computer programs have been used to represent the above
parameters and extract particular information (Surfer 12,
Statistica 7, Diagramme…).

I. M. Houari (&)
I. E. Nezli 3 Results and Discussion

Laboratory of Geology of the Sahara, Ouargla University,
Ouargla, Algeria
e-mail: houarimenad22@gmail.com The values of electrical conductivity show high amplitudes
in the Touggourt region. They exceed the standards (from
I. E. Nezli
e-mail: imedinezli@yahoo.fr 4650 to 7800 lS cm−1), but extreme values have been

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 673

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_199
674 I. M. Houari and I. E. Nezli

70

60

50

Major anions (méq/l)

40

30

20

10

SO42-
0 Cl-
T1 T3 T5 T7 T9 O2 O4 O6 O8 O10 O12
HCO3-
Points

Fig. 2 Major anions evolution

Fig. 1 Water sampling points location

Table 1 Physical and chemical parameter values

pH T °C CE (µS/cm) SO42− Cl− HCO3− NO3− NO2− Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+
Max. 7.8 25.9 8300 3075 2325 186.05 69.5 0.423 687.37 496.64 1440 61
Min. 6.9 23.4 3030 500 625 88.45 12.5 0 200.4 98.8 350 24.5
Med. 7.32 24.44 5740.63 1910.55 1229.25 131.76 34.11 0.03 460.17 255.91 734.22 36.70

recorded in Djamaa (8300 lS cm−1). The pH and tempera-
ture values remain close to the norm and they do not present
any anomalies (Table 1).
The major anions show an excess to the norms, for sul-
phates, the increase of the concentrations along the water
flow direction is clearly remarkable, with some extreme
values for the points T5 (Temacin), and T6, T7 (Nezla),
however, all the sampling points at the Djamaa, Mghaier,
Oum Thior and Still localities present a-high concentrations.
For chlorides, high concentrations were observed throughout
the study area, and then a clear relapse in the regions of
Mghaier, Oum Tior, towards minimum values at Still. The
concentrations of bicarbonates are also above standards, all
recorded values that remain almost constant with any
remarkable variation (Fig. 2).
For the major cations, the dominance of Sodium is clear,
the recorded values show high concentrations, sometimes
very high at the points T6 (Nezla), O3 (Tindela) and O4, O5
(Djamaa). This element also evolves along the water flow
direction, simultaneously with the chlorides, the concentra-
tions dropped at the sampling points of Mghaier, Oum Thior
and Still. The calcium levels show remarkable evolution and
high concentrations, exceeding potable standards. The same
thing was noticed for magnesium, but to a lesser degree in
terms of concentration or evolution rate. Oppositely, potas-
sium levels appear to be above standards but with no
remarkable evolution (Fig. 3).
Water Geochemistry for a Sand Aquifer of the Complex Terminal … 675

70
References
60
Bel F, et al. Etude géologique du Continental Terminal, ANRH Alger,
50
Algérie; 1966. 22p.
Major cations (méq/l)

Bel F, et al. Mise au point des connaissances sur la nappe du Complexe

Terminal, ERESS, Ouargla, Algérie; 1969. 20p.
40
Busson G. Principes, méthodes et résultats d’une étude stratigraphique
du Mésozoïque saharien. Thèse Paris; 1972. 464p.
30
Castany G. Principes et méthodes de l’hydrogéologie. Edition:
DUNOD, Paris; 1982. 233p.
20 Conrad G. L’évolution continentale post-hercynienne du Sahara
Algérien. Centre de recherche sur les zones arides. Série géologie
10 n° 10, CNRS, Paris; 1970. 527p.
Ca2+
Cornet A. Introduction à l’hydrogéologie Saharienne. SNED, Alger
Mg2+
0 Na+ Algérie; 1964. 572p.
T1 T3 T5 T7 T9 O2 O4 O6 O8 O10 O12
K+ Edmunds WM, et al. Groundwater evolution in the Continental
Points Intercalaire aquifer of southern Algeria and Tunisia: trace element
and isotopic indicators. Applied Geochemistry, Elsevier; 2003.
Fig. 3 Major cations evolution Fabre J. Introduction à la géologie du Sahara Algérien. SNED, Alger
Algérie; 1976. 422p.
4 Conclusion Guendouz A, et al. Hydrogeochemical and isotopic evolution of water
in the Complexe Terminal aquifer in the Algerian Sahara. Hydro-
The waters of the Mio-Pliocene aquifer of our study area geol J. 2003;11:483–95.
are in contact with a lithology rich in evaporites, reveal a Guendouz A. Contribution à l'étude géochimique et isotopique des
strong mineralization expressed by very high electrical nappes profondes du Sahara Nord-Est Septentrional (Algérie).
conductivity values (8300 lS cm−1), which increase Thèse 3ème cycle. Université de Paris-Sud; 1985. 243p.
Nesson C. L’évolution des ressources hydrauliques dans les oasis du
from upstream to downstream. these concentrations Bas Sahara algérien. In: ed. CNRS, editor. Recherche sur l’Algérie,
exceed the WHO standards and also increase along the Paris; 1978. p. 7–100.
flow direction. Nezli I, et al. Presence and Origin of Fluoride in the Complex Terminal
The use of chlorides as a concentration factor allowed Water of Ouargla Basin (Northern Sahara of Algeria). Am J Appl
Sci. 2009;5:876–81.
us to follow the evolution of the chemical elements. It was OSS. Système Aquifère du Sahara Septentrional, Rapport interne.
observed that these elements evolve with a lower rhythm Annexes. Tunis, Tunisie; 2003. 229p.
than that of the concentration factor, because of their Ould Baba Sy M. Recharge et paléorecharge du Système Aquifère du
precipitation (calcite, gypsum). We found in the down- Sahara Septentrional. Thèse de Doctorat, Université de Tunis El
Manar; 2005. 261p.
stream zones a falls in chloride concentrations suggesting UNESCO. Project ERESS; Etude des Ressources en Eau du Sahara
that the chemistry of the water evolves towards the pre- Septentrional, et rapport sur les résultats du Projet REG-100,
cipitation of the halite and sylvite near the chotts. UNESCO, Paris, 1972.
 Application of the GALDIT Method
to the Study of Groundwater Vulnerability
of the East Mitidja Alluvial Waters

Dahbia Djoudar/Hallal, Sadek Zahouani, and Abdelkrim Khaldi

Keywords
GALDIT Mitidja Groundwater Seawater intrusion Vulnerability Cartography

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

For the last thirty years, hydrogeologists have been con-
cerned with the preservation of the groundwater of the
Algerian eastern Mitidja. Mania et al. (1985), Toubal (1998),
Djabri et al (2003), Djoudar and Toubal (2008) have high-
lighted a saline pollution of the Algiers groundwater.
Piezometric maps show a clear and total reversal of sea
water flow direction towards the continent reaching water
catchments of Boureah and threatening those of Hamiz
where Piezometric levels are 16 m below sea level (Belaidi
et al 2006). In parallel with the three sensitive zones along
the shore (i.e. Stamboul, Bordj El Kiffan and the eastern part
of Verte Rive), a groundwater fringe contaminated by the
sea water has been progressing from 1992 till 2006 reaching
water points situated 2 km inside the continent (Djoudar and
Toubal 2008).
Therefore, the GALDIT approach specific to problems of
marine waters invasion proves to be very necessary in order
to provide the aiding tools in decision making.
D. Djoudar/Hallal
Laboratoire Génie de l’Eau et de l’Environnement (LGEE), Ecole
Nationale Supérieure de l’Hydraulique, Blida, Algeria
e-mail: d.djoudar@ensh.dz
S. Zahouani
Département d’Hydraulique, Université des Sciences et de la
Technologie d’Oran, Oran El Mnaouar, 31000 Bir El Djir, Algeria
e-mail: sdk.zahouani@outlook.com
A. Khaldi (&)
Laboratoire de Rhéologie, Traitement et Transport des Fluides
Complexes (LRTTFC), Département d’Hydraulique, Université
des Sciences et de la Technologie d’Oran, Oran El Mnaouar,
31000 Bir El Djir, Algeria
e-mail: khaldiakz@yahoo.fr
The oriental Mitidja plain situated in the south of Algiers
extends along the eastern to western direction. It is isolated
from the sea by the Sahel mount in the north and bordered
by the Blida Atlas in the south which constitutes a real
barrier. It is bordered by the Boudouaou River further east
and by the El Harrach River in the west (Benziada 2003). It
extends over the counties of Algiers, Boumerdès and Blida
and occupies an area of 970 km2. It encloses two aquifers, a
quaternary one composed of coarse alluvia (Mitidja forma-
tion) and a stony and stony-limy astien one.
The GALDIT method was first developed by (Chachadi
and Labo-Ferreira 2001 in Dôrfliger et al. 2011) as part of
the ‘Euro–Indian coast (programme Inco-DEV du 4éme
PCRD)’ project. It is a mapping approach of simple index
use needing few data. The determination of the vulnerability
index for groundwater with respect to saline intrusion is
based on the combination of six parameters which could
influence potential marine intrusion. By overlaying the dif-
ferent layers of parameters defined for each aquifer and by
calculating the GALDIT indices, it is possible to indentify
the regions susceptible of being affected by potential saline
intrusion according to the following equation (Eq. 1):
X6
Pi  Ri
GALDIT Index ¼ P6 ð1Þ
i¼1 i¼1 Pi
where p and c represent the weight and dimension the of
each GALDIT index (Table 1).
The six values are integrated in a GIS (Geographical
Information System) in order to specialise the various
information in layer forms. The superposition of layers and
the application of formula (1) allow the drawing of the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 677

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_200
678 D. Djoudar/Hallal et al.

Table 1 GALDIT parameters Parameters Weight Very low Low Medium High
G: Groundwater occurrence 1 Bounded Leaky Unconfined Confined
(aquifer type) aquifer confined
A: Aquifer hydraulic conductivity 3 <5 5–10 10–40 >40
(m/day)
L: Height of groundwater level 4 >2 1.5–2 1–1.5 <1
above sea level (m)
D: Distance from the shore (m) 4 >1000 1000–750 750–500 <500
I: Impact of existing status of sea 1 <1 1–1.5 1.5–2 >2
water intrusion
T: Thickness of aquifer being 2 <5 5–7.5 7.5–10 >10
mapped (m)

Table 2 GALDIT vulnerability Vulnerability classification GALDIT index

classification (Chachadi 2005)
High vulnerability >7.5
Medium vulnerability 5–7.5
Weak vulnerability <5

vulnerability map to marine intrusion. The results are
arranged according to the three classifications proposed by
Chachadi (2005) (Table 2).
3 Results and Discussion
The database supplied by ANRH enclosing all the necessary
values for the application of the GALDIT model, enabled the
construction of six parametric maps named G, A, L, D, I and
T (Not shown here for space considerations). The applica-
tion of Eq. 1 for all sampling points allows obtaining the
GALDIT index map shown in Fig. 1. The vulnerability of an
aquifer to marine intrusion depends on the type of aquifer.
The first parametric map, G, is represented for a range of an
average vulnerability with an index of 7.5 according to the
classification established by Chachadi (2005 in Nadjib et al.
2012).
Parametric map, A, of hydraulic conductivity, shows four
ranges of vulnerability degrees of groundwater varying from
2.5 to 10. This map highlights both the high and very high
vulnerability over 50% of the areas under study coinciding
with the most permeable zones with a conductivity varying
from 10 to 153.62 m/d (catchment fields of Baraki, Rouiba
and Hamiz in the SW-NE direction).
The depth parameter of the water-line gives an idea of the
hydraulic pressure capable of pushing the water tongue
towards the continent. Parametric map, L, is based on
measurements of the static level of the piezometric data
collected in 2015 by ANRH during high waters. The map
shows two distinguished zones of both a high and low
vulnerability. The high one is situated on the northern
coastal fringe with water depth levels varying from
−28.87 m (Catchment fields of Chebli) to 1 m whereas the
low one is situated on the major part of the east of the
Mitidja with water depth levels varying from 2 to 73.53 m
(Meftah) and an index of 2.5. This result has to be updated
and verified further since the number of measurement points
does not cover the study zone sufficiently in order to carry
out a better interpolation and hence obtain more realistic
maps. However, maps of average and high vulnerability
occupy small stretches around the range of high
vulnerability.
Parametric map, D, was obtained by estimating the dis-
tances (  500, 750, 1000 et  1000 m) to sea coast.
A maximum rank of 10 was attributed to dis-
tances  500 m, i.e. a very high vulnerability index equal to
10, whereas a minimum value of 2.5 was attributed to all
distances  1000 m. Values of 5–7.5 were attributed to
distances of 750–1000 and 500–750 m respectively.
The formation of parametric map, I, is based on values of
the ratio Cl−/(HCO−1 2−
3 + CO3 ) varying between 0.11 and
2.27. In order to calculate this ratio, chemical analysis results
of the 2015 high waters supplied by ANRH were used.
Analysis of the vulnerability map shows that more than 90%
of the area is characterised by a low vulnerability (ratio less
than 1 with a rank of 2.5). In this effect, ranges of very high,
high and average vulnerability are localised essentially on
the coastal fringe between Bordj El Kiffan and Rouiba with
indices between 5, 7.5 and 10 respectively and ratios varying
between (1–1.49), (1.5–1.99) and (2.03–2.27). These ranges
reach the Hamiz area inside the continent for a distance of
almost 5.12 km, which confirms saline intrusion already
reported by different already cited researchers.
Application of the GALDIT Method to the Study …
Fig. 1 GALDIT index map
Values of saturated zone thickness, T, are mainly higher
than 10 m and therefore the highest rank of 10 is attributed.
Due to the lack of geophysical data, even this map remains
subjective and has to be updated according to the data
availability.
In order to evaluate the GALDIT vulnerability index, an
Eq. (1) was used for all water points having served in the
evaluation of each of the six parameters.
Hence, the obtained GALDT vulnerability index, high-
lights two vulnerability ranges, namely a weak one and a
medium one. The medium vulnerability range of GI max =
7.33 covers the majority of the wellfields of the Rouiba and
Reghaia industrial zones in both the north east and south
west direction (Rouiba-Chebli). The weak vulnerability with
GI min = 2.83 occupies the remaining area of the study zone
with a small range existing between the flowfields of Haouch
Flit and Oued Adda.
679
4 Conclusion
The vulnerability GALDIT index map shows a highly
strategic region, regarding both its geographical situation
and all the water resources available. In case no drastic
measures are taken into account, its deterioration will
accentuate in the near future in the light of an increasingly
high water demand.
The present work has allowed the highlighting of the
mean vulnerability of the alluvial groundwater at the
industrial, agricultural and urban zones which cover the
large wellfields of Oued Adda, Baraki, Hamiz, Haouch
Flit and Chebli. However, the absence of high vulnera-
bility ranges shows that the GALDIT model underesti-
mates the vulnerability of the groundwater knowing that
this is characterized by its very permeable alluvial for-
mation and its agriculture which is subject to pollution.
Hence the GALDIT method must be used with caution
680
and enhanced with another method such as DRASTIC
which was developed in 1987 by NWWA in the USA and
applied to the present study zone by Djoudar (2003,
2014) who showed that the latter method gives higher
vulnerability ranges.
References
Belaidi M, Rabehaoui H, Sadat M. Etat du réseau de surveillance des
eaux souterraines de la nappe de la Mitidja. Note Technique ANRH/
DRC Soumaa Décembre 2006.
Benziada M. Hydrogéologie de la plaine de la Mitidja Orientale
(Algérie). Bulletin des Sciences Géographiques/N°11-Avril 2003,
p. 43–52.
Chachadi AG. Seawater intrusion mapping using modified GALDIT
indicator model-case study in Goa, Jalvigyan Sameeksha 2005;20.
Djoudar D. Approche méthodologique de la vulnérabilité de la
ressource en eau souterraine en milieu fortement urbanise: exemple
en Algérie des plaines littorales (Mitidja). Thèse de Doctorat Es
Science. FSTGAT, USTHB Alger, 2014, 178p.
D. Djoudar/Hallal et al.
Djabri L, Hani A, Mania J, Mudry J. Pulido-Bosch. L’Algérie, un pays
en développement, a-t-elle déjà developpé un biseau salé? Tech-
nologia de la intrusion de agua de mar en acuiferos costeros:
Madrid; 2003. ISBN 84-7840-470-8.
Djoudar/Hallal D. Vulnérabilité et protection des régions côtières.
Application aux alluvions de la Mitidja Orientale. Thèse de
magistère, IST/USTHB/Alger; 2003.
Djoudar D, Toubal AC. Etat actuel de l’invasion marine dans la baie
d’Alger. In: XIIIth World Water Congress, International Water
Resources Association. Montpellier, France; 2008.
Dôrfliger N, Shonburgk S, Bouzit M, Petit V, Caballero Y, Durst P,
Douez O. Montée du niveau marin induite par le changement
climatique:conséquences sur l’intrusion saline dans les aquifères
côtiers en Métropole. Rapport intermédiaire, BRGM. 2011. 157p.
Nadjib S, et al. Application of the method GALDIT for the cartography
of groundwaters vulnerability: Aquifer of Chaouia Coast (Mor-
occo). University ChouaïbDoukkali (Morroco), Alexan-
druIoanCuza. University of Iaşi; 2012.
Mania J, Imersoukene S, Braillon JM. Pollution saline de la nappe
côtière à l’est d’Alger. Revue Hydrogéologie 1985;(3):213–226.
Toubal AC. Apport de la géophysique à l’étude des problèmes
d’hydrodynamique et d’invasion marine en milieu souterrain.
Exemple des plaines d’Annaba, de la Mitidja et de la baie d’Alger.
Thèse de Doctorat d’état. IST/USTHB/Bab Ezzouar, 1998, 226p.
 Evaluation of Hydrogeochemical Quality
Parameters of Groundwater Under Urban
Activities. Case of Beni Mellal City (Morocco)

Mohamed El Baghdadi, Amal Jouider, Ahmed Barakat,

and Radouane Medah

Keywords
Beni Mellal Groundwater Water quality Hydrochemistry Trace elements
Irrigation Urban

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Actually many studies of groundwater resources expect that
the features of rocks, runoff, climate, terrain, replenishment,
drainage conditions and anthropic activities are the major
factors, which impact on the variations of groundwater
chemistry (Dragon 2008; Chen et al. 2008). Irrational
exploitation of water resource and rapid development of
water utilization over the last 50 years have greatly disturbed
the natural distribution of water resources in Beni Mellal
aquifer.
Our study is concerned with the Dir (piedmont) aquifer in
sub-urban area of Beni Mellal. The main objectives of this
paper are: (i) to identify some of the main hydrochemical
processes controlling groundwater chemistry under the city
of Beni Mellal and the impact of urban activities; (ii) to
detect and understand the spatial variations of the occurring
hydrochemical processes in order to localize areas with the
most noticeably contaminated groundwater.
Water samples were collected from 49 boreholes in the city
(car wash stations, residence, municipal wells…). The
sampling covers the area of the city during April–May 2014
for the analysis of major ions and trace elements. In situ
measurements were taken for pH, conductivity, temperature
and hardness using HANNA multi-parameter. Water sam-
ples were collected into 500 mL high-density polyethylene
bottles through 0.45 µm polypropylene membrane filter. All
samples were taken at a groundwater level of approximately
50–70 m below surface. Laboratory analyses of alkalinity,
nitrate, sulfate, chloride was obtained by titrimetry at ONEE
laboratory. Calcium, sodium, potassium, barium and lithium
were analyzed by flame photometer BWB-XP. Trace metals
Fe, Mg, Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn were obtained by
Inductive coupled Plasma in Sultan Mouly Slimane
University Analyses Center using a mixture nitric and
hydrochloride acids solution with heating following EPA
3005a method.

3 Results and Discussion

Hydrochemical characteristics: The pH level ranges from

M. El Baghdadi (&)
A. Barakat
Georessources and Environment Laboratory, Sultan My Slimane
7.10 and 7.9 with an average of 7.53, suggesting that
University, 23000 Beni Mella, Morocco groundwater in the study area is neutral to slightly alkaline.
e-mail: m.elbaghdadi@usms.ma The concentration of TDS ranges from 355 to 918 mg/L,
A. Jouider with a mean of 563.4 mg/L. High values are detected in the
Wilaya Beni Mellal Khénifra, Beni Mella, Morocco center of the city. The main recommended values must not
e-mail: ajouider@gmail.com exceed 500 mg/L (Rosborg 2015). Electric conductivity
R. Medah shows values arranged between 490 and 1260 µS/cm with a
Office National de l’Electricité and de l’Eau Potable, Branche Eau, mean of 778.94 µS/cm. The electric conductivity (EC) and
Beni Mellal, Morocco

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 681

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_201
682
the total dissolved solids (TDS) have values more than the
desirable limit of 750 µS/cm and 500 mg/L (WHO 2011),
respectively, in 49 and 59% of the total groundwater sam-
ples. The higher EC and TDS values may cause a gas-
trointestinal irritation in the consumers (Howard and
Bartram 2003). Ca2+ and Mg2+ show slightly high contents
with means values of 146.54 and 46.99 mg/L respectively.
Anions are dominantly represented by HCO3 and SO4
ranging from 254.00 to 487.00 mg/L and from 65.00 to
1112.00 mg/L with averages of 378.36 and 361.94 mg/L,
respectively. The highest levels of sulfates (high to Moroc-
can normes of 400 mg/L; NM 2007) are recorded in the
center of the city. The concentration of Cl ranges within
12.32 and 114.75 mg/L with a mean of 69.93 mg/L. Nitrate
(NO3), related to mainly agriculture activities especially in
those areas dedicated to intensive cattle raising and leading
to groundwater pollution in Tadla plain.
Hydrogeochemical facies: Relative proportions of major
anions and cations on an equivalent basis are plotted in
Durov diagram. The plot shows that the majority of the
samples fall in the field of (HCO3 + CO3) − SO4 − (Ca,
Mg). The HCO3 (Ca, Mg) water is primarily a result of
dissolution of carbonate-dolomite minerals relative to aqui-
fer formation. The low Cl– indicates a low salinization
process, while the presence of SO4– (Ca, Mg) in water may
result from mineral dissolution, intense evaporation and
anthropic activities. The absence of correlation between
firstly SO4 and Ca (R2: 0.0393), and on the other hand SO4
and Ba (R2: 0.0009) excludes the process of gypsum or
baryte dissolution. However, the excrements from human
and household laundry detergents may be a possible reason
of the elevated concentrations of SO4 in groundwater.
Suitability for irrigation uses: The important hydro-
chemical properties of surface and subsurface water used to
determine its suitability for irrigation are: Sodium adsorption
ratio (SAR), total salinity via electric conductivity, residual
sodium carbonate (RSC), and sodium percentage (%Na). EC
and sodium concentration are very important in classifying
irrigation water. Beni Mellal groundwater shows medium to
high concentration of soluble salts leading to report them as
excellent to permissible for irrigation. The sodium percent-
age (Na%) in the area ranges between 2.17 and 21% (avg.
15.50%) in groundwater samples. 49 water samples are
within excellent limit, and only 2 samples are good. The
sodium absorption ratio (SAR) combined with EC of
groundwater of Beni Mellal do not represent an obstacle for
irrigation. The water quality is excellent to good.
Trace elements: Al, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Li, Mn, Ni, Pb
and Zn were detected in the majority of samples. The
measured concentrations of potentially toxic trace elements
were compared with standards of EU drinking water
M. El Baghdadi et al.
directive, EU mineral water directive, World Health Orga-
nization, U.S. primary drinking water standard and the
Moroccan drinking water norms, respectively.
For most of trace elements, the measured concentrations
were far below the standard values except Al and Fe in some
samples which exceed all guideline values.
4 Conclusion
Hydrochemical study indicates higher values of electric
conductivity, total dissolved solids and sulfates in the half
of taken samples. The enhanced values are recorded in
the downtown with higher agglomeration and anthropic
activity. The concentration of light metal do not exceed
the recommended threshold with the following order
Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Na+ > K+. The abundance of anions is in
the following order: HCO3− > SO42− > Cl− > NO3−.
The main induced process is dissolution and weathering
from parent rock and cation–cation exchange with
replacement of alkaline earths with sodium and potassium
ions and vis-versa. These findings lead to prevent the use
of groundwater of Beni Mellal to use as drinking sources.
All calculated parameter indexes (EC, Sodium and
Magnesium hazards, SAR and RSC) are in concordance
that Beni Mellal groundwater are excellent to good for
irrigation purposes. The supersaturation relatively to
positive values of LSI restricts the safe use of water for
industrial purpose. Analyzed trace elements are below the
standard values except Al and Fe in some samples which
exceed all guideline values.
References
Chen Y, Zhou K, Chen Y, Li W, Wang T. Response of groundwater
chemistry to water deliveries in the lower reaches of Tarim River,
Northwest China. Environ Geol. 2008;53:1365–73.
Dragon K. The influence of anthropogenic contamination on the
groundwater chemistry of a semi-confined aquifer (the Wielkopol-
ska Buried Valley Aquifer, Poland). Water Resour Manage.
2008;22:343–55.
Howard G, Bartram J. Domestic Water Quantity, Service, Level and
Health. World Health Organization 2003. WHO/SDE/WSH/03.02;
2003. www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases/WSH03.02.
pdf.
NM 03.7.001. Qualite des eaux d’alimentation humaine. Arrêté N°
127701 du 17/10/02 relatif à la fixation des normes de qualité des
eaux superficielles utilisées pour la production d’eau potable publié
au BO; 2007.
Rosborg I. Drinking water minerals and mineral balance importance,
health significance, safety precautions. Berlin: Springer; 2015.
140 p.
WHO. Guidelines for drinking water quality, 4th ed. World Health
Organization, Geneva; 2011.
 Application of Inverse Geochemical
Modelling to Understand Geochemical
Evolution of Groundwater in Berrechid
Aquifer, Morocco
Tibari El Ghali, Hamid Marah, Mohamed Qurtobi, and Bouâbid El
Mansouri



Keywords
Geochemistry Modelling
1 Introduction
In Berrechid arid area, groundwater plays an important role
as a water supply for drinking and irrigation. Unfortunately,
due to drought, the rapid growing of the economy and the
population across recent years has caused many severe
problems such as salinization of groundwater and land. To
remedy this situation a successful sustainable management
of water in this region has become an urgent issue.
Therefore, identification of the hydrogeochemical evolu-
tion processes and quantification of the geochemical reac-
tions within groundwater systems is required to understand
the dynamics of the hydrogeological systems. Based on the
knowledge of the mineral composition of rocks, chemical
data of water samples and speciation calculations, this study
examined the observed water chemistry from Berrechid
basin to quantify the reactions responsible for the compo-
sition of groundwater using a geochemical mass-transfer
model NETPATH.
2 Materials and Methods
To achieve the objectives of this study hydrogeochemical
samplings and analysis were completed. Water samples were
collected from wells and springs in April and July 2013, and
March 2015 in pre-cleaned plastic polyethylene bottle.
T. El Ghali (&)
H. Marah
M. Qurtobi
Centre National de l’Énergie des Sciences et des Techniques
Nucléaires (CNESTEN), BP. 1382 R.P. 10001, Rabat, Marocco
e-mail: t.saloua@yahoo.fr
T. El Ghali
B. El Mansouri
Faculté des Sciences, Université Ibn Tofail Kénitra (FSK),
Campus Universitaire, BP 133, Kenitra, Morocco
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_202




Simulation NETPATH Berrechid Aquifer
Parameters including temperature, pH and electrical con-
ductivity were determined in situ using portable field kits
(Multi 440 Conductivity-pH meter). Major ion chemistry
analyses were made at the stable isotope analysis laboratory
of the National Center for Energy Sciences and Nuclear
Techniques (CNESTEN), Rabat, Morocco”.
Using the NET PATH software, the chemical data to be
modeled were used to define and quantify the chemical
reactions that were consistent with the initial chemical data
along the flow path.
On the basis of the results of evaluation of hydrogeo-
chemical data and those found by (El Ghali et al., in press),
mass transference calculations have been carried out
between the points representing the groundwater flow pat-
tern direction of the Berrechid basin (points named 44, 29,
53, 6, 3).
The elements used in the NETPATH to constrain the
mass-balance modeling included carbon, sulphur, calcium,
magnesium, sodium, chloride, carbonate and sulphate con-
centrations. The reactant phases used in NETPATH included
calcite; dolomite; gypsum; halite and CO2 gas. The geo-
chemical processes considered for modeling were ion
exchange computed from Ca/Mg ratio.
3 Results and Discussion
The mass transfers of calcite, dolomite, exchange, gypsum,
halite and CO2 gas in millimoles per kilogramme of water
are listed in Table 1.
The mass transference values show that the predominant
process throughout the entire Berrechid aquifer is
dedolomitization, that is, dissolution of gypsum and dolo-
mite accompanied by precipitation of calcite (Back et al.
683
684 T. El Ghali et al.

Table 1 Netpath modelling Calcite Dolomite Exchange Gypsum Halite CO2 Gas
results
44–29 −0.04 0.47 0.37 0.11 −0.40 0.30
29–53 −1.51 0.64 −2.07 0.49 12.13 0.70
53–6 −1.53 1.45 −5.48 0.01 19.00 1.41
6–3 3.23 −2.27 6.59 −0.19 −20.79 −2.80
All mineral and gas mass transfers are in mmol/kg of water. A negative value indicates precipitation and a
positive value dissolution/ingassing

1983). Table 1 shows that from point 44 to 6, the mass
transfer values increase gradually. Indeed, gypsum and
dolomite dissolution amounts are between 0.01 and
0.49 mmol/kg, and between 0.47 and 1.45 mmol/kg
respectively, while the amount for calcite precipitation
range between 0.04 and 1.5 mmol/kg. Also, CO2 enrichment
increases from 0.3 to 1.41 mmol/kg, coming from the oxi-
dation of the organic matter present in the soil mainly in the
central part of the aquifer which is considered as
open-system where water infiltrating adds CO2 to the
groundwater system. The results show that dedolomitization
reaction is accompanied by important dissolution of halite
(19 mmol/kg) contributing the relative abundance of Na+ in
groundwater and the occurring of ion exchange reaction
(−5.48 mmol/kg).
When the water reaches the spring n°3 which constitutes
one of the main natural discharges of the aquifer located on
the boundary north-east of the aquifer with the ElMaleh
River, the water under closed-system conditions with respect
to CO2, encounters a layer which contains both calcite and
exchanger, and causes thereby the dissolution of
3.23 mmol/kg of calcite and the consumption of the avail-
able CO2, promoting the precipitation of 2.8 mmol/kg of
CO2, 0.19 mmol/kg of gypsum and −2.27 mmol/kg of
dolomite. Therefore, ionic exchange reactions occur with
higher degree 6.59 mmol/kg causing the uptake of both Ca2+
and Mg2+ and release of Na+. However, the effect of ionic
exchange remains far lesser than the precipitation of halite
which represents 20.79 mmol/kg.
4 Conclusion
The mass balance model shows that the chemical evo-
lution of the water in the Berrechid aquifer is predomi-
nantly by dedolomitization reaction (dolomite dissolution
accompanied by calcite precipitation and dissolution of
gypsum). Halite dissolution and cation exchange pro-
cesses of magnesium and calcium for sodium are
important locally, particularly in the central part of the
basin. The inverse geochemical modeling supports the
conceptualization of general hydrogeochemical processes
gained from interpretation of general trends in the geo-
chemical data.
References
Back W, et al. Process and rate of dedolomitization: mass transfer and
14C dating in a regional carbonate aquifer. Geol Soc Am Bull.
1983;94(12):1415–29.
El Ghali T, et al. Geochemical and Isotopic Study of groundwater with
emphasis on the factors controlling the mineralization in Berrechid
Basin, Morocco (in press).
 Hydrochemical Evolution of Groundwater
in the Tamlouka Plain, Influence
of Lithology, Geomorphology
and Anthropogenic Actions

Samir Djorfi, Saadane Djorfi, Laroussi Beloulou, Mohamed Djidel,

and Salima Guechi

Keywords
Tamlouka plain aquifer Geomorphology Lithology Mineralization

1 Introduction WTW multiparameter (multi P3 PH/LF-SET), and an oxy-

Chemistry of the groundwater in the Tamlouka plain is very
varied. It depends on several factors that are able to modify
its chemical characteristics. In groundwater, there are always
variations from upstream to downstream. The water circu-
lates in the leaching reservoir rocks with an increase in the
total salt concentration. The wells are all located on the main
roads and in the near cities. The waters are for everyday use.
Hence, there is a need for a strict monitoring of the quality
and the degree of potability or pollution. This work focuses
on the influence of morphology, lithology and human
activities on the chemical composition of the groundwater.
2 Materials and Methods
The measures and withdrawals on groundwater affected
nearly 50 wells, generally used for the ASP, for the animal
feed and for irrigation. The temperature (T °C), electrical
conductivity (EC) and pH were measured in a situ using a
S. Djorfi (&)
S. Djorfi
L. Beloulou
S. Guechi
Laboratoire des Ressources Naturelles et Aménagement,
Université Badji Mokhtar, BP 12, Annaba, Algeria
e-mail: samirdjorfi@gmail.com
S. Djorfi
e-mail: Djorfi2001@yahoo.fr
L. Beloulou
e-mail: lbeloulou@gmail.com
M. Djidel
Laboratoire de Bio Ressources Sahariennes,
Préservation et valorisation, Université Kasdi Merbah,
BP 511, 30000 Ouargla, Algeria
e-mail: djidelm@yahoo.fr
meter (WTW) with a probe (CellOx 325) for measuring the
dissolved oxygen. The analysis of chemical elements is
performed by two methods: the flame atomic absorption
(Perkin-Elmer 1100) for the determination of major cations
and Photolab Spektral spectrophotometer WTW mark for the
analysis of anions and the trace of elements.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Physicochemical Parameters
Water temperatures range between 12.7 and 20.3 °C. The
relatively cold waters are located in wells that reach the
Cretaceous and Jurassic limestone formations. The pH varies
between 7.72 and 8.54, so it is slightly basic. The electrical
conductivity has values between 495 and 5360 µs/cm. The
highest values correspond to the wadi, bank waters where
the chloride concentrations rise to 300 mg/l. High levels of
sodium (120 mg/l) were also obtained particularly along the
Wadi El Maleh (Fig. 1).
The distribution of the conductivity is influenced by two
factors: the morphology and the feeding areas. The first
concerns the South and Southeast parts of the plain mor-
phology where the stagnant nature promotes evaporation and
concentration of chemical elements. The second factor
concerns the North and North-west part corresponding to the
cracked limestone massif of Djebel Djaffa that constitutes a
feed zone favoring the dilution of groundwater. Sodium
levels are mainly due to clay and marl sand formations of
Quaternary Mio-Pliocene which constitutes the superficial
aquifer. The morphological character (depression) is the
main cause of the increase in sodium levels in the center of

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 685

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_203
686
Fig. 1 Electrical conductivity, sodium and chloride maps
the plain where the rate of evaporation is very intense.
Chlorides follow the same trend as sodium. They are due to
leaching of evaporite formations and gypsum that are
abundant upstream of the watershed of Oued El Maleh. As
for the environmental aspect, investigations on pollution
sources in the Tamlouka plain have revealed a high con-
tamination of the groundwater by the agricultural nutrients
and the urban waste that are dumped without any prior
treatment.
3.2 Characteristics’ Reports
To elucidate the origin of the chemical elements and to
explain the groundwater supply and flow, the following
characteristics reports were used to identify the lithology of
reservoir rocks: rSO4/rCl; rMg/rCa; rNa/rCl.
The (rSO4−/rCl−) ratio is greater than 1 in almost all water
wells. This results in the predominance of sulfates related to
the leaching of limestone-clay soils, and gypsiferous land,
abundant in the plain. The (Mg++/rCa++) ratio is less than 1
in almost the majority of the water points and this indicates a
predominance of calcium. The solubility of calcium sulfate
is lower than that of the magnesium sulfates. When the ratio
(rNa+/rCl−) is less than 1 there is a predominance of chlo-
rides that are related to the leaching of clay and marl as well
S. Djorfi et al.
as the domestic waste. This phenomenon is found in the
central part of the plain where the geological formations of
Mio-Pliocene (clay and marl) are dominant. When this ratio
is greater than 1 there is a predominance of sodium (Na+)
which is linked to NaCl rich formations (Fig. 2).
4 Conclusion
The hydrochemical study of the plain of Tamlouka
allowed to highlight several findings. The groundwater is
characterized by various chemical facies: chlorinated
sodium, magnesium bicarbonate, calcium bicarbonate,
sodium bicarbonate, sulfated calcium magnesium. These
facies follow a well-defined spatial distribution. Indeed,
all the concentrations increase from the periphery to the
center. The morphological character of the plain is the
main cause of this trend. At the carbonate formations
(limestone) of Jebel Djahfa and Jebel Ain Arko massifs,
the waters show low mineralization with calcium and
magnesium bicarbonate facies. The waters of calcareous
marl formations of Chebka Sellaouas have relatively high
concentrations particularly sulfates (abundant gypsiferous
passages). Surveys of pollution sources in the Tamlouka
plain have revealed a high groundwater contamination by
the agricultural nutrients and the urban waste dumped
without any prior treatment.
Hydrochemical Evolution of Groundwater in the Tamlouka Plain … 687

Fig. 2 Maps of characteristic ratios of groundwater in the Tamlouka plain

References Djorfi S, Djidel M, Bougdah H. Etude hydrogéologique de la plaine de

Tamlouka. Mémoire d’ingénieur d’état en hydrogéologie de
l’Université Badji Mokhtar, Annaba; 1991. 120 p.
ALGEO (Algérie Géophysique). Etude géophysique dans la plaine de
Tamlouka. Rapport D.H.W., inédit, Guelma, Algérie; 1979. 30 p.
 Water Supply and Waterborne Diseases
in the Population of Za-Kpota Commune
(Benin, West Africa)

Léocadie Odoulami, Brice S. Dansou, and Nadège Kpoha

Keywords
Benin Za-Kpota commune Water supplied Water pollution Waterborne disease

1 Introduction of Za-Kpota. Then the samples have been routed to the

Nowadays, thousands of people in the world do not always
have access to drinking water. The situation of provision in
drinking water is preoccupying in Benin and especially in
out-of-town environments. More of 50% of Beninese living
in semi-urban environment do not have access to drinking
water (Hilhorst et al. 2008). This situation is bound to the
pluviometric variability (Boko 1988) and to the quality of
the consumed waters. This pluviometric variability appears
by an important change of the average pluviometric amonts
and by the mobility of the maxima pluviometric (Houdénou
1999). These conditions do not facilitate provision in
drinking water for the populations. The objective of this
survey was to identify and analyze the problems of provision
in drinking water and the quality of the consumed waters in
the township of Za-Kpota.
laboratory of the Direction de l’Eau (DG-Eau) in Cotonou
for analyses.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Sources of Provision Water in the Township
of Za-Kpota
Among the households of investigation, 47% get a stock in
water of cistern, 3% in drinking water of the SONEB, 6% in
water of Pump Boring to Motivity, 43% to the traditional
wells, and 1% of the water of marsh. In the township of
Za-Kpota, hygiene remains precarious to the immediate
surroundings of hydraulics infrastructures.

3.2 Quality of Waters Used in the Households

2 Materials and Methods of the Township of Za-Kpota

The statistics of the hydraulic works of provision in water, – Physical parameters

the demographic and pluviometric data were collected from
the appropriate institutions. Eleven water samples have been
appropriated to the level of a traditional well, a
boundary-mark fountain and a manual pump in the township
L. Odoulami (&)
B. S. Dansou
N. Kpoha
Laboratoire Pierre PAGNEY, Climat, Eau, Ecosystème et
Développement (LACEEDE)/DGAT/FLASH, Université
d’Abomey-Calavi (UAC), 03BP: 1122 Cotonou, République du
Bénin
e-mail: leocadieo@yahoo.com
B. S. Dansou
e-mail: bdansou86@gmail.com
The results of the analysis of the main physical parameters
measured in the different water samples show that:
– the samples n° 1, 2, and 3 present values of color mea-
sure the norms above (15uc);
– the quasi-totality of the samples presents the tempera-
tures being located beyond the admitted norms (25 °C);
– the samples n° 1, 2, and 3 present rates of turbidity
beyond 5 FTU (norms);
– three (3) samples present the pH inferior to 6, 5. Waters
consumed in the township are too close to 60% acidic.

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
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690
On the set of the samples, only 20% respect the potability
norms on a physical level.
– Chemical features
The analysis results of the main chemical parameters (or-
ganic and of the metallic traces) measured in the different
water samples shows that all samples present the values
respecting the Beninese norms with regard to the contents in
calcium, chlorides, fluorides, bicarbonate, iodine, nitrate,
nitrite, phosphate and sulphate; 40% of the samples present
contents made of total iron outside of the values fixed by the
Beninese legislation and finally 80% of the samples present
some contents in magnesium and ammonium in conformity
with the norms. Chemically speaking, the risk of pollution
would be located a lot more on the content of total iron of
the waters of well in the township of Za-Kpota. It is nec-
essary to note that the presence of iron in excess in the water
of consumption causes organs lesion in the organism such as
the liver. Organ which is the first to store the water and when
its capacity of storage would be exhausted, it continues to
accumulate in the heart, the hypophysis, pancreas, intestine,
etc. These lesions can drag the individual’s death thereafter
(Kpoha 2014).
– Bacteriological features
The results of the bacteriological analyses show that all
samples of water do not contain any fecal coliformes prac-
tically. But the number of total coliformes overcomes the
advisable by WHO for drinking water. The presence of these
bacteria in waters reveals a fecal pollution of human or
animal origin. Relying on these results, we can conclude that
the waters used by the population are chemically drinkable
and weakly mineralized but of doubtful hygienic qualities
from the bacteriological point of view. Therefore, serious
malaria, diarrheas with dehydration are some of the water
diseases spread in Za-Kpota. These results confirm those of
Akpotrossou (2010) who identifies the sources of water ill-
nesses, the waters of traditional wells and the surface waters
(river, creek, stream). But for Odoulami (1999), the
L. Odoulami et al.
insufficiency of the drinking water and the weakness of the
household incomes drive these latters to consume the waters
of doubtful quality, which results in health problems. These
results corroborate those of Fangnon (2003). It is important
to do periodic analyses to follow the quality of the consumed
waters in the township in order to warn against the con-
sumption of contaminated waters and preserve the health of
the populations in the township of Za-Kpota.
4 Conclusion
In the commune of Za-Kpota, the households investigated
consume the well water, the cistern water, the boring
water, the SONEB water and the marsh water. The
physico-chemical and bacteriological analyses of the
water samples appropriated showed that the main water
sources of the populations are unfit to consumption.
Therefore, authorities have to take measures to allow the
population access to safe drinking water.
References
Akpotrossou A. Approvisionnement en eau potable dans la commune
d’Abomey. Mémoire de maîtrise, FLASH/UAC. Abomey-Calavi;
2010. 86 p.
Boko M. Climatologie et communautés rurales du Bénin : rythmes
climatiques et rythme de développement. Thèse de doctorat d’Etat
ès-Lettres à l’Université de Bourgogne, Dijon; 1988. 608 p.
Fangnon B. La question de l’eau potable et de la gestion des
équipements hydrauliques dans la commune de Djakotomey.
Mémoire de maîtrise, Géographie, FLASH/UAC; 2003. 107 p.
Hilhorst T, Adjinacou C, Langley P. L’approche sectorielle peut-elle
renforcer les instances locales? Le secteur eau au Bénin; 2008. 16 p.
Houndénou C. Variabilité climatique et maïsiculture en milieu tropical
humide, diagnostic et modélisation. Thèse de Doctorat Unique de
Géographie, Dijon, France; 1999. 341 p.
Kpoha JN. Approvisionnement en eau potable et santé des populations
dans la commune de Za-Kpota, mémoire de maîtrise,
DGAT/FLASH/UAC; 2014. 93 p.
Odoulami L. Approvisionnement en eau dans la grande ville du Benin.
Quel politique pour l’avenir ? cas de Cotonou, Porto-Novo et
Parakou. Mémoire pour l’obtention du Diplôme d’Etude Appro-
fondie (D.E.A.); 1999. 55 p.
 Estimation of Aquifer Parameters
from Pumping Test Data Using the Only
Corresponding Competitor Method (OCC):
Case Oude of Korendijk (South
of Rotterdam)

Noureddine Oulad Naoui, El Amine Cherif, and Abdelkader Djehiche

Keywords
Modelling, Aquifers Graphic methods Pumping tests Ground-water
OCC

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Modeling that can provide a holistic understanding of
technology at a fundamental level are of great necessity.
Compared to experimental research and development, fol-
lowed by commercialization of the technology, modeling
studies are at a relatively rudimentary state (Gholikandi and
Khosravi 2012). Groundwater is a treasured earth resource
and it has several inherent advantages over the surface water
resource (Chapuis 2011). Pumping tests are the most widely
used technique for estimating different hydraulic parameters
of the aquifers (Ward and Fox 2012). For the estimation of
hydraulic parameters of aquifers, pumping tests are the most
widely used technique (Chapuis 2011). In the present work,
we proposed an automatic interpretation of pumping tests
conventionally interpreted by serval methods where the
operator calculates the hydraulic parameters in a subjective
way, and OCC technique to interpret pumping tests and
compare the results obtained with those of classical methods
of interpretation.
N. Oulad Naoui (&)
A. Djehiche
University Amar Telidji Laghouat, Laghouat, Algeria
e-mail: noure_hydraulique@yahoo.fr
A. Djehiche
e-mail: djehichea@yahoo.fr
E. A. Cherif
University of Science and Technology of Oran Mohamed Boudiaf,
BP. 1505, El M’Naouer, Oran, Algeria
e-mail: cherif_ea@yahoo.fr
2.1 The Only Corresponding Competitor
Method (OCC)
The Only Corresponding Competitor method (OCC) is a
stochastic optimization method based on the mechanism of
random selection of individuals and of a solidarity phe-
nomenon. This method starts randomly by an initial popu-
lation of individuals in such a way that they lead in a
competition during succession of iterations called simula-
tions. Between the simulations, individuals submit methods
of calculation of the minimum error in such a way that these
methods will transform the population to favor the emer-
gence of better individuals. The performance of individuals
is evaluated through the objective function, and in the
resulting total population (the common individual), all
individuals allowed to survive are designated to create a new
Population of S individuals. The loop is rotated, and a
selection phase is started for re-evaluation, a translation
phase of individuals to the only corresponding competitor
and so on. The method of the only corresponding competitor
(OCC), a stop criterion makes it possible to leave the loop; it
is the cloud condensation of individuals which translates by
graphical representation of objective function variation
during the simulations (Fig. 1).
3 Results and Discussion
Table 1 shows the transmissivity values obtained by the
graphical methods and the OCC technique. The results are
relatively acceptable (Figs. 2 and 3).

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_205
692 N. Oulad Naoui et al.

Fig. 1 Operation of the OCC method

Table 1 Values of Method Transmissivity (m2/s)

transmissivity by various methods
Theis 0.0048
Jacob 0.0046
OCC 0.0048
Estimation of Aquifer Parameters from Pumping Test Data … 693

4 Conclusion
The objective of this work was to test the OCC method to
the interpretation of pumping tests, based on the Theis
model in order to calculate the transmissivity. The effi-
cacy of this technique was examined to evaluate the
hydraulic properties of an aquifer. The data were used in
a stochastic optimization process to determine the mini-
mum deviations between the experimental field mea-
surements and the Theis model values. In conclusion we
can say that:

1. The OCC method provides a unique and stable solution

for different individuals;
2. The OCC drawdown curves are closer to the experi-
mental drawdowns than the other methods (Theis,
Jacob);
Fig. 2 Cloud of individuals 3. The major disadvantage of the OCC method is the
computation time. For a high simulation number, the
calculation must be performed on a powerful computing
station.

References

Chapuis RP. Pompage d’une nappe libre rechargé: solutions pour la

charge hydraulique et le temps de transfert. Bull Eng Geol Environ.
2011;70:309–16.
Gholikandi GB, Khosravi M. Upgrading of submerged membrane
bioreactor operation with regard to soluble microbial products and
mathematical modeling for optimisation of critical flux. Desalin
Water Treat. 2012;39:199–208.
Ward ND, Fox C, Identification of aquifer parameters from pumping
test data with regard for uncertainty. J Hydrol Eng. 2012;17:
769–81.
Fig. 3 Comparison of drawdowns with time
 Dohuk Syncline as an Artificial Recharge
Aquifer, Northern Iraq

Nabeel K. Al-Azzawi and Myasar S. Al-Saraj

Keywords
Dohuk syncline Artificial recharging Lagrangian interpolation Least squares method
application

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

The study area is located in the northern part of Iraq within
Dohuk governorate. It is delimited by the longitudes (42° 57′
29″)–(43° 04′ 00″) East, and Latitudes (36° 50′ 10″)–(36°
53′ 15″) North (Fig. 1). The study area is about 67 km2,
comprising the entire district of Dohuk syncline which
approximately has (17.1) km length and (3.5–8) km in width
(Figs. 1 and 2). The main body of this syncline is a sub-
surface except the northern and southern ridges of limestone.
The syncline has two steep limbs but it is also asymmetrical
with a steeper southern one (Al-Azzawi and Hubiti, 2009).
The syncline is very narrow in its eastern part while it
becomes wider in the west. Because of urbanization and the
alluvial deposits covering the syncline, its geometry was
determined by a mathematical method to interpolate the
subsurface parts and decide whether it can be used as an
artificial recharged aquifer or not.
The importance of studying this syncline is to evaluate
how this aquifer can be artificially recharged. For this pur-
pose, a geometric simulation for fold geometry was applied,
calculations for the syncline parameters were performed and
some opinions for artificial recharging were recommended.
Two main numerical analysis methods were applied in the
present work. The first is Lagrangian interpolation method. It
was used for interpolating the hidden parts of the syncline.
Data which were taken from surface readings and bore holes
were processed by Eqs. (1 and 2). The substitutions of
X values in Eq. (1) and Li(X) in Eq. (2) will lead to inter-
polate values of (X&Y) coordinates of the missing parts of
the syncline (Gerald and Wheatly, 1984).
ðX  X0 ÞðX  X1 ÞðX  X2 Þ. . .. . .ðX  Xi  1ÞðX  Xi þ 1Þ. . .. . .ðX  Xn Þ
LðXiÞ ¼
ðXi  X1 ÞðXi  X1 ÞðXi  X2 Þ. . .ðXi  Xi  1ÞðXi  Xi þ 1Þ. . .:ðXi  Xn Þ
ð1Þ
Pn ðXÞ ¼ FðX0 ÞL0 ðXÞ þ FðX1 ÞL1 ðXÞ þ FðX2 ÞL2 ðXÞ þ


þ FðXn ÞLn ðXÞ
ð2Þ
The second method is the Least Squares and it was
applied to obtain the function of the upper and lower surface
of Pila Spi limestone strata. The (X&Y) coordinates of the
interpolated points were arranged into (3*3) matrix as in
Eq. (3). Where N is the number of the points and a0, a1 and
a2 are the parameters of the function.

N. K. Al-Azzawi (&)
M. S. Al-Saraj

College of Science, Univesity of Mosul, Mosul, Iraq
e-mail: nabazzawi@yahoo.com

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_206
696 N. K. Al-Azzawi and M. S. Al-Saraj

Fig. 1 Location of the study area

 P P 2     P 
N a Y  b3;3  a2 ¼ b3;4 So a2 ¼ b3;4 =b3;3
P
 Xi P Xi2 X  
P 3   P
i 0   i 

 a ¼ X Y ð3Þ
P
 X2 P Xi3 X
P 4     P 2 
i   1   i i b2;2  a1 þ b2  a2 ¼ b2;4 So a1 ¼ ðb2;4 b2;3  a2 Þ=b2;2
i Xi Xi a 2 X Y
i i b1;1  a0 þ b1;2  a1 þ b1;3  a2 ¼ b1;4
So a0 ¼ ðb1;4  b1;2  a1  b1;3  a2 Þ=b1;1 The back substitution
Forwards, the matrix must be changed to the upper triangular
form, where b represents the matrix elements and via back
substitutions, the parameters can be obtained (Al-Azzawi, 2004). Subsequently, the form of the function becomes
Y ¼ a2 X2 þ a1 X þ a0
Furthermore, definite integration of the functions was
b1,1 b1,2 b3,1 : b1,4
used to calculate the cross-sectional areas of the strata along
0 b2,2 b2,3 : b2,4 ð3Þ three traverses. Multiplying the average cross-sectional area
0 0 b3,3 : b3,4 The upper triangular by the length of this syncline was applied to estimate the
entire size of the aquifer (Fig. 3).
Dohuk Syncline as an Artificial Recharge Aquifer, Northern Iraq 697

Fig. 2 Location of Dohuk Syncline with its catchment area

Fig. 3 Calculations of cross-sectional area of Pila Spi limestone for Fig. 4 Schematic diagram for the Aquifer
the first traverse (example)
698
3 Results and Discussion
Data of monthly rainfall of Dohuk governorate were col-
lected from Dohuk station for the years (1990–2011).
Moreover, the area of Pila Spi Formation which is out-
cropped and represents the recharging part of the aquifer was
determined using Arc GIS (Figs. 2 and 4). It is 23.4 km2.
Therefore, the amount of rain that falls on the recharging
area of the aquifer can be estimated. According to the
empirical tests of Horton (1933) on the infiltration ratio of
limestone, it was considered to be about 20%.
pr ¼ 0:0005387 km=year; A ¼ 23:4 km2 and F ¼ 20%.
pr is the average rainfall per year in Dohuk station,
A = catchment area (Pila Spi limestone) and F = the infil-
tration ratio.
If W is the amount of infiltrated rain,
W ¼ pr  A ¼ 0:0005387  23:4  0:2 ¼ 0:002521116 km3 =year:
3
W ¼ 2; 521; 116 m =year; if the infiltration ratio is 20%:
The total pore volume of the Pila Spi limestone in the syn-
cline can be calculated in this form.
Vw ¼ P  VT
where Vw is the pores volume in Pila Spi limestone, P is
porosity and VT is total volume of Pila Spi limestone.
Vw ¼ 0:2  7:382262546 ¼ 1:4764525092 km3
Vw ¼ 14764525092:2 m3
4 Conclusion
The amount of rainfall per year recharging the aquifer is
very low compared with its storage capacity. So, thou-
sands of years were estimated to fully recharge the
N. K. Al-Azzawi and M. S. Al-Saraj
aquifer. Accordingly, the infiltrated water from natural
recharge must be supported by an artificial one. There-
fore, suggestions can be adopted to improve the potential
of the aquifer by increasing the amount of infiltrated
water. For this reason, two ideas are proposed.
1. To set up walls (mini dams) on the downstream of the
essential transverse valleys within the catchment area of
Pila Spi Fm. Each wall may not exceed two meters’ in
height. This idea can make the rainfall harvested in the
valleys and give an additional chance for more infiltra-
tion of runoff water. The dominating fractured limestone
in the valleys can play an important role to increase the
infiltration.
2. The second proposal is to drill shallow bore-holes at the
bottom of the valleys within the Pila Spi strata. This can
perforate the catchment area and increase the surface area
for infiltration.
Moreover, maintenance must be carried out in summer
season to remove the undesirable deposits at the bottom
of the dam or bore-holes.
References
Al-Azzawi KB. Determination of fold profiles and functions, a
mathematical approach. Iraqi J Earth Sci. 2004;1(4):22–35.
Al-Azzawi NK, Al-Hubiti ST. The fold style variation of Baikher
Anticline, Northern Iraq. Iraqi J Earth Sci. 2009;9(1):1–20.
Gerald CF, Wheatley PO. Applied numerical analysis. 3th ed..
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company; 1984. 579 pp.
Horton RE. The role of infiltration in the hydrological cycle. Trans Am
Geophys Union. 1933;14:446–60.
 Assessment of Seawater Intrusion
in the Maritime Djeffara Coastal Aquifer
(Southeastern Tunisia)

Bachaer Ayed, Ikram Jmal, Samir Sahal, Salwa Saidi, and Salem Bouri

Keywords
Seawater intrusion GALDIT model Groundwater quality index Maritime Djeffara
Shallow aquifer

1 Introduction Gabes governorate and to the south by the Ben Guerdene

In coastal regions, groundwater serves as a major source
used for the human activities satisfaction. Almost, 44% of
the world’s population live within 150 km of the coast line
(UN Atlas 2010; Reed 2010). Due to a drastic population
growth, and an industrial, economic and agricultural sectors
development, the groundwater resources were almost
threatened by both qualitative (pollution, chemical modifi-
cation) and quantitative (overexploitation) degradation.
Moreover, the coastal regions are characterized by an
intensive pumping which may cause the seawater intrusion
(SWI). They are exposed also to a groundwater quality
degradation caused by Sebkhas influences. In order to assess
the seawater intrusion, particularly, in the Maritime Djeffara
coastal aquifer (Southeastern Tunisia), we used the GALDIT
model and the groundwater quality index for seawater
intrusion (GQISWI). The study area covers around 3100 km2.
This zone is bordered on the east by the Mediterranean Sea,
on the west by Dhaher Mountain Chain, to the north by
B. Ayed (&)
I. Jmal
S. Saidi
S. Bouri
LR3E, National Engineering School, University of Sfax, Sfax,
Tunisia
e-mail: ayed.bachaer@gmail.com
I. Jmal
e-mail: ikramjmal@hotmail.fr
S. Saidi
e-mail: salwa_saidi@yahoo.fr
S. Bouri
e-mail: salem_bouri@yahoo.fr
S. Sahal
ARE, Regional Commissary for Agricultural Development of
Medenine, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: Sahal.samir@yahoo.fr
city. This coastal aquifer is included in the Mio-Plio-
Quaternary deposits.
The study area is characterized by a Mediterranean cli-
mate which is at the coastal part semi-humid and at the plain
part sub-Saharan arid. For this reason, the Maritime Djeffara
region belongs to the arid and semi-arid regions. The aver-
age temperature varies between 12.4 and 30.1 °C in winter
and summer, respectively and a rainfall average equal to
149 mm/year, during the period of 1968–2015 (Ayed et al.
2017). On the other hand, piezometric map for 2016 showed
that head values ranged between −10 m (Gulf of Bou
Ghrara, Djorf) and 130 m (Southwestern part). A general
flow direction from the Southwest to the Northeast was
distinguished, with an appearance of depression zones at the
coastal part which may lead to a saline intrusion in the
coastal part (Agoubi et al. 2013).
The Maritime Djeffara coastal aquifer is characterized by
high salinity values that reach 11.5 g/l. The lowest salinity
(1.5 g/l) was recorded in the center of the study area whereas
the highest (>5 g/l) in the northeastern and southeastern
zones (Gulf of Bou Ghrara, Sebkhats, Mediterranean Sea).
2 Materials and Methods
In the present study, the seawater intrusion was assessed
based on two different methods: a parametric method
“GALDIT” and a quality index method “groundwater
quality index for seawater intrusion (GQISWI)”.
The GALDIT method was created by Chachadi and
Lobo-Ferreira (2001) in order to evaluate the seawater
intrusion (SWI) in coastal aquifers. The GALDIT model
groups most of the physical and chemical parameters

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 699

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_207
700
Table 1 Vulnerability classes in Vulnerability classes
the GALDIT method (Chachadi
and Lobo-Ferreira 2001) Index intervals
determining the SWI which are: Groundwater occurrence,
Aquifer hydraulic conductivity, Height of ground water
Level above sea, Distance from the shore, Impact of existing
status of seawater intrusion and Thickness of the aquifer.
This method consists subdividing the obtained values for
each factor to some of classes (ranges) to assign a deter-
mined rate (varying from 1 to 10) for each class, then it
would be assigned a significant weight (varying from 1 to 4).
This procedure was determined according to each parameter
intervention in groundwater pollution.
The GALDIT index was established according to the
following equation:
GALDIT index ¼ ð1  GÞ þ ð3  AÞ þ ð4  LÞ þ ð4  DÞ þ ð1  IÞ þ ð2  TÞ
where G, A, L, D, I and T are the six parameters sited above.
The GALDIT index values are distributed among three
classes: low, moderate and high (Table 1).
In addition to this parametric method, the groundwater
quality index (GQISWI) was determined to assess the SWI in
the Maritime Djeffara coastal aquifer. This method was
created by Tomaszkiewiez et al. (2014). It translates the
Piper diagram information (Eqs. 2 and 3) and the seawater
fraction (Eq. 4) to develop a new two-stage numerical
indicator for seawater intrusion (Eq. 5).




GQIPiper ðmixÞ ¼ Ca2 þ þ Mg2 þ =Total cations þ HCO
3 =Total anions


GQIPiper ðdomÞ ¼ ððNa þ þ K þ Þ=Total cationsÞ þ HCO
3 =Total anions  50ðin meq=LÞ
GQIfsea ¼ ð1fseaÞ  100
GQISWI ¼ ðGQIPiperðmixÞ þ GQIfsea Þ=2
B. Ayed et al.
Low Moderate High
<70 70–90 >90
Generally, the GQISWI values vary between 0 and 100:
where 100 designs the freshwater and 0 presents the sea-
water. While, the obtained GQIPiper(mix) index ranges from 0
(representing saltwater) to 100 (representing freshwater).
In the present study, the GQISWI was calculated using the
excel-based algorithm.
3 Results and Discussion
The relative thematic maps of the six parameters revealed the
GALDIT acronym were obtained by the interpolation of the
raw data using the interface ArcMap 10.1 and projected in
“WGS 1984 UTM Zone 32N”.
ð1Þ The index distribution makes the identification of the
areas more likely to be affected by the SWI possible. The
obtained vulnerability map (1/500,000) using GALDIT
model for the Maritime Djeffara coastal aquifer shows a
GALDIT index varying between 50 and 99. It was possible
to classify these indices into three classes of vulnerability:
low (50–70), moderate (70–90) and high (>90). Figure 1
proves the spatial spreading of the GALDIT index in the
study area.
The distribution of these classes were based on the
aquifer type which is almost semi-confined and unconfined.
The most of the study area was characterized by a moderate
degree of vulnerability. This repartition corresponds to the
 50ðin meq=LÞ
high hydraulic conductivity (sand and gravel, conglomer-
ð2Þ ate…), the height of groundwater level above the sea (2–
23 m) and the impact of existing status of seawater intrusion
(SO4/Cl) which was comprise between 1 and 1.5. Also, the
ð3Þ vulnerability classes repartition determines the Sebkhas
influences. For these reasons, the possibility of the study
ð4Þ
area to be affected by the SWI seems to be very high.
ð5Þ In addition, the groundwater quality index (GQISWI)
which was calculated based on the concentrations chemical
Assessment of Seawater Intrusion in the Maritime … 701

Fig. 1 Vulnerability map (GALDIT) for seawater intrusion in Maritime Djeffara coastal aquifer

Fig. 2 GQISWI repartition for the Maritime Djeffara coastal aquifer

702
composition, shows values varying between 61.83 and
80.62. The low values, located at the coastal regions and
around the sebkhas zones, indicate the impact of SWI and
corroborate the results of the GALDIT model. The com-
parison between these two applied methods shows that the
Maritime Djeffara groundwater was threatened by the SWI
especially at the coastal areas and the central part of the
study area (Fig. 2).
4 Conclusion
To assess the seawater intrusion in the Djeffara Maritime
coastal aquifer, GALDIT and GQISWI methods were
applied using GIS techniques. The vulnerability models
show three degrees: low, moderate and high. They indi-
cate that the moderate vulnerability class covers mainly
the whole of the study area. The GALDIT and GQISWI
revealed that the central and coastal zones are the most
threatened by the seawater intrusion. The obtained results
can be used as a synthetic document for realistic man-
agement of groundwater quality.
B. Ayed et al.
References
Agoubi B, Kharroubi A, Abichou T, Abida H. Hydrochemical and
geoelectrical investigation of Marine Jeffara Aquifer, southeastern
Tunisia. Appl Water Sci. 2013;3(2):415–29.
Ayed B, Jmal I, Sahal S, Bouri S. Assessment of groundwater
vulnerability using a specific vulnerability method: case of Maritime
Djeffara shallow aquifer (Southeastern Tunisia). Arab J Geosci.
2017;10(12):262.
Chachadi G, Lobo-Ferreira JP. Sea water intrusion vulnerability
mapping of aquifers using the GALDIT method. COASTIN Newsl.
2001;4:7e9p.
Reed D. Understanding the Effects of Sea-Level Rise on Coastal
Wetlands: The Human Dimension. In: EGU General Assembly
Conference Abstracts, vol. 12; 2010. p. 5480.
Tomaszkiewicz M, Najm MA, El-Fadel M. Development of a
groundwater quality index for seawater intrusion in coastal aquifers.
Environ Model Softw. 2014;57:13–26.
UN Atlas. UN Atlas: 44 percent of us live in coastal areas. 2010. http://
coastalchallenges.com/2010/01/31/un-atlas-60-of-us-live-in-the-
coastal-areas/.
 Geochemical and Isotopic Study of a Coastal
Phreatic Aquifer from the NE of Tunisia:
Guenniche Basin

Safouan Ben Ammar, Jean-Denis Taupin, Mohsen Ben Alaya,

Kamel Zouari, and Mohamed Khouatmia

Keywords
Natural tracers Groundwater quality Salinization Tunisia

50 and 100 m, while the deepest Pliocene (sand and sand-

1 Introduction
The plain of Wady Guenniche (130 km2) is located in the
northeast part of Tunisia a few kilometers south of the city of
Bizerte (Fig. 1). The plain extends from 9°56 E to 10°04′ E
and from 37°07′ N to 37°14 N. It is part of the large sub-
sidiary region known as molasse basin situated between the
lake of Bizerte and the lake of Ichkeul. It corresponds to
synclinal structure related to the post-Villafranchian com-
pressive phase affecting the north-eastern part of Tunisia
(Mejri et al. 2010; Melki et al. 2011). Stratigraphic data and
litho-electric logs from deep boreholes drilled in the plain,
completed with geophysical studies show that the depression
was filled with a thick continental (Villafranchian-actual)
and lake (Pliocene) detrital depositional system. Phreatic
groundwater is lodged in heterogeneous and lenticular
Quaternary detrital formations with a thickness of between
S. Ben Ammar (&)
ISTEUB La Charguia II, Université de Carthage, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: safouan_ammar@yahoo.fr
J.-D. Taupin
Hydrosciences, UMR 5569 (IRD, CNRS, UM) Montpellier,
Montpellier, France
e-mail: taupin@msem.univ-montp2.fr
M. Ben Alaya
LMU, INRAP Pôle Technologique Sidi Thabet, Sidi Thabet,
Tunisia
e-mail: mohsen.benalaya07@gmail.com
S. Ben Ammar
K. Zouari
LRAE, ENI Sfax, Université de Sfax, Route de Soukra, Sfax,
Tunisia
e-mail: Kamel.Zouari@enis.rnu.tn
M. Khouatmia
CNSTN, Sidi Thabet, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: mh_khouatmia@yahoo.fr
stone) levels contain the deep aquifer situated between 75
and 300 m depth. The main recharge to the phreatic aquifer
is from rain that falls directly above the plain (average
rainfall of 600 mm/year), and during flood time and wet
season by lateral flow from Wady Guenniche and its tribu-
taries (Fig. 1). The depth to the groundwater in the study
area varies between 5 and 10 m. The shallowest levels are
located in the central part of the plain (Hariza) where mea-
sured aquifer levels range between 1 and 0.5 m.
The study presents the results of a dual geochemical and
isotopic approach used to characterize the quality of pumped
phreatic water in Guenniche basin and to determine the
processes affecting salinization of groundwater and location
of recharge zones for a better understanding of hydrogeo-
logical features.
2 Materials and Methods
The sampling campaign was conducted between March and
April 2013. It involved 32 surface wells (Fig. 1).
Physico-chemical parameters were measured in situ using
WTW multiparameter instrument. All sampled wells were
pumped before sampling until constant measured field
parameters (pH, temperature and electric conductivity) were
observed. Chemical analyses of the major elements were
conducted in the laboratory using ion chromatography
machine (Dionex DX120). Stables isotopes (18O and 2H)
were analyzed using a laser spectroscopy LGR LT-100
Liquid-Water isotope analyzer. The results were expressed
as d (‰) relative to the international standard V-SMOW
(Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water). Analytical errors
were 0.2‰ and 1‰ for 18O and 2H, respectively. The tritium

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 703

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_208
704 S. Ben Ammar et al.

Fig. 1 Geographic situation of the study area (left) and piezometric map and sampled wells (right)

contents in water were measured by liquid scintillation on
ten samples. The results are expressed in tritium units
(TU) with an uncertainty of 0.3 TU.
3 Results and Discussion
the western part of the plain (the area between Hariza and
Wady Khima) with values ranging between 100 and
250 mg/L, indicating excessive use of synthetic fertilizers in
this most cultivated area and a recharge by irrigation water
return.

Hydrochemical characterisation indicated that the dominant 100

hydrochemical facies for all samples is a Na–Cl and Ca/Mg–
Cl/SO4 types (Fig. 2). The major geochemical processes in
the aquifer are evaporite mineral dissolutions and mineral
O3
+N

Ca

exchange with clays (Fig. 3) as indicated by ((Na + K) −

+M
Cl
4+

Ca/M g-Cl/SO4
Cl)/((Ca + Mg) − (SO4 + HCO3)) relationship (Appelo and
SO

Na-C l
Postma, 1993). Saturation indices (SI) for selected minerals
calculated by the program PHREEQC (Parkhurst 1995) of
0 0
the groundwater samples reveal that water is generally
100

100
0
0

undersaturated with respect to gypsum and halite

(−0.2  SI  −1.6); and saturated to supersaturated with
O3

calcite and dolomite (−0.24  SIcalcite  1 and −0.5 

Na

HC

SO
Mg

+K

SIdolomite  1.3). This suggests that the groundwater can

3+

4
CO

dissolve a lot of minerals such as gypsum and halite because

of the slow circulation of groundwater in the process of the
100
groundwater flow from east to west, and leads to the high
100

0
0

100

100 Ca 0 0 Cl+NO3 100

values of TDS of the groundwater downgradient (2 

TDS  3.5 g/L). High NO3 concentrations characterizes Fig. 2 Piper diagram of phreatic groundwater in Guenniche plain
Geochemical and Isotopic Study of a Coastal Phreatic Aquifer …
Fig. 3 Relationship between ((Na + K) – Cl)/((Ca + Mg) – (SO4 + HCO3)) (left) and plot d2H versus d18O (right)
Thirty two groundwater samples were analyzed for the
isotope study. The results show isotopic content ranging
from −5.81 to −2.88‰ versus V-SMOW for d18O and from
−33.4‰ to −22.1‰ versus V-SMOW for d2H. The mean
values are respectively −4.92‰ and −28.6‰ versus
V-SMOW for d18O and d2H (Fig. 2). The average values of
stable isotopes are similar to those of precipitations in the
humid season suggesting that the groundwater derived from
rainfall origin. However, in the detail groundwater isotopic
composition varies into different groups according to geo-
graphical location in the plain, well depth and recharge
mode. In arid and semi-arid regions, the isotopic composi-
tion of groundwater is sometimes modified from that of local
precipitation due to the isotopic enrichment in water during
evaporation. In the study area, samples that have undergone
evaporation display systematic enrichment in stable isotopes,
resulting in divergence from the Local Meteoric Water Line
(LMWL) along evaporation line that have a slope lower than
that of the LMWL (d = 13.89) (Mannai 2016). The evapo-
rative effect could be due to near-surface evaporation in the
unsaturated zone during natural recharge for some samples.
The well closer to the sea (well number 6) indicates a pos-
sible beginning of a seawater intrusion as a result of the
intensive exploitation of resources. Locally some samples
show mixed water resulting from upward leakage from deep
and intermediate groundwater. Tritium levels in the shallow
aquifer are high (2–5 TU) and their content is similar to the
weighted mean value of tritium content in precipitation,
705
indicating local and recent recharge younger than 1950 and
low residence time.
4 Conclusion
This study used isotopic and geochemical tracers of
groundwater to improve current understanding of the
hydrogeology and geochemistry in the Wady Guenniche
basin. It provided useful information regarding recharge
mechanism, water type and residence time.
References
Appelo CAJ, Postma D. Geochemistry, groundwater and pollution.
Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Balkema; 1993. p. 536.
Mannai K. Interprétation climatique de la variabilité isotopique (18O et
2
H) des précipitations dans le Nord-Est Tunisien (région de
Bizerte). Master’s report. Université de Tunis-el Manar; 2016. 96 p.
Mejri L, Regard V, Carretier S, Brusset S, Dlala M. Evidence of
Quaternary active folding near Utique (Northeast Tunisia) from
tectonic observations and a seismic profile. C R Geosci.
2010;342:864–72.
Melki F, Zouaghi T, Harrab S, Casas Sainz A, Bedir M, Zargouni F.
Structuring and evolution of Neogene transcurrent basins in the
Tellian foreland domain, north-eastern Tunisia. J Geodyn.
2011;52:57–69.
Parkhurst DL. User’s Guide to PHREEQC: a computer program for
speciation, reaction-path, advective-transport, and inverse geochem-
ical calculation. US Geol Surv Water Resour Invest. 1995.
95–4227.
 Naturel Tracer and Isotopic Approach
to Describe Groundwater Behaviour:
An Example of the Mateur Plain
(North-Eastern Tunisia)

Mohsen Ben Alaya, Safouan Ben Ammar, Jean-Denis Taupin,

Mohamed Khouatmia, Raouf Jbeali, and Fetheddine Melki

Keywords
Aquifer system Natural tracers Isotopes Mateur plain NE tunisia

1 Introduction
Physical and chemical data, have been taken from the whole
of Mateur plain (NE Tunisie) (Fig. 1a). In Mateur region,
most waters come from phreatic aquifer and deep aquifers.
These aquifers show indications of advanced overexploita-
tion, revealed by decreasing piezometric surfaces and
degradation in water quality. The total dissolved solids
(TDS) were measured in September–October 2015 at 72
water points drilled in the phreatic aquifer and deep aquifers.
The upstream zone of Mateur shows good chemical quality
water, with a TDS varying from 0.7 to 1 g/l. However,
M. Ben Alaya (&)
R. Jbeali
Laboratoire des Matériaux Utiles, Institut National de Recherche
et d’Analyse Physico-Chimique, Pôle Technologique Sidi Thabet,
Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
e-mail: benalaya.mohsen@gmail.com
R. Jbeali
e-mail: jebaling@yahoo.fr
S. Ben Ammar
Institut Supérieur des Technologies de l’Environnement de
l’Urbanisme et du Bâtiment, Université Carthage, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: safouan_ammar@yahoo.fr
J.-D. Taupin
Hydrosciences, UMR 5569 (IRD, CNRS, UM), Montpellier,
France
e-mail: taupin@msem.univ-montp2.fr
M. Khouatmia
Centre National des Sciences et Technologies Nucléaires, Sidi
Thabet, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: mh_khouatmia@yahoo.fr
F. Melki
Laboratoire de Géomatique, Géologie Structurale et Appliquée,
Université Tunis El Manar, 1060 Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: fetheddinemelki@yahoo.fr
highly mineralized waters (over 1.5 g/l) were found in the
middle-Mateur plain and downstream zone.
In accordance with economic aspects, such as a highly
developed agriculture or expanding cities, hydrogeological,
hydrochemical and isotopic information from the ground-
water system was integrated and used to determine the main
factors and mechanisms controlling the chemistry of Mateur
aquifer system in the investigated area.
2 Materials and Methods
Seventy two groundwater samples from phreatic,
Plio-Quaternary, Yprisian and Campanian aquifers were
sampled in September–October 2015 from pumping wells.
The other points sampled were the following:
– Stara, Charchara and Bhia springs which drains a Ypri-
sian aquifer outcrops in the southern part of the basin.
– Zouawa, Om Jena, Borj Adouani and Cheguagua springs
which crops up in the reliefs piedmont that around the
basin.
Several analyses, water temperature, pH, and electrical
conductivity (EC) were carried out on-site. All samples were
filtered directly in the field through 0.45 µm membrane fil-
ters, stored in high-density polyethylene bottles of 250 ml,
and kept at 4 °C. Stable isotope composition of water
samples were analysed at the Laboratory LAMA of
HydroSciences Montpellier. Major chemistry and trace ele-
ments were determined by several methods (Titration, Ion
Chromatography, flame photometry and inductively coupled
plasma–optical emission spectrometry -ICP-OES. All sam-
ples showed an ionic unbalance smaller than ±5% (Mandel
and Shiftan 1981).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 707

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_209
708
Fig. 1 Mateur Basin: a geography and geology and b Piezometric map of the phreatic aquifer of Mateur
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Piezometry
Piezometric surveys of phreatic aquifer performed in
September–October 2015 see (Fig. 1b):
– A general flow south-west to north-east in the western
part, and in the eastern part, mainly south-east to
north-west or North to south, all in the direction of the
Lake Ichkeul, which represents the main outlet. A major
drainage axis appears along the wadis Joumine, El Melah
and Sedjenane watercourse. This drainage is due to a
good permeability of the wadi alluvial deposits and to
numerous concentrated pumpings within this alluvium.
– The main recharge zones are located on the borders of
Mateur basin.
The piezometric gradient varies from 1.5 to 2.5‰ in the
downstream zone and 1.5–3‰ in the upstream zone.
3.2 Chemical Tracing
The results of chemical analyses indicated enrichment in
SO42− relative to Cl−, except for some samples which were
depleted in SO42− with respect to Cl− ions (mainly samples
from Plio-quaternary and Ypresian aquifer). Consequently,
most of the Mateur groundwater samples show similar water
types: SO42−–Cl−–Ca2+ and Cl−–SO42−–Ca2+ (Fig. 2a).
M. Ben Alaya et al.
Some samples present a depletion in Cl− content with
respect to Na+ concentration, probably reflecting the cation
exchange reactions leading to adsorption of Ca2+ on clay
minerals belonging to aquifer formations and simultaneous
releasing of Na+ ions. These samples in which Na+/Cl−
molar ratios are higher than one (1 < Na+/Cl− < 2.21) show
also a deficit in Ca2+ with respect to SO42− ions (0.43 <
Ca2+/SO42− < 1). On the other hand, The remaining part of
the samples shows a more obvious loss of Ca2+ with respect
to SO42−. This may be the result of calcite precipitation
controlled by gypsum dissolution which must be to maintain
saturation or oversaturation. In fact, bicarbonates formed by
CO2 dissolution is balanced by Na+ and Ca2+ released from
clay minerals (Andrews et al. 1994). However, for some
samples, a relative deficit of Na+ with respect to Cl− was
observed (0.55 < Na+/Cl−<1). This probably reflects the
cation exchange process where Ca2+ was removed from the
aquifers formations and replaced by Na+. The cation
exchange process was confirmed through the relation char-
acterized by a slope of −1 (Fig. 2b) traced by the position of
the samples (Garcia et al. 2001). Without exchange all
analytical points should lie close to the origin.
Regarding Sr2+/Ca2+ ratios (2.96–90.96  10−3) and
sulfates (167.0–1196.1 mg L−1) anomalies of some wells,
an evaporitic contamination also affected the Mateur aquifers
system. For the majority of these waters, marked by rela-
tively low chloride concentrations, the Br−/Cl− ratios varied
between 0.14 and 1.62  10−3. Due to the enrichment in
chloride from a remobilization of residual chloride trapped
in the soil or seeped into the unsaturated zone, in relationship
Naturel Tracer and Isotopic Approach to Describe Groundwater … 709

Fig. 2 a Piper diagram of the studied area groundwater and b Relationship between [(Ca2+ + Mg2+)–(HCO3− + SO42−)] and (Na+ + K+–Cl−)
reflecting the cation exchange processes

with intense irrigation whose waters showed medium to high

mineralization issue from wells which were also subjected to
an evaporation process during irrigation. Some of the
chloride-enriched samples with higher Br−/Cl− ratios to
seawater values (1.5–1.7  10−3) could be related to per-
colation of seepage water through the bromide-rich organic
horizons of soils (Gerritse and George 1988). The presence
of nitrates in water of Mateur aquifers system seemed con-
sistent with a contamination from the surface and the soil
use.
The excessive use of inorganic fertilizers and other sub-
stances (pesticides, fungicides, etc.) may introduce anthro-
pogenic toxic elements into the groundwater. Within the
central part of Mateur plain, nitrogen fertilizers are used for Fig. 3 Stable isotope composition of Phreatic, Miocene, Yprisian and
the cultivation of vegetable crops. Among 72 sampled water Campanian groundwaters
from the aquifers system of Mateur, 22 showed concentra-
tions of nitrates ranging from 54 to 210 mg L−1. Nitrate precipitations (d18O = −5.00‰ and d2H = 28.6) (Mannai
pollution affects shallow wells in the same way as deeper 2016) in the humid season suggesting the groundwater was
ones. This may be explained by a high permeability of the linked to current rainfall origin.
aquifer infiltration zone. Globally, more than 30% of the
samples have nitrate contents higher than the WHO standard
for drinking water (WHO 2004). 4 Conclusion
Stable isotope composition of water samples from all A combination of piezometric data, major elements
wells and springs collected in the groundwater system of geochemistry, trace elements and stable isotopes has
Mateur suggests the presence of recently recharged water provided a preliminary comprehensive understanding of
(Fig. 3). Oxygen-18 and deuterium values in this area range, the hydrodynamic mode of Mateur aquifer system and
respectively, from −6.27 to −2.96‰ versus V-SMOW and has allowed to highlight mechanisms linked to observed
from −36.9 to −21.8‰ versus V-SMOW. The mean isotopic mineralization and reduced water quality. The following
values are, respectively, −4.84 and −28.4‰ versus conclusions can be drawn: (1) salinization processes of
V-SMOW for d18O and d2H, close to the values found in groundwater is due to washing away of the gypsum levels
710
in aquifer formation and contamination from the surface
by chlorides and nitrates, and (2) isotopic tracing (18O
and 2H) provides a means for understanding the specifi-
cation and location of the groundwater recharge.
References
Andrews JN, Fontes JC, Aranyossy JF, Dodo A, Edmunds WM,
Joseph A, Travi Y. The evolution of alkaline aquifer of the Irhazer
Plain, Niger. Water Resour Res. 1994;30(1):45–61.
M. Ben Alaya et al.
Garcia MG, Del Hidalgo M, Blesa MA. Geochemistry of groundwater
in the alluvial plain of Tucumán province Argentina. Hydro-
geol J. 2001;9(6):597–610.
Gerritse RC, George RJ. The role of oil organic matter in the
geochemical cycling of chloride and bromide. J Hydrol.
1988;101:83–91.
Mandel S, Shiftan ZL. Groundwater resources investigation and
development. New York: Academic Press Inc; 1981.
Mannai K. Interprétation climatique de la variabilité isotopique (18O et
2
H) des précipitations dans le Nord-Est Tunisien (région de
Bizerte). Mémoire de Mastère: Université Tunis El Manar; 2016.
WHO. Guidelines for drinking water quality: training pack. Geneva:
WHO; 2004.
 Inhibition of Scaling of Potable Water
by a Food Product Phosphate Based
Said Ben-Aazza, Abdallah Hadfi, M’Bark Belattar, and Ali Driouiche



Keywords
Scaling power Potable water
1 Introduction
The water resources of the city of Tiznit and the neighboring
rural municipalities are very limited. The water requirements
(needs) of this area are satisfied by the dam of Youssef Ibn
Tachfine located on one of the streams of Oued Massa, from
Reggada source located in the platform of Ouled Jerrar and
from Talaint wells, distant respectively of 32.8, 20 and
24 km away from the city of Tiznit. The exploitation of the
Reggada source water began in 1996. Two thirds of this
water is used to supply the hundreds of douars of Tiznit
region with drinking water. The waters of the Youssef Ibn
Tachfine dam and Talaint wells are mainly intended for the
feeding of the Tiznit city. During the water flow, the phe-
nomenon of scaling in the pipeline transportation of these
waters is observed mainly under the effect of degasification
of the water and the very low solubility limit of calcium
carbonate (Ben-Aazza et al. 2016, 2017). Thus, in this work
we are interested in the study of this phenomenon of scaling
as a priority of our research work.
The use of inhibitors is one of the best techniques to
prevent or delay the formation of these deposits. It is
therefore essential to find a new generation of scale inhibi-
tors, characterized by a better inhibiting effectiveness of
calcium carbonate, on the one hand, and their respect of
health and environment norms, on the other hand. The food
products have become a source of inhibitors with high added
S. Ben-Aazza (&)
A. Hadfi
M. Belattar
A. Driouiche
Department of Chemistry Team “Materials and Physical
Chemistry of Water”, Faculty of Science, University Ibn Zohr,
Agadir, Morocco
e-mail: bn.said@yahoo.fr
A. Driouiche
e-mail: driouiche@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_210




LEVAL*15 Calcium carbonate Inhibitor Phosphate
value. These types of inhibitors do not contain heavy metals
or toxic compounds and they are biodegradable.
In the present work, we are interested in studying the
effect of a food inhibitor of a trademark called “Leval*15”
on the water scaling power.
2 Materials and Methods
The kinetic characterization of the scaling power of drinking
water of Tiznit region was studied by means of the LCGE
method (Roques 1964; Dedieu et al. 1994; Hort et al. 1995;
Hadfi et al. 2015). Its principle is based on the accelerated
formation of deposits of calcium carbonate under the effect
of degasification of the studied water, usually atmospheric
air, according to the following reaction:
Ca2 þ þ 2HCO
3 ¼¼¼¼¼ CaCO3 ðsÞ þ CO2 þ H2 O
The pH values and the concentration of Ca2+ ion over
time, consequently, enable us to describe the precipitation
kinetics.
3 Results and Discussion
The “LEVAL*15” is a food compound, complex, pulveru-
lent and soluble in water, with a white powdery appearance.
It contains 64.5% of phosphoric anhydride (P2O5) and
28.5% of Na2O. This product is currently used as a food
additive. The study was carried out in the temperature of
25 °C, by means of the technical LCGE on pure
calco-carbonic water with 40 °F. Always proceeding by
increasing amounts; the amount of designated tartrifuge (a
product used to prevent the formation of scale) for each test
711
712 S. Ben-Aazza et al.

0 mg/l LEVAL*15 0.3 mg/l LEVAL*15 0.1 mg/l LEVAL*15 4 Conclusion

0.2 mg/l LEVAL*15 0.6 mg/l LEVAL*15
7,5 The LCGE technique, based on the accelerated formation
of deposits of calcium carbonate under the effect of
degassing of the studied water, allowed us to evaluate the
6,5 power scaling of these potable waters.
The addition of 0.6 mg/L of “LEVAL*15” to the
solution makes it possible to avoid the precipitation of
pH

5,5 calcium carbonate under the conditions of the experi-

ment, that is to say the total inhibition of scaling.
4,5

3,5
0 20 40 60 80 100
Temps(min)
Fig. 1 Variation of pH according to the time of the tests with inhibitor
LEVAL*15
was introduced before the start of the manipulation. In all
cases, the presence of tartrifuge does not modify the values
of the TAC and TCa measured before the start of the
experiment. The statement of the pH values and the con-
centration of Ca2+ ion in the course of time allow making a
description of the precipitation kinetics of calcium
carbonate.
The experimental results (Fig. 1) obtained allow us to
conclude that germination time in the case of the
calco-carbonic solution at 40 °F is 16 min without inhibitor.
The addition of 0.6 mg/L of “LEVAL*15” to the solution
makes it possible to avoid the precipitation of calcium car-
bonate under the conditions of the experiment, that is to say
the total inhibition of scaling.
References
120
Ben-Aazza S, Hadfi A, Belattar M, Aba-Aaki R, Hafid N, Driouiche A.
Study of the scaling of water pipelines in the region of Tiznit.
J Mater Environ. 2016;8(5):1756–61.
Ben-Aazza S, Hadfi A, Belattar M, Hafid N, Driouiche A. Character-
ization of scaling power of Tiznit region waters. J Water Resour
Prot 2017;9:339–44.
Dedieu L, Hort C, Martin Domingues A, Rola M, Roques H.
Contribution to the study of the scaling phenomenons. General
points and the L.C.G.E. method of study. Tribune de l’eau.
1994;47:3–19.
Hadfi A, Ben-Aazza S, Belaatar M, Hafid N, Driouiche A. study of the
inhibitor scaling effect of the agricultural water by a phosphate
fertilizer. J Water Resour Prot 2015;7:1234–41.
Hort C, Martin Domingues A, Rabut C, Roques H. Contribution to the
study of scaling phenomena. 2nd Part: The kinetics of crystal
growth. Tribune de l’eau. 1995;48:31–46.
Roques H. Study of the kinetics of precipitation of calcium carbonate.
Thesis, Toulouse; (1964).
 Lessons Learned from a Partnership
Between the University of Liège and Water
Agencies for the Management of Surface
Water Quality
Jean-François Deliege, Etienne Everbecq, Pol Magermans,
and Aline Grard



Keywords
Water resources Quality
modelling
1 Introduction
An innovative partnership has been established between a
university team (R&D unit of Aquapôle, University of
Liège) and public stakeholders managing surface water
quality (Water Agencies and Administrations) in order to
develop a mathematical model included in a software suite
that meets the expectations of operators. This development
strategy based on the needs of partners is a guarantee of
success, directly benefiting from the quality improvement of
aquatic environments. The partners have complementary
missions consisting in the monitoring of aquatic environ-
ment and in scientific research. The research was carried out
in the European context where public water policy has to be
supported by robust knowledge to establish the relationships
between the state of environment and the associated pres-
sures. In this context, the PEGOPERA software suite is a tool
supporting the management of surface water quality, from
local scale to transnational level, up to the River Basin
District scale. The main purpose of this operational tool is its
ability to explicitly describe the pressure/impact relation-
ships and to help Administrations in their planning missions
through prospective simulation of measures (River Basin
Management Plans in the scope of the Water Framework
Directive 2000/60/EC).
J. -F. Deliege
E. Everbecq
P. Magermans
A. Grard (&)
Aquapôle – University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
e-mail: a.grard@ulg.ac.be
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_211



Surface waterbodies Management tool Mathematical
2 Materials and Methods
The partnership between a research unit from the university
and public water resource managers has allowed the develop-
ment of an innovative software suite that meets the expecta-
tions of the operators (a tool managed by themselves and
respecting their requirements). The innovation resulting from
this partnership is linked to its functional structure (funding
mechanisms, communication, exchanges…). Indeed, this
alternative funding of research, the feedback from operators
(for example some French water agencies) and the frequent
interactions between the model developers and the final-users
have allowed the development of the following features:
• a deterministic and physically based scientific model
(PEGASE) designed to evaluate the surface water quality
by the integration of all pressures on watershed and
processes involved in water quality and to better under-
stand and describe the functioning of the hydrosystem
(Deliège et al. 2009);
• an operational software (PEGOPERA), including the
PEGASE model, allowing operators to dynamically
implement their needs in integrated water resource
management.
The Water Agencies and Belgian Administrations
involved in the partnership manage more than 355000 km2
of watersheds. The PEGOPERA software allows them to sim-
ulate the water quality of more than 13600 rivers (more than
145800 km of rivers).
713
714
3 Results and Discussion
Amongst other, the Rhin-Meuse Water Agency (France)
uses the PEGOPERA software to (Deliège et al. 2011):
• contribute to the elaboration of planning documents
(water status overview, measures programs…);
• contribute to the assessment of water quality and related
pressures (for non-monitored water bodies);
• determine the measures for the 2016–2021 program in
different sectors (industry, water treatment…) and the
assessment of their effectiveness;
• determine less severe targets for water bodies;
• support the instruction of intervention reports;
• define priorities in the field of water treatment, in order to
establish territorialized operational action plans;
• regulate long-term prospective scenarios.
Their total length of water bodies is 13200 km within the
Rhin-Meuse basin. The simulated network of water bodies is
12600 km, which shows that 95% of the WFD river network
is simulated by the model (Fig. 1). They consider that
PEGOPERA software is therefore a homogeneous and consis-
tent tool throughout its application to the Rhin-Meuse basin.
On their side, the Vlaamse Milieumaatschappij (VMM,
Belgium) also uses the PEGOPERA software to (Everbecq
et al. 2017):
• prepare the third cycle of the WFD 2022–2027 (water
status overview and management plans);
Fig. 1 Representation of rivers in the Rhin-Meuse basin: “WFD”
water bodies on the left side of the figure and representation of the
network simulated by the PEGASE model on the right side (some
J. -F. Deliege et al.
• couple the PEGASE model with the “soils” model (Arc-
NEMO) used by the VMM.
This coupling was performed in order to use another source
of information about nitrogen and phosphorus fluxes, on a
monthly basis (from ArcNEMO). The creation of a new tool to
import the results of ArcNEMO into the PEGOPERA software
suite was designed to work in a semi-flexible way to be
adapted to other “ground” data (different formats…). Figure 2
illustrates the results obtained by different methods to estimate
diffuse loads in comparison to in situ measurements:
• the fuchsia curve represents the calculated concentrations
using the soil loads functions calculated by PEGASE;
• the orange and brown curves represent the calculated
concentrations using the results of the Sentwa soil model;
• the dark blue curve represents the concentrations calcu-
lated by the coupling of the PEGASE model with the
ArcNEMO model, using the discharges generated by the
ArcNEMO model (method allowing the conservation of
the concentrations);
• the curve in cyan represents the concentrations calculated
by the coupling of the PEGASE model with the ArcNEMO
model, using the discharges generated by the PEGASE
model (method allowing the conservation of the fluxes);
• the dots are the in situ measurements.
The use of soil model results in PEGASE does not neces-
sarily lead to an improvement in validation (complementary
channels are not represented by lack of available information, other
transboundary rivers were numerically added)
Lessons Learned from a Partnership …
Fig. 2 Longitudinal profile of
computed and measured
concentrations of nitrates in the
Gaverbeek river (year 2006,
gN/m3)
calibration/validation should be carried out). However the
coupling improves the predictive character of the model
regarding diffuse loads.
4 Conclusions
The cooperation between Agencies, Administrations and
researchers has been relevant in the scope of water status
overview and the management plans of the WFD, as well
as in the reinforcement of knowledge on the functioning
of aquatic ecosystems. The characteristics of the relation
between developers and Administrations allow us to be
reactive regarding their willingness (taking into account
specific diffuse loads for example). Among other things,
the PEGOPERA developments carried out within the
framework of these partnerships allow a better adaptation
to the WFD, in particular for:
• the assistance in the preparation of the water status
overview. PEGOPERA allows to simulate the temporal
evolution of the physicochemical quality of rivers for
several thousand rivers;
• the explicit establishment of the pressure/impact rela-
tionship from domestic, industrial and diffuse loads;
• the implementation of prospective scenarios (basic
measures, complementary measures…), in particular
within the framework of management plans. The strength
and the relevance of the PEGOPERA software is its use as a
predictive tool.
715
Other cooperation projects are still in progress. They
involve other extended and specific expertises (continu-
ous training of the pubic administrations,
bio-indicators…). To reinforce competencies transfers,
these projects also imply foreign universities, local public
administrations and local universities as well.
Acknowledgements With grateful thanks to the Rhin-Meuse Water
Agency and to the Vlaamse MilieuMaatschappij for their
collaborations.
References
Deliège JF, Everbecq E, Magermans P, Grard A, Bourouag M,
Blockx C. Pegase, a software dedicated to surface water quality
assessment and to European database reporting. In: Proceedings of
the European conference of the Czech Presidency of the Council of
the EU towards eEnvironment. Opportunities of SEIS and SIZE:
integrating environmental knowledge in Europe. Brno, Czech
Republic: Masaryk University; 2009. pp. 24–32. http://hdl.handle.
net/2268/35224.
Deliège JF, Grard A, Everbecq E, Weingertner P, Conan C,
Salleron JL, Coulon O, de Guibert O. Pegase, a model dedicated
to surface water quality assessment that helps stakeholders imple-
menting the WFD. In: European geosciences union general
assembly 2011. Vienna, Austria; 03–08 April 2011. http://hdl.
handle.net/2268/90747.
Everbecq E, Magermans P, Grard A, Deliège J-F. Koppeling
landbouwemissiemodel ArcNEMO met waterkwaliteitsmodel
PEGASE (Final Report). Vlaamse Milieumaatschappij; March 2017.
 Physical, Chemical and Bacteriological
Characterization of Wastewater Discharged
into Wadi Tleta (NW, Algeria)

Fatiha Hadji and Mohammed Benabdelkader

Keywords
Algeria Wastewater Wadi Contamination Chemical parameters Physical param-
eters Standards

1 Introduction
Taima and Tleta wadis (NW Algeria), receives wastewaters
discharged by local communities and some industrial
activities of Nedroma city without any prior treatment. These
wastewaters discharges contribute to the degradation of the
river water quality. To this end, and in order to study the
environment under a SETP monitoring, physical, chemical
and bacteriological analyses were performed to quantify
pollution parameters caused by wastewater discharges.
2 Materials and Methods
As a result of the investigations carried out on a hard to
reach area and lack of means of analyses our choice was
focused on 3 wastewater discharges R7, R9 and R10
(Fig. 1). They all flow directly into one of the tributaries of
Wadi Tleta.
The analyses of the three selected sampling points con-
cerned Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), Chemical
oxygen demand (COD), Total suspended solids (TSS),
Dissolved oxygen, Electrical conductivity (EC), Turbidity,
Temperature, pH, Nitrates, nitrites, Total and Kjeldhal
nitrogen, ammonium, Total phosphorus, Sulfates and chlo-
rides, Detergents, Hydrocarbons and fats, Heavy metals (Fe,
F. Hadji (&)
Tlemcen University, Tlemcen, Algeria
e-mail: fm_hachemi@yahoo.fr
M. Benabdelkader
Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
e-mail: Moha.zone@gmail.com
Mn, Cu, Cr, Cd, Ni, Sn, Hg and Pb), bacteriological mea-
sures (Fecal and total coliforms and Helminth eggs).
In this work the interpretation results of the analyzed
parameters were based on the industrial discharge standards
published in the Algerian law decree (JORA 2006) which
defines the limit values of liquid effluent discharges.
3 Results and Discussion
In this work, only elements above the limits mentioned in
the aforementioned standards will be discussed.
Wastewater discharge temperatures vary between 24.4
and 29 °C and decreases from upstream (R7) to downstream
(R10). These values are lower than the national standards
that set the temperature to 30 °C.
Wastewaters are acidic at upstream discharge and become
basic downstream at R10. They vary between 5.14 and 7.69
and do not therefore depart from the recommended standards
which are between 6.5 and 8.5. Those of BOD5 are all above
241 mgL−1 and exceeded the current standard of 35 mgL−1.
The COD measurements reveal a great fluctuation in the
content of oxidizable matter. Its values are minimal at dis-
charge R10 and maximal at the sampling point R9 and
exceed the standard value which is of 120 mgL−1.
COD/BOD5 values, in general, less than 2, indicate that
the effluents are predominantly domestic and are readily
biodegradable. Also, there is a decrease in this ratio down-
stream to the R10 sampling point.
The results of effluents analyses carried out show that the
discharged waters are very loaded with TSS (at 105 °C)
exceeding the standard which is 35 mgL−1. Especially in the
two releases R9 and R7, the concentration of these fine

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 717

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_212
718
Fig. 1 Sampling points location
particles in wastewater vary between 299 and 1193 mgL−1
and are considered as a worrying values.
Kjeldahl nitrogen contents are very high compared to the
current standard of 30 mgL−1. Indeed, their values, at the
levels of the analyzed three discharges, vary between 107.4–
214.6 mgL−1 for the first sampling and 97.3–203.5 mgL−1
for the second one, reflecting the critical state of the
effluents.
The total hydrocarbon concentrations are not conform to
the current standard of 10 mgL−1. In fact, these contents
exceed 17 mgL−1, reaching the maximum values of
23.54 mgL−1 at discharge R7.
Concerning metals, the analytical results show that con-
centrations of manganese, mercury, chromium, cadmium,
lead, nickel and tin are in compliance with current standards.
Unlike these heavy metals, copper contents (0.56–
1.1 mgL−1) exceed the limit of 0.5 mgL−1.
This work also allowed us to determine the levels of
bacteriological contamination. The total and faecal coliform
F. Hadji and M. Benabdelkader
counts yielded values in excess of 1100 CFU/ml, and hel-
minth eggs ranging from 24 to 29 HE/L constituted a health
risk for the human population if used in irrigation.
4 Conclusion
The analyzed wastewater discharges show that COD,
BOD5 and TSS values are very high compared to the
Algerian standards. The results also revealed significant
nitrogen pollution, the presence of hydrocarbons at fairly
high levels and copper concentrations exceeding the
standard of 0.5 mgL−1.
Reference
Journal Officiel de la République Algérienne N° 26 du n° 06-141 du 19
avril 2006.
 Brine Outfall Discharges Modelling
and Design: Case of a Desalination
Plant in Algeria
M’hamed Belkacem Filali and Mohamed Bessenasse



Keywords
Brine dilution CORMIX
1 Introduction
This paper explains the technical elements of the plant, the
design of the diffuser system approach, conceptualization of
the digital models regimes for effluents at short and far-field
of the mixing zone, and design of the selected diffuser with a
particular emphasis on modeling of mixing process in
near-field. To this end, the CORMIX model was used and
approved by USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency) for simulation of mixing processes of discharges
into the sea. The detailed comparison with available field
and laboratory data showed that predictions of CORMIX
system on plume dilutions and concentrations (with associ-
ated plume geometries) are reliable in most cases (Kikkert
et al. 2007). Delft3D-FLOW is a model of hydrodynamic
process and of transportation in three dimensions, which
simulates flow and transport of unsteady phenomena
resulting from meteorological and tidal forcing. The
Delft3D-FLOW is a far-field model (Bleninger and Jurka
2010). The alternative approach at combined use of near-
and far-field models has been explored in various studies
(Bleninger and Jurka 2010; Morelissen et al. 2013). The
Delft3D-FLOW model was mainly used to confirm the
selected diffuser design from the near-field model.
M. Belkacem Filali (&)
Laboratory Research of Sciences of Water, National
Polytechnic School of Algiers, El-Harrach, Algeria
e-mail: belkacemhadi33@yahoo.com
M. Bessenasse
Université SAAD Dahlab, Blida1, Algeria
e-mail: mbessenasse@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_213



Delft-3D-Flow Environment Modelling
2 Materials and Methods
During exploitation, the brine mixing, cooling water and
washing effluents of filters and membranes would be rejected
by discharge channel proposed. Brine has a concentration in
TDS about 69.000 mg/l. The operational discharge flow is of
5638.33 m3/h (1.56 m3/s). Due to the high rate of evapora-
tion and low freshwater inputs, salinity in western
Mediterranean is about 38.000 ppm. The rejection of brine
containing a concentration in TDS of 69.000 mg/l in the sea
would cause the salinity located in the immediate neigh-
borhood of the discharge canalization to increase affecting
the marine flora and fauna locally. The CORMIX model is
used in this case to analyze the effluent dispersion to be
poured by the underwater outfall in various oceanographic
conditions, wind and current, in order to determine the most
unfavorable scenario. The used model is CORMIX to study
the dispersion process of near-field in order to efficiently
determine different parameters of waste dilution of Fouka’s
desalination plant. The CORMIX Code is recommended by
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency, USA). The Cornell
Mixing Zone Expert System (CORMIX) is a software for the
analysis, prediction and nature of toxic wastes, saline, ther-
mal or simply floating waste in the water bodies. Near the
aperture (or holes) of the outfall exit, the mixing process in
the tube direction given the flow exit speed and that of
vertical mixing given according to the floatability (positive
or negative), prevails an advection effect provoked by mar-
ine currents existing in the area. In the present work, it was
about analyzing environmental factors and the outfall design
which influence brines dilution. First of all, and concerning
the sea floor, the effect of aperture height of outfall discharge
was discussed, keeping a configuration type of outfall and
with an average environmental speed of 5 cm/s. The
719
720
environmental speed influence in dilution was evaluated,
then the effect of the current exit speed on the dilution was
analyzed and, finally, the dilution with different configura-
tions of multiple diffusers was studied.
3 Results and Discussion
In the light of the results of the diffusion study by modeling
with CORMIX program in different conditions, the main
recommendation and mitigation measure of rejects effects is
the construction of a discharge channel (Outfall design) of
the desalination plant (Fig. 1) by respecting the recom-
mended variant in the following table (Table 1).
Knowing that the outfall consisted of a pipe of DN1400
in PEHD of 500 m length, this pipe is shifted of 300 m to
the intake East. It should be noted that currents are from
West to East, the plume created by the outfall will be thus far
of the water intake.
Fig. 1 Outfall design (CORMIX)
Table 1 Characteristics of Parameters
recommended variant
Location coordinates UTM X and UTM Y
Waste point depth Ha
Height of waste aperture on the funds h0
Diffuser diameter D0
Design flow Q0
Output speed U0
Inclination of diffuser aperture ɵ
Length of outfall pipe L
M. Belkacem Filali and M. Bessenasse
The simulations of Delft3D model have been carried out
with results of CORMIX as input for audit model and design
in the far-field (Pun and Davidson 1999). The far-field
Delft3D model uses a nested rectilinear grid model with
horizontal grid spacing. The fine mesh grid covers a diffu-
sion area with CORMIX effluents concentrations located on
a Delft3D grid to represent the near-field mixing. The results
of the model show that, generally, the impact of discharged
effluent on intake is negligible in all cases taken into
account. As previously reported, only the far-field model
which provides the analysis confirmation of the near-field
mixing area, manages the diffuser design and so type, size
and diffuser supports, angle and discharge spot spacing. It
should be noted that the approach to combine the results of
near-field simulations in the far-field model was not dynamic
and was mainly treated as being an off-line input channel.
4 Conclusion
The present document presented a study case of the
diffuser design system in sea coast to meet the criteria of
the effluent mixing area. The modification proposed in
the environmental impact assessment study that included
the discharge of previously diluted brine into the Fouka
Channel, has minimized the impact of the discharge on
the environment, encouraged the rapid dilution of the
brine, and moved the discharge away from the sea grass
meadows. The CORMIX mixing model is used to
evaluate the mixing model process of the near-field of
Value
319.517 and 4.084.942 m
10 m
3m
0.74 m
1.33 m3/s
3 m/s
45°
500 m
Brine Outfall Discharges Modelling and Design …
the plant effluent. The Delft3D is used for the far-field of
the mixing area and only as a confirmation analysis tak-
ing input from the near-field model. For this reason, the
field measurement campaigns on the ground have to be
designed and carried out in such a way that input data and
model calibration would be as accurate as possible. It is
therefore imperative to achieve a bathymetry of the study
area, an investigation on biological and ecological nature
of ocean floors and a census of fishing zone (professional
and pleasure fishing) near the study area. However, if this
model was well adjusted and if input data were of quality,
it would become a powerful and reliable management
tool.
721
References
Bleninger T, Jurka GH. Final Report of MEDRC Project: 07-AS-003.
Middle East Desalination Research Center Muscat; 2010. 234 pp.
Kikkert GA, Davidson MJ, Noakes RI. Inclined negatively buoyant
discharges. J Hydraul Eng 2007;133:545–54.
Morelissen R, Kaaij TVD, Bleninger T. Dynamic coupling of near field
and far field models for simulating effluent discharges. Water Sci
Technol 2013;67(10):2210–20.
Pun KL, Davidson ML. On the behavior of advected plumes and
thermals. J Hydraul Res 1999;37:519–40.
 Qualitative Study of Irrigation and Drinking
Water in Tindla Area
Omar Ben Mya, Chaima Ben Dallali, and Abd Elhalim Bouzidi



Keywords
Wells Water pollution
1 Introduction
Tindla is a town and commune in north west of El Oued
Province in the south east of Algeria (Fig. 1). According to
the 2008 census it has a population of 15.000 (Office
nationale des statistiques 2008). In the area of Tindla,
potable water is provided exclusively by groundwater from
aquifers Complex Terminal (CT) and the Continental Inter-
calary (CI), for the aims of irrigation and drinking (Zobeidi
and Moussaoui 2013). Tindla was not an industrial zone, so
the first hypothesis was the search for pollution in water
before soil or air. However, water pollution has become one
of the greatest toxic loads in our planet. Drinking pure water
and removing toxins is important in maintaining health and
avoiding cancer. Current Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) and world health organization (WHO) guidelines
allow for “acceptable” levels of pollutants, such as SO−2 4 ,
Cl−, Cu2+, K+, Na+, PH, TAC (Total alcalinity calculation),
TH (Total Hardness), TDS (Total Dissolved solids) and
electrical conductivity (r) in our water.
O. Ben Mya (&)
C. Ben Dallali
A. E. Bouzidi
Process Engineering and Petroleum Chemistry Department,
Faculty of Technology, University of El Oued,
39000 El Oued, Algeria
e-mail: Omar-benmya@univ-eloued.dz
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_214



Tindla Qualitative study EPA
2 Materials and Methods
Samples of water were taken from ten wells that differ from
each other depending on their geographical location within
the area of Tindla (Fig. 1), so that each site is different from
the other in terms of soil quality. The first sample was taken
from a deep well (about 1200 m), which is supplied by the
faucets for the purpose of drinking only. Conventional vol-
umetry method has been used to determine TH, TAC and
TDS. A Benchtop pH/mV Meter has been used to mesure
the PH and the conductivity of water samples. Atomic
Spectroscopy technique was used to determine the amount
of SO−2 − 2+ + +
4 , Cl , Cu , K and Na in water using a Perkin
Elmer AAnalyst 800 Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption
(GFAA) instrument.
3 Results and Discussion
PH values of s1, s2, s3, s4, s6, s7 and s8 (Table 1) indicate
that the water of these samples is acidic, but that all of them
have not exceeded the WHO standard. As for samples s5, s9
and s10 PH range between (7.07–7.57), showing its basic
nature. This may be due to the calcareous nature of the soil in
these areas (Zobeidi and Moussaoui 2013). TDS results show
that the sample s5 has the largest quantity, while the lowest
amount of salts in the sample s1. TDS comes from inorganic
materials such as rocks containing calcium bicarbonate,
nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur due to their nature as many
of these substances are present as salts (Anderson et al.
2000). The alarming observation is that five of the ten
723
724 O. Ben Mya et al.

Fig. 1 Samples and Tindla area locations

Table 1 Table summarizes the results obtained from the analysis of the 10 samples
Samples PH TDS r TH Cl− TAC SO−2
4 Na+ K+ Cu2+
(g/L) (Sm/cm) (g/L) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
S1 6.88 1.674 2.46 1.1009 227.2 0.002 220.34 79.19 1.10 0.0180
S2 6.99 3.940 5.16 1.4012 596.4 0.0016 128.95 72.26 24.39 0.0056
S3 6.58 6.779 8.58 0.7006 1107.6 0.0024 117.13 95.35 27.40 0.0056
S4 6.95 6.451 8.57 0.3002 1178.6 0.0016 115.93 93.04 25.52 0.0673
S5 7.07 7.389 9.66 0.6004 2016.4 0.00152 165.63 72.26 27.02 0.0827
S6 6.30 3.930 5.42 0.9008 2002.2 0.00128 151.00 74.57 24.39 0.1135
S7 6.51 3.476 5.60 0.4003 823.6 0.0016 140.98 75.72 24.77 0.1196
S8 6.04 6.384 8.41 0.7006 505.5 0.0014 155.61 64.18 22.51 0.0611
S9 7.57 6.151 8.07 1.2010 1587.5 0.0034 124.04 74.57 24.02 0.1042
S10 7.15 3.764 4.99 1.3011 840.6 0.0016 131.16 86.12 24.39 0.0919

samples s3, s4, s5, s8 and s9 exceeded the healthy values of
potable water (TDS < 500 mg/l) according to EPA standards
(Mechenich and Andrews 2004). As for the electrical con-
ductivity values, they increase with the TDS increase. The
Table 1 shows that TH values vary from one sample to
another as TH proportionally increased with concentrations
of both calcium and magnesium (Moore 1989). The samples
s1, s2, s7, s8 and s10 belong to the natural level region of
chloride (<10 mg/l), the rest of the samples belong to the
human- influenced level (<250 mg/l) caused, maybe by fer-
tilizers, animal residues or others, water in high quantities of
chloride means the presence of high amounts of sodium,
which is caused by corrosion in the channels (Mechenich and
Andrews 2004). According to EPA sulfate standards (not
exceeding 250 ppm in drinking water) (U.S. EPA 2005), all
values obtained are very acceptable. The EPA recommends
that sodium concentration in drinking water should not
exceed 30 ppm (Diwan 2010), but our results show that all
samples were Above the accepted standard. In contrast,
potassium was much lower than the threshold and the reason
is due to their natural source meaning that they have not been
exposed to any type of treatment with potassium salts (per-
manganate, for example). The same is remarked for copper
values, where (1.3 ppm) is the threshold.
Qualitative Study of Irrigation and Drinking Water …
4 Conclusion
In general, the studied elements were not alarming,
except for some exceptional cases or the case of chloride
and sodium. Therefore, the conclusion that water is the
cause of diseases resulting from pollution in Tindla is
premature and it is best to attach this study to soil and air
quality study in order to complete the puzzle pieces.
References
Anderson J, Estabrooks T, Mcdonnell J. Duluth metropolitan area
streams snowmelt runoff study. Minnesota Pollution Control
Agency. March 2000. https://www.pca.state.mn.us/sites/default/
files/duluth-snowmeltstudy.pdf. Accessed 23rd March 2017
725
Diwan MH. Study of some physicochemical characteristics infecting
Baakouba drinking water quality (translated from Arabic). Diyala J
Pure Sci. 2010;6(2):369–383.
Mechenich C, Andrews E. Home water safety: interpreting drinking
water test results. University of Wisconsin-Extension; 2004. p. 12
Moore ML. NALMS management guide for lakes and reservoirs. North
America lake, Madison: WI; 1989.
Office nationale des statistiques [online]. 2008. http://www.ons.dz/-
Population-RGPH2008-.html. Accessed 20th March 2017.
U.S. EPA. Copper in drinking water: health effects and how to reduce
exposure. Minnesota Department of Health, 141-0718-2, September
2005. http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/water.
Zobeidi A, Moussaoui L. Physico-chemical quality of drinking water in
the south of Algeria (case of El-Oued region) study of excess
minerals. Int Lett Chem Phys Astron. 2013;16:38–43.
 Providing Clean Water to Rural Villages

Water Search, Well Boring, Purification, Distribution, and Reuse

Tullia Valeria Di Giacomo and F. Paolo Di Giacomo

Keywords
Rural semi arid areas Water search Well boring Purification Distribution Reuse
Water sensitive urban design GIS WebGIS

1 Introduction
The paper is dedicated to investigate the results of a Third
Party Validation TPV experience in Punjab. The Client,
Punjub Saaf Pani Company, the State owned Authority, is
allotted the task of providing fresh water to rural villages.
The task is enormous: 100 million people live without
fresh/clean drinking potable water. The seasonal distribution
of the rain regimes marks the villages with two major
challenging water poses or characteristics: too much water in
the monsoon season and no water during the dry months.
The agricultural land is very fertile but the constraint lies
in the availability of water resources. Although the ground
water is rich in water, the latter does not have the quality to
stand as a drinking source. The salty water layers are a
predominant feature of the underground water tables. Waters
with a better quality are available in the first ground layers.
Electrical campaign was made to determine the location of
the best possible resource.
2 Material and Methods
The imposition to provide fresh water to 100 million people
may well stand as implementing a complex project. For such
a complex project to be well managed, the GIS portal rep-
resents a priority, helping to map the water quality inventory
T. V. Di Giacomo
Alpha Consult of Rome, Rome, Italy
e-mail: tullia.digiacomo@alphaconsult.it
F. P. Di Giacomo (&)
CEO, SOGEIT, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: pdg@sogeit.tn
tests performed along the project area and, thereafter, to map
the water supply network and related features.
The Water supply Web GIS portal required the setting up
of the Web GIS environment, requesting to register the work
progress on site: from the main application, the menu map
leads to two different environments: one deals with the
mapping, and the other concerns the Cloud-Georeferencing
services.
Two mapping environments have been set up: one using
the AutoDesk Inc. Map Server, jointly with the relating
online application GDL Infomap and Matadata Server pro-
duced by Alpha Consult srl of Rome (Italy), to have a full
Web GIS portal and to register progress of work on site: the
other as a tool for the georefering procedures that gets, as
input, the data prepared on the client desktop by GDL
(Graphic Data Link), as application of Autodesk Inc. Auto-
Cad Map.
Alpha Consult involves an independent group of highly
qualified, skilled and experienced professionals, providing
consultancy and technical assistance in GIS to both the
public and the private sectors. It represents a technology
center for the development of customized solutions that
applies commercial and in-house GIS products and facilities
to set up web GIS sites, as provided at the firm’s premises.
Alpha Consult has been pioneer in devising the GDL
(Graphic Data Link) application, for the purpose of speeding
up the setting up of GIS Portals, trough initiating data in
such a convenient way as to be converted in “intelligent”
layers, as appropriately connected to the proper database
table, so as to be conveniently fit for executing the targeted
online hydraulic calculation operations (www.alphaconsult.it).
Regarding the GDL Infomap and Metadata Server side
environment, it helps in applying calculation models, on the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 727

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_215
728
flight, to the data stored in the geodatabase and/or supplied
online by end users.
The first mapping environment is based on Map Guide
Open Source Application, running preferably on Google
Chrome. It is presented as a layer-based representation using
the aerial photograph of Bing (By Microsoft). Above the base,
the geographic features are represented in UTM 42 North.
As for the second map setting application, it is geared to
assist in the georeferencing processes and is a “Shell” com-
bining Google Map and Map Guide Map Server as jointly
linked: with the help of both of the TPV associated applica-
tions, the data georeferencing and storing processes turn out to
be entirely covered.
Example of site-plant location and link to the related
reporting activities.
• From 0 to 50% completion stage the site is shown in red
• From 51 to 80% completion stage the site is shown in light pink
• From 81 to 95% completion stage the site is shown in yellow
• From 96 to 100% completion stage the site is shown in green
T.V. Di Giacomo and F.P. Di Giacomo
3 Results and Discussion
The attained results were achieved simultaneously with the
plants’ inauguration and commissioning, along with the
realization of the Water supply Web GIS portal.
The map portal is based on MapGuide Open Source, as a
full Web GIS environment.
The legend figuring layer shows the plants sites, as fea-
tured with the completion-stage levels. The completion stage
is divided into four intervals, for the sake of intuitively
highlighting the work progress on the map.
Example of on-line calculation as based on the trunk-line
details characteristics..
Part of the legend of the map
Providing Clean Water to Rural Villages
4 Conclusion
Complex projects, like the Punjab Water Supply, need
rigourous project controls, involving the saving of gen-
eral project-cost pays as well as the project controller
fees. In fact, the Project-Control practitioners could well
assist with identifying intangible benefits, for instance,
the early recognition of schedule impacts or slippage.
Such a procedure would certainly allow the team to
implement corrective actions, and maintain the
‘go-live-date’ of the project. Morover, in projects
involving the complexity of harmonizing equipment sited
in different parts of the world, ranging from solar panels
to UV plants, pumping stations etc., that require expertise
in various fields that have to work jointly, the role of
Third Party Validation, as a system integrator, turns out
to be of paramount importance. Different technologies,
with different design approaches and procurement chal-
lenges, in a global world, makes room for a new gener-
ation of professionals endowed not only with the
technical capacity to manage large projects, but also with
the ability to integrate and adapt international designs and
work methodologies to local conditions for a high quality
of work to be maintained. In this respect, a quality control
coordinator, simultaneously acting as a system integrator,
turns out to stand as the newly emerging polyvalent
professional figure dealing with international projects,
where a multidisciplinary knowledge and global skill
seem highly imposed.
The problem that remains is the safeguard of the
resource, the recycling of waters, the possible use of
enzymes and the impoundment where possible.
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Di Giacomo FP. Setting up of geographic information system for urban
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 Assessment of Two Conceptual Models IHBV
and HBV-Light in Estimation of Increase
Water Harvesting to Help Cloud Seeding
Technology (Case Study: Catchment
Taft-Dehshir, Iran)
Mohammad Mehdi Javadianzade and Samaneh Poormohammadi



Keywords
Conceptual model IHBV
1 Introduction
The runoff-rainfall relationship determination in a drought
watershed together with data shortage becomes a tough
mission. In this regard a conceptual model for the determi-
nation of runoff-rainfall is crucial. The gaol of this research
is the assessment of two conceptual models, IHBV and
HBV-Light, in the estimation of water harvesting increase to
help the cloud seeding technology (Case study: Catchment
Taft-Dehshir).
2 Materials and Methods
In this research, the amount of extra runoff under cloud
seeding project was assessed. To this end, we calculated
water harvesting with two conceptual runoff rainfall models.
We first used the HBV_light model and in a second step this
model was enriched with new codes and parameters. Finally
we considered three scenarios for water harvesting estima-
tion under a cloud seeding project. The HBV Hydrological
M. M. Javadianzade
Director of Yazd Regional Water Authority, Civil Engineering,
Water Research Institute, Yazd, Iran
e-mail: m.javadian@gmail.com
S. Poormohammadi (&)
Watershed Science and Engineering and Research Expert,
National Cloud Seeding Research Center, Water Research
Institute, Yazd, Iran
e-mail: s.poormohammadi@gmail.com
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_216


Taft-Dehshir basin Cloud seeding
Concept Model was proposed in 1976 by Bergstrom, and
has afterwards been widely used for hydrological forecasts
and water balance studies (Abebe et al. 2010). The HBV
model calculates the runoff rainfall using daily precipitation
data, daily evaporation rates and temperatures. This model
consists of three main modules snow melt modules, soil
moisture calculation and river routing (Fig. 1).
3 Results and Discussion
Figure 2 shows observed and estimated hydrograph in cali-
bration section with (a) IHBV model (b) HBV-light. Two
conceptual models could calculate runoff hydrograph in
most events.
Table 1 shows a comparison of rainfall-runoff models
during calibration period through evaluation indices. These
indices of rainfall- runoff models show that HBV-light
model has a good estimation for higher peak and high flow
rates, and that the IHBV model has simulated the runoff low
values values as well as observation data.
Table 1 shows Comparison of rainfall-runoff models
during calibration period by evaluation indices. As shown in
the table, Nash Sutcliff, RMSE (peak flow and low flow) and
R2 were examined. Statistical errors show that IHBV model
estimated well the low flow and that the HBV-Light was
better for high and peak flow.
Figure 3 shows the observed and estimated hydrograph in
Validation section with (a) IHBV model (b) HBV-light.
Both models have well simulated the river out flow. In the
validation section, the HBV-Light was better than the IHBV
in the high flow estimation, too.
Table 2 shows the estimated runoff for each scenarios.
The total runoff volume for different rainfall scenarios in the
two years of the study is presented (First and second
731
732 M. M. Javadianzade and S. Poormohammadi

Fig. 1 HBV diagram (Abebe et al. 2010)

Fig. 2 Observed and estimation hydrograph in calibration section with a IHBV model b HBV-light model

Table 1 Comparison of rainfall-runoff models during calibration period by evaluation indices

Light IHBV Errors
0.32 0.48 NSE
0.24 0.21 RMSE
0.86 0.90 RMSE-PW
−7.57 −8.28 NSE-HFW
0.44 0.62 NSE-LFW
0.38 0.48 R2
Assessment of Two Conceptual Models … 733

(a) IHBV (b) HBV_Light

Fig. 3 Observed and estimated hydrograph of the validation section with a IHBV model b HBV-light model

Table 2 Estimated runoff from V (CM) V net CS (CM) V net CS (lit/S)

each scenario
2011–2012 2012–2013 2011–2012 2012–2013 2011–2012 2012–2013
Obs 1,619,425 0 0 0 0 0
0% 1,613,285 0 0 0 0 0
5% 2,436,045 42,980 822,760 42,980 26.1 1.4
10% 3,455,285 125,870 1,842,000 125,870 58.4 4.0
15% 4,641,840 290,115 3,028,555 290,115 96.0 9.2

columns). In the third to sixth columns, the amount of runoff
caused by the increase in precipitation in each scenario is
presented. This table shows that cloud seeding project can
increase the runoff in this catchment to 290115 m3 under the
15% scenario.
accurate than the HBV-Light in estimating the
runoff-rainfall model to Taft-Dehshi catchment. Finally
we could also confirm that the cloud seeding project may
increase the runoff in the catchment.

References
4 Conclusion
Our Results show that both conceptual models have a
Abebe NA, Ogden FL, Pradhan NR. Sensitivity and uncertainty
good potential in estimating the runoff-rainfall model to analysis of the conceptual HBV rainfall–runoff model: implications
drought and missing data catchment. The IHBV model for parameter estimation. J Hydrol. 2010;389:301–10.
was improved by the HBV-Light and has become more
 A 3-Parameter Empirical Model to Predict
Extreme Rainfall Rates in the Extreme
North-East of Algeria

Laroussi Beloulou, Salima Guechi, Saadane Djorfi, Hadjer Benzine,

Halima Maalem, and Wassila Saaidia

Keywords

North-east of Algeria Extrem rainfa north-east of Algeria l IDF relationships GEV
distribution Model parameters

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Hydrologic design of extreme rainfall structures (sewers,
culverts, retention basins etc.) and other severe storm water
management systems are typically performed based on spec-
ified design storms derived from the rainfall characteristics
estimates. The use of inappropriate data could lead to mal-
functions of the infrastructure systems. An over-estimation
may result in costly over-design and under-estimation may be
associated with risk and human safety (Solaiman and Simo-
novic 2011). The main goal of the present study is to develop
empirical Intensity-Duration-Frequency relationships for
eighteen rainfall stations covering a large area of the extreme
north-east of Algeria (Fig. 1).
Expressed most often in the form of IDF
(Intensity-Duration-Frequency) curves, the results give the
expected maximum values of heavy rains for different
durations (from 5 min to 24 h) and provide the basic inputs
for estimating peak flows in hydrological modeling and
storm design projects.
Frequency analysis and regression are the basic methods
used to establish such relationships. The procedure is out-
lined below:
• data collection, assessment and filling of missing data
using different techniques
• creation of a database for short duration rainfall intensity
(5 min to 24 h duration annual series)
• execution of reliability tests for randomness, homo-
geneity and outlier detection for each sample
• frequency analysis of each variable by fitting various
probabilistic models (lognormal, extreme values and
gamma probability distributions) using the Easyfit soft-
ware of Mathwave
• regression analysis between intensity, as the explained
variable, and duration and recurrence interval as the input
or explicative variables using Statgraphics Centurion XV
software.

3 Results and Discussion

L. Beloulou (&)
S. Guechi
S. Djorfi
H. Benzine
H. Maalem
According to the goodness of fit tests, the General Extreme
W. Saaidia
Value probability distribution (GEV) is retained for fre-
Laboratoire Ressources Naturelles and Aménagement, Université
Badji Mokhtar, 23000 Annaba, Algeria quency analysis. For each duration the percentile related to
e-mail: lbeloulou@gmail.com return periods from 2 to 100 years are calculated. Since
S. Guechi these percent points vary with duration and frequency, a 3
e-mail: salima.guechi@yahoo.fr parameter model is adopted (Chow et al. 1988). The general
S. Djorfi form of the model is (Bernard 1932):
e-mail: djorfi2001@yahoo.fr

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 735

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_217
736 L. Beloulou et al.

Fig. 1 Study area and rain gauges location

cT m eighteen rainfall stations are given in the table below where

I¼
Db
where I is the rainfall intensity in mm/hr, D is the duration in
minutes, T is the recurrence interval in years, c, m and b are
the model calibration constants. The results obtained for
d, d1 and d1′ are the Willmott indices of agrement (Willmott
et al. 2012), NSE is the Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency criterium
(Nash and Sutcliffe 1970) and R2 being the coefficient of
determination (Table 1).

Table 1 IDF Model calibration Rain gauge identification Model parameters Model validation criteria
and validation parameters for
various rainfall stations in the NE Nom Code c m b d d1 d1′ NSE R2 (%)
of algeria Côtiers Constantinois basin
Jijel 30301 200 0.32 0.70 0.94 0.82 0.83 0.76 80
Bousnib 30905 192 0.13 0.60 0.96 0.93 0.93 0.98 100
Chaffia 31501 222 0.30 0.65 1.00 0.95 0.95 0.99 99
Ain Assel 31601 130 0.45 0.66 0.99 0.94 0.94 0.99 99
Hauts plateaux constantinois basin
Foum Toub 70406 206 0.38 0.73 0.99 0.92 0.92 0.97 98
Foum el Gueis 70720 300 0.13 0.73 0.98 0.91 0.92 0.94 98
(continued)
A 3-Parameter Empirical Model to Predict Extreme Rainfall Rates … 737

Table 1 (continued)
Rain gauge identification Model parameters Model validation criteria
Nom Code c m b d d1 d1′ NSE R2 (%)
Kébir-Rhumel basin
Redjas Ferada 100201 170 0.32 0.69 0.99 0.92 0.92 0.97 97
Chelgoum Laid 100312 253 0.16 0.69 1.00 0.97 0.97 0.99 99
Ouled Rahmoune 100508 160 0.32 0.66 0.99 0.93 0.94 0.96 98
Settara 100711 70 0.38 0.60 0.99 0.89 0.88 0.94 97
Medjerda-Mellegue basin
Cheikh Abdallah 120113 134 0.37 0.66 0.99 0.93 0.93 0.98 99
Tebessa 120301 215 0.33 0.74 1.00 0.94 0.94 0.99 99
Ain Zerga 120510 314 0.16 0.73 0.98 0.88 0.88 0.91 94
Seybouse basin
Aioun Settara 140105 110 0.38 0.73 0.94 0.80 0.81 0.77 86
Tamlouka 140204 280 0.36 0.80 1.00 0.94 0.94 0.98 99
Guelma Lycée 140412 196 0.30 0.69 0.99 0.93 0.93 0.98 99
Ain Berda 140606 165 0.20 0.62 0.99 0.91 0.91 0.95 96
Pont Bouchet 140631 185 0.13 0.57 0.98 0.93 0.93 0.93 95

4 Conclusion
This paper presents a 3-parameter multiplicative model to
overcome the lack of information on short duration rain-
fall data at 18 sites with recording rainfall gauges in the
north-eastern part of Algeria. The capability of this model
to provide a reliable estimate of the short-duration design
storm intensity is tested by computing the coefficient of
determination which shows that more than 80% of the
variability is explained by the model. Results of this
evaluation indicate the feasibility of the proposed proce-
dure for deriving the IDF curves relations for most, if not
all, the rainfall stations in the study area. In its empirical
form, the model is used to estimate, with sufficient accu-
racy, the T-year design rainfall intensity for any duration.
Finally, areal mapping of the model parameters might
increase its applicability in this part of Algeria.
References
Bernard MM. Formulas for rainfall intensities of long durations.
Trans ASCE. 1932;96:592–624.
Chow VT, Maidment DR, Mays LW. Applioed hydrology. McGraw
Hill; 1988. 537 p.
Nash JE, Sutcliffe JV. River flow forecasting through conceptual
models. Part I—a discussion of principles. J Hydrol. 1970;27
(3):282–90.
Solaiman TA, Simonovic SP. Development of probability based
intensity-duration-frequency curves under climate change. Water
Resources Research Report N°. 072. London, Ontario, Canada:
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Univer-
sity of Western Ontario; 2011. 94 p.
Willmott CJ, Robesonb SM, Katsuura K. A refined index of model
performance. Int J Climatol. 2012;32:2088–94.
 Impact of Spring Water Qualitative
Assessment on the Environmental
Management System in the West Bank
Marwan Ghanem



Keywords
Natuv catchment Spring water
Environmental information system
1 Introduction
This study explores the use of water quality data for
groundwater protection management. The urban related
environmental expansion acts as pollution indicators for the
spring water quality. Groundwater quality indicators were
mapped and integrated with spatial information about the
surrounding environment. It is one of the most important
sensitive recharge areas to the Western Aquifer underlying
the basin, putting more intensive efforts on spring-water
environmental protection management. Groundwater quality
indicators were mapped and integrated with spatial infor-
mation about the surrounding environment for groundwater
protection management. High quality freshwater resources
are essential for economic growth, quality of life, and
environmental sustainability. The quantity and quality of
potable water varies over time and space, and is influenced
by natural and man-made factors including climate, hydro-
geology, management practices, and pollution. In the West
Bank, the use of spring water for domestic purposes has
increased in the last few decades because of a rapid increase
in population, which is referred to as natural growth. The
study area is the Natuv catchment, which is located to the
west of the city of Ramallah. The springs are the natural
outlets of the aquifer in the study area, due to the karstified
nature of the limestone and dolomite outcroppings there.
Most of the springs are distributed in the middle part of the
M. Ghanem (&)
Geography Department, Water and Environmental Institute,
Birzeit University, P.O. Box 14, Ramallah, Palestine
e-mail: mghanem@birzeit.edu
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_218




Hydrochemistry Water quality Pollution
study area and the flow discharge of these springs is greatly
affected by the intensity of precipitation. Springs in the study
area are an outcrop of perched aquifers. There are 130
springs located within the Natuv catchment. The wide dis-
tribution of cesspools and septic tanks with inadequate
quality controls, graywater disposal into gardens and road
ditches, and the uncontrolled disposal of untreated municipal
sewage into valleys may cause rapid contamination of
aquifer systems through karstic conduits in the area (Qan-
nam 1997). There have been very few hydrochemical studies
conducted in the study area, leaving environmental man-
agers with little data to use in groundwater protection efforts.
Therefore, a chemical and biological investigation is essen-
tial for the authorities to implement successful management
plans. The main outcrop formations are Albian to Turonian
age (SUSMAQ 2003) (Fig. 1). The groundwater is
recharged mainly from precipitation falling on the mountains
of middle of the West Bank from direct infiltration along the
karstified outcrops in the mountainous and sloped areas in
the eastern part of the aquifer system.
2 Materials and Methods
Three sampling campaigns were conducted at 17 springs in
the Natuv surface water basin in Western Ramallah (48
samples). The samples were analyzed for physico-chemical
parameters: major ions, trace elements and Total and Fecal
Coliform bacteria. Analyses included physical parameters
pH, temperature, and EC, and concentrations of chemical
constituents Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl−, HCO2−, NO22−, and
SO42−. The hydrochemical and microbiological analytical
tool was performed using laboratory techniques.
739
740
Fig. 1. Location of the Natuv
drainage basin in the West Bank
(Shalash and Ghanem 2007)
3 Results and Discussion
Results were used in a regional water quality trend assess-
ment and the spring water was found to be polluted in the
springs located inside the populated areas. Relationships
between different hdrochemical parameters reflect the car-
bonate nature of the aquifers. Spring water in the study area
is found to be alkaline with average pH ranging from 6.4 to
8.3 and the EC values ranging from 410 to 1307 lS/cm. The
average concentrations of anions and cations in all water
samples are within WHO standards, with the exception of
Calcium in some samples. Some samples contain concen-
trations of trace elements Co, Zn, Sr, Mn, B, Al, Cu, Fe, and
M. Ghanem
Ba, above WHO standards. Hydrochemical formulae show
that most springs in the study area have a water type of
Ca-Mg-HCO3−. Samples were tested for FC and TC and it is
concluded that all of the springs are contaminated with
coliform bacteria. A Piper Classification diagram shows that
the type of spring water in the study area is “Normal earth
alkaline water with prevailing hydrogen carbonate and sul-
fate or chloride”. Its results indicate that Ca2+ is the domi-
nant cation and HCO3− is the dominant anion, supporting
the spring water classification to be Ca2+-HCO3− type. This
reflects the calsic nature of the rocks, where the springs are
emerging. A Wilcox diagram (Wilcox 1955), which
plots Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) versus Conductivity,
Impact of Spring Water Qualitative Assessment …
shows that most samples fall within the S1, C2 region. This
means that they are in zones of medium salinity to low SAR,
which is good for agriculture. Other springs fall within S1,
C3 region, meaning that they are in zones of high salinity to
low SAR, which is permissible for agriculture. With respect
to EC and Na+ values, the spring water is good for irrigation
in all three rounds (all times of year). All samples had SAR
values lower than 10, and following SAR (U.S. Geological
Survey 2006) classification, can therefore be considered
excellent for irrigation. Spring water quality assessment
involves physical, chemical, and microbiological parame-
ters, and depends on the availability of these data. To
facilitate management efforts, measurements should be
readily available for the planners to have them as a base for
the setting the protective areas for these springs. Different
quality indicators will be more important for assessing future
management of spring water usage in the Natuv catchment.
The study demonstrate that the urban expansion and it’s
related environmental affects put more threats on the quali-
tative measures of the spring water in the catchment.
Emphasis was put on creating a system that could raise
community awareness about the quality of water resources
and aid in groundwater management plans. Results were
used in a regional water quality trend assessment and the
spring water was found to be polluted in the springs located
inside the populated areas. Relationships between different
hydrochemical parameters reflect the carbonate nature of the
aquifers.
4 Conclusion
The presence of Coliform bacteria and elevated concen-
trations of heavy metals point to human impacts on water
quality and indicate the need for groundwater protection
efforts in the study area. The study demonstrates that the
urban expansion and it’s related environmental affects put
more threats on the qualitative measures of the spring
water in the catchment. Groundwater quality has been
assessed through the analysis of physico-chemical
parameters and major ions in samples from 17 springs
in the Natuv Catchment in Western Ramallah. The pH of
Spring water in the study area was ranging between 6.4
and 8.3 and the range of measured electrical conductivi-
ties was 410–1307 lS/cm. With the exception of Cal-
cium, average concentrations of anions and cations in all
spring water samples are below WHO standards (WHO
2007). The following trend is observed for anion
741
concentrations: HCO3− > Cl− > SO42− > NO3−, while
cation concentrations follow the trend Ca2+ > Na+ > Mg2
+
> K+. This reflects the predominance of calcium car-
bonate in the aquifer materials. Average values for most
physico-chemical parameters indicate that the water is
suitable for drinking purposes. However, analysis of trace
elements indicates that spring water in the study area
contains concentrations of Co, Zn, Sr, Mn, B, Al, Cu, Fe,
and Ba that are higher than the limits specified by WHO
standards (WHO 2007). Concentrations of some trace
elements in R2 are much higher than those in R1 and R3.
This is attributed to the lack of dilution by rainfall runoff
during the summer, when these samples were taken. The
spring water type in the study area is “Normal earth
alkaline water with prevailing hydrogen carbonate”. With
respect to EC and Na+ values, the spring water is good for
irrigation in all three rounds. Samples were tested for FC
and TC and it is concluded that all of the springs are
contaminated with coliform bacteria, and are therefore
not suitable for drinking purposes without treatment. The
presence of Coliform bacteria and elevated concentra-
tions of heavy metals point to human impacts on water
quality and indicate the need for groundwater protection
efforts in the study area. The study demonstrates that the
urban expansion and it’s related environmental affects put
more threats on the qualitative measures of the spring
water in the catchment.
References
Qannam Z. Environmental status and water quality evaluation of the
groundwater resources in Bethlehem-Hebron region/Palestine. M.
Sc. thesis. University of Jordan; 1997.
Shalash I, Ghanem M. Hydrochemistry of the Natuf drainage basin in
Ramallah area/West Bank. J Environ Geol. 2007;55:359–67.
SUSMAQ. Numerical regional pollution model of the western aquifer
basin. Report SUSMAQ—POL #47, sustainable management of the
west bank and gaza aquifers. School of Civil Engineering and
Geosciences, University of Newcastle upon Tyne; 2003.
U.S. Geological Survey. Water-quality characteristics, including
Sodium-absorption ratio, for four sites in the powder river drainage
basin, wyoming and montana, water years 2011–2004. Scientific
Investigations Report. 2006;5113:5–6.
Wilcox LV. Classification and use irrigation waters. US Dep. Agric.
Cric. 969. Washington, D.C;1955. p 19.
WHO Standards—World Health Organization. Guidelines for
drinking-water quality, vol. 2; 2007.
 Scheduling Deficit Subsurface Drip Irrigation
of Apple Trees to Optimize Water Use
Efficiency

Azzeddine Chenafi, Philippe Monney, Maria Isabel Ferreira,

Houria Chennafi, and Christoph Carlen

Keywords
Soil water status Plant water status Leaf and xylem water potential
Trunk diameter

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Water deficit represents a critically important restricting factor
in crop production worldwide (Ashraf 2010). One of the most
promising methods applied to apple trees to improve irrigation
efficiency has been the application of regulated deficit irriga-
tion (RDI) strategies, to reduce irrigation rates during specific
phenological stages, in a bid to conserve water without loss of
yield and fruit quality. The RDI concept was initially proposed
by Chalmers et al. (1981) to control vegetative growth in
peach orchards without influencing fruit yield. RDI was also
successfully applied to apple trees by reducing irrigation
without engendering yield losses. Better water use was pos-
sible with improvements in irrigation methods, such as sub-
surface drip irrigation (SDI) (Thompson et al. 2009).
However, information is scarce as to the physiological beha-
viour of apple and the dynamic of soil water content
(SWC) lying under the drippers. In this context, the present
study is conducted to combine both of the SDI and RDI
methods with the aim of improving water use efficiency with
respect to apple-tree plantations, while saving water and
maintaining high productivity.
A. Chenafi (&)
Department of Hydraulic, University of Bejaia, Bejaia, Algeria
e-mail: chenafiazzedine@hotmail.com
P. Monney
C. Carlen
Agroscope, Institute for Plant Production Sciences, 1964 Conthey,
Switzerland
M. I. Ferreira
LEAF, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa,
Lisbon, Portugal
H. Chennafi
Departement of Agronomy, University of Setif, Setif, Algeria
The experiment was conducted in an experimental orchard,
located at the Research Station Agroscope Changins-
Wädenswill ACW in Conthey, Switzerland (Latitude 46°
12′N, Longitude 7°18′E, Altitude 500 m). The climate is
continental, with remarkable daily and seasonal variation in
temperature. Soil analyses were implemented on 15 ran-
domly drawn samples, in March 2010, at four different
depths. According to the American Unified Soil Classifica-
tion System (USCS) standards, the soil is a loam, with pH
ranging from 8.0 (soil) to 8.2 (sub-soil) and organic matter
decreasing from 3.7% at 25 cm depth to 2.4% at 100 cm
depth. The experimental orchard consisted of 8-year-old
apple trees ‘Gala’ grafted on M9 rootstock, clone FL56.
Four irrigation treatments were applied in three blocks, with
three replications each being based on three fruit growing
periods (FGP), in terms of days’ number following full
bloom (DAFB): FGP I (1DAFB-64DAFB), FGP II
(64DAFB-105DAFB) and FGP III (105DAFB-128DAFB).
T1; no-irrigation during the three fruit growth periods FGP I,
II and III, T2; irrigation for comfort during FGP I, II and III,
T3; Irrigation for comfort during FGP I and III and
no-irrigation FGP II, T4; regulated deficit irrigation
(RDI) during FGP II and irrigation for comfort during FGP I
and III. For the purpose of determining the soil water status,
granular matrix probes (Watermark® probes, IRROMETER
Company, Inc., Riverside, CA, USA) were installed at 0.30
and 0.60 m depths. The median value at 0.2 m above the
grafting point in the end of the winter period. of three probe
values, at each depth in each sub-plot, was also accounted
for in order to schedule optimal irrigation. Capacitance-
probe measurements were derived from access tubes

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 743

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_219
744
(Aquapro Sensors, Reno, NV, USA) at six soil depths,
ranging from 0.15 to 0.90 m, approximately vertically under
dripper line. The Aquapro probe was calibrated in confor-
mity with the manufacturer’s instructions, considering two
depths: (i) until 0.15 m, 0.35 m3/m3 as field capacity and
0.2 m3/m3 as permanent wilting point (PWP); (ii) between
0.30 m and 0.9 m 0.4 m3/m3 as field capacity and 0.25 m3/
m3 as PWP. Two Aquapro tubes were installed in each
sub-plot. Concerning both of the measurement systems,
probes and tubes were exclusively located in a single
replication. Pre-dawn leaf water potential WP and xylem
stem water potential WX were used for assessing plant water
status. They were determined via a Schölander-type pressure
chamber (model 600; PMS Instrument Company U.S.A).
Total yield (in kg) and number of fruits, as well as the
individual fruit weight and colour, were derived by means of
a sorting machine (Greefa, 4196 JB Tricht, the Netherlands).
Trunk circumference was measured annually during the
same day and time.
3 Results and Discussion
The most severe T1 treatment proved to have the lowest
values of soil water potential WS throughout the whole
season, in respect of the entirety of treatments; from 0.3 m
and 0.6 m WS decreased quickly with a large WS gradient,
attaining the values of −0.2 to −0.08 MPa. These values
were maintained until the end of FGP III. The soil water
potential WS of the T2 treatment ranged from −0.06 to
−0.05 MPa at 0.3 m and from 0 to −0.01 MPa at 0.6 m,
throughout the entire experimental season. During FGP II,
the total absence of water supply of T3 treatment caused WS
to decrease dramatically, compared to T2 and T4 treatments,
and at the end of FGP II, the T3 related values appeared to
reach the same values of 0.3 m to −0.02 MPa and at 0.6 m
to −0.09 MPa. The RDI applied during FGP II in the T4
treatment was marked by a decrease of WS in relation to the
T2 treatment, recording the values of 0.3 m to −0.12 MPa
and 0.6 m to −0.05 MPa. However, during the FGP III, and
A. Chenafi et al.
on restoring irrigation, the T3 and T4 treatment marked a
gradual increase to recover at the end of FGP III, reaching
the same T2 treatment associated values. The most severe
deficit T1 treatment recorded the lowest values of stem
xylem water potential WX in respect of the entire treatments
(Table 1). The WX values associated with T1 treatment
marked a sharp decrease, attaining −1.5 MPa, reflecting the
same values recorded with respect to the apple trees (Naor
and Cohen 2003).
The WX values of the T2 treatment during the entire
season appeared to range from −0.98 to −0.91 MPa. These
very values were documented by Naor and Cohen (2003)
with respect to the apple trees’ study case. Noteworthy,
however, is that during the FGP II, T3 was significantly
affected by the total absence of water supply and WX marked
a gradual decrease until reaching −1.31 MPa, still with
respect to apple trees (Naor and Cohen 2003). During the
FGP II, the T4 treatment registered WX values that are sig-
nificantly lower than the T2 treatment. At the end of FGP II,
the T4 treatment related value was near −1.14 MPa, a result
similar to those scored in the case of peach (Girona et al.
2005).
Concerning the present study, regulated deficit irrigation,
as applied throughout the T4 relating treatment, proved to
have no negative effect on fruit yield, corroborating a similar
result documented regarding the case of almonds (Stewart
et al. 2011). Still, some authors appeared to document that
moderate water deficit treatment throughout the fruit growth
stage turned out to reduce apple yield (Leib et al. 2006).
4 Conclusion
The advanced experiment achieved findings seemed to
highlight well that soil water content SWC with aquapro
probe turns out to represent an interesting criterion for
irrigation scheduling, standing as a primary indicator of
water stress. This result was determined in terms of Wx
relating measurements. The RDI T4 during FGP II,
allowed a water use reduction of 47%, without any loss
being brought about in fruit yield and fruit quality, with
Scheduling Deficit Subsurface Drip Irrigation … 745

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the average xylem stem water potential (MPa) to the different irrigation strategies via Tukey method; p < 0.05
DAFB Treatments
T1 T2 T3 T4
40 ns −1.07 −0.88 −0.93 −0.91
45 ns −0.97 −0.91 −0.93 −0.93
50 ** −1.03a −0.92ab −0.89b −0.82b
55 * −1.07a −0.96ab −0.92b −0.94ab
60 *** −1.18a −1.04b −1.02b −1.02b
65 *** −1.11a −0.93b −0.95b −0.96b
70 *** −1.22a −1.00b −1.02b −1.01b
75 *** −1.24a −1.01c −1.12b −1.1b
80 *** −1.33a −1.06b −1.14b −1.13b
85 *** −1.38a −1.13b −1.22b −1.14b
90 *** −1.45a −1.07b −1.17b −1.11b
95 *** −1.52a −1.06c −1.2b −1.12bc
100 *** −1.45a −1.11b −1.26b −1.11b
105 *** −1.55a −1.10c −1.31b −1.22bc
110 *** −1.57a −1.07c −1.22b −1.28b
115 *** −1.47a −0.99b −1.17b −1.17b
120 *** −1.54a −0.95b −1.09b −1.02b
125 *** −1.52a −1.03b −1.13b −1.19b
130 *** −1.42a −1.19b −1.18b −1.05b
135 *** −1.45a −1.05b −1.20b −1.05b
140 ** −1.22a −1.03ab −0.96b −1.00b
T1, no irrigation; T2, optimal irrigation; T3, optimal irrigation with the no irrigation exception during July to the beginning of August; T4, optimal
irrigation excepting regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) during July to the beginning of August. Different letters appearing in the same column
indicate significant differences. Significant parameters are referred to as follows: * p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01. *** p < 0.001

reference to the comfort irrigation T2. These results might
well stand as highly relevant to applying long-term RDI
under subsurface drip irrigation of apple trees, and could
sound appropriately applicable in zones with strictly
limited water resources.
References
Ashraf M. Inducing drought tolerance in plants: recent advances.
Biotechnol Adv. 2010;28:169–83.
Chalmers DJ, Mitchell PD, Van Heek L. Control of peach tree growth
and productivity by regulated water supply, tree density and
summer pruning. J Am Soc Hortic Sci. 1981;106:307–12.
Girona J, Gelly M, Mata M, Arbones A, Rufat J, Marsal J. Peach tree
response to single and combined deficit irrigation regimes in deep
soils. Agric Water Manage. 2005;72:97–108.
Leib BG, Caspari HW, Redulla CA, Andrews PK, Jabro JJ. Partial
rootzone drying and deficit irrigation of ‘Fuji’ apples in a semiarid
climate. Irrig Sci. 2006;24:85–99.
Naor A, Cohen S. Sensitivity and variability of maximum trunk
shrinkage, midday stem water potential, and transpiration rate in
response to withholding irrigation from field-grown apple trees.
HortScience. 2003;38:547–51.
Stewart WL, Fulton AE, Krueger WH, Lampinen BD, Shackel KA.
Regulated deficit irrigation reduces water use of almonds without
affecting yield. Calif Agric. 2011;65:90–5.
Thompson TL, Pang HC, Li YY. The potential contribution of
subsurface drip irrigation to water-saving agriculture in the western
USA. Agric Sci China. 2009;8:850–4.
 Multivariate Statistics of Physico-Chemical
Parameters to Develop the Baseline Level
of Water Quality Around the Proposed
Jaitapur Nuclear Power Plant, India

Ramesh Shinde, Prashant Chikode, Sugam Chavan, and Sandip Sabale

Keywords
Water Phyisico-chemical parameter Multivariate statistics Baseline

1 Introduction Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) proposed a Nuclear

The application of basic and multivariate statistical methods
including cluster analysis (CA), Principal Component
Analysis (PCA) and Factor Analysis (FA) along with Water
Quality Index (WQI) as statistical tools in the investigation
of water quality data are widely found in literature (Wallace
et al. 2016; Zhang et al. 2012; Parmar and Bhardwaj 2013;
Puri et al. 2015). Through many agencies, the government
has responded to the water findings by implementing the
required appropriate action plans at diverse locations
(Mohamed et al. 2015; Ravikumar et al. 2013). Hence it is
important to provide a detailed composition of water
parameters to help the local environmental policy makers.
Some studies also show that water is contaminated with
heavy metals and pesticides due to routine agricultural and
industrial effluents (Sabale et al. 2010, 2012). Jaitapur is a
small village situated in Rajapur Tehsil of Ratnagiri District,
Maharashtra. It lies on the Arabian Sea coast. Nuclear Power
R. Shinde
Department of Statistics, Jaysingpur College,
Jaysingpur, MS 416101, India
e-mail: rameshshinde21@gmail.com
P. Chikode
Department of Physics, Jaysingpur College,
Jaysingpur, MS 416101, India
e-mail: prashantchikode@gmail.com
S. Chavan
Department of Chemistry, Devchand College,
Arjunnagar, Nipani, 591237, India
e-mail: chavansugam@gmail.com
S. Sabale (&)
Department of Chemistry, Jaysingpur College,
Jaysingpur, MS 416101, India
e-mail: srsabale@gmail.com
Power Plant with a 9900 MW capacity near Jaitapur. This
project is located at 16.55° N; 73.35° E, a part of Konkan in
Western Ghats of Maharashtra. The issue was highlighted by
different nongovernmental organizations (NGO’s) because
of adverse radiation effects and different pollution types.
Also many other industries like thermal power, mining of
aluminum etc. are being constructed in this Konkan region.
This Konkan region is famous for mango cultivation and
exports especially Devagad Hapus, (Alphanso mangoes)
Jackfruits, cashew and cashew nuts, rice, ragi, kokam fruits
and other byproducts of these fruits. Hence it is necessary to
study the konkan area hydrochemistry. For our study we
have selected an area of about 30 km distance which covers
Devagad and Rajapur Tehsil from Sindhudurg and Ratnagiri
district respectively. The present study represented the
variation in water quality parameters in different seasons.
Physical, chemical and biological parameters were studied in
different seasons (winter, summer and post monsoon). Our
study will be helpful to assess the impact of these industries
after their post operations. Hence this pre-operational study
has been undertaken which will play an important role in
establishing the baseline level of water parameters.
2 Materials and Methods
We prepared the sampling frame of all the villages within the
territory of 30 km from JNPP. Using simple random sam-
pling, 15 villages were selected as sampling positions and
located using GPS positions (Shinde et al. 2016). The base
map was prepared from these sampling locations. Water
sampling from these selected locations was achieved by
following the proper scientific methods with maximum

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 747

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_220
748
standards for three seasons viz winter, summer and post
monsoon. The water samples were tested for the
physico-chemical parameters. In addition trace metals from
water were analyzed in post monsoon season using induc-
tively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP/MS). The
obtained data were subjected for multivariate statistical
analysis such as cluster analysis (CA), principal component
analysis (PCA), factor analysis (FA), water quality index
(WQI) and Piper diagram are used to express the water
quality.
3 Results and Discussion
The physicochemical characteristics along with the standard
deviation, skewness, kurtosis and p-value of Shapiro-wilk
test of normality for winter, summer and post monsoon
seasons were carried out. From the obtained results, it is
observed that the pH values vary from 5.84 to 8.04, 5.63 to
7.20 and 6.11 to 7.05 (mean; 6.75, 6.49 and 6.60) for winter,
summer and post monsoon season respectively, which is
close to neutral while Kurtosis value shows a flat nature.
The EC value varies from 0.10 to 0.30, 0.07 to 0.82, 0.12 to
0.61 (mean; 0.18, 0.34, 0.23) for winter, summer and post
monsoon seasons respectively. In post monsoon season
kurtosis shows less variation from the mean value with a
normal nature. The TDS value varies from 166.40 to 241.30,
166.80 to 287.00 and 174.68 to 233.70 ppm (means; 195.53,
213.38 and 199.33 ppm) for winter, summer and post
monsoon season, respectively. Like pH, TDS also shows flat
positively skewed nature in all seasons. In post monsoon
season only, SW p-value for pH, EC and TDS show a
normal behaviour. For the current study hardness varies
from 100.00 to 170.00, 110.00 to 225.00 and 112.00 to
160.00 ppm (means; 126.67, 148.80 and 128.60 ppm) for
winter, summer and post monsoon seasons, respectively.
The results also show that water in the studied region is
moderately hard. The DO values vary from 6.00 to 11.33,
6.40 to 8.20 and 5.23 to 6.59 ppm (means; 7.83, 7.28 and
5.94) for winter, summer and post monsoon seasons,
respectively. BOD does not have direct health implications
R. Shinde et al.
but an important parameter for defining the overall water
quality. BOD values varies from 2.88 to 4.80, 3.00 to 5.70
and 3.00 to 5.80 ppm (means; 4.14, 4.61 and 4.56 ppm) for
winter, summer and post monsoon seasons, respectively.
The COD value varies from 24.00 to 40.00, 25.00 to 48.00
and 25.00 to 48.00 ppm for winter, summer and post mon-
soon seasons, respectively. Both BOD and COD are nega-
tively skewed in all seasons, flat nature in post monsoon
season whereas peaked in other seasons. Turbidity in water
arises due to the presence of very finely divided solids which
are not filterable by routine methods. Turbidity has direct
health effects depend on the composition of turbidity causing
materials. Turbidity values varies from 1.50 to 3.10, 1.30 to
2.80 and 1.80 to 3.00 NTU for winter, summer and post
monsoon seasons. Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) measures
the water suitability for irrigation. SAR was determined
using the concentration of solids dissolved in water. SAR
values varies from 11.36 to 19.04, 10.50 to 19.20 and 1.20 to
18.20 (means; 15.00, 13.92 and 14.74) for winter, summer
and post monsoon seasons, respectively. Most Probable
Number (MPN) is found to be 3 for maximum number of
sample sites in all seasons. Likewise, the principal compo-
nent analysis (PCA), factor analysis (FA), water quality
index (WQI) and Piper diagram were used to express the
water quality (Fig. 1, Tables 1 and 2).
4 Conclusion
The PCA/FA results in considerable data reduction, since
out of all the parameters only TDS, Hardness, BOD,
COD, SAR explain 89% of data variability for the winter
season, TDS, Hardness, Cl− and Na+ explains 79% of
data variability for the summer season and TDS, Hard-
ness, BOD, COD, Ca2+, pH and MPN explains 90% of
data variability for the post season. Piper diagram indi-
cates that the primary salinity (“non-carbonate alkali”)
exceeds 50% i.e. chemical properties of water are domi-
nated by alkalies and strong acids. Trace metal analysis
indicate that all trace metals are within the normal range.
Cd, Cr and Co are below the detection level along with
‘As’ for 4 sampling sites. Among all the 18 parameters
Multivariate Statistics of Physico-Chemical Parameters … 749

Fig. 1 Base map of JNPP and locations of water sampling sites

only Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, HCO3− and DO show significant piper diagram can be used to analyze and interpret the
changes in the mean behaviour over the post monsoon to complex dataset on water quality and understanding their
last winter season change. Thus, the multivariate statis- variations.
tical techniques along with water quality indices and
 750

Table 1 Physico-chemical properties of water samples of winter, summer and post monsoon seasons from 15 villages near JNPP
pH EC TDS Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ HCO3− Cl− NO3− SO42− Hard. DO BOD COD Turb. SAR MPN
Winter season
Min 5.84 0.10 166.40 3.50 0.28 22.65 0.12 2.20 1.70 2.80 20.90 100.00 6.00 2.88 24.00 1.50 11.36 1.00
Max 8.04 0.30 241.30 7.75 1.70 55.88 0.51 5.00 4.50 7.28 33.40 170.00 11.33 4.80 40.00 3.10 19.04 5.00
Mean 6.75 0.18 195.53 5.67 1.07 29.37 0.34 3.72 3.18 4.60 27.70 126.67 7.83 4.14 34.47 2.28 15.00 2.87
SD 0.66 0.06 22.89 1.09 0.55 7.83 0.15 0.91 0.72 1.29 4.03 19.52 1.49 0.52 4.34 0.49 2.60 1.19
Skewness (c1) 0.55 0.57 0.58 −0.20 −0.30 3.08 −0.35 −0.27 0.01 0.55 −0.01 0.54 1.00 −0.75 −0.75 0.04 0.45 0.00
Kurtosis (c2) −0.46 −0.06 −0.61 0.07 −1.76 10.81 −1.20 −1.29 1.13 0.13 −1.36 0.14 0.72 1.06 1.06 −1.26 −1.34 −0.79
SW P-Value 0.55 0.52 0.34 0.95 0.02 0.00 0.04 0.37 0.06 0.39 0.31 0.48 0.23 0.29 0.29 0.50 0.07 0.28
Summer season
Min 5.63 0.07 166.80 4.85 0.59 21.32 0.16 3.50 1.10 2.31 20.65 110.00 6.40 3.00 25.00 1.30 10.50 1.00
Max 7.20 0.82 287.00 7.51 2.31 36.23 0.61 6.10 4.20 5.12 30.16 225.00 8.20 5.70 48.00 2.80 19.20 4.00
Mean 6.49 0.34 213.38 6.07 1.42 28.86 0.40 4.37 1.94 3.97 25.09 148.80 7.28 4.61 38.60 1.99 13.92 2.53
SD 0.43 0.23 35.88 0.78 0.48 4.42 0.15 0.76 0.90 0.78 2.94 35.26 0.51 0.74 6.10 0.40 2.54 0.83
Skewness (c1) 0.03 0.72 0.69 0.12 0.10 −0.02 0.21 0.78 1.27 −0.33 −0.02 0.80 0.35 −0.52 −0.58 0.36 0.73 0.31
Kurtosis (c2) −0.10 0.10 −0.34 −0.44 −0.29 −0.34 −0.97 0.05 1.20 0.01 −1.05 −0.15 −0.36 0.14 0.44 −0.02 0.18 −0.23
SW P-Value 0.72 0.21 0.38 0.78 0.97 0.51 0.13 0.12 0.01 0.85 0.51 0.15 0.54 0.79 0.77 0.89 0.36 0.03
Post monsoon season
Min 6.11 0.12 174.68 4.75 1.00 20.50 0.15 3.10 1.12 1.18 21.20 112.00 5.23 3.00 25.00 1.80 1.20 1.00
Max 7.05 0.61 233.70 7.18 2.16 38.50 0.60 5.80 4.00 5.90 34.12 160.00 6.59 5.80 48.00 3.00 18.20 4.00
Mean 6.60 0.23 199.33 6.12 1.48 27.97 0.38 4.31 2.99 4.45 28.41 128.60 5.94 4.56 37.33 2.31 14.74 2.80
SD 0.37 0.12 22.61 0.87 0.41 4.11 0.15 0.83 0.81 1.23 3.20 17.22 0.38 0.98 7.31 0.40 4.31 0.86
Skewness (c1) −0.10 2.51 0.62 −0.27 0.47 0.90 −0.17 0.00 −0.59 −1.66 −0.49 1.04 −0.55 −0.42 −0.49 0.68 −2.38 −0.34
Kurtosis (c2) −1.87 7.89 −1.36 −1.60 −1.03 2.45 −1.41 −0.92 0.50 2.65 0.71 −0.62 −0.06 −1.20 −0.95 −0.64 7.17 −0.11
SW P-value 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.12 0.30 0.24 0.54 0.21 0.00 0.77 0.00 0.39 0.11 0.25 0.08 0.00 0.05
R. Shinde et al.
Multivariate Statistics of Physico-Chemical Parameters … 751

Table 2 Sampling sites and their GPS positions and water quality index for each season
S. No. Locations Name GPS position Winter Summer Post monsoon
1. Devgad S1 N- 16° 22′43.4″ E- 73° 24′02.9″ 24.2 24.0 23.0
2. Nadan S2 N- 16° 26′29.0″ E- 73° 24′52.0″ 28.0 24.6 23.6
3. Baparde S3 N- 16° 26′26.8″ E- 73° 28′34.8″ 25.4 29.8 23.0
4. Thakarwadi S4 N- 16° 30′33.8″ E- 73° 22′19.2″ 27.2 26.3 25.0
5. Vijaydurg S5 N- 16° 33′34.5″ E- 73° 20′05.3″ 25.8 22.1 25.6
6. Pural S6 N- 16° 27′48.4″ E- 73° 23′04.0″ 24.8 26.1 26.0
7. Hatiwale S7 N- 16° 35′40.9″ E- 73° 32′27.1″ 24.3 24.5 26.6
8. Ansure S8 N- 16° 33′44.5″ E- 73° 24′27.0″ 25.6 26.4 26.9
9. Mithgawane S9 N- 16° 35′06.5″ E- 73° 22′19.9″ 24.0 25.4 25.1
10. Madban S10 N- 16° 25′47.1″ E- 73° 20′43.3″ 25.8 24.6 26.7
11. Jaitapur S11 N- 16° 37′36.2″ E- 73° 38′17.8″ 24.5 25.4 27.3
12. Nate S12 N- 16° 38′17.8″ E- 73° 21′25.2″ 27.9 30.6 27.1
13. Rajapur S13 N- 16° 39′19.6″ E- 73° 30′47.1″ 26.1 24.0 25.0
14. Ambolgarh S14 N- 16° 38′35.6″ E- 73° 19′44.8″ 24.6 23.8 25.2
15. Bhalawali S15 N- 16° 43′24.1″ E- 73° 24′23.7″ 23.4 26.9 25.8

Acknowledgements Authors are thankful to University Grants
Commission, New-Delhi for sanctioning the grant (File No: 47-1750/
10/WRO) to carry out this project work. Authors are also thankful to
Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi for sanctioning the
grant under DST-FIST program (No/SR/FST/College-151/2013(C)) to
Jaysingpur College, Jaysingpur.
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Biodegrad. 2012;3:143.
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2012;46(8):2737–48.
 Impact of Climate Variability on Hydrology
of the Western Mitidja Watershed, Algeria

Faiza Hallouz, Hafsa Karahacane, Mohamed Meddi, Gil Mahe,

Fadhila Sadi, Hanane Benchikh, and Faiza Kemmerchou

Keywords
Hydro Climatic regimes Mitidja West Ruptures Simulation of the discharges
from rains

1 Introduction altitude of 100 m, it covers an area of 1300 km2. This region

Algeria is a country located in the North of Africa. Its cli-
mate is mainly semi-arid but also undergoes an important
Mediterranean influence. Also, a change in rainfall is likely
to lead to a change in the availability of water resources. The
impacts on living things in these regions should therefore be
significant. The western Mitidja basin risks, like many areas
in Africa, being negatively affected by climate change. This
motivated us to study the vulnerability of this basin, espe-
cially its surface waters, a fundamental element of
development.
2 Materials and Methods
is split into two geographical areas, the East Mitidja and the
West Mitidja. The Mitidja West, which constitutes our study
area, receives a total rainfall of about 616.1 mm/year, of
which 84.7% evaporates, 2.63% infiltrates and 12.67%
flows.
2.2 Regionalization Using the Regional Vector
Method
Then, we chose to carry out the regionalization using the
regional vector method via the Hydraccess software, which
objective is to reconstitute the missing rainfall data at the
monthly and annual time step (Singla 2009).

2.1 Study Area

2.3 Rupture Detection Tests on Time Series
The plain of Mitidja is located in the south of Algiers. It
extends over the territories of Algiers, Boumerdes, Tipaza A statistical approach was used to help us better analyze
and Blida. With a WSW-ENE orientation and an average monthly and annual rainfall. Khronostat is a statistical
analysis software of time series of which several tests of
F. Hallouz (&)
H. Karahacane
M. Meddi detection of ruptures are available. We have chosen those
Engineering Laboratory of Water and Environment, ENSH, Blida, that allow us to determine ruptures dates: Pettit’s nonpara-
Algeria
metric method, Bayesian method of Lee and Heghinian, and
e-mail: hallouzfaiza@gmail.com
Hubert’s segmentation (Hallouz et al. 2011).
G. Mahe
IRD, Montpellier, France
F. Sadi
2.4 Modeling Rainfall Discharge
Laboratory of Local Natural Bio-Resources, Faculty of Science,
University Hassiba Ben Bouali, Chlef, Algeria
The model used in this study is the GR2M model (2-parameter
H. Benchikh
F. Kemmerchou
University Djilali Bounaama of Khemis Miliana, Ain Defla, Rural Model) which is a two-parameter rainfall-discharge
Algeria model (Makhlouf 1994; Perrin et al. 2003).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 753

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_221
754
2.5 Rainfall Data
The rainfall data come mainly from the database of the
National Agency for Hydraulic Resources (ANRH). They
are recorded from 23 rainfall stations spread over the
catchment and whose size of observations varies from one
station to another. Indeed, we divided the western Mitidja
basin into two parts.
2.6 Runoff Data
The data bank for monthly flows comes from the National
Agency for Hydraulic Resources (ANRH) of Blida.
The time series generally concern the period 1987–2012,
but are of variable durations.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Regional Vector Results
It should be noted that in the dataset used for this study, the
number of stations is high only during the period from 1973
to 2005. It can also be seen in both regions that the fluctu-
ation of the annual rainfall index decreases with the number
of stations observed per year. Indeed, 1982 and 1998, the
indices of annual rainfall fluctuate with great amplitude and
are then representative only of a small number of stations.
And since 1979 until 1986, the observed stations are more
numerous and the index of annual rainfall calculated by the
regional vector is then more representative and has its
variability reduced according to the years. This allows us to
conclude that the amount of data constitutes a limit of the
quality of annual rainfall indices of the regional vectors.
3.2 Rupture Results Interpretation and Analysis
The monthly and annual ruptures detected at rainfall stations
show the rain evolution during the study period. A decrease
in rainfall from the 70s was recorded at all study area sta-
tions. The deficit varies between 18.6 and 29.9%.
Indeed, a sharp decline at the stations studied since the
1970s and generally at the level of the western Mitidja basin.
A decrease in flows was recorded on all the stations of the
study area from the 70s.
3.2.1 Results of Calibration and Validation
of the GR2M Model
The calibration of the model generally requires the use of
some of the available data (Refrsgaard and Abbot 1996).
F. Hallouz et al.
Indeed, in order to determine the internal fit parameters of the
model, the adopted calibration method, called “solver”,
shows that the hydrographs simulated by GR2M agree better
with the hydrographs observed, which translates acceptable
and superior Nash values to 60%. It can be said that the model
simulation quality is good. Validation is an crucial part of the
model development process. Like the calibration phase, we
can establish the Nash criterion for each basin. The numerical
result gave us Nash satisfactory 99, 9% for Boumedfaa and
100% for the Fer à cheval and Afroun stations.
4 Conclusion
The Mitidja West region is subject to a sub humid
regional climate; its watershed contains many climatic
and hydrological stations, although their distribution
remains heterogeneous. The monthly and annual ruptures
detected at these stations clearly show the evolution of
the rain during the study period, a decrease in rainfall was
recorded at all stations in the study area.
For the rainfall flow simulations, the efficiency of the
model to simulate the monthly flows of the basin is given by
the Nash criterion analysis, which has given satisfactory
values greater than (60%). Therefore we can say that the
GR2M model has a certain efficiency in simulating the
flows at the monthly time step and to guarantee a better
understanding of the hydrological behavior of the basin.
Finally, in order to evaluate whether the climate or
man-made hydraulic developments were the cause of the
decrease in flows, we compared the dates of the ruptures
detected on the hydrological series at the dam construc-
tion dates of western Mitidja and the results obtained
showed that it was more the decrease of rainfall that
impacted the construction of the Bouroumi dam in 1985.
References
Hallouz F, Meddi M, Mahe G. Analyse des ruptures dans les séries
pluviométriques dans le bassin de l’oued Mina (Nord Ouest
d’Algérie), Atelier SIG—MED Rabat 29 SEPTEMBRE; 2011. p. 28.
Makhlouf Z. Compléments sur le modèle pluie-débit GR4 J et essai
d’estimation de ses paramètres. Thèse de Doctorat: Université de
Paris XI Orsay/ Cemagref (Antony); 1994. p. 228.
Perrin C, Michel C, Andréassian V. Improvement of parsimonious model
for stream flow simulation. J. Hydrologique. 2003;279(1):275–89.
Refrsgaard JC, Abbot MB. The role of distributed hydrological
modeling in water resource management. Indistributed hydrological
modling, Refsgaard (ED) kluwer Academies Publishers, Nether-
lands; 1996. p. 1–18.
Singla S, Impact du changement climatique global sur les régimes
hydroclimatiques au Maroc tendances, ruptures et effets anthropiques
sur les écoulements, mémoire de mastère2, Département des Sciences
de la Terre de l’Eau et de l’Environnement de Montpellier; 2009. p. 90.
 Assessment of Citizens’ Virtual Water
Footprint
Mahdi Kolahi, Saeideh Heydari, Mina Ansari, and Farzaneh Nouraei



Keywords
Water footprint Mashhad
1 Introduction
Water scarcity is very important because of its influence on
all human activities in different communities and nations
(Hoekstra et al. 2011), and there is a direct ratio between
population and water use amount. Urban population may
rise to double by 2050 and subsequently rate of water use is
going to be increased (Corcoran 2010). Based on records,
water is mostly used in agriculture section, sometimes
counting for about 70–90% (Morera et al 2016). Recently
population growth is combined with water scarcity and have
severely affected sustainability urban development and
environment.
Water footprint (WF) is an indicator of freshwater use and
includes virtual and direct water use of a consumer or pro-
ducer (Hoekstra et al 2011). It refers to total volume of
freshwater used for produced goods and provided services
M. Kolahi (&)
Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, Ferdowsi
University of Mashhad, PO Box 9177948974, Mashhad, Iran
e-mail: MahdiKolahi@ferdowsi.um.ac.ir
S. Heydari
M. Ansari
F. Nouraei
Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
e-mail: heydari97@yahoo.com
M. Ansari
e-mail: miansa95@yahoo.com
F. Nouraei
e-mail: Farzaneh.Nouraei@yahoo.com
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_222



Water conservation Water policy Water sociology
by an individual, community or business (Hoekstra and
Hung 2002). Families, as the smallest units making up a
community, can use water in two major ways: directly, as
water used for sanitation purposes, or indirectly, as water
used for cultivation of crops that are consumed by family
members. The latter is termed virtual water and the amount
of water used in this manner is referred to Virtual Water
Footprint (VWF) of a family.
This research studies families’ VWF in the city of
Mashhad, the second biggest and most populated city in
Iran. It is essential for the city to direct attention to water
consumption because of scarcity, climate change, drought,
and increasing population. It is hypothesized that individ-
ual’s VWF is higher when female, older, married, higher
education, higher income, higher home area, owning a
property, having a professional occupation, and living in an
improved quarter. The findings can be very useful in better
management of water resources in every household.
2 Materials and Methods
The city of Mashhad, Iran, consists of 13 districts, 44 areas,
and 156 quarters (city census 2010). A pre-test questionnaire
was conducted to distinguish three main quarters based on
income classes, namely higher, middle, and low-income
levels. Then systematically random sampling was applied
using geographical software, and 116 samples were selected.
The Water Footprint Personal Extended Calculator (https://
goo.gl/z0zL6S) was used, where questions regarding food
consumption, domestic water use, and industrial goods
consumption were asked. Collected data was analyzed,
VWF was calculated, and coordination among parameters
were determined.
755
756
Table 1. Correlations among VWF and variables (Kendall’s tau_b Test)
Gender Income
VWF Correlation coefficient 0.175* 0.288**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.022 0.000
3 Results and Discussion
The Table 1 shows results of correlations among VWF and
variables. Furthermore, Fig. 1 highlights relationships
between VWF and income.
62 and 38% of respondents were female and male,
respectively. The proportion of respondents who were 19–
20 years old was 3; 19% were between 21 and 30; 16%
between 31 and 40; 22% between 41 and 50; 16% between
51 and 60; 16% between 61 and 70, 7% between 71 and 80,
and 3% were over 81. The youngest and the oldest respon-
ders were 19 and 90 years old, respectively. 11 and 86% of
respondents were single and married, respectively. Inter-
viewers were or worked at government Section (6%), private
Section (3%), self-employed (16%), retired (12%), student
(3%), unemployed (3%), or housewife (51%). About 5% of
responders were illiterate, 50% did not complete high
school, 20% completed high school, 17% had bachelor
degrees, and 8% had the master degrees. The proportion of
respondents who earn less than 10 million Rials per month
was 45%; 16% between 10 and 15; 11% between 15 and 20;
14% between 20 and 30; 3% between 30 and 40; 4%
between 40 and 50; 1% between 50 and 60; 2% between 60
and 70; and 3% over 70 million Rials per month. 71% were
landlords and 29% were tenants. Area of home was less than
50 square meters for 5% of respondents; 50–100 m2 for
33%; 100–150 m2 for 23%; 150–200 m2 for 12%; 200–250
m2 for 13%; 250–300 m2 for 4%; 300–350 m2 for 5%; and
between 400–500 m2 for 7%.
3500
3000
2500
2000
VWF
y = -26.74x2 + 554.33x
1500 R² = 0.6964
1000
500
0 varies within different irrigation plans and even in dif-
0 2 4 6 8 10
Income
Fig. 1. Correlation of VWF and Income (incomes in nine categories:
1 = less than 285$, 2 = 285$–428$, 3 = 429$–571$, 4 = 571$–857,
5 = 857$–1142$, 6 = 1142$–1428$, 7 = 1428$–1714$, 8 = 1714$–
2000$, 9 = more than 2000)
M. Kolahi et al.
Quarter Property Area Age Education Occupation
0.270** 0.137 0.103 0.173** 0.149* -0.133
0.000 0.074 0.107 0.006 0.040 0.068
Most interviewed people have higher family size, edu-
cated, unemployed, low income, eating meat a lot, food with
average oil, less fruits, more cup of tea, and like sweats. The
findings support the idea that as a family becomes more
affluent, it expends more resources (Fig. 1). It means higher
income causes higher VWF. However, Quarter 2 has higher
VWF than other quarters, which it can be because of the
pre-test investment, and people had different ideas about
incomes in different quarters. According to the findings,
families’ level of Income, Gender, Age, Quarter, Education
are the main variables exhibiting a statistically significant
correlation with VWF (Table 1). They show a correlation
between VWF and Income, Quarter, and Age at 1% level,
and also a correlation between VWF and Gender and Edu-
cation at 5% level. In addition, a significant correlation
between VWP and quarter represents that people have been
affected by their living areas. A positive relationship
between VWF and education means higher education has a
direct influence in consumption of virtual water. Neverthe-
less, other variables such as Property, Area, and Occupation
are irrelevant with VWF.
The research highlights that individual’s VWF is higher
when male, older, higher education, higher income, and
living in an improved quarter. These findings are partly
different with some reports (Neumark-Sztainer et al. 1999;
Auld et al. 2002; Bowman et al. 2004; Hanson et al. 2005;
Fan et al. 2014).
4 Conclusion
More food consumption, domestic water use, and
industrial goods consumption equal to more VWF. The
pattern of life style has affected water resources. Fur-
thermore, greenhouse emissions from husbandry and
agriculture have significant effect on global warming and
resources. For example, “producing a single kilogram of
beef generates as much CO2 as driving 250 km in an
average European car or using a 100-watt bulb continu-
ously for twenty days” (Carolan 2013). However, animal
products generally have a larger WF than crop products
(http://waterfootprint.org). Additionally, vegetables’ WF
ferent regions (Nyambo and Wakindiki 2015). Currently
water is a key factor in virtual water trade to produce
water-intensive products, and countries can save their
water resources due to using virtual water trade, and
allocate it in other sections (Azam et al. 2012). Therefore,
Assessment of Citizens’ Virtual Water Footprint
the evaluation of water footprint makes important insights
into the food-energy-water relation at the urban scale,
creating opportunities for understanding water and energy
savings and efficiency (Chini et al. 2017).
The research reveals that almost all people need to
redesign their life style to have healthy food and to pay
more attention to their waters consumption patterns. It is
also necessary to mention that positive relationship
between VWF and education levels presents less or no
importance of education towards environmental concerns.
Furthermore, it notes a big problem in educational sectors
in lacking socializing water and environmental issues
(Kolahi et al. 2012; Kolahi et al. 2013; Kolahi 2013;
Kolahi et al. 2014a; Kolahi 2014; Kolahi et al. 2014b).
For that, a four-step conceptual framework is presented
on how to find, research and socialize water problems,
including water philosophy, water sociology, water
strategy, and water proactivity, respectively and interac-
tively (Kolahi et al. 2016).
Acknowledgements This research was based upon financial sup-
ported by Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran, under
Grant No. 42765. Authors highly appreciate it, and enthusiastically
thank all respondents who kindly shared their time and information.
References
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calcium-rich foods among Asian, Hispanic, and white preadolescent
and adolescent females. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2002;34:242–51.
Azam A, Amin A, Yaser VR, et al. Agricultural water foot print and
virtual water budget in iran related to the consumption of crop
products by conserving irrigation efficiency. J Water Resour Prot.
2012;4(5):318.
Bowman SA, Gortmaker SL, Ebbeling CB, et al. Effects of fast-food
consumption on energy intake and diet quality among children in a
national household survey. Pediatrics. 2004;113:112–8.
Carolan MS. Reclaiming food security. Routledge; 2013.
Chini CM, Konar M, Stillwell AS. Direct and indirect urban water
footprints of the United States. Water Resour Res. 2017;53:316–
327. doi:10.1002/2016WR0194373.
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Corcoran E. Sick water?: the central role of wastewater management in
sustainable development: a rapid response assessment.
UNEP/Earthprint; 2010.
Fan L, Wang F, Liu G, et al. Public perception of water consumption
and its effects on water conservation behavior. Water. 2014;6:1771–
84. doi:10.3390/w6061771.
Hanson NI, Neumark-Sztainer D, Eisenberg ME. Associations between
parental report of the home food environment and adolescent
intakes of fruits, vegetables and dairy foods. Public Health Nutr.
2005;8:77–85.
Hoekstra AY, Hung PQ. Virtual water trade: a quantification of virtual
water flows between nations in relation to international crop trade.
Value water Res Rep Ser. 2002;11:166.
Hoekstra AY, Chapagain AK, Aldaya MM, Mekonnen MM. The water
footprint assessment manual: setting the global standard. London,
UK: Earthscan; 2011.
Kolahi M, Protected areas management and environmental sociology in
Iran. Scholars’ Press; 2014.
Kolahi M, Bajestani Moghadam G, Jafari Sayadi MH. Socialization of
Water Problems. Int. Conf. Water Environ. New Millenium Educ.
Capacit. Dev. University of Tehran, German Academic Exchange
Service (DAAD), University of Duisburg-Essen, and
UNESCO-IHE, Tehran; 2016, p. 91–95.
Kolahi, M. Synergisms for the intricate system of biodiversity and
society in the conservation management of Iran. Kyoto University;
2013.
Kolahi M, Sakai T, Moriya K, Makhdoum MF. Challenges to the future
development of Iran’s protected areas system. Environ Manage.
2012;50:750–65.
Kolahi M, Sakai T, Moriya K. Assessment of the effectiveness of
protected areas management in Iran: case study in Khojir National
Park. Environ Manage. 2013;52:514–30.
Kolahi M, Moriya K, Sakai T, et al. Introduction of participatory
Conservation in Iran: case study of the rural communities’
perspectives in Khojir National Park. Int J Environ Res.
2014a;8:913–30.
Kolahi M, Sakai T, Moriya K, et al. Visitors’ Characteristics and
Attitudes towards Iran’s National Parks and participatory conser-
vation. Parks. 2014b;20:49–62.
Morera S, Corominas L, Poch M, et al. Water footprint assessment in
wastewater treatment plants. J Clean Prod. 2016;112:4741–8.
doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.05.102.
Neumark-Sztainer D, Story M, Perry C, Casey MA. Factors influencing
food choices of adolescents: findings from focus-group discussions
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 Water Management and Related
Environmental Issues in Large
Mediterranean Basins: Case Studies
from the Ebro and the Po Catchments

Francesca Salmaso, Paolo Espa, Ramon J. Batalla, Giuseppe Crosa,

Gaetano Gentili, Livia M. L. Servanzi, and Silvia Quadroni

Keywords
Water management Minimum flow Aquatic communities Ebro river Po river
Water framework directive

Mediterranean river basins: the Ebro (Spain) and the Po

1 Introduction
The Mediterranean region has been historically densely
inhabited. Societies development principally took place near
water bodies, such as rivers, where water resources have
been exploited long since for human activities, such as
irrigation, navigation, drinkable water supply and energy
production.
Environmental consequences of water exploitation in
rivers are mainly linked to the alteration of natural hydro-
logic regimes (Batalla et al. 2004) and include numerous
changes in biological communities and ecological processes
(Sabater and Tockner 2009). On the other hand, water uses
have strong importance for local economy, including energy
production as an alternative to fossil fuels.
In this context, the need to define management decisions
able to protect freshwater ecosystems while maintaining
important water uses represents a crucial issue for both
science and management.
This work aimed to contribute to this issue, presenting
and comparing water management schemes in two large
F. Salmaso
G. Crosa
S. Quadroni (&)
Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of
Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy
e-mail: silvia.quadroni@uninsubria.it
P. Espa
Department of Science and High Tecnology, University of
Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy
R. J. Batalla
Department of Environmental and Soil Sciences, University of
Lleida, 25198 Lleida, Catalonia, Spain
G. Gentili
L. M. L. Servanzi
Graia s.r.l, 21020 Varano Borghi, VA, Italy
(Italy) basins. Environmental issues linked to management
were presented in terms of alterations of the hydrologic
regimes and the biological communities, and discussed
taking into account different local features, as well as the
regulatory framework (in particular the EU Water Frame-
work Directive—WFD—2000/60/EC).
2 Materials and Methods
The present study was conducted in two river basins: the Po
basin (Italy) and the Ebro basin (Spain) (Fig. 1). Within
these basins, three reaches regulated by dams were selected,
all characterized by a gravel-bed single-thread low-gradient
channel.
The Po basin is located in northern Italy and drains an
area of approximately 71,000 km2 (Fig. 1). The catchment
includes intensive agricultural areas and large urban districts;
human activities in this area support 40% of the gross
national product. As a consequence, the water resource in
the Po River catchment has been exploited for a long time,
mainly for land irrigation and hydropower production. The
Ticino River and the Adda River are the two main Po
tributaries for flow rate. In these rivers water diversion for
agriculture dates back to at least the 13th century and
hydropower utilization began at the end of the 19th century.
Within these rivers, two study sites were selected: Somma,
located in the Ticino River, downstream of Panperduto Dam,
and Merlino, located in the Adda River, downstream of
Vacchelli Dam. Both dams withdraw water for multiple
off-stream use, however in the former hydropower is the
dominant use whereas irrigation prevails in the latter.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 759

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_223
760
Fig. 1 Position of the Ebro and
the Po mainstems within the
Mediterranean region (down) and
detail of the study area of the
Ebro River (left) and the Ticino
and Adda rivers (right), indicating
study sites and relative upstream
dams
In turn, the Ebro basin is located in the northeastern part
of the Iberian Peninsula and drains an area of approximately
85,000 km2. The current layout of reservoirs and
water-diversion structures dates back to 1950–60s for most
of them, and is mainly addressed to hydropower and irri-
gation. For the present work, one study site in the Ebro River
was selected. The site, Ascó, is located downstream from the
Mequinenza—Riba-roja—Flix dams’ chain (Fig. 1), which
stores water mainly for hydropower production.
For each study site, the mean daily regulated streamflows
for the period 2000–2015 were provided by the Adda Con-
sortium, Ticino Consortium and Confederación Hidrográfica
del Ebro. Corresponding reference flows (i.e. the theoretical
flows in absence of water diversions) were calculated for the
same period. Moreover, available information about chemical
quality and aquatic biological communities (e.g. Salmaso
et al. 2014, 2017) were used to discuss the main ecological
effects of the current water management schemes.
3 Results and Discussion
Reference flows in the Ticino and Adda rivers are charac-
terised by two periods of low flows (in winter and summer,
Fig. 2). Discharge downstream of the dams shows the same
pattern, but values are reduced to approximately 40% of the
reference ones on average (Fig. 2).
During low-flow periods, hydrologic impairment (calcu-
lated as Q/QR, Fig. 2) is more relevant. In the Ticino River
monthly mean flows lower than 30% of reference flows were
present in January, February, July, August and September.
In the Adda River this condition is less frequent, as an effect
of both minor withdrawals for hydropower and larger
groundwater contribution to the river discharge.
F. Salmaso et al.
600 100%
500 80%
Q (m3 s-1)
400
60%
Q/QR
300
40%
200
20%
100
0 0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Fig. 2 Mean monthly flows at Somma in the Ticino River downstream
of Panperduto Dam (Q, grey bars) and related mean monthly reference
flows (QR, white bars). The hydrologic impairment (i.e. Q/QR) is
indicated with a dotted line
As a mitigating measure, monthly-modulated minimum
flows (MFs) ranging between 4 and 10% of the mean annual
natural flow (Table 1) are released below the dams since
2009. Before 2009 no MF was prescribed and streamflow
could temporarily equal zero downstream of the diversion
works. At Somma, during low flow periods, the discharge
downstream of the dam often equalled MF; at Merlino,
instead, it was often larger than the MF.
The ecological status sensu WFD for the period 2010–
2015 was on average good at both study sites. Interestingly,
despite lower hydrologic alteration in the Adda River than in
the Ticino River, in the former the good ecological status
(GES) was occasionally not achieved. Indeed, groundwater
contribution limits the instream flow reduction, but, at the
same time, it conveys NO3−-enriched water from agricultural
lands to the river (Delconte et al. 2014), with multiple
ecological consequences (Salmaso et al. 2014).
Discharge in Ascó is characterised by a period of high
flow at the end of the winter and low flows mainly during
Water Management and Related Environmental Issues …
Table 1 Main hydrologic characteristics of the study sites in the
Ticino, Adda and Ebro rivers
Ticino Adda Ebro
3 −1
Q (m s ) 106 80 322
CVQ 1.83 1.37 0.84
MF (%MANF) 4–10 5–10 10
Q mean annual flow; CVQ coefficient of variation; MF minimum flow
as percentage of the mean annual natural flow
summer. On average, it represents approximately 60% of the
mean annual natural flow. Besides mean annual discharge
reduction, water exploitation produces a strong reduction of
natural peak flows. Thus, discharge at Ascó is less variable
than at Somma and Merlino (the latter two having approx-
imately double CVQ than the former, Table 1).
As a consequence, the main environmental concern
linked to the dam operation in the Lower Ebro is related to
the loss of natural processes of sediment deposition and
erosion, with consequent overgrowth of aquatic plants and
reduced ecological status (Tena et al. 2016). As a mitigating
measure, specifically designed flushing flows were experi-
mented (Batalla and Vericat 2009). Moreover, a MF of
100 m3s−1 (corresponding to 10% of the mean annual nat-
ural flow, Table 1) is set as a limit for overabstraction.
4 Conclusion
Main environmental issues linked to water withdrawal in
the Po basin differ between a site exploited for hydro-
power and a site exploited for irrigation. The former
shows long-lasting periods of low flows. The latter shows
761
a minor in-stream flow reduction, but NO3−-enriched
water due to agronomical practices. In the Lower Ebro
basin, the river physical conditions have changed notably
in the last decades mainly due to the reduction in floods
magnitude and frequency.
The management of rivers affected by water diversions
needs to include measures able to restore some of their
basic environmental functions.
References
Batalla RJ, Gomez CM, Kondolf GM. Reservoir-induced hydrological
changes in the Ebro River basin (NE Spain). J Hydrol. 2004;290
(1):117–36.
Batalla RJ, Vericat D. Hydrological and sediment transport dynamics of
flushing flows: implications for management in large Mediterranean
rivers. River Res Appl. 2009;25(3):297–314.
Delconte CA, Sacchi E, Racchetti E, Bartoli M, Mas-Pla J, Re V.
Nitrogen inputs to a river course in a heavily impacted watershed: a
combined hydrochemical and isotopic evaluation (Oglio River
basin, N Italy). Sci Total Environ. 2014;466:924–38.
Sabater S, Tockner K. Effects of hydrologic alterations on the
ecological quality of river ecosystems. In: Water scarcity in the
Mediterranean. Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 2009. p. 15–39.
Salmaso F, Crosa G, Espa P, Gentli G, Zaccara S. Eco-hydraulic survey
of a highly regulated large Italian river. 10th ISE 2014, Trondheim,
Norway.
Salmaso F, Quadroni S, Gentili G, Crosa G. Thermal regime of a highly
regulated Italian river (Ticino River) and implications for aquatic
communities. J Limnol. 2017;76(1):23–33.
Tena A, Vericat D, Gonzalo LE, Batalla RJ. Spatial and temporal
dynamics of macrophyte cover in a large regulated river. J Environ
Manag. 2016; doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.11.034.
 Spatial Evolution of Physical-Chemical
Parameters Characterizing the Quality
of the Surface Waters After
the Developpement of the Marchica Lagoon
(North-East Morocco)

Asmae Aknaf, Mustapha Akodad, Mostapha Ayachi, Faid El Madani,

Abdessamad Jaddar, Abdelhakim Mesfioui, and Mourad Baghour

Keywords
Nador lagoon Physical-chemical parameters Water Terrigenous Treatment plants

Ecological Interest and has been declared a RAMSAR site

1 Introduction
Coastal lagoons are inland water bodies, usually oriented
parallel to the shore, separated from the sea by a barrier,
connected to the sea by one or more restricted inlets which
remain open at least intermittently, and have water depths
which seldom exceed a few meters (Kjerve 1994). These
ecosystems occupy around 13% of the coastal areas world-
wide and are important contributors to groundwater reser-
voirs, local and regional weather stability, and preservation
of biodiversity and also as water suppliers (Kjerve 1994;
Esteves et al. 2008). Coastal lagoons are among the most
productive ecosystems in the world (Nixon 1982; Alongi
1998). Human activity around coastal lagoons has increased
considerably in recent years, and the impact on these pro-
ductive and economically important environments has
became a matter of concern in different lagoon around the
world such as Thau pond in France, Venice lagoon in Italy
and Moulay Bousselham in Morocco, Mar Menor in Spain
and Ghar El Melh in Tunisia (Yamamuro and Kanai 2005).
The lagoon of Nador (North-East of Morocco) is the
unique lagoon ecosystem on the Mediterranean coast of
Morocco. It is classified as a Site of Biological and
A. Aknaf (&)
M. Akodad
M. Baghour
Observatoire de la Lagune de Marchica de Nador and Région
Limitrophes (Labo. OLMAN-RL), Faculté Pluridisciplinaire de
Nador, Université Mohamed Premier, BP 300, 62700 Selouane,
Nador, Morocco
e-mail: asmae_facul@hotmail.fr
M. Ayachi
F. El Madani
A. Mesfioui
Institut National de Recherche Halieutique, Nador, Morocco
A. Jaddar
Team Mathematics Computer Mechanics (MIM) of
ENSAO-Oujda, Oujda, Morocco
since 2005 (Dakki et al. 2011) or the conservation of wet-
lands of international importance. This lagoon is considered
one of the most productive zones of the Moroccan
Mediterranean and plays an important biological and eco-
logical role (Crivelli et al. 1992), it has a biological richness
and has a particular interest in certain species such as the
flamingo, the large mother-of-pearl, the European eel, and so
on. In addition, artisanal fishing is the main known economic
activity of the lagoon (Najih et al. 2015).
2 Material and Methods
2.1 Study Area
The lagoon of Nador is the second largest lagoon complex in
northern Africa (Zerrouqui et al. 2013, and is the second
largest lagoon in the southern shore of the Mediterranean
Sea (Fig. 1). Nador lagoon is the largest lagoon in Morocco,
with a length of 25 km, a width of 7.5 km and an estimated
area of 115 km2. It is located on the northeast coast of
Morocco between Cape Three Forks and Cape Water, more
precisely between latitudes 35°05′N and 35°14′N and the
longitudes 2°44′W and 2°56′W. It is separated from the sea
by a coastal dune with an area of 760 ha oriented NW-SE.
The lagoon still connects with the Mediterranean Sea
through a new artificial channel of 300 m in width and 6.5 m
in depth.
2.1.1 Methods of Analysis
The study concerns the analysis of physical-chemical
parameters (Temperature: T°, pH, electrical conductivity:
E.C., dissolved oxygen: O2, phosphate: PO42-, nitrate: NO3-

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 763

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_224
764
Fig. 1 Location of study areas
according to Re et al. (2013) and
El Yaouti et al. (2009)
and nitrite: NO2-) of the Lagoon Nador in order to establish
a diagnosis of the state of pollution of that water, The
samples were shipped in January 2015. Temperature, salinity
and electrical conductivity (EC) were measured in situ by
portable conductivity measuring instrument (Model Cond
197i). A pH-meter (SUNTEXTS) was used to assess the pH
of the water samples. The dissolved oxygen measurement
was determined by Eutech DO 6 + Meter and Turbidimeters
was used for turbidity determination (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 Map of the distribution of
the sampling stations
A. Aknaf et al.
3 Results and Discussion
The temperature of the water varies between a minimum
value of (14.5 °C) registered in January 2015 at the station 5
and a maximum value of 17,5 °C recorded at station 10
(Table 1). The temperature on all stations sampled is rela-
tively homogeneous.
The results of pH didn’t show remarkable variations with
high pH values (8.25) at the station 10 and low value of 7.96
Spatial Evolution of Physical-Chemical Parameters … 765

Table 1 Spatioal variations of the physicochemical parameters of water in the Nador lagoon
Parameters Stations
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Tm 15,9 15,7 15,2 16 14,7 15,8 15,3 16,8 16,1 17,5 15,5
pH 8,17 8 8 8,3 8,04 7,96 8,05 8,03 8,08 8,25 8,02
EC 65,1 56 56,1 55,9 56 55,8 55,6 55,5 55,2 55,5 55,3
Salinité 38,6 38,5 38,6 38,46 38,4 38,52 38,25 38,16 38 38,16 38,04
OD 12,3 10,01 9,88 9,33 9,62 6,49 9,54 10,61 9,82 12,75 9,2
Turb 2,65 3,15 1,23 1,45 1,75 1,6 1,17 3,77 6,21 2,39 1,86

Table 2 Spatial variations of nutrients in the water of the Nador lagoon

Parameters Stations
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
NO3 0116 0037 0012 0102 0015 0021 0233 0204 0,07 0,1 0,14
NO2 0018 0011 0013 0011 0,01 0011 0,01 0,1 0044 0013 0012
PO24 0 0 0 0 0 0004 0 0047 0127 0008 0

at the station 6 (Table 1). These results are comparable to
those of previous studies (El Madani 2011; Mostareh et al.
2016).
The electrical conductivity (EC) shows a clear sinusoidal
evolution with a maximum in the (56.1 ms/cm) at the station
3 and a minimum (55.2 ms/cm) at station 8 (Table 1).
The salinity levels followed the same pattern as did the
electrical conductivity, since the minimum was obtained at
the station 8 with a concentration of 38 g/l and the maximum
was recorded at the station 6 with 38.6 g/l (Table 1).
The concentration of dissolved oxygen in surface waters
of the lagoon shows a temporal variability, the higher con-
centrations were found during the winter at the stations 8 and
10 (Intense photosynthetic activity of green macroalgae),
reaching the values of 10.61 mg/l and 12.75 mg/l, respec-
tively. Compared to previous studies (Zerrouqui et al. 2013),
the highest dissolved oxygen level was recorded in
Beni-nsar at the N-W end of the lagoon. The spatial variation
of turbidity shows that the low value was found at the sta-
tion4 (1. 45 NTU) and the highest value were recorded (6.21
NTU) at the station 9 (Table 1), and for the other sites the
water is clear.
The high levels of nitrate were recorded at the site of
selouan (S8) 0.201 mg/l and at the site of Bou-Arg (S7)
0,233 mg/l (Table 2). These stations receive terrible inputs
from Oued Selouan and Oued Bou-Areg, respectively. Oued
Bou-Areg transports the run-off water from the agricultural
zone. Agricultural activities in the Bou Areg area are also the
main source of pollution of surface water and groundwater
by nitrate, nitrite and phosphate in the lagoon of Marchica
and Oued Selouan (Selouan Creek) which transports urban
and industrial waste from the village of Selouane into the
lagoon (Bloundi et al. 2005).
4 Conclusion
The Nador lagoon has improved the quality of the
physico-chemical parameters of the water after the cre-
ation of the new pass of 300 m in width and 6 m in depth
and the installation of the new sewage treatment plant at
the level of Bou-Areg. We noticed an improvement in
water quality at the site of Beni-Ensar caused by the
intra-lagoon circulation of water via the pass, while near
the mouth of Oued selouan, we found high levels of
nutrients. These levels are due to anthropogenic releases
by Oued selouan knowing that this site is near the agri-
cultural zone.
References
Alongi DM. CRC marine science series, 3. Boca Raton: CRC Press;
1998.
Bloundi MK. Etude géochimique de la lagune de Nador (Maroc
oriental): Impacts des facteurs anthropiques. Thèse de Doctorat
d'Etat. Université Mohamed V- Agdal. Rabat; 2005. 215 p.
Crivelli A, Ximenes MC. IWRB Symp. Grado, Italy, IWRB special
publication; 1992. 20, 134 p.
Dakki M, El Agbani MA, Qninba A. Zones humides du Maroc inscrites
jusqu’en 2005 sur la liste de la Convention de Ramsar. Travaux
Institut Scientifique, Rabat, Série Générale; 2011. 7, 238 p.
El Madani F, Chiaar A, Chafi A. Phytoplankton composition and
abundance assessment in the Nador lagoon (Mediterranean coast of
Morocco). Acta Botanica Croatica; 2011. 70(2.), 269–88.
766
El Yaouti F, El Mandour A, Khattach D, Benavente J, Kaufmann O.
Appl. Geochem. 2009;24:16.
Esteves FA, Caliman A, Santangelo JM, Guariento RD, Farjalla VF,
Bozelli RL. Braz. J. Biol. 2008;68:967.
Kjerve B. Elsevier Oceanograhy. 1994;60:1.
Mostareh M, EL Madani F, Yahya H, EL Hachemi O, Abdellaoui S,
Merghem K, Chafi A, 2016. Evaluation physico-chimique de la
qualité de l’eau de la lagune de Nador (Maroc Nord oriental).
J. Mater. Environ. Sci. 5 (Y) (2016). ISSN: 2028–08.
Najih M, Berday N, Lamrini A, Nachite D, Zahri Y. Situation de la
pêche aux petits métiers après l’ouverture du nouveau chenal dans
la lagune de Nador. Revue Marocaine des Sciences Agronomiques
and Vétérinaires. 2015;3(1):19–30.
A. Aknaf et al.
Nixon SW. Nutrient dynamics, primary production and fisheries yields
of lagoons. In: Procecdings International Symposium on coastal
lagoons, Oceanologica Acta, Special Issue; 1982:357–71.
Re V, Sacchi E, Martin-Bordes JL, Aureli A., El Hamouti N,
Bouchnan R, Zuppi GM. Appl. Geochem. 2013;34:181.
Ruiz F, Abad M, Galan E, Gonzalez I, Aguila E, Hamouni N, Pulidi I,
Cantano M. The present environmental scenario of the Nador
Lagoon (Morocco). Environmental Research; 2006;102:215–229.
Yamamuro M, Kanai Y. Chem Geol. 2005;218:51.
Zerrouqui Z, Sbaa M, Chafi A, Aquil H. Contribution à l’étude de la
qualité des eaux de la lagune de Nador: Impact de l’anthropisation.
Bulletin de l’Institut Scientifique, Rabat, Section Sciences de la Vie.
2013;2013(35):51–9.
 Comparison of Three Different Biochemical
Compositions of Foods in the Rainbow Trout
(Onchorynchys mykiss) and Their Effect
on Oum Er-Rbia River Water Quality
(Morocco)

Khadija Ouaissa, Assia Kritihi, Youness Oumessoud,

Abdelaziz Maychal, and Mustapha Hasnaoui

Keywords
Foods Extruded Zotechnical performance Rainbow trout Environnement Releases

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Aquaculture is a sector of food production that has evolved
significantly in recent years. The sustainability of fish
farming is today confronted with a regulatory constraint of
environmental protection and a socio-economic context of
limitations of water consumption.
Livestock currently account for nearly 50% of the world’
food fish (FAO 2010). This growth has led the aquaculture
industry to face major challenges. The most important of
these is the reduction of the negative impacts of aquaculture
practices on the environment. This has led researchers and
producers to explore possible solutions to achieve sustain-
able development.
The objective of this study wa to test three types of food
A.B and C in a fish station and choose a food with less fish
rejections and no effect on the receiving medium.
K. Ouaissa (&)
A. Kritihi
M. Hasnaoui
Laboratory of Management and Valorization of Natural
Resources, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences and
Techniques, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, Beni Mellal,
Morocco
e-mail: khadijaouaissa89@gmail.com
A. Kritihi
e-mail: assiakritihi@gmail.com
M. Hasnaoui
e-mail: must_hasnaoui@yahoo.com
Y. Oumessoud
A. Maychal
Fish Farming Ain Aghbal, Azrou, Morocco
e-mail: y.oumessaoud@lesaromesdumaroc.ma
A. Maychal
e-mail: aziz.maychal@lesaromesdumaroc.ma
The experiment was conducted on the 15 June 2015 at the
Oum Er-Rbia fish farm which located about 70 km from
Azrou city (Morocco). 4574 Trout of average weight of 40 g
from the same batch of eggs were divided randomly into six
tanks. The test was conducted in monoculture; the fish were
fed manually with a determined daily ration.
Every 15 days, 90 fish of each batch, have been anes-
thetized in order to measure the zootechnical performances.
To estimate the outflows of nitrogen, phosphorus and
suspended matter, the three foods (A, B and C) were mon-
itored twice per month consecutively.
3 Results and Discussion
The trout were kept under optimal conditions throughout the
trial period, as the values obtained for temperature, dissolved
oxygen and pH met the standards for breeding these fish
(wedemeyer 1996; Kaushik and Oliva-Teles 1985).
According to this comparative study of three foods, the
results show that feed B ensures a significant growth of trout
compared to foods A and C Indeed, of 1043.9 g, compared
to 803.1 g for food A and 942.1 g for food C.
The extruded food B provided better growth performance
compared to foods A and C. The highest final average
weight values mean daily growth rates and feed conversion
efficiencies were obtained with diet B.
Our results confirm the existence of a feed efficiency,
where a better growth was recorded for food B which results
in 1043.9 g, compared to food C (760 g) and food A
(726.4 g), wherein feed B has a low fat content in the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 767

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_225
768
Fig. 1 Growth of rainbow trout
with the three types of food (A, B
and C)
Fig. 2 Rates of Nitrogen
discharges
Fig. 3 Rate of phosphorus
discharges
magnification stage which has a high content of lipid (27%)
and (26%). This is contradictory to the results found by
Chaiyapechara et al. (2003) Fig. 1.
In the context of sustainable development and the
preservation of water resources, aquaculture in turn acts
directly on the environment and conserves it in water.
Several studies have been achieved on the effect of aqua-
culture on the environment by Einen et al. (Einen et al.
1997) on the bar “Dicentrarchus labrax’’ and salmonids by
(Young and Bureau 1998), (Dosdat 2003), Nitrogen rejec-
tion in open fish farms was estimated on the basis of the
K. Ouaissa et al.
linear relationship between nitrogen in food and nitrogen
excreted (Pascal 2000). The results obtained and shown in
the Fig. 2 show that the extruded food B has low nitrogen
discharges relative to foods A and C. B food contains 41%
of the protein against 39% of the food protein in A and 40%
in C. The latter indicates a high rate of 0.31 mg/l of nitrogen
compared to nitrogen discharges from food B (0.27 mg/l) in
the breeding ponds, knowing that food B is rich in proteins
according to its biochemical composition. In addition, food
C has a higher concentration of suspended solids than the
two other tested foods A and B because of the high nitrogen
Comparison of Three Different Biochemical Compositions …
Fig. 4 Rate suspended matter solids
phosphate content excreted by the fish in the test ponds
(Fig. 3). Figure 4 represents the evolution of the suspended
matter of the food C.
4 Conclusion
The results of this study show that the extruded food B
characterized by its energy content, its efficient
digestibility and its best ratio digestible protein/digestible
769
energy and its non-protein energy level determinant, is
the food which offers the trout the better growth
performance.
References
Chaiyapechara S, Casten MT, Hardy RW, Dong FM. Fish performance,
fillet characteristics, and health assessment index of rainbowtrout
(Oncorhynchusmykiss) feddiets containing adequate and high
concentrations of ipid and vitamin E. Aquaculture. 2003;219:
715–38.
Dosdat A. Effect of chronic exposure to ammonia on growth, food
utilisation and metabolism of the European sea bass (Dicentrarchus
labrax). Aquat Living Resour. 2003; 16(6):509–20.
Einen, O, Roem AJ, Dietaryprotein/energy ratios for Atlantic salmon in
relation to fish size: growth, feed utilization and slaughter quality.
Aquacult Nutr 1997;3:115–26.
FAO. La situation mondiale des pêches et de l’aquaculture; 2010.
Kaushik SJ, Oliva-Teles A. Effect of digestible energy on nitrogen and
energy balance in rainbowtrout. Aquaculture. 1985;50:89–01.
Wedemeyer GA. Physiology of fish in intensive culture systems; 1996.
chapmanhall, london, UK.
Young CC, Bureau DP. Development of bioenergetic models and the
Fish-PrFEQ software to estimate production, feeding ration and waste
output in aquaculture. Aquat Living Resour. 1998;11(4):199–10.
 Modeling Integrated Water Resources
Management by WEAP, Case of Watersheds
Mabtouh (North-Western Algeria)
Laidia Zerkaoui, Mohamed Benslimane, and Abderrahmane Hamimed



Keywords
Water management WEAP
1 Introduction
Many regions of the world, characterized by aridity and water
stress, face the challenge of water scarcety, from its mobi-
lization to its allocation, to concerns related to the protection
of the environment and climate changes and uncertainties
(Rakotondrabe 2007). Benefiting from a deficient climatol-
ogy, the north-western region of Algeria faces ever increasing
water needs given its agricultural potential and demography.
In this trend of persistent climate variability, knowledge of the
conditions plays an important role in economic planning
studies; they make it possible to control the uncontrolled
inputs, generating a feasable prediction system of resources in
the short, medium and long term.
The software, developed by the Stockholm Environment
Institute, has shown its performance in many cases in terms
of simulation for the choice of scenarios of development and
management of the water resource at the medium and long
term horizons and the decision making which are needed
(SEI 2008). The choice of application site of this model has
focused on the northwestern region of Algeria which has a
chronic deficit in water resources while water needs are
growing, given its booming population, its agricultural
potential and the dynamics of its industrial fabric (Messahel
2005).
L. Zerkaoui (&)
M. Benslimane
A. Hamimed
LRSBG Laboratory, Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences,
University of Mustapha Stambouli, Mascara, Algeria
e-mail: laidia.zerkaoui@yahoo.com
M. Benslimane
e-mail: med_benslimane@yahoo.fr
A. Hamimed
e-mail: hamimed@gmail.com
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_226



Watershed Mebtouh river West algeria
Integrated water resources management is becoming an
absolute necessity for a good governance of water resources
allocation in order to equitably satisfy the drinking water
needs of the population and the economic sectors. The
present contribution of the approach by the model
WEAP (Water Evaluation and Plannig System), as a water
resource forecasting tool, is a means of simulating supply
and demand and, therefore, helping decision-making in the
choice of scenarios for future development and water
management.
2 Materials and Methods
The site chosen for the application of the WEAP model
covers the Mabtouh river watershed in the wilaya of Mascara
(northwest of Algeria), containing a storage infrastructure
(Chorfa dam), an irrigated perimeter, an industrial zone and
a large Urban agglomeration (Sig). The geological structure
is very monotonous with an alluvial plain, delimited by the
clayey sandstones of the upper Pliocene, gypsum and upper
Miocene clays. The aquifer formations along Mebtouh river
are discontinuous with a tendency to drain after rainfall
(Fig. 1).
The WEAP software is designed to anticipate flows future
evolutions in a hydro system over various time horizons. It is
a model that allows the development of useful forecasts in
regions suffering from water stress (Zakari et al. 2011). It
integrates hydraulic systems into a practical tool for planning
water resources and analyzing management strategies in the
future based on the supply and demand elements (Skouli-
karis 2008).
First, a linear programming is used to solve the water
resources allocation problem of the various sites. Its main
771
772
Fig. 1 MNT and hydraulic system of the study area
objective is to maximize the satisfaction of supply prefer-
ences and an equitable distribution of the resource. For this
purpose, the meteorological parameters corresponding to the
scenarios from the reference (2014) to the horizon 2050 were
introduced into the model. In a second step, a variation was
made in the hydro-climatic data (River flow, rainfall)
according to climatic regimes involved (very dry, dry, wet,
very humid, normal), giving a value of 0.7–1.45 for each
type of climate.
3 Results and Discussion
The application of the WEAP for the Mabtouh River
watershed allowed the expression of a demand for water for
each site, rising from 5.38 Million cubic meters to
12.62 Million cubic meters for the respective 2015 and
L. Zerkaoui et al.
2050 deadlines. This increase is explained by the rate of
population growth. Conversely, irrigation will decrease
from 23.92 Million cubic meters to 9.57 Million cubic
meters for the same period due to economical irrigation
systems.
The results also provide information on the amount of
water distributed for each water demand site that will
experience a remarkable variation. For the period 2015–
2050, WEAP does not take into account the inflow from the
catchment area and the waters of the Chorfa dam. Demand
site flows from all sources as well as consumption reached a
deficit level of 6.32 Million cubic meters in 2015. This
deficit worsened by 37.78 Million cubic meters, considering
the outflow much greater than the inflow.
Thus, the application of the WEAP for the Mabtouh River
watershed is presented in a cartographic way, considering
the supply and demand sites (Fig. 2).
Modeling Integrated Water Resources Management …
Fig. 2 Modeling of the mabtouh
river watershed by WEAP
4 Conclusion
This study enabled us to estimate water requirements for
all user sectors (households, utilities, industry and agri-
culture) through a simulation of alternative scenarios,
from the reference year (2014) to the 2050. The calibra-
tion of the WEAP model used made it possible to
reproduce the situation in order to satisfy the balance
between water production and demand but also of the
water self-sufficiency of the basin, whose external
resources represent more than 40% of the total. Besides,
these irrigation needs, a continuation of the WEAP also
773
allows us to model the evapotranspiration and the flows
which will be the subject of a future contribution.
References
Messahel M, Efficience des systèmes d’irrigation en Algérie. Commu-
nication dans le cadre de la 5ème Journée de recherche en sciences
sociales à AgroSup Dijon, les 8 et 9 décembre 2011. France; 2005.
Rakotondrabe F. Etude de la vulnérabilité des ressources en eau aux
changements climatiques, modélisation par le logiciel WEAP 21:
774
cas du bassin versant de Morondava (Sud-ouest de Madagascar).
Mémoire, spécialisé en hydrogéologie. Ecole supérieure polytech-
nique d’Antananarivo –Madagascar; 2007.
S.E.I (Stockholm Environnment Institute), Tutorial de WEAP. Guide
utilisateur du système d’évaluation et de planification des ressources
en eau (WEAP); 2008.
L. Zerkaoui et al.
SKOULIKARIS C, Mathematical modeling applied to the sustainable
management of water resources projects at a river basin scale the case of
the Mesta-Nestos. Ecole nationale supérieure des Mines de Paris; 2008.
Zakari M, Chuan M, Issoufou A, Application of Water Evaluation and
Planning (WEAP): A Model to Assess Future Water Demands in
the Niger River (In Niger Republic). Modern Appl Sci; 2011.
 Water and Energy Nexus in Gulf Cooperation
Council (GCC) Countries
Mohamed A. Dawoud



Keywords
Water Energy
1 Introduction
Water demand in the Gulf Cooperation Council
(GCC) countries is increasing rapidly due to high population
growth and rapid increase in the various development sectors
including agriculture, family and industry. The water supply
is mainly served by over pumping of fossil groundwater
resources and increasing the desalination capacity (Dawoud
and Al Mulla 2012). Satisfying this water demand requires
an intensive use of energy for treatment, desalination and
water transfer along the supply chain from sources ulti-
mately to the consumer. Hence, there is an inherent con-
nection between water and energy and with climate change
(EAD 2013). These links between water and energy are
expected to become even stronger. In this study, we assessed
the climate change impacts on the water and energy nexus in
GCC countries. The WEAP (Water Evaluation And Plan-
ning) model was used for water demand—and its main
drivers—and water supply, simulating policies, priorities
and preferences. For energy, LEAP (Long-Range Energy
Alternatives Planning) model was used for energy supply
and demand, and is able to capture the impacts of low carbon
development strategies. A coupled WEAP-LEAP model was
then used to evaluate the future performance of the
energy-water system under climate change and policy sce-
narios. The coupled models required detailed data, which
were obtained through literature reviews and consultations
with key stakeholders in the region. As part of this process,
the outputs of both models were validated for historical
M.A. Dawoud (&)
Water Resources, Environment Agency-Abu Dhabi,
P.O. Box 45553, Abu Dhabi, UAE
e-mail: mdawoud@ead.ae
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_227




Climate change Desalination Water-Energy nexus GCC countries
periods using existing data. The models examined 5 policy
scenarios of different futures of resource management to the
year 2060. A future under current management practices
with current climate and a climate projection based on the
RCP8.5; a High Efficiency scenario where each country
gradually implements policies to reduce the consumption of
water and electricity; a Natural Resource Protection scenario
with resource efficiency and phasing out of groundwater
extraction and drastic reduction of fossil fuel usage in favor
of solar; and an Integrated Policy scenario that integrates the
prior two policy scenarios.
2 Materials and Methods
WEAP and LEAP are linked together to simulate the water
and energy supply and demand to improve the understand-
ing of Water-Energy relationships (Fig. 1). The climate
change was modelled. The Baseline and future climates are
based on results from the Regional Atmospheric Modeling
sub-project. All the collected information on both water and
energy supply and demand were populated to both WEAP
and LEAP under certain assumptions (Fig. 2).
3 Results and Discussion
The linked models results were used to develop different
scenarios including the efficient water resources manage-
ment and the level of renewable energy use required to
achieve national greenhouse gas reduction targets. Also, the
results recommended the water use which should be needed
to meet resource conservation objectives. The developed
scenarios were not predictions but narratives that describe
775
776 M. A. Dawoud

Fig. 1 WEAP-LEAP linking for

water-energy analysis

Fig. 2 Data input to LEAP

plausible conditions in the GCC Region. The linked models groundwater storage was calculated under different man-
were used to predict the water and energy demands under agement scenarios (Fig. 5) and the Carbon dioxide emission
different scenarios and assumptions (Figs. 3 and 4). Also under different water and energy use scenarios (Fig. 6).
Water and Energy Nexus in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Countries 777

Fig. 6 Carbon dioxide emission under different managements

Fig. 3 Water demands prediction under different scenarios

Fig. 4 Energy demands prediction under different scenarios
4 Conclusion
The current management system of water resources in the
GCC states has reached its limits. Overconsumption of
groundwater and desalination has led to unexpected
consequences. Increasing desalinated water production
backed by cheap domestic fuels has forced some oil and
gas rich countries to import fossil fuels or to ban exports.
Water consumption, however, is mainly driven by sub-
sidized agricultural policies and domestic tariffs.
Increasing desalination capacity requirements have
demanded the development of large-scale infrastructures,
environmental concerns have arisen. High salinity levels
are jeopardizing agricultural activities and endangering
the few fresh water resources left in the aquifers. Climate
change will have impacts on the water-energy nexus.

References

Dawoud MA, Al Mulla M. Environmental impacts of seawater

desalination: Arabian Gulf case study. Int J Environ Sustain.
2012;1(3):22–37.
Environment Agency-Abu Dhabi (EAD). Water Resources Manage-
ment Strategy for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. High Level Strategy
and Action Plan for the Efficient Management and Conservation of
Fig. 5 Total groundwater storage under different managements Water Resources; 2013.
 Wheat Yield and Water Use Efficiency
in the North of Tunisia Under Supplemental
Irrigation

Amel Belhaj Mguidiche, Boutheina Douh, Hiba Gazouani,

Kalthoum Harbaoui, and Ferjoui Sahbi

Keywords
Bioclimatic stage Water use efficiency Supplemental irrigation

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

In Tunisia, cereals represent 1.5 million hectares, of which
more than 70% is wheat. They correspond to 35% of arable
land. Wheat production is a priority in Tunisia and its
increase is politically encouraged to reach national
self-sufficiency. Weeds represent a continuous problem in
Tunisian cereal production and are one of the limiting
growing factors (Gressel et al. 2004; Latiri et al. 2010).
Therefore, weed control is an essential component of a
productive agriculture. Wheat production is characterized by
an annual variability. It is mainly due to the climatic factors,
particularly, the uneven distribution of rainfall and the high
level of evapotranspiration. Wheat is a major cereal in
Tunisia in term of output and cultivated land area. It occu-
pies about 50% of all cereals area (800,000 ha on average)
and represents almost 55% of the total cereal production
(average wheat production is around 1.8 million tons). The
irrigated wheat area is around 80,000 ha. In arid and
semi-arid areas, supplemental irrigation, and limited or
deficit irrigation have been well studied and widely practiced
for improving crop yield and increasing IWUE. The objec-
tive of this paper was to evaluate the relationship between
biocliamtic stage and supplemental irrigation on yield and
water use efficiency.
The experimental sites were located in Beja (36°44′05″N
and 9°13′35″E) and Oued Miliz (8°32′55″N36°26’54″E) in
the north of Tunisia. The experiment was conducted from
December to Juin 2015–2016. The climate is characterized
as semi arid in the region of Oued Miliz and sub wet in the
région of Beja. Beja experiment design was conducted
rainfed (Ib) according to a randomized complete block sys-
tem with three replicates per treatment, divided into three
blocks each with four varieties. Oued Mliz experiment
design was a completely randomized block design divided
into nine blocks each with four varieties. The experiment
consisted of three irrigation regimes (Io) rainfed, full irri-
gated parcel and half irrigated parcel/2. Daily weather data
were recorded from a meteorological station 50 km away
from experimental site. The soils of the experimental areas
are mostly clay loam. Gravimetric soil water content was
determined at different quantities [0–20], [20–40] and [40–
60] in cm.
2.1 Crops
Two varieties of durum wheat (Triticum durum) Salim and
Agili khiar, two common wheat types (Triticum æstivum)
Bellarigia and Neapolis were planted in this experiment.

A. Belhaj Mguidiche (&)
K. Harbaoui
F. Sahbi 2.2 Water Use Efficiency

Regional Field Crops Research Center (CRRGC), Béja, Tunisia
e-mail: amelmguidiche@yahoo.fr
Water Use Efficiency (WUE) was obtained by comparing the
B. Douh
H. Gazouani
High Institute of Agronomy of Chott Meriem, University of
yield with respect to water consumption (Cooper et al. 1987;
Sousse, Sousse, Tunisia Gregory et al. 2000; Zwart and Bastiaansen 2004). It was

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 779

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_228
780
Fig. 1 a soil water content in the
first site (Beja) b soil water
content in the second site (Oued
Miliz)
calculated using biological yields (Straw and grain) and
grain yields. WUE is generally expressed in kg/ ha/mm and
defines the amount of production a unit of water used; Thus
its unit can be converted into kg/m3 (1 kg/m3 =
10 kg/ha/mm) which is more easily perceived.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Soil Water Content
As we can see from Fig. (1a), soil water content was
between 15 and 42% and decreases over time for all three
depths from with a pic in March 44.28% during a precipi-
tation. Due to the severe climatic conditions and increased
crop water requirements that enhance root extraction, soil
water content decreases to 14% in all soil profiles at the end
of the growing season. Figure (1b) shows that for all three
depths the water content is almost identical with a slight
phase shift. Water content ranged from 8.1 to 17.9%. The
low values of the water content due, on the one hand, to the
increase of the root extraction and of low water supply by
rainfall, on the other.
3.2 Water Use Efficiency Under Different
Climatic Conditions
The statistical analysis results show significant differences
(p < 0.05) in biological water use efficiency between two
climatic stages for all varieties, but in the same condition
there is no significant differences between varieties. For
grain water use efficiency no significant difference for two
varieties BLG and Neapolis and for salim and agili khiar,
there was a significant difference between varieties under
B. M. Amel et al.
different climatic stages for different varieties water use
efficiency biological or grain in Ib are high and more
important than Io. Hagan et al. (1967) also asserted that
excessive irrigation delays the maturity, harvesting and
decreased grain yield. Other studies reported that excessive
irrigation led to a decrease of crop WUE and that effective
deficit irrigation may result in higher production and WUE.
4 Conclusion
Conserving irrigation water resources is an important
measure for maintaining sustainable development of
wheat production. In conclusion full irrigation can be
recommended in semi arid condition as the results show
that water use efficiency was improved in irrigated areas.
References
Cooper PJM, Gregory PJ, Tully D, Harris HC. Improving water use
efficiency of annual crops in the rainfed farming systems of West
Asia and North Africa. Experimental Agriculture, Farming Systems
series-5; 1987. 23, 113–58.
Gregory PJ, Simmonds LP, Pilbean CJ. Soil type, climatic regime, and
the response of water use efficiency to crop management.
Agron J. 2000;92:814–20.
Gressel J, Hanafi A, Head G, Marasas W, Obilana AB, Ochanda J,
Souissi T, Tzotzos G. Major heretofore intractable biotic constraints
to African food security that may be amenable to novel biotech-
nological solutions. Crop Protection. 2004;23(8):661–89.
Hagan RM, Howard RH, Talcoh WE, Irrigation of agricultural lands.
Am. Soc. Agron. U.S.A.; 1967, 680–81.
Latiri K, Lhomme JP, Annabi M, Setter T. Wheat production in
Tunisia: progress, inter-annual variability and relation to rainfall.
Eur J Agron. 2010;33(1):33–42.
Zwart SJ, Bastiaansen WGM. Review of measured crop water
productivity values for irrigated wheat, rice, cotton and maize.
Agric Water Manag J. 2004;69:115–33.
 Prediction of Dams Silting in Semi-arid
Region Using Erosion Map Under GIS
Environment, Case of Ksob Watershed
in Hodna Region (Algeria)
Mahmoud Hasbaia, Sara Zeroual, Mostefa Dougha, André Paquier,
and Christine Poulard



Keywords
Soil loss Erosion Dam siltation
1 Introduction
The literature is rich with studies and models proposed to
estimate soil erosion. Among many models, the Universal
Soil Loss Equation (USLE) (Wischmeier and Smith 1978)
remains the most widely used model to estimate soil erosion.
The progress of the Geographic Information System
(GIS) tool has allowed better locate the region vulnerable to
soil erosion (Lim et al. 2005). The Hodna basin with drai-
nage area of 26,000 km2 is the fifth basin of Algeria. The
Ksob watershed (1458 km2) is one of the sub-basins of the
Hodna, it is located at northeast of Hodna basin between
longitude of 4°30′–5°17′ East and latitude of 35°45′–36°9′
North (Fig. 1; Table 1). The climate of the watershed is
semiarid, characterized by high temperature and low rainfall
associated with a high spatiotemporally variability. The
mean annual precipitation is about 363 mm/year. The aver-
age of the maximal daily rainfall is about 36.6 mm. The
watershed is equipped with a single dam (Ksob) constructed
in 1940 with a capacity of 31.00 hm3.
This paper aims to map the soil erosion under GIS
environment in order to predict the Ksob dam siltation.
M. Hasbaia (&)
S. Zeroual
M. Dougha
VESDD Laboratory, University of M’sila, 166 Ichebilia, 28000
M’sila, Algeria
e-mail: hasbaia_moud@yahoo.fr
A. Paquier
C. Poulard
Irstea, UR HHLY, 5 rue de la Doua, CS 70077, 69626
Villeurbanne Cedex Lyon, France
e-mail: andre.paquier@irstea.fr
C. Poulard
e-mail: christine.poulard@irstea.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_229




GIS Ksob Algeria
2 Materials and Methods
To map the water erosion in the Ksob watersheds (Fig. 1), we
used the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) (Wischmeier
and Smith 1978) factors definition. Each factor (Rainfall
erosivity, soil erodability, topography, crop management
factor and erosion-control practice factor) is mapped under
GIS environment based on the watershed data given from
forestry department of M’sila and the National Agency of
Hydraulic Resources (regional direction of M’sila).
USLE equation estimates the soil loss rate by multiplying
the above four factors, it is written: A = R K LS C P where A is
the mean annual soil loss, R is the rainfall erosivity factor, K is
the soil erodibility factor, L is the slope length factor; S is the
slope steepness factor, C is the crop management factor and P is
the erosion-control practice factor. In this study, we used the
data of 12 rainfall stations situated inside and around the Ksob
watershed. The R factor was calculated in each station and
spatialized over the entire basin surface by Krigeage under GIS
environment. To determine the K factor map, we used the
geologic map of Ksob to characterize the soil erodibility. This
alternative was also used by other studies in the north of African
region (Sediki et al. 2004, Toumi et al. 2013). The LS factor
map is obtained from a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with a
grid of 30 m under GIS environment. To map the C factor, we
used a land use map developed by the forestry department of
M’sila using a satellite photo obtained by Landsat satellite. For
each occupation, the C factor value was determined based on
several scientific references. The anti-erosive practices in the
Ksob watershed are very modest; therefore, the P factor is taken
equal to 1 over the entire surface of the watershed. The
superposition of the four factors maps has allowed the mapping
of the specific soil loss over the entire surface of the basin by
multiplying these four layers under GIS (Fig. 2).
781
782 M. Hasbaia et al.

Fig. 1 Ksob watershed situation

Table 1 Morphometric Characteristics Notation Unit Values

characteristics of the Ksob 2
watershed Area A km 1458.00
Perimeter watershed P km 200.00
Maximum altitude Hmax m 1882.00
Minimum altitude Hmin m 556.00
Average altitude Hmoy m 1063.50
Altitude corresponding to 5% of the area of the basin H5% m 1550.00
Altitude corresponding to 50% of the area of the basin H50% m 1060.00
Altitude corresponding to 95% of the area of the basin H95% m 800.00
Circularity ratio Kc _ 1.46
Average slope im % 11.98
Slope index of Roche Ip % 31.62
Length of the main wadi L km 84.90
Length of equivalent rectangle Lrec km 81.70
Width of equivalent rectangle lrec km 18.23
−1
Drainage density Dd km 3.55
Concentration time Tc Hour 15.54
Runoff velocity Vr m/s 1.52

Fig. 2 The soil loss in Ksob

watershed
Prediction of Dams Silting in Semi-Arid Region Using Erosion …
3 Results and Discussion
The obtained maps of the four parameters show:
The R-factor varies from 20 to 90 MJ mm (ha h yr)−1
with an average value of 41.8 MJ mm (ha h yr)−1 over the
whole surface of Ksob watershed. The lowest values of this
parameter are located slightly in the upstream and down-
stream boundaries of the basin, while the maxima are
reached at the top of the mountain massifs, which border the
basin near the cities of Medjana (North West), Guilassa East
and in the middle of the watershed.
The LS factor varies from 0.029 to 90 in the Ksob basin.
The highest values are mainly concentrated in the southern
and northeastern boundaries of the basin, this region corre-
sponds to the mountainous mass of marly limestones and
marl-limestone formations. Two other areas of higher LS
factor values are observed within the basin; The first near
K’Sour, west of the basin, and the second near Medjana in the
far north of the basin. Since the rest of the basin area consists
mainly of plains of a large extent, the LS factor decreases, it is
then at less critical levels and moderately less than 3.
The distribution of C-factor in the Ksob watershed
reflects indirectly the dynamics of the land use: the highest
values are concentrated in the large central plain of the basin,
dominated by the agricultural activities, while the weaker
values are located in the mountain ranges, given the presence
of forests. Approximately 45% of the area is attributed to a C
factor of 0.32 associated with agricultural land, and
approximately 30% of the area is characterized by a C factor
of less than 0.28 corresponding to Matorral dense cover. The
remainder of the basin area, i.e. 25%, presents the agglom-
eration zones with a factor C = 0.01, bare land with C = 1
and dense reforestation zones with C = 0.29.
The K factor varies between 0.38 and 0.60 depending on
the soil type. The upper limit of 0.60 was assigned to soils of
the complex unit of poorly developed soils; It is the very
tender and easily erodible formations developed on Miocene
marls, and constantly rejuvenated by erosion. The lower
limit 0.38 was attributed to brown and moderately erodible
soils developing on sandstones and Cretaceous limestones.
The obtained map of erosion (Fig. 2) shows that, the
specific soil loss varies over the Ksob from 0.036 to 150
t/ha/year. A first class, groups the areas with a low potential
783
erosion of less than 11 t/ha/year, it constitutes 21% of the
area of the studied basin and covers mainly the basin borders
and a part near the outlet of the basin. The second class
includes the areas with a moderate potential erosion of
between 11 and 22 t/ha/year, it constitutes 23% of the Ksob
area and focuses mainly on the plain in the middle and north
of the catchment. The third class, with a high potential
erosion of between 22 and 40 t/ha/year, represents 15% of
Ksob area. 41% of Ksob surface represents the fourth class
with a serious potential erosion of more than 40 t/ha/year.
They are located in the mountainous areas in the southeast of
the basin near Bordj Ghdir and Ghilassa and to the
north-west near Medjena.
4 Conclusion
The Ksob Watershed presents an average soil loss about
6.79 t/ha/year, this value is almost twice the tolerable
threshold of soil loss of 3 t/ha/year. From the bathymetric
surveys of the Ksob dam carried out by algerian agency
of dams during the period 1986–2008, the solid yield
accumulated in the Ksob dam during this period is esti-
mated at 23.5 Millions tons. It is equivalent to a specific
soil loss of 7.32 t/ha/year. This real rate recorded in the
dam shows the good quality of our results with a mean
relative error in the prediction of the order of 7.42%.
References
Lim KJ, Myung SM, Engel BA, Tang Z, Choi J, Kim KS. GIS-based
sediment assessment tool. CATENA. 2005;64(2005):61–80.
Sadiki A, Bouhlassa S, Auajjar A, Faleh A, Macair JJ. Utilisation d’un
SIG pour l’évaluation et la cartographie de risques d’érosion par
l’Equation Universelle des pertes en sol dans le Rif oriental
(Maroc): cas du bassin versant de l’Oued Bousouab. Rabat: Institut
scientifique Maroc. Section science de la terre, Bulletin.
2004;26:69–79.
Toumi T, Meddi M, Mahé M, Brou YT. Cartographie de l’érosion dans
le bassin versant de l’Oued Mina en Algérie par télédétection et
SIG. Hydrol Sci J. 2013;58(7):1542–58. doi:10.1080/02626667.
2013.824088.
Wischmeier WH, Smith DD. Predicting rainfall erosion losses. A guide
to conservation planning. The USDA Agricultural Handbook
No. 537. 1978.
 Identification of Emerging Contaminants
in Drinking Waters

Sana Mokrane, Djamila Harik, and Hubert Cabana

Keywords
Emerging contaminants Residues Pharmaceuticals Pesticides Detection
Elimination

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

The presence of contaminants of emerging concern (CEC) in
drinking water was reported in many studies Reddersen et al.
(2002), Benotti et al. (2008), Dunn et al. (2014). Organic
contaminants such as pharmaceuticals and pesticides resi-
dues which result from human activities in different sectors,
and escape from traditional treatments by wastewater treat-
ment plants (WWTPs) Haroune et al. (2017), Verlicchi et al.
(2012), Boussahel et al. (2003), so they might affect human
health Focazio et al. (2008).
After a physico-chemical analysis of three Algerian
drinking waters, we presented a contribution to the identi-
fication of some emerging pollutants in drinking water of
four municipalities in South Central Quebec Canada. This
identification is a very important step and a basis in the field
of treating drinking water might be applied on Algerian
waters to verify the presence of contaminants of emerging
concern (CEC) in order to predict the process of their
elimination.
S. Mokrane (&)
D. Harik
Ecole Nationale Polytechnique d’Alger, El-Harrach, Algeria
e-mail: sana.mokrane@g.enp.edu.dz
D. Harik
e-mail: djamila.harik@g.enp.edu.dz
H. Cabana
Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Canada
e-mail: Hubert.Cabana@USherbrooke.ca
2.1 Physico-Chemical Analysis of Drinking
Water
The quality of drinking water was confirmed by the results
of some parameters (by adopting the ISO methods) achieved
by Science and Techniques of Environment laboratory
(LSTE) of Polytechnic School of Algiers and SEAAL
(Algerian Society of Water and Sanitation) in Boudouaou.
The parameters were.
The hydrogen potential (pH), conductivity, turbidity,
ammonia nitrogen, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates, the organic
matter (OM), magnesium and calcium ions, total hardness
TH, chloride, alkalinity, chemical oxygen demand (COD),
test on marble and active chlorine.
2.2 Liquid-Liquid Extraction Method
Drinking water samples were collected from taps into new
amber glass bottles during winter (February 2017). Samples
were then divided in two equal volumes to make replicates
and were put each in separating funnel, 2% w/v of NaCl
were added, then extraction was performed at first by adding
10% v/v of Dichloromethane and then repeated with
10% v/v of Ethyl acetate. The organic phase was collected
into glass vial and in order to concentrate it. It was all
evaporated to dryness under gentle stream of nitrogen before
re-solubilization with 2 ml of methanol. Suspensions were
then filtered through 0.2 µm filter before transfer into UPLC
vial for quantitative analysis. Samples were stored at 4 °C
until analysis by UPLC-MS/MS Ba et al. (2014).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 785

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_230
786 S. Mokrane et al.

3 Results and Discussion 3.2 Identification of Some Emerging

3.1 Physico-Chemical Analysis of Three Algerian
Drinking Waters
The usual water analysis results show that drinking water
values of all parameters respect the potability standards
required by the Republic of Algeria and the World Health
Organization (WHO), and we can conclude that these sam-
ples are potable (Table 1).
Contaminants in South Center Quebec
Treated drinking water was analyzed for the presence of 70
chemicals, 20 molecules were detected (7 pharmaceuticals
and 13 pesticides). The results shown below (Table 2)
indicate that the municipality which waters contained high
concentrations of pesticides is Sherbrooke while the one
with high pharmaceuticals contents is Drummondville; these
different amounts of chemical residues are related to many

Table 1 Physico-chemical analysis of three Algerian drinking waters

Samples Mineral water ENP Water tap Home Water tap Potability
Parameters (Guedila) standards

pH 7.52 7.92 8.01 6.5 à 8.5

Conductivity (µs) 767 1089 1016 2800
Turbidity (NTU) 0.144 0.277 0.34 5
Ammonia NH4+ (mg/l) <0.015 <0.015 <0.015 0.5
Nitrates NO3− (mg/l) 3.62 4.134 4.167 50
Nitrites NO2− (mg/l) <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 0.2
Phosphates PO43− (mg/l) <0.015 <0.015 <0.015 0.5
Permanganate – 1.84 1.2 5
Index (IMn) (mg/l)
Mg2+ and Ca2+ [Mg2+] = 45 [Mg2+] = 38 [Mg2+] = 36 [Mg2+] = 150
ions (mg/l) [Ca2+] = 80 [Ca2+] = 76 [Ca2+] = 84 [Ca2+] = 200
TH (°f) 38 34 36 (*)
Chloride Cl− (mg/l) 51.68 148.6 103.37 500
Alkalinity TAC (°f) 27 22 18
COD (mg/l) <30 <30 65 <250
Is −0.14 0 0.1 (**)
Active chlorine 0.06 0.18 0.08 No value detected,
Cl2 (mg/l) but we can notice
the taste from
250 mg/l and
above
(*):
TH (°f) 0–7 7–15 15–30 30–40 +40
Water So pure Pure Little hard Hard Very hard
(**): When the saturation index is: Is > 0, water is « incrustante »
Is = 0, water is « inert »
Is < 0, water is « aggressive »
(*): is about (Total Hardness (TH))
(**): is about saturation index
Identification of Emerging Contaminants in Drinking Waters 787

Table 2 Concentration of some Pharmaceuticals (ng/l) Pesticides (ng/l) Drinking water treatment method
pharmaceuticals and pesticides
found in drinking water of four Sherbrooke 1 0.0656 0.112 Chlorination, ozonation, micro-straining
different municipalities in South Sherbrooke 2 0.0336 0.1704
Center Quebec with their Richmond 1 0.0696 0.0648 Chlorination, filtration, iron/manganese
treatment method Richmond 2 0.0648 0.0288
Drummond 1 0.1136 0.0944 Chlorination, filtration, charcoal
Drummond 2 0.1288 0.1384
Windsor 1 0.0696 0.1112 –
Windsor 2 0.0608 0.0376

factors like demography, treatment methods, size of the
sector that provides these products and their consumption
and price Kookana et al. (2014).
4 Conclusion
Usual physico-chemical analysis showed that the con-
sumed Algerian drinking waters answer globally the
international standards, furthermore, deeper quantitative
analysis on Canadian drinking waters highlighted the
presence of residues of emerging contaminants such as
pharmaceuticals and pesticides. These pollutants may
cause several problems to human health and thus their
identification is crucial with the view to eliminate them.
References
Ba S, Haroune L, Cruz-Morató C, Jacquet C, Touahar IE, Bellenger JP,
Cabana H. Synthesis and characterization of combined cross-linked
laccase and tyrosinase aggregates transforming acetaminophen as a
model phenolic compound in wastewaters. Sci Total Env.
2014;487:748–55.
Benotti MJ, Trenholm RA, Vanderford BJ, Holady JC, Stanford BD,
Snyder SA. Pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds
in US drinking water. Environ Sci Technol. 2008;43(3):597–603.
Boussahel R, Harik D, Moussaoui KM. Tests on the elimination of
present pesticides in Algerian waters. In: Proceedings of the 2nd
Scientific days of Oran: ANDRS; 2003. p. 38–40.
Dunn G, Bakker K, Harris L. Drinking water quality guidelines across
Canadian provinces and territories: Jurisdictional variation in the
context of decentralized water governance. Int J Environ Res Publ
Health. 2014;11(5):4634–51.
Focazio MJ, Kolpin DW, Barnes KK, Furlong ET, Meyer MT,
Zaugg SD, Thurman ME. A national reconnaissance for pharma-
ceuticals and other organic wastewater contaminants in the United
States—II) Untreated drinking water sources. Sci Total Env.
2008;402(2):201–16.
Haroune L, Saibi S, Cabana H, Bellenger JP. Intracellular enzymes
contribution to the biocatalytic removal of pharmaceuticals by
Trametes hirsuta. Environ Sci Technol. 2017;51(2):897–904.
Kookana RS, Williams M, Boxall AB, Larsson DG, Gaw S, Choi K,
Yamamoto H, Thatikonda S, Zhu YG, Carriquiriborde P. Potential
ecological footprints of active pharmaceutical ingredients: an
examination of risk factors in low-, middle- and high-income
countries. Philos Trans R Soc London. Ser B, Biol Sci. 2014;369
(1656).
Reddersen K, Heberer T, Dünnbier U. Identification and significance of
phenazone drugs and their metabolites in ground-and drinking
water. Chemosphere. 2002;49(6):539–44.
Verlicchi P, Al Aukidy M, Zambello E. Occurrence of pharmaceutical
compounds in urban wastewater: removal, mass load and environ-
mental risk after a secondary treatment-A review. Sci Total Environ.
2012;429:123–55.
 The Stormwater Network Behavior
Simulation by SWMM

Fares Laouacheria, Moncef Chabi, and Said Kechida

Keywords
Dynamic wave Overflow Urban flood Return period SWMM SCS-CN Rainfall
event

model hydraulic and hydrological components of a catchment.

1 Introduction It models and simulates both single and continuous rainfall
events. It is also used to model various BMPs and LIDs in the
Flood in urban areas is one of the disasters effecting humans.
catchment. It analyses the catchment response for various
This may occur due to various reasons such as encroachment
scenarios of rainfall events. There are four blocks in SWMM
of water bodies, inadequate carrying capacity of stormwater
namely, runoff block, transport block, extran block and storage
networks and changes in rainfall patterns. Thus, it is crucial
treatment block. The rainfall events of different return periods
to perform the capacity analysis of the existing storm net-
were used to model rainfall-runoff in SWMM. Infiltration and
work to identify the locations of overflow so as to come up
flow routing of the catchment have been evaluated using SCS
with prevention and reduction measures. Several researchers
method and dynamic wave method respectively.
have used the modelling software SWMM (Rosman 2010;
Lee et al. 2012; Burger et al. 2014; Zhang and Guo 2015), to
model urban flooding.
3 Results and Discussion
The main objective of this study was to examine the
impact of various return periods rainfall events on the urban
The required data introduced in the SWMM, was obtained
catchment.
from the storm network plan of Azzaba new city. The
catchment was divided into 97 sub catchments based on their
discharge point, storm network and drainage pattern as
2 Materials and Methods shown in Fig. 1.
Figure (2) illustrates the inflow and outflow hydrographs
In this study, the urban catchment of Azzaba new city in
of different return periods (10, 25 and 50 years), the results
Algeria has been considered. This urban catchment is divi-
show a good attenuation of the outflow hydrograph for the
ded into subcatchments and the stormwater network has
three return periods chosen for this study. The present value
been represented by conduits, junctions and outfall.
of inflow and outflow of the drainage network dimensioned
A stormwater network map of the Azzaba new city was
for each design return period are reported in Table 1.
obtained from the Autocad as shown in Fig. 1.
The simulation of the drainage network by the dynamic
Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) is a widely
wave model under the effect of rain designs for different,
used program and dynamic rainfall-runoff model, used to
return periods has led to estimate the water depths in the
pipes and nodes, such as Overloaded pipes and overload and
overflow nodes.
F. Laouacheria (&)
M. Chabi
S. Kechida Observing Fig. 3 and Table 2, the optimal values of
Department of Hydraulic, Badji Mokhtar Annaba University, water depth in nodes are always observed for the 50-year
P.O. Box 1223000 Annaba, Algeria return period for this case study.
e-mail: fares.laouacheria@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 789

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_231
790 F. Laouacheria et al.

Fig. 1 Study area under SWMM

Fig. 2 Inflow and Outflow hydrographs of different return periods

Table 1 Variation of value of Return Inflow (l/s) Pic inflow Outflow (l/s) Pic Outflow Difference l/s) (1)-
inflow and outflow of the period (1) (h) (2) (h) (2)
drainage network with design
rainfall return period, T 10 2118.94 1h50 1765.85 2h00 353.09
25 2353.47 1h50 1886.44 2h00 467.03
50 2470.68 1h50 1930.84 2h00 539.84

4 Conclusion infiltration processes. The case study of Azzaba new city

The SWMM model was applied for the urban catchment presented herein showed that SWMM is well suited for
of Azzaba new city. Dynamic wave routing and SCS-CN urban catchments especially when it is modelled as a
approaches were applied to analyze flow routing and
The Stormwater Network Behavior Simulation by SWMM 791

Fig. 3 Node surcharching of the drainage network

Table 2 Values of the surcharging nodes

References
Return period Depth max of water (m)
Node 14 Node 108 Node 240 Burger G, Sitzenfrei R, Kleidorfer M, Rauch W. Parallel flow routing in
10 0.97 1.09 0.63 SWMM 5. Environ Model Softw. 2014;53:27–34.
Lee JM, Hyun KH, Choi JS, Yoon YJ, Geronimo FKF Flood reduction
25 0.93 1.20 0.72
analysis on watershed of LID design demonstration district using
50 0.97 1.27 0.75 SWMM5. Desalination Water Treat. 2012;38(1–3):326–32. http://
dx.doi.org/ 10.1080/19443994.2012.664377.
Rossman LA, Stormwater management model user’s manual, version
5.0. National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati;
single catchment. The results show that there are many 2010.
Zhang S, Guo Y, SWMM Simulation of the Storm Water Volume
nodes flooded in the entire catchment and there are many Control Performance of Permeable Pavement Systems. J Hydrol
overflow section in the case of all different return periods. Eng. (2015);20(8):06014010.
 Characterisation of Mean Monthly Rainfall
Variability Over Mellegue Catchment—
Tunisia

Haifa Feki, Taoufik Hermassi, and Nessrine Soualhia

Keywords
Rainfall variability Spatial interpolation Temporal trends Mann-Kendall test
Tunisia

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

For arid and semi-arid countries such as Tunisia, water is a
fundamental issue for their development because of its rarity
and the spatio-temporal irregularity of its distribution
between the North and the South. The mobilization of water
resources has become one of the fundamental objectives of
the State. Tunisia’s rainfall patterns are characterized by
relatively modest inputs, unevenly distributed in space and
very irregular in time. The northern part of the Tunisian
region is the rainiest area of the country, where most of the
dams and reservoirs for irrigation and water supply are
located. Since the density of climate monitoring networks in
this area is low, rainfall derived from spatial interpolation
scheme could be extremely useful for better management of
water resources in ungauged catchments (Bastin et al. 1984).
Otherwise, analysis of changes in trend for mean or extreme
climate events is important due to the potentially high social,
economic and ecological impact of such events (Hamed and
Rao 1998). In some regions, extreme precipitations have
already shown amplified responses to changes in mean
values.
H. Feki
N. Soualhia
Ecole Supérieure des ingénieurs de Medjez el beb, Medjez el beb,
Tunisia
e-mail: taoufikhermassi77@gmail.com
H. Feki (&)
Laboratoire GreenTeam/Université de Carthage, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: haifa.fki@gmail.com
T. Hermassi
Intitut National de recherche en Génie rural, eaux and forets,
Tunis, Tunisia
The case study was developed for the Mellègue River basin area.
It is part of the largest hydro-system of Tunisia, the Medjerda
Valley. The border watershed between Tunisia and Algeria is
controlled by the Nebeur dam which was built between 1949
and 1956. The elevation ranges from 170 to 1600 m a.m.s.l. The
climate is semi-arid to sub humid receiving an average annual
rainfall of 420 mm. The mean annual runoff is 5.6 m3/s and the
maximum annual runoff is 40 m3/s. The region is characterized
by a cold humid winter and a hot dry summer. The data used
concern a total of 34 stations distributed over the Mellègue
catchment (15 Tunisian stations and 19 Algerian stations) with a
monthly time interval covering the period 1993–2004. Homo-
geneity is a crucial aspect when dealing with trend detection or
time series analysis. If the monotonic trends are likely caused by
long-term climate change, step changes in precipitation series
may be considered doubtful and possibly caused by station
relocation or changes in the station instrumentation. The double
mass method is used for homogeneity analysis. The Mann–
Kendall (MK) test (Hamed and Rao 1998) is used for the trend
detection and the method of Sen is considered to estimate the
magnitude of the slope of detected trends. Finally, five inter-
polation methods are compared to assess rainfall spatial vari-
ability using jack-knife validation technique (Feki et al. 2017).
3 Results and Discussion
The presence of autocorrelation in time series may affect the
change point or trend detection test results. Consequently,
the presence of lag-1 autocorrelation in the time series of the
different indices is first tested.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 793

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_232
794 H. Feki et al.

Fig. 1 Annual rainfall variability

in Melegue K13 raingauge

Table 1 Hypotheses tests results

Station Text d’Hypothése
Text d’indépendance de wald Text de staionnarité de Kendall Text d’homogénéité de
wolfowitz Wilcoxon
Statistique Seuil observé Statistique Seuil observé Statistique Seuil observé
OUED MELLEGUE K 13 |U| = 0.472 p = 0637 |K| = 0.843 p = 0.399 |W| = 0.508 p = 0.611
H0 acceptée au niveau de H0 acceptée au niveau de H0 acceptée au niveau de
signification de 5% signification de 5% signification de 5%

Fig. 2 Example of mean

monthly rainfall map for April in
Mellegue catchment

There are fewer significant trends at the global signifi- stations. The trends are not very pronounced in the Mellegue
cance level than at the local significance level. There is a catchment. Oued Mellegue K13 was chosen for illustration
strong evidence of a global drying tendency in most of the (Fig. 1; Table 1).
Characterisation of Mean Monthly Rainfall Variability Over …
The results indicate that all interpolation methods, except
the nearest neighbour approach, give similar and valid pre-
cipitation estimates at the catchment scale (Fig. 2).
4 Conclusion
This study provides a regional assessment of trends in
mean monthly precipitation over North Tunisia. There is
a strong temporal and spatial variability. The influence of
autocorrelation is found to be limited in the present
analysis, while only a few local trends are detected. Since
mean monthly precipitations also exhibit a strong spatial
variability among the different stations, it is hypothesized
that these events are more influenced by local climatic
processes and topography. These approaches could be
useful to better analyze the influence of topography over
795
the spatial variability of rainfall for the assessment of
future climate change impacts (Lebel and Laborde 1988).
References
Bastin GB, Lorent C, Duque M. Optimal estimation of the average
rainfall and optimal selection of raingage locations. Water Resour
Res. 1984;20:463–70.
Feki H, Slimani M, Cudennec C. Geostatistically based optimization of
a rainfall monitoring network extension- Case of the
climatically-heterogeneous Tunisia. Hydrol Res. 2017;48(2):514–
41.
Hamed KH, Rao AR. A modified Mann-Kendall trend test for
autocorrelated data. J Hydrol. 1998;204:182–96.
Lebel T, Laborde JP. A geostatistical approach for areal rainfall
statistics. Stochastic Hydrol Hydraul. 1988;2:245–61.
 Monitoring and Modeling Digestate Fate
and Transport in Infiltrating Afforested
Areas Versus Maize/Ray-Grass Rotation Plots

Micòl Mastrocicco, Nicolò Colombani, Bruno Boz, and Bruna Gumiero

Keywords
Nitrate leaching Nitrate uptake Managed recharge Hydraulic conductivity
Unsaturated soil

1 Introduction to anthropogenic activities has been recognized to have

Managed aquifer recharge systems must account for the
expected long-run performance from a water quality view-
point to be considered sustainable in ameliorating not only
the groundwater quantity but also its quality. Gravity-driven
infiltration ditches in newly afforested areas are one of many
managed aquifer recharge systems that could enhance the
availability of groundwater resources in medium and short
runs. Although, in highly anthropized landscapes such as in
Northern Italy, the need of large areas for managed recharge
systems is often controversial with respect to the classical
land use, which is prevalently agricultural. For this reason, a
large scale field experiment has been conducted recently to
assess the potential of combining managed aquifer recharge
systems with the need of maintain productive the land
(Mastrocicco et al. 2016). Nevertheless, such activities are
complicated by the fact that reactive nitrogen pollution due
M. Mastrocicco
DISTABIF, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, via
Vivaldi 43, 81100 Caserta, Italy
e-mail: micol.mastrocicco@unicampania.it
N. Colombani (&)
Department Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of
Ferrara, via L. Borsari 46, 44110 Ferrara, Italy
e-mail: clo@unife.it
B. Boz
Drainage Authority Consorzio di Bonifica Acque Risorgive,
V. Rovereto 12, 30174 Venice, Italy
e-mail: bruno.boz@alice.it
B. Gumiero
Department Biological Geological and Environmental Sciences,
University of Bologna, V. Selmi 3, 40126 Bologna, Italy
e-mail: bruna.gumiero@unibo.it
harmful consequences on environmental quality (Galloway
et al. 2008). Clearly, in agricultural landscapes the main
sources of pollution are fertilizers. With the green economy
boot up, the production of digestate has dramatically
increased around the world (Li et al. 2011). Digestate is a
source of plant available nitrogen (Gutser et al. 2005) and
degradable forms of carbon (C). As nitrogen is often a
limiting factor for crop growth (Berry et al. 2002), the
digestate spread on agricultural land may become a viable
way to capitalize on both the environmental and economic
values of this waste (Vangronsveld et al. 2009). The reuse of
digestate in agricultural lands could possibly resolve both the
problems of soil fertilization and waste elimination, but the
fate and transport of dissolved species originating from the
digestate and entering groundwater must be evaluated cau-
tiously before this practice could be employed in infiltration
areas. Thus, the aim of this study was to compare the mass
flux of nitrate leached from infiltrating afforested areas with
respect to the classical maize/ray-grass rotation plots, this
was achieved by calibrating and validating a process based
on the numerical model (HYDRUS-1D).
2 Materials and Methods
The experimental site is located in the municipality of Tezze
sul Brenta (VI) in Northern Italy and covers an area of
1.7 ha. The site is located in the upper part of the Brenta
megafan (2600 km2) where highly permeable soils are
available. The afforested area of infiltration was set in the
site during the spring of 2009 and is still jointly managed by
the Consorzio di Bonifica Brenta and Veneto Agricoltura.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 797

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_233
798
The afforested area consists of four monoculture plots
(60  50 m each) of Platanus hispanica, Paulownia
tomentosa, Salix alba and Fraxinus oxycarpa (Mastrocicco
et al. 2016). Infiltration was promoted by a system of eight
ditches 7 m spaced that makes most of the ground surface
available for farming and accessible from agricultural
machinery. The maize/ray-grass rotation plots are located
nearby the afforested area (60  50 m each). The afforested
plots were amended with increasing digestate rates of 0, 170
and 250 kg-N/ha/y, while the maize/ray-grass rotation plots
were amended with digestate rates of 0 in the control plot
and 250 kg-N/ha/y plus 140 kg-N/ha/y of mineral fertilizer
in the conventional plot. To accurately define the site
stratigraphy, two trenches were excavated within the site
down to 1.5 m b.g.l. In situ ks were measured using a
2800K1 Guelph Permeameter at 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, and 0.8 m b.g.
l. The volumetric water content in each plot was recorded
every 30 min through frequency domain reflectometry
probes placed at 30, 60 and 90 cm b.g.l. and connected to a
data logger. Two arrays of soil solution suction samplers
were installed at 0.3, 0.6, and 0.9 m b.g.l., in each plot to
analyze soil water quality. A meteorological station was
available on-site to derive the evapotranspiration and pre-
cipitation. The daily soil water movement was calculated
using the finite element model Hydrus-1D (Šimunek et al.
2008). The soil column was discretized in 101 nodes of
20 mm each, to form a regular vertical grid of 2.0 m. The
soil hydraulic parameters were assigned using the values
derived from field data. The actual root water uptake was
simulated using the dimensionless water stress response
function available in the Hydrus-1D database. At the soil
surface, variable flux and head conditions were selected to
represent the atmospheric boundary. Free drainage was
selected as lower boundary condition and the cumulative
bottom flux expressed as negative flux (recharge towards the
aquifer). The N inputs were simulated using variable con-
centration flux at the upper boundary, while a zero con-
centration gradient was applied at the bottom of the model.
3 Results and Discussion
After an inverse modeling procedure applied to unknown
parameters, the calibration and validation of the HDRUS-1D
simulation were considered satisfactory, since the modeling
efficiency was higher than 0.8 in all the simulated plots. In
the maize/ray-grass rotation plot fertilized with digestate and
M. Mastrocicco et al.
mineral nitrogen there were significant increases in nitrate
concentrations in water at all depths with values reaching
concentrations between 20–80 mg-N/L of nitrate according
to the measured data, with peaks even higher with respect to
the numerical model simulation. This trend was not found in
the control plot where the concentration values were
between 0 and 20 mg-N/L of nitrate. The higher peaks were
recovered in the surface layer and were attributable to the
residual N-derived endowment from the cultivation activities
prior to the experimental phase. Concentration peaks in the
soils subject to fertilization tended to propagate fairly
quickly along the soil profile and to exhaust (2/4 months
depending on the rainy events) in the post-distributive
periods, confirming the poor protective capacity of these
soils due to their extremely high hydraulic conductivity
(Mastrocicco et al. 2016). The use of nitrogen by plants and
microbial communities was partial, as demonstrated by the
low concentration reduction values in the transition from the
top layer (first 30 cm) affected by the rhizosphere to deeper
layers. This was generally attributable to the extremely rapid
hydrological dynamics and the low capacity of the soils, in
all layers, to retain water as also witnessed by the volumetric
soil moisture monitoring, characterized by intermittent
peaks. In all the plots and all soil layers there was a clear
prevalence of nitrate among other mineral nitrogen species.
This demonstrates that the conversion of ammonium into
nitrate occurred quickly and almost completely, thanks to the
presence of aerobic conditions. Differences in terms of
concentrations between afforested plots amended with 170
and 250 kg-N/ha/y were clear, with almost double concen-
trations in the latter plots. Maximum concentration peaks
were significantly higher in the afforested plots with respect
to the maize/ray-grass rotation plots. This reflects the fact
that in the afforested plots the distribution area was reduced
(2.5 m of interface on the 7 m overall width for each plot)
and therefore in the areas sampled by the suction cups the
doses per unit of the surface were higher (about 3 times). In
the afforested plots, a significant reduction in concentrations
between the first two layers (30 and 60 cm) and the third
(90 cm) was recorded. This is an indication of better nitro-
gen utilization in processes that affect the rhizosphere. In
terms of the mass balance, in the afforested plots the nitrate
losses via leaching were much smaller compared to the
maize/ray-grass rotation plot, both in absolute terms and in
percentage terms (Table 1). Despite the distribution, this has
been concentrated into an area of only 36% with respect to
the available one. This was attributable to the smaller
Monitoring and Modeling Digestate Fate and Transport …
Table 1 Mass flux of reactive nitrogen calculated by the HYDRUS-1D models for different plots
Year Plot Distributed nitrogen (kg-N/ha)
2012–2013 Maize/ray-grass 383
Afforested 170 kg-N/ha/y 178
Afforested 250 kg-N/ha/y 260
2013–2014 Maize/ray-grass 414
Afforested 170 kg-N/ha/y 161
Afforested 250 kg-N/ha/y 237
quantity of nitrogen distributed (about 50% of nitrate com-
pared to the maize/ray-grass rotation plot, not requiring
chemical fertilization), and obviously to greater and better
nitrogen utilization capacity by the undisturbed forest soil.
4 Conclusion
In this study, the mass flux of nitrate leached from infil-
trating afforested areas with respect to classical
maize/ray-grass rotation plots was compared. This was
done by calibrating and validating a process based on the
numerical model (HYDRUS-1D) versus long term field
data on both volumetric soil water content and soil water
quality. The afforested plots were more efficient in using
the available reactive nitrogen than the maize/ray-grass
rotation plots. Despite this, the nitrate leaching capacity
was found to be elevated in the afforested plots because
of the extremely elevated hydraulic conductivity of these
soils and also because the presence of trees does not
require elevated reactive nitrogen availability to grow
up. This study pointed out that the numerical modelling
of reactive nitrogen in the vadose zone is a valuable tool
to quantify the complex processes which occur near the
root zone and is pivotal in understanding the inter-annual
variability that often characterize the nitrate leaching.
799
Nitrogen leached (kg-N/ha) Percentage (%)
222 58
18 10
18 7
119 29
104 65
169 71
References
Berry PM, Sylvester-Bradley R, Philipps L, Hatch DJ, Cuttle SP,
Rayns FW, Gosling P. Is the productivity of organic farms restricted
by the supply of available nitrogen? Soil Use Manag. 2002;18:248–55.
Galloway JN, Townsend AR, Erisman JW, Bekunda M, Cai Z,
Freney JR, Martinelli LA, Seitzinger SP, Sutton MA. Transforma-
tion of the nitrogen cycle: recent trends, questions, and potential
solutions. Sci. 2008;320(5878):889–92.
Gutser R, Ebertseder T, Weber A, Schraml M, Schmidhalter U.
Short-term and residual availability of nitrogen after long-term
application of organic fertilizers on arable land. J Plant Nutr Soil
Sci. 2005;168:439–46.
Li Y, Park SY, Zhu J. Solid-state anaerobic digestion for methane
production from organic waste. Renew Sust Energ Rev. 2011;15
(1):821–6.
Mastrocicco M, Colombani N, Salemi E, Boz B, Gumiero B. Managed
aquifer recharge via infiltration ditches in short rotation afforested
areas. Ecohydrology. 2016;9(1):167–78.
Šimůnek J, van Genuchten MT, Šejna M. Development and applica-
tions of the HYDRUS and STANMOD software packages and
related codes. Vadose Zone J. 2008;7(2):587–600.
Vangronsveld J, Herzig R, Weyens N, Boulet J, Adriaensen K,
Ruttens A, Thewys T, Vassilev A, Meers E, Nehnevajova E, van
der Lelie D, Mench E. Phytoremediation of contaminated soils and
groundwater: lessons from the field. Environ Sci Poll Res. 2009;16
(7):765–94.
 Fertilizing Value of Treated Wastewater
Under Short Term Irrigation of Olive Tree
(Olea europaea L.)

Ameni Ben Hassena, Mohamed Zouari, Nada Elloumi, Wahid Khabou,

and Nacim Zouari

Keywords
Olive tree Treated wastewater Macronutrient Micronutrient Gas exchange
Bio-fertilizer

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

The reuse of treated wastewater (TWW) for olive irrigation
purposes is a potential solution to reduce the fresh water
demand and protect the environment. In fact, this effluent is
rich in nutrients such as N, P and K, as well as micronu-
trients, that are considered essentiel for plant growth (Bed-
babis et al. 2015). Particularly, for plant nursery production,
TWW represents an interesting alternative source of irriga-
tion water, which is likely to help face the high water
demand. According to Al-Absi et al. (2009), under nursery
condition, TWW was suitable for olive irrigation but geno-
typic variation was observed in response to TWW salinity.
In the present work, young olive plants were irrigated with
different concentrations of TWW for a short period under
nursery conditions to evaluate the optimal level of TWW
dilution.
Uniform one-year-old trees (O. europaea L. cv. Chetoui)
were cultivated in pots filled with 5 kg soil (86% sand,
11.85% silt and 2.15% clay). The pots were kept in a cov-
ered experimental field and were subjected to the following
treatments during four months (15th Febrary–15th June
2012). The first group of control plants was irrigated with tap
water (TW). The second and the third groups were irrigated
with TWW diluted 33% by tap water (33% TWW) and
TWW diluted 50% by tap water (50% TWW), respectively.
The fourth group of plants was irrigated with undiluted
TWW (100% TWW). The TWW was collected from ‘El
Hajeb’ experimental station of Sfax. At the end of the
experiment, the macro-and micronutrients contents were
determined by flame spectrophotometry and by atomic
absorption spectrophotometry, respectively. Net photosyn-
thesis (Pn), stomatal conductance (Gs) and transpiration rate
(E) were measured, and the total chlorophyll content was
determined.

3 Results and Discussion

A. Ben Hassena (&)
M. Zouari
W. Khabou
Olive Tree Institute, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: benhassena.ameni@yahoo.fr The chemical characteristics of TWW showed that this
M. Zouari
effluent presented a high electrical conductivity (5.58 dS
e-mail: mohamedzouari2@gmail.com m−1) and Na content (601.52 mg/l), which explains the high
N. Elloumi
Na accumulation in the leaves. However, the Na accumu-
Laboratory of Plant Biodiversity and Dynamics of Ecosystems lation did not represent a salinity problem on the olive plant
in Arid Area, Faculty of Sciences of Sfax, University of Sfax, because it did not exceed the phytotoxicity threshold
Sfax, Tunisia (0.42%) according to Kenworthy (1973). In addition, com-
N. Zouari pared to tap water, TWW contained important amounts of
Higher Institute of Applied Biology Medenine, essentiel nutrients (K) and micronutrients (Cu and Zn).
University of Gabes, Medenine, Tunisia
e-mail: znacim2002@yahoo.fr
Table 1 shows a significant (p  0.05) enrichment in K, Cu

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 801

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_234
802 A. Ben Hassena et al.

Table 1 Effect of TWW irrigation on macronutrients (%) and micronutrient concentration (ppm) in leaves of olive plants. Values represent the
means of 3 replications per treatment ±SD. Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments (p  0.05)
TW 33% TWW 50% TWW 100% TWW
Na 0.19 ± 0.01 d
0.25 ± 0.01c
0.29 ± 0.01 a
0.27 ± 0.01b
K 0.62 ± 0.03 d
0.77 ± 0.06c
0.85 ± 0.05 b
0.93 ± 0.03a
Cu 12.00 ± 0.27c 12.10 ± 0.30c 12.90 ± 0.36b 14.90 ± 0.40a
Zn 18.90 ± 1.47 c
21.40 ± 1.90 c
24.80 ± 1.25 b
30.20 ± 1.39a

Fig. 1 Effect of wastewater

irrigation on: a net photosynthesis
(Pn); b transpiration rate (E);
c stomatal conductance (Gs) and
d total chlorophyll content of
olive plants. Values represent the
means of 3 replications per
treatment ±SD. Different letters
indicate significant differences
between treatments (p  0.05)

and Zn contents of olive leaves irrigated with different levels 4 Conclusion

of TWW especially undiluted TWW. As compared to con-
trol plants, the enhancement in K, Cu and Zn contents were
50, 24 and 60% respectively for plants irrigated with undi-
luted TWW. A similar result was reached by Al-Absi et al.
(2009), who observed an accumulation of K, Cu and Zn in
the leaves of olive plants under TWW irrigation.
The additional amounts of both macro- and micronutri-
ents due to TWW irrigation were also beneficial for the crop
gas exchange. An increase in the rate of net photosynthesis
(Pn) was accompanied with an increase in stomatal con-
ductance (Gs), transpiration (E) and total chlorophyll con-
tents (Fig. 1). For instance, compared to the control plants,
the increase of Pn, Gs, E and total chlorophyll was 55, 63, 72
and 49%, respectively in the plants irrigated with TWW. The
abundance of TWW in nutrients such as K may play a
crucial role in photosynthetic assimilation. In fact, the K is
known to play an important role in stomatal opening and
closing (Tekaya et al. 2016), which can optimize the
assimilation of CO2 and therefore the production of
photosynthates.
The current study showed the beneficial effect of TWW
irrigation during four months for olive plants cv. Chetoui.
This effluent may be used as a good bio-fertilizer for
young olive plants due to its richness in considerable
amounts of essential nutrients. The irrigation with undi-
luted TWW was the most efficient in improving the plants
performance. Therefore, TWW may be used for a short
period to irrigate olive plants in nursery to preserve fresh
water and reduce the use of chemical fertilizers which
will accelerate the growth rate of plants and shorten the
period required for nursery. However, the effect of con-
tinuous irrigation with TWW should be further
investigated.
References
Al-Absi KM, Al-Nasir FM, Mahadeen AY. Mineral content of three
olive cultivars irrigated with treated industrial wastewater. Agric
Water Manage. 2009;96:616–26.
Fertilizing Value of Treated Wastewater Under Short …
Bedbabis S, Trigui D, Ben Ahmed C, Clodoveo ML, Camposeo S,
Vivaldi GA, Ben Rouina B. Long-terms effects of irrigation with
treated municipal wastewater on soil, yield and olive oil quality.
Agric Water Manage. 2015;160:14–21.
Kenworthy AL. Leaf analysis as an aid in fertilizing orchards. In:
Beaton JD, Walsh LM, editors. Soil Testing and Plant Analysis.
Soil Science. USA: Society of America Inc; 1973. p. 381–92.
803
Tekaya M, Mechri B, Dabbaghi O, Mahjoub Z, Laamari S, Chihaoui B,
Boujnah D, Hammami M, Chehab H. Changes in key photosyn-
thetic parameters of olive trees following soil tillage and wastewater
irrigation, modified olive oil quality. Agric Water Manage.
2016;178:180–8.
 A Multivariate Analysis of Water Quality
in Lake Ghrib, Algeria
Somia Hamil, Mounia Baha, Sihem Arab, Nassima Doukhandji,
and Abdeslem Arab



Keywords
Nutrients Pollution
1 Introduction
lakes and reservoirs are important sources of surface water
and livelihoods to many rural and urban communities.
However, declining water quality in fresh water lake is an
increasing problem that threatens the ecosystem services to
the riparian communities. One of the major causes of the
decline in the water quality is nutrient enrichment. mainly
phosphorus, causing a significant change in the biological
structure of the lakes (Harper 1992). Ghrib Lake is one of the
most important wetlands of the Atlas Telian in Algeria
because of its ecological and socio-economic role. It should
be noted that the lake has been exploited for a long time in
the field of fish farming as a reservoir of cyprinid spawners.
This lake receives its water from wadi Cheliff, and these
waters are intended for the irrigation of the Mitidja plain to
the east and the irrigation of the upper and lower Cheliff
plains to the west. the main aim of this study was firstly to
assess the status of water quality in relation to
S. Hamil (&)
LaDyBi; FSB, USTHB/L.E.B.A.; ENS Kouba, Kouba, Algeria
e-mail: dj.soumia@hotmail.fr
M. Baha
L.E.B.A.; ENS Kouba, Kouba, Algeria
e-mail: normalienne@yahoo.fr
S. Arab
LaDyBi; FSB, USTHB/G& G; FSTGAT—USTHB Algeria,
Bab-Ezzouar, Algeria
e-mail: sihemarab@gmail.fr
N. Doukhandji
A. Arab
LaDyBi; FSB USTHB Algeria, Bab-Ezzouar, Algeria
e-mail: nassi.meriem@yahoo.fr
A. Arab
e-mail: abdeslema@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_235




PCA Water quality Lake ghrib Algeria
physico-chimical parameters and secondly to assess corre-
lations between the different water quality parameters using
multivariable analysis.
2 Materials and Methods
The sampling was carried out monthly at Ghrib lake
(Algeria), from June 2013 to May 2015, on six stations.
Temperature, pH, salinity, conductivity and dissolved oxy-
gen were measured in situ using a multi-parameter analyzer
(type Multi 340 i Set WTW). The visibility of the water was
measured using a Secchi disk. Other chemical parameters
(nitrate, nitrite, and phosphorus) were measured by classical
methods of spectrophotometric and titration (Rodier 2004) in
the laboratory.
The principal component analysis (PCA) was used to
analyze the dataset.
3 Results and Discussion
The mean and standard error of water environmental
parameters measured in this study are shown in Table 1. All
environmental variables studied showed significant temporal
variations (ANOVA, p < 0.05). Secchi disc visibility and
phosphorus showed significant spatial variations (ANOVA,
f = 4.26, p = 0.001), (ANOVA, f = 2.87, p = 0.016)
respectively.
The water temperature varied between 6 and 28 °C. At all
sites examined, the water temperature reached the highest
value in summer (>19 °C), and decreased in winter (<12 °C).
Dissolved oxygen concentration varied between 3.1 and
15.9 mg.L−1. Its high concentration was recorded during
805
806 S. Hamil et al.

Table 1 Environmental factors measured at the Ghrib lake (June 2013 to May 2015; n = 24)
Summer.13 Autumn.13 Winter.14 Spring.14 Summer.14 Autumn.14 Winter.14 Spring.15
Secchi disc 180 ± 45.3 234.1 ± 43.1 169.4 ± 67.7 217.7 ± 83.5 162.2 ± 48.8 142.5 ± 35.9 80.8 ± 33.4 167.9 ± 42.8
visibility Cm
Water 26.7 ± 1.6 24.0 ± 2.89 10.6 ± 0.6 18.1 ± 1.8 24.3 ± 3.0 21.0 ± 3.3 9.1 ± 1.0 16.3 ± 2.9
temperature °C
Dissolved 7.3 ± 1.2 5.2 ± 1.5 6.7 ± 2.1 9.8 ± 2.8 6.4 ± 0.8 6.1 ± 1.9 8.4 ± 0.4 8.8 ± 1.3
Oxygen
mg l−1
Salinity 1.27 ± 0.05 1.37 ± 0.17 1.3 ± 0.05 1.2 ± 0.04 1.38 ± 0.03 1.4 ± 0.05 1.22 ± 0.16 1.12 ± 0.09
pH 8.5 ± 0.2 8.8 ± 0.1 8.5 ± 0.1 8.6 ± 0.08 8.3 ± 0.1 8.0 ± 0.4 7.6 ± 0.3 7.7 ± 0.4
−1
Nitrate mg l 2.1 ± 1.9 1.7 ± 0.5 2.17 ± 0.5 3.5 ± 1.6 2.41 ± 0.94 2.4 ± 0.61 2.5 ± 0.6 3.82 ± 1.23
Nitrite mgl−1 0.14 ± 0.1 0.05 ± 0.02 0.05 ± 0.02 0.09 ± 0.3 0.06 ± 0.04 0.06 ± 0.02 0.11 ± 0.11 0.2 ± 0.3
Phosphorus 0.05 ± 0.05 0.1 ± 0.1 0.02 ± 0.01 0.04 ± 0.02 0.09 ± 0.06 0.03 ± 0.02 0.10 ± 0.08 0.22 ± 0.07
mg l−1

winter, this may be due to the decrease in solubility and

temperature and high degradation of organic substances. The
decomposing organic matter, dissolved gases, industrial
waste, mineral waste and agricultural runoff results to get
lower DO levels (Addo et al. 2013).
DO concentration under 5.0 mg L−1 adversely affects the
aquatic life (Sinha and Biswas 2011). Water pH fluctuated
from 7.1 to 9.2 indicating alkalinity nature of the water.
Tenner et al. (2005) noticed that the range of pH from 6 to
8.5 indicates medium production of the reservoir. Ca+2,
Mg+2 and Cl−1 were the main ions which were analyzed.
Ca+2 concentration ranged between 86.5 and 156.9 mg L−1.
Mg+2 concentration ranged between 134.9 and 274.7 mg
L−1. Nutrients analysed in the present study were nitrogen
(as NO3-N and NO2-N) and phosphorus (as PO4 −3-P)
(Table 1). The mean NO3-N concentration ranged between
1.7 and 3.82 mg L−1. The highest values of NO3-N were Fig. 1 Bi-plot of PCA-analysis performed on the physicochemical
parameters of Ghrib Lake. (WT) water temperature, (Vs) visibility,
recorded at mouth of Ghrib lake followed by north-west (Sal) salinity, (EC) electrical conductivity, (DO) dissolved oxygen,
station (St.2) (Close to agricultural land). The high con- (Ca) calcium, (Mg) magnesium, (PO4) phosphorus, (NO3) nitrate,
centrations of NO2 and PO4 were registered at the mouth of (NO2) nitrite
the lake, 0.11 and 0.22 mg L−1 respectively.
Kazi et al. (2009) illustrated that the presence of the 1st and 3rd PCs showed that visibility in the lake was
nutrients is closely associated with agricultural effluents negatively associated with the nutrients (P-PO4, N-NO2,
from surface runoff. This suggests that Lake Ghrib is N-NO3) and positively associated with calcium Ca+2.
experiencing high influxes of phosphorus and nitrogen from
exogenous sources. Nitrite and phosphorus concentrations
showed little variation between the sampled sites. 4 Conclusion
PCA performed on the correlation matrix of means of the The water of Ghrib dam is Holomictic with a neutral to
analyses water quality parameters by site showd that three slightly basic pH. The water mineralization of this dam is
principal components (PCs) represented about 69.18% of the very high; the calcium, magnesium and chlorine contents
total variation in the entire dataset (Fig. 1). The bi-plot of the are higher than the normal range. We also noticed high
A Multivariate Analysis of Water Quality in Lake Ghrib, Algeria
values of nutrimental elements, pointing out nitrates,
nitrites, phosphorus, in the stations located near the
agricultural fields.
References
Addo MA, Darko EO, Gordon C, Nyarko BJB. Water quality analysis
and human health risk assessment of groundwater from open-wells
in the vicinity of a cement factory at Akporkloe, Southeastern
Ghana. e-Journal of. Sci Technol. 2013;8(4):15–30.
807
Harper D. The ecological relationships of aquatic plants at lake
Naivasha, Kenya. Hydrobiologia. 1992;232:65–71.
Kazi T, Arain M, Jamali M, Jalbani N, Afridi H, Sarfraz R, Baig J,
Shah AQ. Assessment of water quality of polluted lake using
multivariate statistical techniques: a case study. Ecoto-xicology
Environ Saf. 2009;72(2):301–9.
Rodier J. L’analyse de l’eau: Eaux naturelles, Eaux résiduaires. Dunod,
Paris: Eaux de mer; 2004. p. 1381.
Sinha SN, Biswas M. Analysis of physico-chemical characteristics to
study the water quality of a lake in Kalyani, West Bengal. Asian J
Exp Biol Sci. 2011;2(1):18–22.
Tenner CC, Cragga RJ, Sukias JP. Comparison of matuartion ponds
and constructed wetlands as the find stage of an advanced pond
system. Water Sci Technol. 2005;2005(51):307.
 Phytoplankton Community Diversity
and Seasonal Variation in the Boukourdane
Lake, Northern Algeria

Arab Siham, Hamil Somia, and Arab Adeslem

Keywords
Phytoplankton Seasonal variation CCA Boukourdane lake Algeria

1 Introduction parameters were measured in situ—water temperature, pH,

Diversity, distribution, and variation in the biotic parameters
provide a good indication of energy turnover in aquatic
environments (Forsberg 1982). Within these environments
phytoplankton are located at the base level and are repre-
sented as a major source of organic carbon (Gaikwad et al.
2004). Species diversity responds to changes in environ-
mental gradients and may characterize many interactions that
can establish the intricate pattern of community structure.
Since, data on the phytoplankton and the physicochemical
features of Boukourdane lake are lacking completely. This
study was carried out in order to determine some physico-
chemical features of the water as well as the phytoplankton
distribution and diversity in the lake. Seasonal fluctuations in
density and composition of seven classes of phytoplankton
identified in the Boukourdane lake in relation to the envi-
ronnemental factors were described in the present study.
2 Materials and Methods
The sampling was carried out monthly, in four stations. In
each station two samples were taken one for physicochem-
ical analysis and the second for phytoplankton studies. Five
S. Arab (&)
LaDyBio, FSB_USTHB/G&G; FSTGAT_USTHB, Alger, Algeria
e-mail: sihemarab@gmail.com
S. Hamil
LaDyBio, FSB_USTHB/L.E.B.A, ENS Kouba, Kouba, Algeria
e-mail: dj.soumia@hotmail.fr
A. Arab
LaDyBio; FSB_USTHB, Alger, Algeria
e-mail: abdeslema@yahoo.fr
conductivity, and dissolved oxygen, determined using a
Multi 340i/SET WTW analyzer, and transparency, which
was determined using a Secchi disk. Additionally, nine
physicochemical parameters (nitrate, nitrite, ammonium,
ortho-phosphate, sulfate, calcium, magnesium, chloride,
chlorophyll a and suspended matter) were analysed at the
laboratory. A 50-micro meter mesh net was used for phy-
toplankton sampling.
3 Results and Discussion
A total of 162 phytoplankton were recorded from 192
samples within the study period. The taxa belonging to
Chlorophyceae (55), Bacillariophyceae (47), Cyanobacteria
(17), Euglenophyceae (15), Dinophyceae (10), Zygnemato-
phyceae (10), Chrysophyceae (6), Xanthophyceae and
coccolithophyceae (1). The percentage composition were
recorded as Chlorophyceae> Diatomophyceae> Cyanobac-
teria> Euglenophyceae> Dinophyceae> Zygnemato-
phyceae> Chrysophyceae> Xanthophyceae and
coccolithophyceae, respectively.
The study of phytoplankton diversity and its seasonal
variation according to the physicochemical parameters was
established using Canonical Correspondence Analysis
(Fig. 1). This showed that the phytoplankton density was
higher when minerals and nutrients increased. Where,
Nitzschia acicularis, was the most abundant species in the
phytoplankton community.
Phosphate, carbonate, and conductivity ions are physic-
ochemical parameters that influence significantly diatoms
(Soininen and Kononen 2004). This is consistent with our
results where we recorded these parameters with Cyclotella

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 809

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_236
810 A. Siham et al.

Fig. 1 Factorial representation Teau d=5 d=1

of the seasons of study, the

phytoplankton and the
environmental variables on the pH
plane (F1  F2) of the CCA
AUT.14
O2d

sal trans
(Intercept)

CaMg

Loadings Tair
d = 0.5

Co3
AUT.13 W.13
Cond
SP.13
Cl W.15
Ca
TeaupH
trans
Tair
O2d SP.14
NO
SM.14
W.14
SM.13
NO3
sal PO4
Mg MESNH4
So4

Correlation Scores and predictions

d=1
Axis2 S.gra
A.min
C.sp Eigenvalues
C.sp2

Axis C.oce
C.sp1

A.sp
Chl.a
P.dup
P.sim
C.acu
C.men
S.acu T.min
S.bij
N.aci S.uln D.ped
A.ela
M.aer
Inertia axes Variables
PR.cun
PR.aci
PR.pus
PR.cin
C.fT.gel
en

sp1, Cyclotella menegheniana, Nitzschia acicularis and
Synedra acus. We also found that different species of
Cyclotella and Nitzschia were strongly related to conduc-
tivity and phosphate ions. This result corroborates that of El
Haouati et al. (2015). The chlorophyceae (Scenedesmus
bijugatus, Tetraedron minimum) that were found to be
related to the chlorophyll a. Atanle et al. (2013) found a
strong correlation between dinophyceae and mineralized
water, which corroborates our result, where we found the
Dinobryon pediform species in a water rich in carbonates
and with a high conductivity. Anabaena sp, Cylindrsper-
mopsis raciborskii and Microcystis aeroginosa appeared in
the autumn of 2013 and 2014. These results corroborate
those of Radji et al. (2013).
4 Conclusion
Due to their significant capacity to respond to environ-
mental changes, the phytoplankton have long been used
as biological indicators of aquatic environment quality. In
this study, these compartments were used to determine
the ecological status of a lake located in the Northern
Algeria.
References
Atanle K, Bawa LM, Kokou K, Djaneye-boundjou G, Edorh MT,
Distribution saisonnière du phytoplancton en fonction des car-
actéristiques physico-chimiques du lac de Zowla. J Appl Biosci.
(2013);64:4847–57.
EL Haouati H, Arab A, Tudesque L, Lek S, Samraoui B. Study of the
diatoms of Reghaia lake, northern Algeria. Rev Ecol. (Terre Vie).
(2015);70:44–75.
Forsberg C. Limnological research can improve and reduce the cost of
monitoring and control of water quality. Hydrobiol. 1982;86:143–6.
Gaikwad SR, Tarot SR, Chavan TP. Diversity of Phytoplankton and
zooplankton with respect to pollution status of river Tapi in North
Maharastra region. J Curr Sci. 2004;5:749–54.
Radji R, Bandje A, Issifou L, Edorh T, Kokou K. Diversité et
dynamique des assemblages phytoplanctoniques dans les écosys-
tèmes aquatiques au Sud du Togo. Science: Afrique; 2013. 66–77.
Soininen J, Kononen K. Comparative study of monitoring
South-Finnish rivers and streams using macroinvertebrate and
benthic diatom community structure. Aquat Ecol. 2004;38:63–75.
 Trophic Status Assesement of Lacustrine
Ecosystem, Boukourdane Lake, Algeria

Siham Arab, Hamil somia, and Arab adeslem

Keywords
Trophic status Mesotrophic Boukourdane lake Algeria

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Since the early years of the 20th century, lakes have been
classified according to their trophic state. A eutrophic lake
has high nutrients and high plant growth. An oligotrophic
lake has low nutrient concentrations and low plant
growth. Mesotrophic lakes fall somewhere in between
eutrophic and oligotrophic lakes. While lakes may be
lumped into a few trophic classes, each lake has a unique
constellation of attributes that contribute to its trophic
status. Three main factors determine the trophic state of a
lake (transparency, concentration of phosphorus ions and
the concentration of the Chlorophyll a). Trophic status is
a useful means of classifying lakes and describing lake
processes in terms of the system productivity. Basins with
infertile soils release relatively little nitrogen and phos-
phorus leading to less productive lakes, classified as
oligotrophic or mesotrophic. Watersheds with rich organic
soils, or agricultural regions enriched with fertilizers, yield
much higher nutrient loads, resulting in more productive,
eutrophic (even hyper-eutrophic) lakes.
S. Arab (&)
LaDyBio, FSB_USTHB/G&G; FSTGAT_USTHB, Alger, Algeria
e-mail: sihemarab@gmail.com
H. somia (&)
LaDyBio, FSB_USTHB/L.E.B.A, ENS Kouba, Kouba, Algeria
e-mail: dj.soumia@hotmail.fr
A. adeslem
LaDyBio, FSB_USTHB, Alger, Algeria
e-mail: abdeslema@yahoo.fr
Sampling was carried out monthly, in four stations. In each
one three samples were taken within the water column for
physicochemical analysis using a Niskin bottle of 5L
capacity. the transparency was measured in situ, and deter-
mined using a Secchi disk. Phosphorus and chlorophyll “a”
were analysed at the laboratory. the colorimetric method
with a continuous flow on an automated chain (SKALAR)
was used to determine the phosphorus level, and fluorimetric
method for Chlorophyll “a”. The study was carried out on
192 samples taken from the Boukourdane Lake, between
February 2013 and January 2015.
3 Results and Discussion
In North Algeria, most of the problems associated with the
direct discharge of domestic wastewater have been success-
fully mitigated. Now the regulatory focus is on the much more
difficult problem of controlling non-point sources (NPS) of
nutrient pollution such as agricultural drainage, stormwater
runoff, and inadequate on-site septic systems. NPS pollution
is particularly difficult to address because it is diffuse, not
attributable to a small number of polluters, and associated
with fundamental changes in the landscape, such as agricul-
ture, urbanization and shoreline development. Boukourdane
lake was classified as mesotrophic based upon the OCDE
fixed boundary system (O.C.D.E. 1982). Depending on Sec-
chi depth it was classified as eutrophic and mesotrophic for the
other parameters (chlorophyll a, phosphorus). The work of

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 811

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_237
812 S. Arab et al.

Table 1 Trophic status of Indicator Boukourdane lake dam

Boukourdane lake according to
O.C.D.E critaria (1982) Annual mean of Secchi depth (m) 1.6 m
Annual mean of Chl a (µg/L) 3.05 (µg/L)
Annual maximum of Chl a max (µg/L) 24.15 (µg/L)3)
Annual mean of Phosphorus ions (µg/L) 0.145 (µg/L)
Trophic status Mésotrophic

Hamaidi-Chergui ( 2012) and El Houati ( 2015) on the same References

lake reservoir indicated a comparable trophic conditions to
those obtained in this study Table 1.
4 Conclusion
The objectives of this study were to determine the con-
centrations, changes over time and relationships between
phosphorous, chlorophyll “a” and transparency to deter-
mine the trophic status. The reservoir was classified as
mesotrophic, based upon OCDE criteria.
EL HOUATI H. Adaptation d’un indice phytoplanctonique pour
l’évaluation de la qualité des eaux des écosystèmes lacustres
Algériens. Thèse de doctorat USTHB. Algérie. (2015); 147 p.
Hamaidi-Chergui F. Contribution à la connaissance des peuplements
planctoniques de six plans d’eau du nord de l’Algérie. Thèse de
Doctorat. Université Saad dahlab.Algérie. (2012); 499 p.
O.C.D.E. Eutrophisation des eaux: méthode de surveillance, d’évalu-
ation et de lutte. Organisation de Coopération et de Développement
Economiques, Paris. (1982); 154 p.
 Correlation Between the Extreme Climate
Indices and the AMO Index in Northern
Algeria

Hafsa Karahacane, Mohamed Meddi, Xuebin Zhang,

Hamoudi Abdelamir Saaed, and Faiza Hallouz

Keywords
Extreme climate indices AMO Correlation

1 Introduction The Atlantic Multi-Decadal Oscillation (AMO) is a

Extreme climate events often have serious impacts on soci-
ety, water resources, health and agriculture. Actually, several
scientists tend to characterize these extreme phenomena by
the use of extreme climatic indices. However, the analysis of
teleconnection between these climate extremes indices and
the indices of atmospheric oscillations is very useful for
understanding the relationship and impact of these atmo-
spheric oscillations on the occurrence and frequency of
extreme climatic phenomena.
Our work aimed to identify the correlation between the
extreme indices (precipitation and temperature) and the
large-scale atmospheric circulation indices described by the
index of the Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation (AMO).
fluctuation in detrended sea surface temperatures in the
North Atlantic Ocean. The AMO index was defined in 2001
as the 10-year running mean of the detrended Atlantic SST
anomalies north of the equator.
The AMO index is correlated to air temperatures and
rainfall over much of the Northern Hemisphere, in particular
in the summer climate in North America and Europe.
Rainfall patterns are affected in North Eastern Brazilian and
African Sahel. It is also associated with changes in the fre-
quency of North American droughts and is reflected in the
frequency of severe Atlantic hurricane activity (Trenberth
and Dennis 2005).
2 Materials and Method

2.1 Study Area

H. Karahacane
University Hassiba Benbouali Chlef-Algeria, LGEE ENSH,
The study region corresponds to the northern region of
Ouled Fares, Algeria
e-mail: karahacane_h@yahoo.fr Algeria, covering an area of 382,000 km2. It is located
between 8° East and 2° Ouest longitude and 37° and 33°
M. Meddi
LGEE National High School of Hydraulic Blida-Algeria, North latitude. This region is bordered by the Mediter-
Blida, Algeria ranean sea to the north and the Saharan Atlas mountains
e-mail: mmeddi@yahoo.fr chains to the south; Tunisia to the East and Morroco to the
X. Zhang Ouest.
Climate Research Division, Environment Canada, This region is characterized by a very diversified relief
Toronto, Canada
made up of mountains (Tellian Atlas and Saharian Atlas),
e-mail: xuebin.zhang@ec.gc.ca
plains (Cheliff, Mitidja, Habra) and high plateaus. The cli-
H. A. Saaed
mate varies from the temperate Mediterranean in the north to
University Hassiba Benbouali Chlef-Algeria, Chlef, Algeria
e-mail: hamoudisaaed@yahoo.fr the semi-arid continental in the south. The precipitation
decreases from east to west and increases from south to
F. Hallouz (&)
LGEE, ENSH, Blida, Algeria north.
e-mail: hallouzfaiza@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 813

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_238
814
2.2 Climate Data
The daily climate data represented by precipitation and tem-
peratures (maximum and minimum) are mainly obtained from
the National Agency for Hydraulic Resources (ANRH) and
the National Office of Meteorology. The daily observations of
collected data made it possible to select 12 stations spread over
northern Algeria covering the period of 1957–2013. The
spatial distribution of these posts is very heterogeneous.
3 Method
The approach used in this work is based on the analysis of
the impact of the AMO (multi-decadal Atlantic oscillation
index) on extreme climatic indices, namely PRCPTOT and
SDII for precipitation and TXx, TXn, TNx, TNn for extreme
temperatures.
The AMO data series are accessible from the website
http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/data/timeseries/AMO/. We
have to use the AMO smoothed and unsmoothed series to
define the correlation with the extreme climate indices. We
used the Pearson correlation coefficient to compute the
annual correlations.
However, the calculation of extreme rainfall indices is
done at the seasonal scale: autumn, winter, spring and
summer. For temperature indices, we selected the months of
November to March for the values of the minimum tem-
perature TN, and the months from May to September for the
maximum temperatures TX.
3.1 Results and Discussion
The index of Simple Daily Intensity (SDII) gives a
weak negative correlation with the AMO, which is only
H. Karahacane et al.
significant on two stations Menaceur and Aouf for autumn
season. For PRCPTOT index, we found a few significant
correlations with AMO index; for the coastal stations: Tenès
and Oran a negative correlation is defined on spring season;
and a positive correlation with autumn rainfall at Aghribs
station. These results show that AMO index affects nega-
tively on the precipitation by decreasing the amount rainfall
in these regions.
Pearson correlation coefficient expresses a strong corre-
lation with the TN and TX indices on all studied stations.
A positive correlation was detected between TNn, TNx,
TXn, TXx and AMO showing that this latter has a signifi-
cant impact on increasing the minimum temperature. Only
the stations of Menaceur and Oran are marked by a negative
correlation which indicates that AMO index helps in
decreasing the maximum temperature.
4 Conclusion
The obtained results show a very weak correlation
between AMO and the precipitation indices (PRCPTOT
and SDII). However, the AMO index has a positive
correlation with temperature indices especially in coastal
stations. Indeed this correlation is significant with the
maximum temperatures from which all the studied sta-
tions manifest with a significant correlation except for
two stations. This explains the impact of this index on the
increase in maximum temperatures and on evapotran-
spiration in these regions.
Reference
Trenberth K, Dennis JS. Atlantic hurricanes and natural variability in
2005. Geophysical Res Lett. (2005);33.
 Impact of DEM Data Resolution on SWAT
Model in Runoff Simulation
Jalel Aouissi, Ramzi Ennajeh, and Sihem Benabdallah



Keywords
SWAT model DEM
1 Introduction
The hydrological models and Geographic information sys-
tem (GIS) are useful tools to understand the natural pro-
cesses at the watershed scale. The distributed hydrological
model response depends among others on the spatial reso-
lution of the input data for a good represention of the
hydrological processes. The impact of spatial data resolution
on hydrological models have been analyzed in many past
studies (Sharma et al. 2011; Tan et al. 2015a). It was argued
that input data are also a source of uncertainty in hydro-
logical model (Shen et al. 2013).
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data resolutions do have
impact on SWAT modeling (Chaubey et al. 2005; Sivasena
and Reddy 2015; Tan et al. 2015b). Few studies carried out
research on the DEM resolution effect on hydrological
response of runoff and sediment, especially in the Mediter-
ranean region. In this study, the SWAT model was used at
the Joumine watershed, northern Tunisia (subbasin of the
Ichkeul Lake) to estimate runoff, erosion and sediment yield.
The Joumine watershed is dominated by agricultural land
J. Aouissi (&)
Institut National Agronomique de Tunisie, Laboratoire
GREEN-TEAM, Université de Carthage, 43 Avenue Charles
Nicolle, Mahrajène, 1082 Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: jalelaouissi@yahoo.fr
R. Ennajeh
Faculté des Sciences de Gabès, Zrig Eddakhlania, Tunisia
e-mail: ramziennajeh@yahoo.fr
S. Benabdallah
Centre de Recherches et des Technologies des Eaux, Soliman,
Tunisia
e-mail: sihem.benabdallah@certe.rnrt.tn
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_239




Hydrology ASTERGdem SRTM Streamflow
(Aouissi et al. 2014, 2015). Multi grid sizes of DEM were
used to investigate and assess the impacts on the hydrolog-
ical response.
2 Materials and Methods
The SWAT model is an Ecohydrological model developed
by the United States Department of Agriculture- ARS for
evaluating the impact of anthropic activities on a water
quantity and quality (Arnold et al. 1998). The case study for
this work was the Joumine watershed (Fig. 1). It is a sub-
basin of Ichkeul Lake (a UNESCO world heritage since
1980), situated in the North of Tunisia. It is an agricultural
and rural catchment, with an area of 418 km2 (Aouissi et al.
2014 and 2015). The impact of six DEM grid sizes (Topo
20  20, 30  30 m, 90  90 m, 250  250 m,
500  500 m, 1000  1000 m) on were evaluated SWAT
runoff simulation. The results of SWAT model simulation
were assessed using three goodness of fit indicators;
Nash-Sutcliffe (NSE), root mean square error (RMSE) and
R2.
3 Results and Discussion
The DEM grid sizes significantly influence the slope, the
watershed delineation, the watershed area, but with a
slighter effect on mean and max elevations. Figure 2
shows the impact of DEM resolution on the watershed
delineation. The sensitivity analysis of SWAT parameters
for DEM resolution was computed by comparing the
monthly simulated discharge for each DEM and monthly
observed data. R2 values were 0.84, 0.83, 0.86, 0.88, 0.89,
815
816
Fig. 1 Joumine watershed location and DEM of 20 m
Fig. 2 Watershed delineation features for DEM resolution: a: 20 m, b: 30 m, c: 90 m, d: 250 m, e: 500 m, f: 1000 m
0.89 and RMSE values were 2.53 m3s−1, 2.47 m3s−1,
1.98 m3s−1, 1.76 m3s−1, 1.72 m3s−1, 2.15 m3s−1, for Topo
20 m, 30 m, 90 m, 250 m, 500 m, 1000 m DEM resolu-
tions respectively. The hightest NSE values were 0.86 and
0.87, obtained for DEM resolutions 250 m and 500 m
respectively. The sensitivity analysis, calibration and vali-
dation of the SWAT model were performed by SWAT
cup.
J. Aouissi et al.
4 Conclusion
This work assessed the sensitivity analysis of the SWAT
parameters to DEM grid sizes (20, 30, 90, 250, 500 and
1000 m) for Joumine watershed. It was shown that the
watershed deleniation and slope were greatly sensitive to
DEM resolution. The runoff simulation results for each
DEM resolution showed that finer DEM grid sizes do not
give the highest performance.
Impact of DEM Data Resolution on SWAT Model …
References
Aouissi J, Benabdallah S, Chabaane ZL, Cudennec C. Modeling water
quality to improve agricultural practices and land management in a
Tunisian catchment using the soil and water assessment tool.
J Environ Qual. 2014;43(1):18–25.
Aouissi J, Benabdallah S, Lili Chabaâne Z, Cudennec C. Assessing the
hydrological impacts of agricultural changes upstream of the
Tunisian World Heritage sea-connected Ichkeul Lake. IAHS Publ.
2015;365:61–5.
Arnold JG, Srinivasan R, Muttiah RS, Williams JR. Large area
hydrologic modeling and assessment e part 1: model development.
J Am Water Resour Assoc. 1998;34(1):73–89.
Chaubey I, Cotter AS, Costello TA, Soerens TS. Effect of DEM data
resolution on SWAT output uncertainty. Hydrol Process. 2005;19:
621–8.
817
Sharma A, Tiwari KN, Bhadoria P. Determining the optimum cell size
of digital elevation model for hydrologic application. J Earth Syst
Sci. 2011;120:573–82.
Shen ZY, Chen L, Chen T. The influence of parameter distribution
uncertainty on hydrological and sediment modelling: A case study
of SWAT model applied to the Daning watershed of the three
Gorges Reservoir Region. China; Stoch Environ Res Risk Assess.
2013;27:235–51.
Sivasena AR, Reddy MJ, Evaluating the influence of spatial resolutions
of DEM on watershed runoff and sediment yield using SWAT.
J Earth Syst Sci. 2015;124(7):1517–29.
Tan ML, Ficklin Darren L, Dixon B, Ibrahim AL, Yusop Z, Chaplot V.
Impacts of DEM resolution, source, and resampling technique on
SWAT-simulated streamflow. Appl Geogr. 2015a;63:357–68.
Tan ML, Ibrahim A, Yusop Z, Duan Z, Ling L. Impacts of land-use and
climate variability on hydrological components in the Johor River
basin. Malaysia. Hydrological Sci J. 2015b;60:873–89.
 Analysis of Stream Flow Trends
in Sub-basins of the Upper Blue Nile Basin
Abeer Samy, Mona G. Ibrahim, and Wael Elham Mahmod



Keywords
Mann-Kendall trend analysis
1 Introduction
Blue Nile River provides the Nile River Basin with about
60% of its water flow. So, studying the Blue Nile meteo-
rological variables is a very important issue. Blue Nile is
located in Ethiopia, which is planning to have a major
development in the irrigation and hydropower structures in
the basin, so there is a growing anxiety about the induced
changes in the river stream flow (Tesemma et al. 2010).
Accordingly, it is essential to investigate long term trends in
the stream flow using appropriate statistical tools, to have a
A. Samy
Environmental Engineering Department, School of Energy
Resources, Environmental and Chemical and Petrochemical
Engineering, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology,
E-JUST, 21934 Alexandria, Egypt
A. Samy (&)
Faculty of Engineering, Benha University, 11629 Cairo, Egypt
e-mail: abeer.samy@feng.bu.edu.eg; abeer.fathy@ejust.edu.eg
M. G. Ibrahim
Dean of School of Energy Resources, Environmental and
Chemical and Petrochemical Engineering, Egypt-Japan University
of Science and Technology, Alexandria, Egypt
e-mail: mona.gamal@ejust.edu.eg
M. G. Ibrahim
Environmental Health Department, High Institute of Public
Health, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
W. E. Mahmod
Environmental Engineering Department, School of Energy
Resources, Environmental and Chemical and Petrochemical
Engineering, Egypt-Japan, University of Science and Technology,
E-JUST, Alexandria, Egypt
e-mail: wael.elham@ejust.edu.eg; wdpp2006@aun.edu.eg
W. E. Mahmod
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Assiut
University, 71515 Assiut, Egypt
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_240
Upper blue nile basin Statistical analysis
better understanding of the basin’s hydrology and variabil-
ity. The non-parametric Mann-Kendall (MK) statistical trend
test which was found to be an excellent tool for trend
detections (Yeh et al. 2015) is used. Due to the difference of
results of trend through different studies, this research aimed
to assess the long term variability of the stream flow in the
Upper Blue Nile Basin (UBNB) more precisely. MK trend
analysis was applied on a long-term time series of stream
flow in two different stations in the UBNB to investigate the
current and future situation of the amount of water going out
of the basin supplying the River Nile. It is used to determine
trends in the monthly, annual and seasonal total stream flow
over the UBNB.
2 Materials and Methods
The UBNB is located in the north-western part of Ethiopia
between longitudes 34°30′ and 39°45′ E and latitudes 7°45′
and 12°45′ N in the northwest of Ethiopia (Tabari et al.
2015) and it’s considered as the largest sub-basin of the Blue
Nile Basin. The UBNB has an approximate area of
175,000 km2 covering about 17% of Ethiopia. The basin
topography consists of hills and highlands in the
north-eastern part, and continues in valleys in the southern
and western parts. Its elevation varies from 4200 m at the
central part of the basin to 480 m near the Sudanese border
(Taye and Willems 2012). Over 80% of the UBNB stream
flow occurs from June to September and directly flows to the
downstream countries (Rientjes et al. 2011). There are sea-
sons in the UBNB, named the rainy season (from March to
September) and the dry season (from October to February).
Monthly observed stream flow data were collected from
the National Meteorological Agency (NMA) in Ethiopia.
819
820 A. Samy et al.

A long-term time series of monthly stream flow for two
stations (Bahir_Dar and Kessie) in the UBNB were obtained
from NMA with records span from 1955 to 1998, accom-
panied with the station location and elevation. Bahir_Dar
station is located at the outlet of Lake Tana sub-basin in the
upper part of the Blue Nile stream at 11°36′ N, 37°24′ E with
total catchment area of 15,321 km2. Kessie station is located
downstream of Bahir_dar station at 11°04′ N, 38°11′ E with
total catchment area of 65,784 km2.
The Nonparametric Mann Kendall (MK) test was used to
assess the significance of trends in hydrological, meteoro-
logical and climatological data time series by calculating
several parameters. This test was found to be an excellent
tool for trend detection by other researchers in similar
applications. In case of existing of a linear trend, the mag-
nitude of monotonic trend in hydrologic time series can be
quantified using the non-parametric Sen’s estimator of slope.
The trend analysis is applied on monthly, annually and
seasonally (rainy season—dry season) stream flow time
series.
3 Results and Discussion
To allow a better understanding of the stream flow data time
series, descriptive statistics for the max. monthly data for
each station were computed. Rainy season is calculated from
March to September, while the dry season was calculated
form October to February. The annual mean stream flows for
Bahir-Dar and Kessie Stations from 1956 to 1998 were
1945.8 and 12,224 m3/s respectively, with a standard
deviation of 690.89 and 5930.5. The maximum stream flow
occurred during September at Bahir_Dar station with
409.4 m3/s and contributes with 22% of the annual mean
stream flow. While at Kessie station, the maximum stream
flow happened in August with 4574.3 m3/s and contributes
with 37.4% of the annual mean stream flow. For Kessie
station, the least stream flow is in February (97.4 m3/s) and
contributes only less than 1% of the annual stream flow.
Most of the stream flow occurs in the months of the rainy
season (March, April, May, June, July, August and
September) with 85% of the annual stream flow. However,
95% of the stream flow in the rainy season occur in July,
August and September, with August contributing with 44%
of the rainy season stream flow.
The results of applying MK test for the stream flow time
series of stations Bahir_Dar and Kessie are illustrated in
Table 1 showing Kendall’s statistics (S), Variance of (S),
Kendall’s tau, computed probability (p-value), H0 Hypoth-
esis, Trend whether it exists or not and whether it is
increasing or decreasing, Sen’s Slope and its related confi-
dence interval. The MK test was achieved at a significance
level (a) of 5%. The H0 hypothesis is that the stream flow
time series has no trend. For p-value > a, it means that the
null hypothesis (no trend) is accepted indicating that there is
no significant trend in the stream flow, and for p-value < a,
it means that the test indicates that there is a significant trend
in the stream flow time series.
From Table 1, it’s obvious that there is no significant
trend in the observed monthly stream flow time series except
for March, June and August in Bahir_Dar, and May and
June for Kessie. For the annual, seasonal stream flow, there

Table 1 The Mann-Kendall test statistics for trend analysis for Bahir_Dar and Kessie Stations
S Var(S) Kendall’s tau p- H0 Hypothesis Trend Sen’s slope Confidence interval
value Max. Min.
Bahir_Dar station
January −93.00 3792.333 −0.189 0.131 Accept No −1.047 −0.797 −1.498
February −99.00 3793.000 −0.201 0.108 Accept No −0.785 −0.604 −1.004
March −164.00 3794.000 −0.333 0.008 Reject Yes (−) −0.674 −0.608 −0.820
April −110.00 3791.333 −0.224 0.074 Accept No −0.303 −0.239 −0.367
May 18.00 3791.333 0.037 0.770 Accept No 0.036 0.132 0.000
June 137.00 3793.000 0.279 0.026 Reject Yes (−) 0.357 0.435 0.273
July −5.00 3797.000 −0.010 0.935 Accept No −0.016 0.155 −0.453
August −139.00 3799.667 −0.281 0.024 Reject Yes (−) −5.854 −4.250 −6.832
September −47.00 3799.667 −0.095 0.446 Accept No −2.646 −1.285 −3.727
October −24.00 3800.667 −0.048 0.697 Accept No −1.319 0.000 −2.428
November −33.00 3799.667 −0.067 0.592 Accept No −1.333 −0.447 −2.225
December −83.00 3791.000 −0.169 0.178 Accept No −1.881 −1.576 −2.317
(continued)
Analysis of Stream Flow Trends in Sub-Basins of the Upper … 821

Table 1 (continued)
S Var(S) Kendall’s tau p- H0 Hypothesis Trend Sen’s slope Confidence interval
value Max. Min.
Annual −48.000 3802.667 −0.097 0.449 Accept No −11.930 −6.931 −17.388
Rainy eason −60.000 3802.667 −0.121 0.342 Accept No −6.678 −3.84 −8.994
Dry Season −50.000 3802.667 −0.101 0.430 Accept No −5.371 −2.845 −9.589
Kessie_Station
January −72.00 4549.33 −0.128 0.286 Accept No −1.198 −0.810 −1.664
February −101.00 4550.33 −0.180 0.139 Accept No −0.853 −0.729 −1.075
March 47.00 4550.33 0.084 0.498 Accept No 0.543 0.852 0.217
April 67.00 4550.33 0.119 0.331 Accept No 1.369 2.125 0.639
May 188.00 4549.33 0.335 0.005 Reject Yes (+) 4.704 5.553 3.603
June 200.00 4549.33 0.357 0.003 Reject Yes (+) 6.778 7.644 5.800
July 23.00 4550.33 0.041 0.746 Accept No 16.675 26.431 −1.428
August 73.00 4550.33 0.130 0.289 Accept No 36.843 53.362 23.636
September 96.00 4549.33 0.171 0.155 Accept No 37.500 44.588 17.222
October 44.00 4549.33 0.079 0.514 Accept No 5.444 9.591 1.804
November 39.00 4550.33 0.070 0.576 Accept No 1.480 2.983 0.496
December −38.00 4547.33 −0.068 0.573 Accept No −0.843 −0.273 −1.516
Annual 93.000 4550.333 0.166 0.174 Accept No 116.536 152.448 72.006
Rainy season 103.000 4550.333 0.184 0.132 Accept No 103.881 155.218 61.264
Dry season 15.000 4550.333 0.027 0.837 Accept No 4.833 9.752 −2.726
Note Bold P-values indicate that p-value < significance level a (0.05)

(a) (b)
Rainy Season Bahir_Dar Kessie Annual Bahir_Dar Kessie
30000 40000
Stream Flow (m^3/s)

Stream Flow (m^3/s)

20000
20000
10000

0 0
1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000
Fig. 1 a Rainy Season, b Annual

is not any significant trend for both stations. For the months
of March, June and August in Bahir_Dar station, the cal-
culated p-value is smaller than significance ratio (5%), so the
null hypothesis is rejected and the trend is statistically sig-
nificant with a decreasing trend. However, for the months of
May and June in Kessie station, the calculated p-value is also
smaller than the significance ratio (5%), so the null
hypothesis is rejected and the trend is statistically significant
with an increasing trend. Even though the trend shows sta-
tistical significance for three months only in Bahir Dar St.,
from Sen’s Slope there is a decreasing trend for ten months,
annual and seasonal stream flow varying from −11.930 to
−0.016 m3/s/year. The same thing can be remarked for
Kessie station; even though the trend is statistically signifi-
cant for only two months, there is an increasing trend for 9
months and the annual and seasonal stream flow time series
vary from 0.54 to 116.536 m3/s/year. Figure 1a, b shows the
MK test analysis which resulted in the trend of stream flow
from 1956 to 1998 for two stations for rainy seasons and
annually respectively.
822
4 Conclusion
The objectives of this study were to understand the
long-term variations of stream flow in the Upper Blue Nile
Basin (UBNB). Long-term (40 years) time series of the
stream flow for two ground stations (Bahir_Dar St. and
Kessie St.) were investigated using Mann Kendall
(MK) statistical trend analysis and Sen’s Slope estimator
Test. For Bahir_Dar, which is located in the outlet of Lake
Tana, a slope decrease of the trend was found in the
majority of the monthly (10 months except May and
June), annual, and seasonal stream flows with a decrease
in the slope magnitude. A significant decreasing trend was
found in three months (March, June and August) of the
year during the rainy season. On the other hand, at Kessie
station, an increasing trend occurred in 9 months, annual
and seasonal stream flow, except for the months of
December, January and February which represents the dry
season, a decreasing trend was found. Significant trends in
monthly stream flow time series are evident only in two
months, May and June. These results agree with other
previous studies applied on the basin. For future studies,
more recent data will be collected and investigated.
A. Samy et al.
Acknowledgements The first author would like to thank Egyptian
Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) for providing the financial
support (PhD scholarship) for this research as well as the Egypt Japan
University of Science and Technology (E-JUST) for offering the facility
and tools needed to conduct this work.
References
Rientjes THM, et al. Changes in land cover, rainfall and stream flow in
Upper Gilgel Abbay catchment, Blue Nile basin—Ethiopia. Hydrol
Earth Syst Sci. 2011;15(6):1979–89.
Tabari H, Taye MT, Willems P. Statistical assessment of precipitation
trends in the upper Blue Nile River basin. Stoch Env Res Risk
Assess. 2015;29(7):1751–61.
Taye MT, Willems P. Temporal variability of hydroclimatic extremes
in the Blue Nile basin. Water Resou Res. 2012;48(3):p.n/a-n/a.
Available at: http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2011WR011466.
Tesemma ZK, Mohamed YA, Steenhuis TS. Trends in rainfall and
runoff in the Blue Nile Basin: 1964-2003. Hydrol Process. 2010;24
(25):3747–58.
Yeh CF, et al. Spatial and temporal streamflow trends in northern
taiwan. Water (Switzerland). 2015;7(2):634–51.
 Modeling and Forcasting of Surface Runoff
in the Beni Bahdel Dam: Using ARDL Model
(Autoregressive Distributed Lag)

Abdelwahab Rahmouni, Mohamed Meddi, and Hafsa Karahaçane

Keywords
ARDL Beni bahdel dam reservoir Co-integration Forcasting

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Optimal management of water resources requires the use of
hydrological modeling, which makes it possible to anticipate
the available water resources from a few days to a few
months and thus improve their management and consultation
between the various actors in the water sector.
In order to apply these ideas and concepts, a choice was
made on the hydrological variable: the monthly flows are
due to the availability of information on longer or shorter
periods of time and, on the other hand, of particular interest
in the hydro-agricultural field. Indeed, this variable is char-
acterized by a spatial and temporal variability affecting
directly and indirectly the level of the yields of the different
agricultural speculations.
In our research, we were interested in the modeling of
inputs of Beni Bahdel dam reservoir in the long term with
stochastic models dealing with monthly data series. This
work described in more details the methodology for fore-
casting these inputs through the ARDL model.
A. Rahmouni
H. Karahaçane
LGEE ENSH, University Hassiba Benbouali Chlef-Algeria,
Ouled Fares, Algeria
e-mail: abdelwahab.rahmouni@yahoo.fr
H. Karahaçane
e-mail: karahacane_h@yahoo.fr
M. Meddi (&)
LGEE, National High School of Hydraulic Blida, Blida, Algeria
e-mail: mmeddi@yahoo.fr
The Tafna watershed is located in the north-west of the
Algerian territory, largely in the wilaya of Tlemcen and
partly in Morocco. The Tafna takes its source at Djebel
Merchiche, in the Mounts of Tlemcen near Sebdou, at
1600 m of altitude.
The dam of Beni Bahdel lies between the coordinates
x = 115 m and y = 164.6 m. The volume of the reservoir is
63 Hm3 and is basin is an area of 1016 km2. The
Beni-Bahdel dam is the first dam built in the Tafna basin
between 1934 and 1940 in concrete and used for the first
time in 1944.
In order to forecast the goal station discharge (station at
the entrance to the Beni Bahdel reservoir) at the monthly
scale, the station’s monthly discharge period from the water
year 1970–1971 to the water year 2007–2008 were selected.
Actually, the used data involved 456 data that began from
September 1970 and ended in August 2008. The statistics
related to first 33 years were used to train the models and the
5 past years were used to forecast.
In this study, an Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL)
model was used for forecasting monthly flow of Beni Bahdel
reservoir. This model deals with single cointegration and
was introduced originally by Pesaran and Shin (1999) and
further extended by Pesaran et al. (2001). The ARDL
approach has the advantage that it does not require all
variables to be I(1) as the Johansen framework and it is still
applicable if we have I(0) and I(1) variables in our set. which
can be written in a linear form as:
Yt = a0 + a1 Xt + et ð1Þ
Where:

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 823

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_241
824
Y: monthly discharge X: monthly rainfall a0: drift com-
ponent, et: random variable.
3 Results and Discussion
The stationarity of the two variables was tested using the
ADF (Augmented Dickey-Fuller) procedure. The results
show that the series of the two variables are stationary at
level I (0). For this reason, the ARDL approach was used for
the cointegration of the model.
It also shows that the optimal delay is one period.
Therefore the ARDL model (1.0) chosen for this study
presents the values of the lowest AIC and SC criteria, noting
that our model is constant and without trend.
Our ARDL (1.0) model can be written under the
following equation:
Yt ¼ 0:132 þ 0:059 Yt1 þ 0:037 Xt þ et ð2Þ
The results suggest that there is a high rate of equilibrium
alignment when large variations occur in the short-run.
Following a short-run shock, more than 74% of a deviation
from the long-run equilibrium will be corrected after one
month.
The Ramsey RESET test result shows that the calculated
X2-value is less than the critical value at the five percent
level of significance. This is an indication that there is no
specification error. Finally, the Chow predictive failure test
show that the model may be used for forecasting.
A. Rahmouni et al.
The analysis of the monthly inflow of Beni Bahdel dam
reservoir reveals a very good forecast performance over the
non-sample period while basing on the RMSE and U Theil
forecast quality criteria (i.e. RMSE = 0.397, U = 0.071).
4 Conclusion
In this study, the monthly inflow of Beni Bahdel dam
reservoir was estimated and forcasted using the ARDL
approach to cointegration analysis of Pesaran et al.
(2001).
The empirical results have shown that, the rainfall
variable in the model is statistically significant and con-
sistent with the discharge both in the long- as well as in
the short-runs. (X) is positively associated with Y.
The quality of this monthly forecast achieved for a
period of 5 years presents a high performance. Finally,
the results of this research can be improved even more by
introducing other explanatory variables such as temper-
ature and evapotranspiration.
References
Pesaran MH, Shin Y. An autoregressive distributed lag modelling
approach to cointegration analysis. In: Strom S, Holly A, Dia-
mond P, editors. Centennial Volume of Rangar Frisch. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press; 1999.
Pesaran MH, Shin Y, Smith RJ. Bounds testing approaches to the
analysis of level relationships. Journal of Applied Econometrics.
2001;16:289–326.
 Desalinated Water for Human Consumption
and Public Health Risks in West Algeria:
The Case of Souk Tleta Water Plant

Naïma Badid, Chahrazed Aggab, Aboubaker Hachemaoui,

and Fatiha Hadji

Keywords
Seawater desalination Ultrafiltration RO Chemical parameters Quality standards
Human consumption Health risks

1 Introduction distribution. The analyzed parameters were odor, flavor, tur-

The Souk Tleta seawater desalination plant (North-West,
Algeria), with a production capacity of 200,000 m3/d, allows
the production of drinking water using ultrafiltration (UF) and
Reverse osmosis (RO) thechniques for the supply of drinking
water to 330,000 inhabitants. These osmosed water, weakly
mineralized waters require additional treatments in order to
comply with standards of nutritional potability and quality.
bidity, temperature, pH and conductivity, total alkalinity, total
suspended solids (TSS), TDS, TH, free chlorine, major ions
(Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, Cl−, SO42−, NO3−, NO2−) and boron.
The results were compared with the WHO Standard (WHO
2011) and Algerian standards (JORA 2014).
3 Results and Discussion

According to the aforementioned standards, only elements

2 Materials and Methods presenting health risks will be discussed here.
Sulfate concentrations of treated water range from 3.83 to
Physicochemical analyzes carried out at the analysis labora- 4.46 mg/L (average = 4.1 mg/L; SD = 0.33 mg/L) and are
tory of the desalination plant of Souk Tleta, allowed us to below the guideline values of 400 and 250 mg/L recom-
monitor physicochemical parameter variations of sea and mended by the Algerian and the WHO standards, respec-
treated waters. Water samples were taken from the tap tively. Sulfates are the major source of sulfur, and as this
installed at the seawater pumping station after the mechanical component is essential for many proteins, its deficiency in
filtration and the one installed in the treated water tank before drinking water could lead to hair and nail slow-down growths
for consumers. Also, it increases infection vulnerability
because exchanges between cells are less ensured (De Zuane
N. Badid (&)
Department of Biology, Faculty SNVSTU, University of Tlemcen,
1997). Sulfate ions are also involved in conjugation reactions
Tlemcen, Algeria after an activation step leading to the synthesis of 3-phospho
e-mail: badidnaima@gmail.com adenosine 5′-phospho-sulfate (PAPS). The transfer of this
C. Aggab
F. Hadji group to different acceptors (catecholamines, bile acids, ster-
Department of Geology, Faculty SNVSTU, oids, xenobiotics, etc.) is carried out under the action of
University of Tlemcen, Tlemcen, Algeria sulfo-transferases. These reactions play a specifically impor-
e-mail: chrzd_a90_2005@yahoo.fr
tant role in cartilage composition (Kluppel et al. 2005). An
F. Hadji important role is noted in the detoxification mechanisms of
e-mail: fm_hachemi@yahoo.fr
sulfur-containing amino acids through the central role of
A. Hachemaoui glutathione in conjugation reactions allowing the elimination
Muscat City Desalination Operation and Maintenance Company,
Muscat, Oman
of electrophilic species, involving a family of enzymes called
e-mail: h.aboubaker@yahoo.fr glutathione-S-transferases (GST) (Strange et al. 2000).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 825

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_242
826
Calcium concentrations range from 28 to 41.44 mg/L
(average = 31.35 mg/L; SD = 2.76). Ca2+ concentrations of
the treated water are below the recommended guideline of
200 mg/L and 100–300 mg/L of Algerian and WHO stan-
dards. The protective effects against bone loss (Sahni et al.
2015) and osteoporotic fractures (Khan et al. 2015) have
been demonstrated. Its potential beneficial role has recently
been demonstrated in colon cancer (Galas et al. 2013), car-
diovascular events (De Zuane 1997; Adebamowo et al.
2015) and hypertension (Chrysant and Chrysant 2014). The
current recommendations advocate increasing food intake
before using supplements. The Ca-rich water can then sup-
plement calcium intakes and compensate the individual
deficiencies. This is one of the objectives of an adequate
remineralization of desalinated waters.
Magnesium concentrations are very low and range between
0.99 and 2.74 mg/L (Average = 1.97 mg/L; SD = 0.49
mg/L). They are too low compared to the guideline value
recommended by the used standards WHO. The lowered Mg
content in drinking water can aggravate pre-existing dietary
imbalances. This element is involved in the activation of more
than 300 enzyme systems (Martin 2001). Mg deficiency can
lead to neuromuscular hyperexcitability resulting in signs of
latent tetany (Martin 2001). Other studies suggest its involve-
ment in many pathologies ranging from simple discomfort
such as tiredness to pathologies such as type II diabetes (Sales
and Pedrosa 2006), coronary insufficiency (Al Delaimy et al.
2004), Cardiovascular events (Adebamowo et al. 2015),
metabolic syndrome (Guerrero-Romero and Rodriguez-Moran
2006) and osteoporosis (Rude and Gruber 2004).
Potassium concentrations vary between 2.54 and
9.68 mg/L (average = 4.87 mg/L; SD = 1.5 mg/L). These
values are quite low compared to the CMA recommended by
Algerian standards which is of 12 mg/L. Because K+ is an
essential mineral that provides several vital functions in the
body, its deficiency in drinking water can cause several
health problems, including fatigue, weakness and muscle
cramps, Indolent laziness, bloating, abdominal pain and
constipation. If this potassium deficiency in drinking water
meets a lack in the diet, the health risks may go up to muscle
paralysis and cardiac arrhythmia (De Zuane 1997).
Boron concentrations of drinking water range from 1.12
to 1.22 mg/L (Average = 1.16 mg/L; SD = 0.03 mg/L).
They are below the maxima recommended by the WHO and
the Algerian standards which are of 2.4 mg/L and 1.3 mg/L,
respectively. The increase in these levels can lead to health
risks such as infertility problems in humans and develop-
mental anomalies (De Zuane 1997).
4 Conclusion
Regarding major ions, particular attention should be paid
to calcium, magnesium, potassium and sulfate ions,
which drinking water content remains very low compared
N. Badid et al.
to the guideline value recommended by WHO and NA
standards. It should be noted that such a deficiency can
lead to significant health problems or at least aggravate
the existing malnutrition situations related to these ele-
ments for consumers.
References
Adebamowo SN, Spiegelman D, Flint AJ, Willett WC, Rexrode KM.
Intakes of magnesium, potassium, and calcium and the risk of stroke
among men. Int J Stroke. 2015;10(7):1093–100.
Al-Delaimy WK, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Hu FB.
Magnesium intake and risk of coronary heart disease among men.
J Am Coll Nutr J Am Coll Nutr. 2004;23(1):63–70.
Chrysant S, Chrysant2 G. Treatment of hypertension in patients with
renal artery stenosis due to fibromuscular dysplasia of the renal
arteries. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 2014;4(1):36–43. doi:https://doi.
org/10.3978/j.issn.2223-3652.2014.02.01.
DeZuane J. Handbook of drinking water quality. 2nd ed. 1997.
592p. ISBN: 978-0-471-28789-6.
Guerrero-Romero F, Rodríguez-Morán M. Hypomagnesemia, oxidative
stress, inflammation, and metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Metab Res
Rev. 2006;22(6):471–6.
Galas A, Augustyniak M, Sochacka-Tatara E. Does dietary calcium
interact with dietary fiber against colorectal cancer? A case–control
study in Central Europe. Nutr J. 2013;12:134. doi:https://doi.org/10.
1186/1475-2891-12-134
JORA. Journal Officiel N°13. Décret exécutif n°14-96 du 4 mars 2014
modifiant et complétant le décret exécutif n° 11-125 du 22 mars
2011 relatif à la qualité de l’eau de consommation humaine. 2014.
Khan AA, Morrison A, Hanley DA, Felsenberg D, McCauley LK,
O’Ryan F, Reid IR, Ruggiero SL, Taguchi A, Tetradis S, Watts NB,
Brandi ML, Peters E, Guise T, Eastell R, Cheung AM, Morin SN,
Masri B, Cooper C, Morgan SL, Obermayer-Pietsch B, Lang-
dahl BL, Al Dabagh R, Davison KS, Kendler DL, Sándor GK,
Josse RG, Bhandari M, El Rabbany M, Pierroz DD, Sulimani R,
Saunders DP, Brown JP, Compston J. International task force on
osteonecrosis of the jaw. Diagnosis and management of osteonecro-
sis of the jaw: a systematic review and international consensus.
J Bone Miner Res. 2015;30(1):3–23. doi:10.1002/jbmr.2405.
Kluppel M, Wight TN, Chan C, Hinek A, Wrana JL. Maintenance of
chondroitin sulfation balance by chondroitin-4-sulfotransferase 1 is
required for chondrocyte development and growth factor signaling
during cartilage morphogenesis. Development. 2005;132:3989–4003.
Martin A. Apports Nutritionnels Conseillés pour la population
française. 3ème édition. Éditions Tec & Doc; 2001.
Rude RK, Gruber HE. Magnesium deficiency and osteoporosis: animal
and human observations. J Nutr Biochem. 2004;15(12):710–6.
Sahni S, Mangano KM, McLean RR, Hannan MT, Kiel DP. Dietary
approaches for bone health: lessons from the Framingham Osteo-
porosis Study. Curr Osteoporos Rep. 2015;13(4):245–55. doi:10.
1007/s11914-015-0272-1.
Sales CH, Pedrosa LF. Magnesium and diabetes mellitus: their relation.
Clin Nutr. 2006;25(4):554–62.
Strange RC, Jones PW, Fryer AA. Glutathione S-transferase: genetics
and role in toxicology. Toxicol Lett. 2000;112–113(2000):357–63.
World Health Organization. Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 4th
ed. 1. Potable water - standards. 2. Water - standards. 3. Water
quality - standards. 2011. ISBN 978 92 4 154815 1 (NLM
classification: WA 675).
 Integrating Hydrological and Hydraulic
Modelling for Flood Risk Management
in a High Resolution Urbanized Area: Case
Study Taibah University Campus, KSA

Mohamed Abdulrazzak, Anis Al-Shabani, Kashif Noor, Amro Elfeki,

and Ahmed Kamis

Keywords
Flood management Hydrological model Hydraulic model Al-Madinah Al-Munourah
Taiba university campus Saudi Arabia

1 Introduction alluvium soil, urban areas and vegetation. Many university

Flood risk management specially in arid urban area in dif-
ferent parts of the world is becoming an essential design
criteria for flood protection measures. To contribute towards
addressing such issue in a typical arid urban environment
such as Saudi Arabia, this study tried to apply statistical,
hydrological and hydraulic models for different flood fre-
quencies. The models demonstrated application were evalu-
ated on small urban catchment covering Taibah university
campus in medina, Saudi Arabia. Urban development exists
upstream and downstream of the university. The catchment is
dreaned by upstream low drainage network and one main
channell that runs through Taibah and then Islamic univer-
sities then jointing the main channell of Wadi Alaqiq shown
in Fig. 1 left. The catchment covers an area of 34.11 km2,
with 10% slope with a main 13.2 km channell length. Five
different types of land use are identified: roads, rock,
M. Abdulrazzak (&)
Department of Civil Engineering, Taiba University,
Al-Madina Al-Munourah, Medina, Saudi Arabia
e-mail: mjabdulrazzak@gmail.com
A. Al-Shabani
K. Noor
A. Elfeki
A. Kamis
Department of Hydrology and Water Resource Management,
Faculty of Meteorology, Environment, and Arid Land Agriculture,
King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
e-mail: anis.chaabani@yahoo.fr
K. Noor
e-mail: kashif.n.afridi@gmail.com
A. Elfeki
e-mail: elfeki_amr@yahoo.co.uk
A. Kamis
e-mail: samyzaher@yahoo.com
infrastructures were located on both sides of the flood
channell as well as extensive urban development in the down
stream area shown in Fig. 1 right. The hydrological record
needed for the analyses consist of rainfall amount of station
M001 located few kilometers from the campus, and lack of
nearby run off station records. Digital topographic and geo-
logical maps supported by LiDAR high resolution elevation
data were used in the study, because of the absence of the run
off records. The analyses consisted of evaluating land scarce
data by digital surface model (DSM) the application of sta-
tistical, hydrological and hydraulic models application to
generate flood zoning maps for different flood frequencies.
2 Materials and Methods
The used approach is based on the application of high res-
olution digital surface model (DSM) supported by DEM
(LiDAR) high resolution data to delineate the catchment
characteristics and applications: statistical techniques to
evaluate rainfall date, followed by hydrological analysis
using WMS (watershed modeling system). The information
obtained from different images was used to estimate the
NRCS-curve number needed for flood estimation. The
hydrographs generated from the hydrological WMS model
simulation was used as input for the application of the
hydraulic model (HEC-RAS and GEO-RAS) to estimate the
flood inundation area for different flood return periods
delineating the areas that need flood protection.
The methodology is based on the rainfall stations’ M001
record analyses to select the best probability distributions
(Chow 2002). Following the rainfall record screening, six

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 827

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_243
828
Fig. 1 Catchment delineation boundary projected on satellite image (left) and land use and land cover map (right) based on high resolution
images for estimated curve number CN = 86
Fig. 2 Statistical analysis of rainfall station M001 (left), and the temporal rainfall distribution of the design storms for 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 200
years return periods, over storm duration of 3 h
different probability distributions were evaluated and tested
(Gumbel, Generalized extreme value, Two parameter log-
normal, Three parameter log-normal, Pearson type 3, and
Log-pearson type 3) shown in Fig. 2 left. The two
log-normal parameters seem to provide the best fits using the
root mean square error (RMSE) criterion. The rainfall hye-
tograph generated is based on the application of the temporal
distribution developed by Elfeki et al. (2013) originally
developed from data of rainfall at sub-day measurements in
arid regions. This distribution method is different from the
SCS-type II which was originally developed for humid
regions. The application of SCS-type II method for Makkah
region located in the west of Saudi Arabia (Ewea et al. 2016)
has resulted in over estimation of the peak flows up to 68%.
Following the rainfall distribution estimation, the flood
hydrograph at different return periods shown in Fig. 3 (right)
was generated using the hydrological model (HEC-HMS).
To overcome the lack of flood measurements, the SCS-CN
method is used to develop the synthetic hydrograph at the
study area. Following the estimation of the flood hydro-
graphs at different return periods through the application of
the Hydrologic model (HEC-HMS), these values were used
M. Abdulrazzak et al.
as input in the application the HEC-RAS and GEO-RAS
hydraulic models to simulate the flood zone maps of inun-
dated channell.
3 Discussion
The evaluation of different statistical probability distribu-
tions: Gumbel type-1, GEV, two and three parameter Log
Normal, Pearson type 3 and Log Pearson type 3 indicated
that the 2-parameter Log Normal is the most appropriate
distribution to model rainfall over the study area based on
RMSE criterion and the length of record of station M001.
The predicted rainfall depths for different return periods are
estimated at 31, 45, 68, 89, 113, 142 mm for 5, 10, 25, 50,
100 and 200 return periods respectively. Summary of the
flood frequency analysis is presented in Table 1 showing the
peak discharges for different flood return periods. The peak
discharge ranged for return periods of 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and
200 years with corresponding peak discharges in cubic
metres per second of 21, 49, 106, 164, 236 and 323,
respectively. The expected runoff volume in 1000 m3
Integrating Hydrological and Hydraulic Modelling … 829

Fig. 3 Hydrologic model (HEC-HMS) flood hydrographs at different return periods, and a high resolution flood inundation map at 200 year
return period along the channel in the campus showing the affected areas (using HEC-RAS and GEO-RAS models)

Table 1 Summary of the Return period (year) Peak discharge (m3/s) Volume (1000 m3)
hydrological analysis
5 20.5 228.6
10 49.4 546.6
25 106.4 1161
50 164.5 1779
100 236.4 2534.2
200 323 3437.7

generated from the design storms ranged 467 for 10 years
return period to 3437 for 200 years. Design criteria being
applied in urban areas in Saudi Arabia was based on
selecting a 10 or 25 years return period which is not suitable
to provide adequate flood protection measures as evident by
the recent flash flood damage experienced in different parts
of the country. The flood risk for return periods of 25–
100 years can accommodate the existing flood protection
channel measures. However, for the 200 years flood, the
flood inundation map displayed in Fig. 3 (right image)
shows the locations of the flooded area in the campus. Flood
risk for the high return period will inundate many buildings
located at both embankment of the flood channel. The flood
hydrograph for 100 and 200 years return periods, as
expected, will pose a major flood risk for the campus and
down stream urban areas.
4 Conclusion
The analysis indicated the application of different rainfall
distributions in combination with hydrologic and
hydraulic models as a tool to provide suitable design
criteria for flood protection in urban areas. However
caution needs to be considered to the analyses of rainfall
pattern and selection of different distribution character-
istics to provide the best predictions. The hydrograph
generation and flood profiles analyses are expected to
provide improved flood protection design criteria using
LiDAR data.
References
Brunner GW. HEC-RAS, River Analysis System Hydraulic Reference
Manual. Davis: USACE-HEC; 2010.
Chow VT, Maidment DR, Mays LW. Applied hydrology. New York
etc.: McGraw-Hill; 2002.
Elfeki AMM, Ewea HA, Al-Amri NS. Development of storm
hyetographs for flood forecasting in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Arab J Geosci. 2013;7(10):4387–98.
Ewea HA, Elfeki AMM, Bahrawi J, Al-Amri NS. Sensitivity analysis
of runoff hydrographs due to temporal rainfall patterns in Makkah
Al-Mukkramah region, Saudi Arabia. Arab J Geosci. 2016;9:424.
doi:10.1007/s12517-016-2443-5.
 A Double Effect Desalination Unit Parametric
Study

Hafdhi Fathia, Khir Tahar, Ben Yahia Ali, and Ben Brahim Ammar

Keywords
Energy analysis Exergy efficiency Optimisation Desalination Effects Condenser

1 Introduction laws of thermodynamics using the following assumptions

The steam turbine power plant represents the principal part
of any industrial factory. It has a dual purpose which are the
generation of electricity and the production of steam from
distilled water. The desalination process plays an important
role in providing distillate therefore it needs a substantial
analysis with the purpose to optimise its performances. For
this reason, this paper investigated an energetic and exergetic
analysis of a double effect desalination system with a ther-
mal vapor compressor integrated in a steam turbine power
plant of a phosphoric acid factory. Mass, energy and exergy
balances of each component were established. The effect of
the operating parameter variations on the efficiency of the
different system components were studied.
2 Equations and Modelisation
In this study, the investigated unit consisted of two effects
(evaporators), a thermal vapor compressor, a condenser and
two pumps. Energy and exergy analysis of the different
components were carried out based on the first and second
Energy balance :
H. Fathia (&)
K. Tahar
B. B. Ammar
Applied Thermodynamic Research Unit, National Engineering
School of Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia
e-mail: hafdhi.fathia@gmail.com
K. Tahar
e-mail: taherkhir@yahoo.fr
B. B. Ammar
e-mail: ammar.benbrahim@enig.rnu.tn
B. Y. Ali
Tunisian Chemical Group, Gabes, Tunisia
e-mail: benyahia.ali@gct.com.tn
(Bataineh 2016; Almutairi et al. 2016; Sayyaadi and Saffari
2010):
– The process was assumed to operate in a steady state
– The kinetic and potential exergy were neglected
– Thermodynamic losses were negligible
– The distilled water was salt free
Mass, energy and exergy balances of the different com-
ponents were expressed as follows (Ameri and Jorjani 2016;
El-Dessouky et al. 2000; Ansari et al. 2010).
The exergy analysis was performed using Fuel and Pro-
duct approach. The Fuel was the necessary exergy flux to
generate the required process. The Product was the exergy
flux obtained at the process outlet
Thermocompressor
Mass balance : m_ M ¼ m_ S þ m_ G ð1Þ
where M, S and G indicate respectively the steam mixture,
the motive steam and generated vapor
m_ M hM ¼ m_ S hS þ m_ G hG ð2Þ
Exergy balance : E_ D;thc ¼ m_ S ½ðhS  hM Þ  T0 ðSS  SM Þ
 m_ G ½ðhM  hG Þ  T0 ðSM  SG Þ
ð3Þ
Evaporators
Mass balance:
Seawater side m_ F ¼ m_ D þ m_ B ð4Þ

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 831

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_244
832 H. Fathia et al.

xF m_ F ¼ xB m_ B ð5Þ

Energy balance : m_ in ðhin  hout Þ ¼ m_ F CpF ðTB  TF Þ þ m_ D LD

ð6Þ

Exergybalance : E_ D;EvapI ¼ m_ M ½ðhM  hN Þ  T0 ðsM  sN Þ

 
TB1
 m_ F1 CpF1 ðTB1  TF1 Þ  T0 ln
TF1
 
T0
 m_ D1 LD1 1  ð7Þ
TD1

where F, D and B indicate respectively feed seawater, dis-

tillate and brine. Fig. 1 Different components exergy efficiency of the desalination unit
Condenser
Mass balance:
5,85
Shell side m_ D2r ¼ m_ DT ð8Þ

Tube side m_ Fisw ¼ m_ Fesw ð9Þ 5,8

Energy balance : m_ D2r LD2 ¼ m_ Fisw Cp ðTFesw  TFisw Þ ð10Þ mDT (kg/s)

5,75
Exergy balance:
 
_ED;cd ¼ m_ D2r LD2 1  T0 5,7
 TD2 
Tesw
 m_ Fisw Cpsw ðTesw  Tisw Þ  T0 ln ð11Þ
Tisw 5,65
4 4,5 5 5,5 6 6,5
With isw and esw are the seawater inlet and outlet. Ps (bar)
For each component the exergy efficiency is defined as
the ration of the product exergy flux to the fuel one. Fig. 2 Variation of distillate water according to motive steam pressure

E_ Prod
gex ¼
E_ Fuel
3 Results and Discussion
Energy and exergy simulations were performed using
Engineering Equation Solver (EES) software. As obtained
the results of the exergy efficiency of each component are
presented in Fig. 1.
One can see that the two evaporators have the maximum
values of the exergy efficiency while the thermal compressor
represents the minimum exergy efficiency.
ð12Þ
Furthermore, the obtained results show that the increase of
motive steam pressure of about 2.8 bars leads to an increase
of the production capacity by 2.5% and a decrease in the
thermocompressor irreversibility rate as illustrated in Fig. 2.
Moreover the rise of intake seawater temperature pro-
vokes an increase of the condenser heat transfer area. That
needs more seawater mass flow rate required for the pro-
duced steam cooling in the second effect.
In addition, the increase of motive steam mass flow rate
leads to an enhancement in the production capacity of the
distilled water and the Gain Output ratio of the desalination
unit as shown in Figs. 3 and 4 respectively.
A Double Effect Desalination Unit Parametric Study 833

7
4 Conclusion
Thermal and exergy optimisation was conducted on a
6,5
double effect desalination unit installed in an industrial
6 factory. The energy and exergy efficiencies of the dif-
5,5
ferent components were determined. The effects of the
mDT (kg/s)

operating parameters on the investigated unit perfor-

5
mances were analyzed.
4,5
Acknowledgements This work is conducted in cooperation with
4
Tunisian Chemical Group. Authors would like to thank the collabora-
3,5 tors for their support and their interest in this study.

3
1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8
ms (kg/s) References

Fig. 3 Distillate water according to ṁs Almutairi A, Pilidis P, Al-Mutawa N, Al-Weshahi M. Energetic and
exergetic analysis of cogeneration power combined cycle and
3,9 ME-TVC-MED water desalination plant: Part-1 operation and
performance. App therm Eng. 2016;103:77–91.
Ameri M, Jorjani M. Performance assessment and multi-objective
3,85
optimization of an integrated organic Rankine cycle and multi-effect
desalination system. Desalination. 2016;392:34–45.
3,8 Ansari K, Sayyaadi H, Amidpour M. Thermoeconomic optimization of
a hybrid pressurized water reactor (PWR) power plant coupled to a
GOR

3,75 multi effect distillation desalination system with thermo-vapor

compressor. Energy. 2010;35:1981–96.
3,7 Bataineh KM. Multi-effect desalination plant combined with thermal
compressor driven by steam generated by solar energy. Desalina-
tion. 2016;385:39–52.
3,65
El-Dessouky HT, Ettouney HM, Mandani F. Performance of parallel
feed multiple effect evaporation system for seawater desalination.
3,6 App therm Eng. 2000;20:1679–706.
1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8
Sayyaadi H, Saffari A. Thermoeconomic optimization of multi effect
ms (kg/s)
distillation desalination systems. App Energy. 2010;87:1122–33.

Fig. 4 GOR according to ṁs

 Modelling Catchment Scale Agricultural
Pollution in North Tunisia Using the PEGASE
Model

Amira Boukari, Etienne Everbecq, Sihem Ben Abdallah,

Pol Magermans, Aline Grard, Hamadi Habaieb,
and Jean-François Deliège

Diffuse pollution in agricultural watershed may contribute to
unsustainable use of water resources and implies new chal-
lenges in water management (Helmer et al. 1997). Stream
water draining agricultural land could be influenced by
changes in cropping patterns, land use and fertilizers appli-
cation rates and timing, as well as soil erosion, leading to
acute problems like eutrophication and render water quality
unfit for human consumption (Tong and Chen 2002). In
order to prevent the deterioration of water resources and
protect the stream habitat, many legislative frameworks like
the EU water directive and water Blueprint proposed water
management based on a whole river basins approach.
Indeed, a holistic approach is needed to understand
pressures/impacts relationships within the context of the
characteristics and particularities of the concerned water-
shed, such as land use management and climatic forcing,
using a range of monitoring and modelling techniques.
The Mediterranean region is particularly vulnerable to
water stress in the context of climate change, mainly in the
southern areas. Regional climate model simulations have
given a picture of substantial drying and warming events in
this region (Giorgi and Lionello 2008) so water availability
could be affected. Decreasing water scarcity and water pol-
lution constitute a big challenge for water stakeholders in
Tunisia, particularly in rural areas due to intensive agricul-
ture in proximity of rivers. There is a need to select
A. Boukari
H. Habaieb
GREEN-TEAM Laboratory, National Agronomy Institute of
Tunisia, University of Carthage, 43 Avenue Charles Nicolle 1082,
Tunis Mahrajène, Tunisie
e-mail: amira.boukari@doct.ulg.ac.be
A. Boukari
E. Everbecq
P. Magermans
A. Grard
J.-
F. Deliège (&)
Aquapôle, University of Liège, Quartier Polytech 1, Allée de La
Découverte, 11-Bât.B53, 4000 Liège, Belgium
e-mail: jfdeliege@ulg.ac.be
S. Ben Abdallah
Water Technologies Research Center, CERTE, BP 2738020
Soliman, Tunisia
adaptation and mitigation measures to enhance the protec-
tion of the aquatic ecology.
In this work, we used a modeling approach involving the
“Planification Et Gestion de l’ASsainissement des Eaux”
Tool (PEGASE) to assess the potential impact of agricultural
pollution on surface water at the scale of a rural-agricultural
catchment situated in the northwestern part of Tunisia, the
Joumine basin, draining an area of 418 km2. In the down-
stream part of the basin, the Joumine dam was built in 1984
to address flooding events and to provide water for irrigation
and drinking purposes. We aimed to give a better description
of the Joumine river ecosystem quality as well as quantifying
“pressure-impact” relationships, taking into account future
climatic change scenarios.
The PEGASE model is an appropriate simulation tool to
evaluate the quality of watercourses, developed by the R&D
unit of the Aquapôle of the University of Liège. It is useful
for long-term simulation and predictive scenarios taking into
account climate and land use changes as well as water
quality improvements resulting from, amongst others, puri-
fying actions. PEGASE model makes it possible to calculate
in a deterministic way the water quality of river network
according to loads and pollutant releases (point and
non-point pollution), for non-stationary hydrological situa-
tions (Deliège et al. 2009; Grard et al. 2014). It was already
used at the Medjerda river basin by the National Agency for
the Protection of the Environment (ANPE) and has proved
its efficiency for the management of point sources pollution
in other Western European countries.
In the scope of the PEGASE model implementation on
the Joumine Basin, we prepared a complete database, which
includes geographic information, hydrometeorological data,
as well as livestock rearing, domestic effluents from septic
tanks and human activities (Fig. 1). All those information
were completed with catchment farmers survey, field
experimentation and rivers water quality monitoring pro-
gram (2015–2017). Diffuse load from agricultural land is
calculated in PEGASE with a semi-statistical method using
the concept of distributed soil functions. In this work, we

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_245
836
Fig. 1 Database development and PEGASE model preprocessing
defined a method coupling the ArcSWAT model version
2012 for the agricultural management scenarios with the
PEGASE model for the routing processes. Due to the
physically based characteristics of the PEGASE model, only
the soil contribution calculated by ArcSWAT needs to be
calibrated. A list of parameters was selected for the
streamflow calibration and water quality prediction based on
the SUFI-2 algorithm in the SWAT-CUP software (Abbas-
pour et al. 2015). In order to select the sensitive parameters
that are assumed to present the system behavior,
one-at-a-time sensitivity analysis method was performed. To
quantify the fit between simulation results and observation
we came up with Nuch-Sutcliffe efficiency and percent bias
statistics. We carried out the model validation by comparing
the simulated results and observed data from the monitoring
A. Boukari et al.
program. Thanks to the PEGASE model, we were able to
generate maps showing the state of various quality param-
eters along the river or at a given river node as well as
longitudinal profiles along the river. Such information makes
it possible to analyze the areas of risk, practices and con-
ditions for water contamination by studying substances
dynamics under various conditions mainly agricultural
management practices and climatic changes.
References
Abbaspour KC, Rouholahnejad E, Vaghefi S, Srinivasan R, Yang H,
Kløve B. A continental-scale hydrology and water quality model for
Europe: calibration and uncertainty of a high-resolution large-scale
SWAT model. J Hydrol. 2015;524(mai): 733–52.
Modelling Catchment Scale Agricultural Pollution …
Deliège J-F, Everbecq E, Grard A, Bourouag M, Magermans P,
Blockx C. PEGASE: un modèle intégré bassin hydrographique/
rivières pour la directive cadre européenne. 9es Journées Interna-
tionales de Limnologie, Luxembourg, 6–9 avril 2009.
Giorgi Filippo, Lionello Piero. Climate change projections for the
Mediterranean region. Global Planet Change. 2008;63(2):90–104.
Grard Aline, Everbecq Etienne, Magermans Pol, Bourouag Mohamed,
Deliège Jean-François. Transnational modelling of the Meuse
District with PEGOPERA simulation software. Int Assoc
Hydro-Environ Eng Res. 2014;12:251–63.
837
Helmer R, Hespanhol I, Water Supply, Sanitation Collaborative
Council, et al. Water pollution control: a guide to the use of water
quality management principles. London: E & FN Spon; 1997. http://
wwwlive.who.int/entity/water_sanitation_health/resourcesquality/
watpolcontrol.pdf.
Tong Susanna TY, Chen Wenli. Modeling the relationship between
land use and surface water quality. J Environ Manage. 2002;
66(4):377–93.
 State of Organic Pollution in Waters
of the Seybouse Wadi, Region of Guelma
(Northeast of Algeria)

Marwa Aissaoui and Moussa Benhamza

Keywords
Organic pollution Standards Seybouse wadi Guelma

1 Introduction covers a total of 6471 km2 spreading over three geographical

Over the past ten years, water quality of the Seybouse Wadi
(River) in the Guelma region has worsened significantly, due
to the intensive use of agricultural chemical fertilizers, urban
waste and unbridled industrial discharges (Kachi 2015).
As a consequence, the wilaya (county district) of Guelma’s
authorities have built a waste water treatment plant for Guelma
city, which came into service in 2008 and aimed at the purifi-
cation of 43,388 m3/day of waste water, providing a valuable
contribution in terms of irrigation of agricultural lands.
It is in this particular context that this study was carried
out, aiming to evaluate the physico-chemical quality of the
Seybouse Wadi and its tributaries along the Wadi itself and
its aforementioned tributaries. This study was based on the
different interpretation techniques of chemical analysis
results (Kachi 2015).
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Presentation of the Study Area
The study area is located in the wilaya of Guelma in the
north east of Algeria, it is bordered by the wilaya of Annaba
in the North, El Tarf in the North East, Skikda in the North
West, Souk Ahras, Oum El-Bouaghi in the South East and
Constantine to the West. From a hydrological point of view,
it is part of the great watershed of the Seybouse Wadi which
segments: the high plains known as Haute Seybouse (upper
Seybousse), the Southern Tell (high hills) or Moyenne
Seybouse (mid-Seybouse) and the Northern Tell or lower
Seybouse (Fig. 1).
2.2 Methods
In order to study the quality of the surface waters of the
wilaya of Guelma, twelve sampling points were selected
according to a distribution covering the entire study area
extending from the West to the East of the wilaya (Fig. 2).
The chemical analyses concerning the Seybouse Wadi
and its tributaries were conducted on 25th April 2017 and
completed at the Horizon Laboratory (soil and water analysis
laboratory).
The Physico-chemical parameters such as (Temperature,
pH, Conductivity, Dissolved Oxygen, Total Dissolved Sels,
and Turbidity) were measured on the ground using a
multi-parameter instrument of WTW brand (Guettaf 2015;
Charlot 1978).
The intake points are indicated as follows: S1:
Bouhamdane Wadi, S2: Charef Wadi, S3: Seybouse Stream
at Bentabouche, S4: Touta Wadi (El Fedjouj), S5: Shkoune
Wadi, S6: Maiz Wadi, S7: Zimba Wadi, S8: Seybouse
Stream (Boumahra), S9: Boussora Wadi, S10: Helia Wadi,
S11: Maleh Wadi, S12: Seybouse Stream at Bouchegouf.

M. Aissaoui (&)
M. Benhamza

Laboratory of Geodynamics and Natural Resources (LGRN),
Badji Mokhtar Annaba University, P.B 1223000 Annaba, Algeria
e-mail: marwaaissaoui8@gmail.com
M. Benhamza
e-mail: moussa.benhamza@univ-annaba.org

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 839

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_246
840
Fig. 1 Location of the study area
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Waters Chemical Facies
In order to identify the ionic formula, we have ranked the
reaction quantities of the anions and then those of the cations
from left to right in a descending order of their percentage.
According to the formula and the Piper diagram, the
results obtained show that the dominant chemical facies in
the waters of the Seybouse Wadi is calcium-chloride.
M. Aissaoui and M. Benhamza
3.2 Biodegradability
The COD/DBO5 ratio reflecting Biodegradability assesses
the biodegradability of wastewater, i.e.: the organic matter
ability to transform into mineral matter tolerable by the local
natural environment.
A ratio calculation reveals various sources of pollution in
the study area. It is dominated by urban pollution, with a
ratio between 2 and 3 at stations S4, S9, and S12. However,
it is of agro-Food origin (1.5 to 2) at stations S2, S3, S7, S10
State of Organic Pollution in Waters of the Seybouse Wadi … 841

Fig. 2 Location map of sampling points

Table 1 Results of COD/DBO5 characteristic ratio

Station S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12
COD/BOD5 10.29 1.97 1.89 2.25 3.6 3.97 1.87 5 2.24 2 1.61 2.48

and S11, indicating better biodegradability. Finally, it has
been found to be of industrial origin (ratio greater than 3) at
stations S1 and S8 (Table 1).
3.3 Waters Irrigation Ability
According the to the waters’ ability to irrigation chart and
that of Wilcox, we can say that sampling points S1, S5, S6,
S7and S9 correspond to acceptable water quality for irriga-
tion, while S2, S3, S4, S8, S10, S11 and S12 correspond to
poor quality water. The electrical conductivity is very high at
these sampling points (Benhamza et al. 2015).
3.4 Organic Pollution Index (OPO)
This index was calculated by integrating the concentrations
of 4 chemical parameters related to organic pollution:
(Biological Oxygen Demand, Ammoniums, Nitrites, and
Phosphates). The value of the IPO index varies from 1 to 5.
According to this index, the waters of The Seybouse
Wadi fluctuate from one quality to another. The majority of
the stations (S1, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9, S10, S11 and S12) show
high organic pollution, whereas the remaining few (S2, S3
and S4) show poor organic pollution (Chaoui 2007).
4 Conclusion
1. The dominant chemical facies in the waters of the Sey-
bouse Wadi and its tributaries is chloride-calcium.
2. Excessive concentrations of NH4+, PO4−, DBO5 and
NO2− in the Seybouse Wadi and its tributaries are the
main cause of organic pollution, which source seems to
be of urban origin; particularly because waste water has
been found to contain large quantities of nutrients
842
promoting the rapid and continuous growth of algae and
aquatic plants in line with urban pollution effects.
3. The COD/BOD5 ratio, reflecting biodegradability, shows
varied sources of pollution in the study area. It is mainly
urban at stations S4, S9, and S12, whereas of agro-food
origin in the majority of the other points tested, thus
showing a better biodegradability. Finally, it has been
found to be of industrial origin at the level of the
Bouhamdane Wadi (S1) and the Seybouse Wadi (S8).
4. The locations S1, S5, S6, S7 and S9 points correspond to
acceptable water quality for irrigation, while S2, S3, S4,
S8, S10, S11, S12 points correspond to poor water
quality.
M. Aissaoui and M. Benhamza
References
Benhamza M, Rihia D, Bekkouche MF. Hydro geochemistry and
balance between minerals and solutions in the mercurial zone of
Azzaba, Northeast of Algeria. Energy Procedia. 2015;74:1133–41.
Chaoui W. Impact de la pollution organique et chimique des eaux de
l’oued Mellah sur les eaux Souterraine de la nappe alluviale de
Bouchegouf (Guelma). Mémoire de Magister en Hydrogéologie:
Université Badji-Mokhtar Annaba Algérie; 2007.
Charlot G. Mineral Elements Absorptiometric Assays. Paris Barcelona
New York Milan: Masson; 1978. p. 443p.
Guettaf M. Physico chemical characteristics and evaluation of pollution
indicators in the environment: the case of Seybouse Wadi and its
tributaries on Guelma Sub-Basin (North-Eastern Algeria). Phd
thesis, University of Guelma, Algeria; 2015.
Kachi N. Irrigated perimeter impact on the quality of ground water in
Seybouse watershed. PhD thesis in Hydrogeology. Annaba
Badji-Mokhtar University, Algeria; 2015.
 Water Governance and Collective Action
Performance in Tunisian Irrigated Area
Jamel Ben Nasr and Mohamed Salah Bachta



Keywords
Actor’s power Collective action
1 Introduction
As a remedy to the water scarcity constraint, Tunisia has
undertaken to adopt a number of technical measures
whereby the irrigation systems’ efficiency could be
improved and water resources well maintained (e.g., reha-
bilitation of the irrigation systems, subsidy for drip irriga-
tion, etc.). Indeed, the political measures appear to take an
institutional aspect, and the water management relating
institutional framework has witnessed profound structural
changes. May be the major pertaining institutional trans-
formation was the desolation of Development Offices of
Irrigated Areas in 1987. Subsequently, a novel collective
decision-making mechanism has been initiated (Bachta and
Zaïbet 2006). In a first stage, the new institutional frame-
work involves the implication of new actors, namely, the
Regional Commission for Agricultural Development
(CRDA), and, in a second stage, the establishment of the
irrigators’ associations. The latter have undergone a suc-
cession of transformations, culminating in the setting up of
the current “GDA” framework (agricultural development
groups) (MARH 2013).
Despite the existence of a wide range of political mea-
sures and irrigated agriculture still appears to display a weak
performance and to suffer from several limits. In this context,
several studies dealing with diverse Tunisian irrigated areas
prove to illustrate low technical and economic efficiency
levels (Albouchi et al. 2003; Mahdhi et al. 2011; Belloumi
J. Ben Nasr (&)
M. S. Bachta
National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: jamelnasr@yahoo.fr
M. S. Bachta
e-mail: bachta.ms_09@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_247



Governance Performance Water management
and Matoussi 2007; Dhehibi et al. 2007; Dhehibi and Tel-
leria 2012; Ben Nasr et al. 2016). Additionally, the GDA, as
a water management institution, is currently confronting
several problems, mainly, increasingly recurrent budget
deficits along with intensely persistent social conflicts
prevalent among farmers. Successive institutional transfor-
mations also provide some kind of explanation as to the
failure of each devised form or policy. Relying on such
striking findings, the present paper is intended to provide a
kind of deep analysis and evaluation concerning the gover-
nance of irrigation water management regarding the Tuni-
sian irrigated areas. This study puts forward the hypothesis
stipulating that the irrigated areas currently associated per-
sisting difficulties turn out to have an institutional origin:
governance problems are hindering the GDAs’ smooth
functioning. As a matter of fact, the GDAs appear to be
uncapable of accomplishing their major mission, namely,
that of equitable and/or effective water management and
allocation in irrigated areas.
2 Materials and Methods
In so far as the present paper is concerned, Governance is
defined as a regulation mode of relationships binding a set of
actors within a specified system. For a thorough analysis of
the irrigation water governance system relevant to the
Nadhour IA, a special methodological approach, inspired
from Crozier and Friedberg (1977, 1992) devised strategic
analysis, is advanced as a theoretical framework for this
research. Actually, appealing to such a positive approach
relates to our adoption of the governance concept. Empiri-
cally, the MACTOR model (Method Actors, Objectives, and
Force Reports) would serve as the specific approach
843
844
Fig. 1 Map of influences and
dependencies between actors in
the IA of Nadhour
Table 1 Relative strengthen CRDA Pol_Party
standardized coefficient
Ri 2.17 2.39
pertaining consistent tool (Godet 2001), whereby the irri-
gated areas’ associated collective-action system (Ostrom
1990) and water governance policy could be investigated.
Based on inter-actor influence, it basically intended to pro-
vide a global view of the expected actors’ strategies,
power-share relationships as well as potential alliances and
conflicts. Strategic analysis includes an analysis of the dif-
ferent actors’ relevant strategies. In fact, the implicated focus
group, meetings and surveys have allowed us to collect
equitable data concerning the entirety of the study area
involved actors (Nadhour-Zaghouan).
3 Results and Discussion
In this analysis approach we consider the collective man-
agement of water resources in irrigated areas of Nadhour as a
system of actor’s games. These games are dependent on both
the position of the actor, his power and ability to influence
others and to influence the system. Consequently, the
assessment of power ratio can appreciate the relative weight
J. Ben Nasr and M. S. Bachta
GDA Agri 1 Agri 2 Agri 3 Agri 4 Agri 5 Agri 6
0.17 1.86 0.88 0.2 0.68 0.66 0.00
of each actor in the regulation of the game. The MACTOR
method provides a wide variety of graphical representations
and aggregate coefficients which help to interpret the data
calculated through the model. Four classes of actors were
selected (Fig. 1): Dominant class: There are three actors who
are political party “Pol_Party», Administration (CRDA) and
first farmers group (Agri1); Dominated class: includes two
actors who are the famers organization (GDA) and sixth
farmers group (Agri6); Relays class: composed by the sec-
ond farmers group “Agri2”; Autonomous class: contains
three actors who are the third, fourth and fifth farmers group
(Agri3, Agri4 and Agri5).
The estimation of relative strength standardized coeffi-
cient (Ri) allows to each actor to appreciate the degree of
power and its relative weight in the regulation of the game.
These estimates show the superiority of the actors who have
developed relationships with the political party (Agri1) and
thereafter the relay actor (Agri2). While farmers in the sixth
group (Agri6) and farmers organization (GDA) are less
influential and they have the lowest power relations
(Table 1).
Water Governance and Collective Action …
4 Conclusion
The approach developed in this study has passed from the
normative sense of the concept of governance to both a
methodological and analytic sense, as demonstrated in the
application for irrigated areas of Nadhour. Its ambition is
to propose a new analytical and positive approach that
can evaluate natural resources governance. In the case of
irrigation water, results demonstrate that the current
governance characterized by a strong dominance of the
political actors and the strong heterogeneity of actors at
the local level does not allow to efficient collective action
around water.
References
Albouchi L, Bachta M, Le Grusse P. Pour une meilleure valorisation
globale de l’eau d’irrigation: une alternative de réallocation de la
ressource sur des bases économiques: cas du bassin du Merguellil
en Tunisie centrale [en ligne]. Séminaire PCSI [Programme de
Recherches Coordonnées sur les Systèmes Irrigués] sur la Gestion
Intégrée de l’Eau au Sein d’un Bassin Versant; 2003/12/02;
Montpellier. 2003.
845
Bachta MS, Zaïbet L. Les innovations institutionnelles comme
adaptations à l’évolution du contexte des périmètres irrigués: cas
de la Tunisie. 2006.
Belloumi M, Matoussi MS. Impacts de la salinité sur l’efficience
technique de l’agriculture irriguée: application au cas des Oasis de
Nefzaoua en Tunisie. 2007.
Ben Nasr J, Akkari T, Bachta FA. le mode d’accès a l’eau d’irrigation
un déterminant de l’efficacité des exploitations agricoles: cas du
périmètre irrigué de sidi Ali ben Salem, Kairouan-Tunisie. J New
Sci. 2016;29.
Crozier M, Friedberg E. L’acteur et le système. Les contraintes de l’action
collective, Éditions du Seuil, coll. Points Essais. ([1977] 1992).
Dhehibi B, Telleria R. Irrigation water use efficiency and farm size in
Tunisian agriculture: a parametric frontier analysis approach. Am
Eurasian J Agric Environ Sci. 2012;12(10).
Dhehibi B, et al. Measuring irrigation water use efficiency using
stochastic production frontier: an application on citrus producing
farms in Tunisia. AfJARE. 2007;1(2).
Godet M. Manuel de prospective stratégique, Tome 2. 2001.
Mahdhi N, Sghaier M, Bachta MS. Water use and technical efficiencies
in private irrigated perimeters in South-Eastern of Tunisia. Emir J
Food Agric. 2011;23(5):440–51.
MARH. Bureau de Planification et des Equilibres Hydraufiques,
l'alimentation en eau potable et l'assainissement en Tunisie. 2013.
Ostrom E. Governing the commons: the evolution of institutions for
collective action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990,
17th Printing 2005.
 Phytoremediation Potential of Terrestrial
Herbaceous Species for Nitrate
in Contaminated Water

Ikram Mokeddeme, Meryem Belhachemi, Touhami Merzougui,

and Nouria Nabbou

Keywords
Phytoremediation Imperata cylindrica Nitrate

1 Introduction
Water pollution is one of the most dominant and relevant
ecological problems. For example, the wide presence of
NO3− in the environment greatly alters the quality of surface
and underground waters. In Algeria, intense soil fertilization
practices in some agricultural plains and industrial and
domestic effluent discharges have increased the nitrate con-
tent of groundwater in several regions in recent years.
There are several conventional processes for the removal
of nitrates from contaminated water. Phytoremediation
and/or phytoextraction is very promising, cost-effective and
non-invasive (Pilon-Smits 2005), among available tech-
niques for the removal of contaminants from soils and water
bodies. This technology defines the ability of certain plants
to remove various pollutants from contaminated matrices
(Pilon-Smits 2005).
In this context, macrophytes have been widely studied
(Wang et al. 2009). They were selected for their ability to
take substances from polluted solutions. It is also interesting
that terrestrial plants grown on floating beds have been used
successfully in wastewater treatment (Li et al. 2010). In fact,
in relation to macrophytes, floating systems are not influ-
enced and therefore limited by environmental factors
(Li et al. 2010) because they can be used under controlled
climatic conditions. In addition, plants can be easily har-
vested and processed without exploiting fertile areas in
agriculture. The objective of this study was to observe the
efficiency of the removal of nitrate from the waters by plant
(Imperata cylindrica). The imperata cylindrica has been
chosen because it is a vigorous annual plant, which exhibits
lush growth and large biomass production.
2 Materials and Methods
The imperata cylindrica were cleaned by tap water and then
placed in distilled water for seven days to allow it to adapt to
soggy conditions.
Seven days after cleaning, the plants were transferred to
tanks containing 50 and 100 mg L−1 of Nitrate (NaNO3),
50 and 100 mg/l Nitrate (NaNO3) and (NaCl) they were
named A1, A2, and B1, B2, respectively. These tanks were
arranged in such a way that the light availability was max-
imal, the system was kept under artificial brightness of 12 h
about 100 g, fresh plants of Imperata cylindrica were stored
in each of the four tanks. The reduction of the volume of the
water by volatilization was compensated by the addition of
distilled water.

3 Results and Discussion

I. Mokeddeme (&)
M. Belhachemi
N. Nabbou
Chemistry and Environmental Sciences Laboratory, University
Tahri Mohamed Bechar, Bechar, Algeria
e-mail: ikram.mokadam@gmail.com
I. Mokeddeme
T. Merzougui
Faculty of Technology, Department of Hydraulics, University
Tahri Mohamed Bechar, P.B. 417, Bechar, Algeria
The results we obtained indicate that (Imperata cylindrica)
provides an effective purification in both nitrate-
contaminated water concentrations with 99.5 and 98.3%
removal rates for nitrates at concentrations of 50, and
100 mg/L, respectively

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 847

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_248
848
4 Conclusion
The results obtained in this work showed that the
installation of a vegetated floating bed with Imperata
cylindrica was effective in cleaning water polluted with
NO3−. In particular, this system allowed the plants to
grow optimally and then to exploit a complete elimina-
tion of the pollutant within a few days after the treat-
ments. This means that the species is tolerant in
nitrate-rich media in addition the species Imperata
cylindrica can survive in saline environments. In addition,
these systems can be used in different environments and
in combination with other traditional techniques to
improve efficiency and increase the potential of
water-cleaning organisms such as domestic and industrial
I. Mokeddeme et al.
wastewater, road runoff, polluted Water table, surface
water, stormwater, irrigation water, buffer zones and
drainage channels.
References
Li X-N, Song H-L, Li W, Lu X-W, Nishimura O. An integrated
ecological floating-bed employing plant, freshwater clam and
biofilm carrier for purification of eutrophic water. Ecol Eng.
2010;36:382–90.
Pilon-Smits E. Phytoremediation. Annu Rev Plant Biol. 2005;56:15–39.
Wang GX, Zhang LM, Chua H, Li XD, Xia MF, Pu PM. A mosaic
community of macrophytes for the ecological remediation of
eutrophic shallow lakes. Ecol Eng. 2009;35:582–90.
 Understanding the Evolution of Water
Deficit in the North African Region
Annamaria Mazzoni, Essam Heggy, and Giovanni Scabbia



Keywords
Hyper-Arid environments
MENA region
1 Introduction
North Africa is classified as one of the Earth’s driest envi-
ronments (UNESCO 1979), with an aridity index that falls
below 0.2 (Penman 1948). In addition, the average water
availability per capita in this area is less than 460 m3/year
(FAO 2016), far lower than the water security threshold of
1700 m3/year established by Falkenmark et al. (1989). In
addition to its scarcity, the national water budgets in the
North Africa region undergo severe fluctuations that com-
promise the development of longterm strategic water man-
agement schemes. To address the uncertainties associated
with the quantification and forecast of the national water
budgets, demands and deficits, we developed a water budget
model that combines country-level macroeconomic and cli-
matic data, together with water supply datasets and demand
drivers in order to quantify and forecast the annual water
deficit volume from 2016 to 2050 for Algeria, Egypt, Libya,
and Tunisia. After a brief description of the materials and
A. Mazzoni (&)
Collegio Carlo Alberto, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
e-mail: amazzoni@unito.it
E. Heggy
Viterbi School of Engineering and NASA Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA,
USA
e-mail: heggy@usc.edu
G. Scabbia
Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California,
Los Angeles, CA, USA
e-mail: gscabbia@hbku.edu.qa
A. Mazzoni
G. Scabbia
Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute, QF/HBKU,
QF/HBKU, Ar-Rayyan, Qatar
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_249



Water deficit Climate change Socio-Economic analysis
methods used in our approach, we summarize the results of
our study and their implications on the projected deficits and
their role in the socio-economic stability of these countries
for the upcoming decades.
2 Materials and Methods
The primary objective of our water budget model is to
estimate both the time-scale and the water volume deficit
faced by the individual countries in North Africa, consid-
ering five macroeconomic and three climatic scenarios. The
simulation time frame is set from 2016 to 2050 and it is
chosen to avoid large errors and uncertainties arising from
long-term projections of input variables. The demand side of
the model includes all water requirements for each economic
sector. These, in turn, depend on macroeconomic variables
such as population, GDP, cropland cover and electricity
production projections, which are based upon different
Shared Socio-economic Pathways (SSPs) scenarios (Samir
and Lutz 2014; Dellink et al. 2015; Riahi et al. 2016; Bauer
et al. 2016). The water supply, as calculated in the model,
includes all the water resources, per country, classified into
two distinct categories: conventional water resources and
non-conventional sources. The first group comprises the
total amount of countries’ net supply (internal and external)
both renewable (surface and groundwater) and
non-renewable. The second contains the production of
desalinated freshwater and the reuse of urban and industrial
treated wastewater and drainage water for agricultural
development. The water reuse is assumed to be a constant
rate of investments for each country as an increasing portion
of each nation’s water demand. We also take into account
849
850
Fig. 1 a Forecasted annual water deficit under the different socio-economic scenarios (SSP1 to SSP5); b Variation of the countries’ water deficit
due to the climate change effects in case of a drier or wetter climatic scenario
the climatic variability, expressed in the model as an alter-
ation of monthly temperatures and rainfall patterns, the first
causing an increase in the evapotranspiration directly linked
to the agriculture water demand, and the second causing a
variation in the recharge of the renewable water resources.
To forecast the future trends of temperature and precipitation
variations from 2016 to 2050 we combine the historical
Climatic Research Unit (CRU) dataset provided by Harris
et al. 2014 with the temperature and precipitation variations
from Ruosteenoja et al. (2003) over the Sahara (SAH) region
using different global circulation models and emission sce-
narios, for a total of twelve climatic projections.
3 Results and Discussion
After estimating the countries’ water supply, we calculate
their annual water demand for the next 35 years for the
above mentioned climatic and socio-economic scenarios.
The difference between these amounts results in the yearly
water deficit up to 2050 (Fig. 1a). Our results suggest that
both Algeria and Tunisia have low water budget vulnera-
bility with a limited water deficit, potentially starting around
the year 2045, but only under SSP3 and SSP5 scenarios,
corresponding to 1.45 and 1.26 BCM/yr, respectively. Such
A. Mazzoni et al.
positive figures are due to the higher availability of con-
ventional water resources combined with more balanced
demographic development. Conversely, Egypt and Libya are
likely to experience substantial water shortages of 11.4 and
2.17 BCM/yr respectively, already in 2016. Their projected
water deficits for 2050 almost double under SSP1, SSP2 and
SSP4 scenarios, while they rise up to more than six times in
case of SSP3 and SSP5. Figure 1b shows the countries’
annual water deficit variation due to climatic variability for
the DRY and WET scenario compared to the average
(AVG). From the above, we observe that the climate change
effects on water deficit, limited to few ±2 BCM/yr, have
much lower impact if compared to the anthropogenic pres-
sure on water resources. One of the major constraints faced
in the development of this model is the data availability,
especially for the volume of the fossil groundwater resources
where existing records involve significant uncertainties.
4 Conclusion
Our results suggest that the major cause of the water
budget deficit will be the forecasted increase in popula-
tion and agricultural development in the upcoming
35 years under all the considered socio-economic and
climatic scenarios. This will impose further stress both on
Understanding the Evolution of Water Deficit …
renewable water resources and fossil groundwater sup-
plies used for irrigation especially in Egypt and Libya. As
a consequence, widespread water scarcity will induce a
substantial rise in the costs for domestic food production
and in turn an increase of local food prices and/or the
countries’ dependency on foreign markets. The implica-
tion of these effects will distress the highly vulnerable
low-income countries, which are unable to mitigate
markets’ price fluctuations, aggravating the
socio-political instability of the area.
References
Bauer N, et al. Shared socio-economic pathways of the energy sector–
quantifying the narratives. Global Environ Change. 2016.
Dellink R, et al. Long-term economic growth projections in the Shared
Socioeconomic Pathways. Global Environ Change. 2015.
851
Falkenmark M, et al. Macro-scale water scarcity requires micro-scale
approaches. Natural Resources Forum. 1989;13(4):258–67.
FAO. AQUASTAT Main database, food and agriculture organization
of the united nations (FAO). Website accessed on [2017/06/01].
2016.
Harris IPDJ, et al. Updated high‐resolution grids of monthly climatic
observations–the CRU TS3. 10 Dataset. IJC. 2014;34(3)–623–42.
Penman HL. Natural evaporation from open water, bare soil and grass.
Proc Roy Soc A. 1948;193(1032):120–45.
Riahi K, et al. The shared socioeconomic pathways and their energy,
land use, and greenhouse gas emissions implications: an overview.
Global Environ Change. 2016.
Ruosteenoja K, et al. Future climate in world regions: an intercompar-
ison of model-based projections for the new IPCC emissions
scenarios. Finnish Environ. 2003;644:83.
Samir KC, Lutz W. The human core of the shared socioeconomic
pathways: population scenarios by age, sex and level of education
for all countries to 2100. Global Environ Change. 2014.
UNESCO. Map of the world distribution of arid regions: Map at scale
1:25,000,000 with explanatory note. 1979. ISBN: 9231015486.
 ANN-Based Approach to Predict Changes
in Ground Water Levels as a Result
of Constructing New Naga-Hammadi
Barrage, Egypt
Ahmed S. Noureldeen, Shenouda Ghaly, Kamal Ali, and Gamal Abozaid



Keywords
ANN Ground water
1 Introduction
The increase of Ground Water Levels (GWL) is an important
issue that should be taken into consideration by the
responsibles for water resources managements. Monitoring
of Ground Water Levels changes due to man-made struc-
tures (particularly, barrage construction on rivers) in Egypt is
considered one of the main sources for the integrated water
resource management implementation plan in this country.
Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are widely used in
monitoring the ground water variations. The increase of
Ground Water Levels has a bad effect on the buildings,
quality of surrounding soil, and thus the growing of crops.
Many researchers concentrated on predicting the variations
in the GWL in different parts of the worlds [e.g. (Bessaih
et al. 2014), (Raval and Parekh 2015), (Sethi et al. 2010),
(Hamed et al. 2015), (Daliakopoulos et al. 2005), (Nair and
Sindhu 2016), (Xiaomin et al. 2002) and (Rakhshandehroo
et al. 2012)]. The main target of this research is to monitor
the ground water levels changes via predicting the spatial
distribution of the ground water levels in the most effective
piezometers in between the new and old Naga-Hammadi
barrage (the study area) due to the construction of the new
A. S. Noureldeen (&)
S. Ghaly
K. Ali
Civil Engineering Department, Aswan University, Aswan, Egypt
e-mail: eng.ahmed.s.nour@gmail.com
S. Ghaly
e-mail: eng_noda@yahoo.com
K. Ali
e-mail: kamalabbas90@yahoo.com
G. Abozaid
Civil Engineering Department, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
e-mail: gamal.abozaid@eng.au.edu.eg
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_250



Prediction Spatial distribution Barrage
one. Then the impacts of these changes on the study area
were detected.
2 Materials and Methods
The data collected in this study represent all data about the
GWL before and after New Naga Hammadi barrage con-
struction. The map of the study area is shown in Fig. 1.
To reach the target of the present study, an Artificial
Neural Network (ANN) model is formulated and pro-
grammed, using Back propagation technique. The method-
ology of the current study is folded into two categories, the
first is to build an ANN model using the data before con-
structing the new Naga-Hammadi barrage. This model is
then used to predict the ground water levels after the con-
struction of the new barrage in order to detect the variations
in the ground water levels (the second category). The flow
chart of the program algorithm is shown in Fig. 2. The first
step in the program is to set its parameters such as learning
rate (Lr), momentum constant (Mc), and number of neurons
(N). Then the program reads the input data and divides them
into three parts for training, testing and validation. If the
maximum allowed tolerance or the number of iterations are
achieved, the output is then computed.
3 Results and Discussion
Firstly, the ANN model is calibrated and verificated using
the obtained data before barrage construction. It is found that
there is an acceptable agreement between observed and
estimated GWL in the chosen piezometers in the study
area (minimum correlation coefficient is about 0.97 and
853
854 A. S. Noureldeen et al.

Fig. 1 Location map of the study area in Egypt

Start

ANN Model Settings

Input Data

Compute Tolerance

No Tolerance> 1e-50
or
No. Iterations ==1000

Yes

Output Data

Exit

Fig. 2 Flowchart of the applied model in the current study

ANN-Based Approach to Predict Changes in Ground … 855

Fig. 3 Correlation between observed and predicted GWL before barrage construction

maximum root mean square error equal 7 mm). Figure 3
shows the calibration process results for piezometers (Pa1,
Pb1 and Pc12). Secondly, Confident with the obtained
results, the model is then used to predict the ground water
levels after barrage construction in order to estimate the
ground water level variations in the study area.
Finally, the spatial distribution map of the study area
GWL after barrage construction, at maximum water level in
River Nile of 65.90 m (a.m.s.l), is generated and presented in
Fig. 4. Comparing Fig. 5 that indicate the GL of the study
area to Fig. 4 and according to Table 1, it is observed that
most of the study area is submerged with the ground water

Fig. 4 Spatial distribution map of GWL area Fig. 5 Spatial distribution map of GL for study after barrage construction
856 A. S. Noureldeen et al.

Table 1 Comparison between the GL and GWL for samples of the References
chosen piezometers
Piezometer Ground levels, Ground water levels, Bessaih N, Qureshi M, Al-Jabri FS, Al-Harmali IR, Al Naamani ZA.
GL (m) GWL (m) Groundwater water level prediction in Wadi el Jezzy Catchment
PA1 66.94 67.16 using ANN. In: Proceedings of the world congress on engineering;
2014. vol. 1.
PB1 67.02 66.87
Daliakopoulos IO, Coulibaly P, Tsanis IK. Groundwater level
PC12 66.10 66.16 forecasting using artificial neural networks. J Hydrol. 2005;309(1):
229–40.
Hamed Y, Elkiki M, Al Gahtani OS. Prediction of future groundwater
level using artificial neural network, Southern Riyadh, KSA (case
study). Int Water Technol J IWTJ. 2015;5(2):149–62.
due to the increase in GWL after new barrage construction by Nair SS, Sindhu G. Groundwater level forecasting using Artificial
about 1 m in average compared to the GWL before barrage Neural Network. Int J Sci Res Publ. 2016;6(1):2250–3153.
construction. The water reserve behind the new barrage was Rakhshandehroo GR, Vaghefi M, Aghbolaghi MA. Forecasting
the main cause for GWL increase in the study area. groundwater level in Shiraz plain using artificial neural networks.
Arab J Sci Eng. 2012;37(7):1871–83.
Raval KC, Parekh F. Prediction of groundwater levels using artificial
neural network: a case study of Gandhinagar and Kalol Taluka. Int J
4 Conclusion Innovative Res Sci Eng Technol. 2015;4(9):8621–6.
This study presents and discusses the spatial distribution Sethi RR, Kumar A, Sharma SP, Verma HC. Prediction of water table
prediction of the Ground Water Levels due to New depth in a hard rock basin by using artificial neural network. Int J
Naga-Hammadi barrage construction, Egypt by using an Water Resour Environ Eng. 2010;2(4):95–102.
Xiaomin M, Songhao S, Xiang L. Groundwater level predictions using
empirical model (ANN model). The results indicate that artificial neural networks. Tsinghua Sci Technol. 2002;7(6):574–9.
the GWL in the study area were increased by about 1 m,
this led to submerge most of the study area with ground
water. Accordingly, it can be concluded that the use of
ANN models can help to monitor ground water level
changes due to man-made structures.
 Depuration of Wastewater from Table Olive
Industries

Jesús Cisneros-Aguirre, Mario Manzanera, and Emilio Bursón

Keywords
Table olives Waste water Depuration Sludge Fenton method Ultrafiltration
Nanofiltration Reverse osmosis

1 Introduction
The Alpechines or Margines resulting from the production of
table olives are probably the most difficult wastewaters to treat
of any in the food industry. These residues combin the com-
plex characteristics of olive oil production as well as the waste
from the table olive preparation: high amount of organic
matter with values ranging from 50,000 to 80,000 mg/l, BOD
from 4000 to 12,000 mg/l, SS from 35,000 to 80,000 mg/l,
and COD that can reach 220,000 mg/l, high concentrations of
salt, and sodium hydroxide.
This organic matter consists of easily degradable products
such as sugars, fatty acids, amino acids and proteins), but
also difficult substances to decompose, such as polyphenols
and inorganic compounds like nitrogen, phosphorus,
sodium, potassium, iron, etc., that cause enormous difficul-
ties for its bacterial degradation.
In this paper we presented an industrial system for the
treatment of these wastewaters, installed for more than ten
years in three of the world’s largest manufacturers of table
olives. The system closes the circle of industrial production,
reusing depurated water for irrigation, sludge as fertilizer
(highly appreciated by farmers) in olive groves and
J. Cisneros-Aguirre (&)
Department of Physics, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria,
Campus de Tafira S/N Las Palmas de GC, Spain
e-mail: jesus.cisneros@ulpgc.es
M. Manzanera
SCA Sor Ángela de la Cruz, Seville, Spain
e-mail: m.manzanera@aceitunasorangela.es
E. Bursón
Control Polution-Iberica, SrL. Sevilla, Seville, Spain
e-mail: e.burson@cpiberica.es
extracting salt for reuse. The process does not produce the
foul odors associated with the industry thus allowing the
plants to be located in urban areas.
2 Materials and Methods
The industrial system starts with bacterial degradation in the
biological tank with a very high concentration of bacteria.
Despite the high salt concentration, the system is able to
maintain a high concentration of very active bacteria in the
tank, helping to degrade the sludge completely.
The water is pumped out to the ultrafiltration system to
remove the bacterias from the water. The specific used
membranes avoid the typical problems of continuous
membrane obstruction and fouling. The filtered water passed
through a nanofiltration membrane, to eliminate the long
biological molecules. The reject flow passes to the Fenton
treatement to break these molecules down and then returned
to the biological tank (See Fig. 1).
The nanofiltered water passes through reverse osmosis to
remove the high salt concentration, obtaining reusable water
and salt. A programed PLC controls all the system, param-
eters and functions, with remote control system and an
automated alarm system. These integrated systems simplify
the process management and allow for in-house control of
the system.
2.1 Biological Treatement
The biological reactor maintains very high levels of bacteria
concentration; it maintains the biological load rate always

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 857

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_251
858 J. Cisneros-Aguirre et al.

Capacity 165 m3/d

Fenton RO Brine
Treatment Accumulation

PUMP PUMP

Oxygen Nanofiltration Reverse

Ultrafiltration Osmosis
(Mixers) 3 Bar
BIO <0,1 μm 17 Bar <10 nm 40-60 Bar
Filter of 0,6 mm <1 Amstrong
REACTOR

Storage Storage Storage

FROM THE Ultrafiltered Water Nanofiltered Water RO Water
PUMP
Accumulation

MUD
STORAGE

Fig. 1 Flow diagram description of the depuration system, for 165 m3/day of table olives wastewater

less than 0.1 kg BOD5/day kg VSS, usually around 0.07–
0.06. This concentration results in Suspended Solids
between 14 and 15 kg SS/m3. This, combined with total
oxidation, degrades the organic matter reducing the quantity
and obtaining a total aerobic degratation of the sludges. The
oxygen inflow is introduced by mixers situated along the
biological tank.
water passes through two standard nanofilter modules. The
rejected water is subjected to a Fenton treatement and returns
to the biological reactor. The nanofiltered water has a light
yellow color and is stored in a tank (See Fig. 4).
2.4 Reverse Osmosis

Due to the industrial process, the level of salinity in the

2.2 Ultrafiltration
The liquor is pumped out to the ultrafiltration system, at a
presssure of 3 Bars. The sludge passes through tubular
membranes that produce lateral filtering thus avoiding the
clogging problems typical of those processes. The rejected
sludge returns to the biological tank and the filtered water is
stored in another tank. The ultrafiltration process retains the
bacterias, which return to the initial tank, but allows the
passage of many long biological molecules that stain the
permeated water a deep purple color (See Fig. 4).
2.3 Nanofiltration
The ultrafiltered water is pumped out to the nanofiltration
membranes at a pressure of around 17 Bars. The ultrafiltered
whole process is very high; and the process so far described
does not separate the salt from the water. If we want to reuse
the water for irrigation it is necessary to desalinate it by
reverse osmosis. From the nanofiltration tank the water is
pumped out to the Reverse Osmosis membranes where the
concentrate brine is accumulated in a tank and the permeate
goes to a tank to irrigate the fields close to the plant.
2.5 Desiccation Process
The brine concentrate is carried out to the solar drying areas
to obtain a very high quality salt. This process was desig-
nated to reuse this salt in the industrial table olive process
but recent European regulations prohibit sch a practice. This
pure desiccated salt must therefore be deposited in official
dump sites.
Depuration of Wastewater from Table Olive Industries 859

3 Results and Discussion
The difficulty with this treatement is the continuous variation
of parameters depending on the season, the quality of olives,
etc. The intake waste water analysis varies between 33 and
220 mg/l of Ammoninum, 9.000 to 20.000 mg/l of Clorures,
25.000 to 45.000 mg O2/l of COD, and between 200 and
300 mg/l Phosphorous (See Fig. 2).
The final depurated water analysis is: Oil and Fats
15 mg/l, Clorures 285 mg/l, Condutivity 1250 µS/cm,
COD 224 mg/l, and suspended solids 125 mg/l (See
Fig. 3).

Compound Value Units

Ammonium (NH4+) 33-220 mg/l
Chloride (Cl-) 9,000-20,000 mg/l
BOD5 9730 mg O2/l
COD 25000-45000 mg O2/l
P Total 200-300 mg/l
Nitrates < 5,0 mg/l
Nitrites <0,03 mg/l
N Total 1033 mg/l

Fig. 2 Variability of intake alpechin or margin depends on the different industrial processes during the season

Compound Value Units

Oil and Fats 15 mg/l
Chloride (Cl-) 285 mg/l
Conductivity 1250 μS/cm
COD 224 mg/l
SS 125 mg/l

Fig. 3 Final analysis of the depurated water after the reverse osmosis process

Fig. 4 From left to right: initial wastewater, filtered by ultrafiltration, by nanofiltration and by reverse osmosis
860
There is a great demand for the sludge, which is highly
appreciated by the farmers as fertilizers (Fig. 4).
4 Conclusion
The system, installed in the three biggest table olive
companies in the south of Spain, alters the concept of this
industrial wastewater management. The traditional solu-
tion is to partially desiccate the wastewaters in big pools
and then, in the best of the cases, finishes up in an official
dumping area. This has a big impact on the living con-
ditions for kilometers around these pools because the
gases emitted are simply unbearable.
We presented an industrial process, validated by the
most important industries in the table olive process,
which offers a practical solution to the one of the most
difficult wastewater management cases, while avoiding
the shortfalls of traditional solutions.
J. Cisneros-Aguirre et al.
Using this method, we close the circle; reusing the
water for irrigation, the sludge as fertilizer and producing
high quality salt.
References
Bouaziz M, Lassoued S, Bouallagui Z, Smaoui S, et al. Synthesis and
recovery of high bioactive phenolics from table-olive brine process
wastewater. Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry, Elsevier, 2008.
Kotsou M, Kyriacou A, Lasaridi K, Pilidis G. Integrated aerobic
biological treatment and chemical oxidation with Fenton’s reagent
for the processing of green table olive wastewater. Process
Biochemistry, Elsevier, 2004.
Kyriacou A, Lasaridi KE, Kotsou M, Balis C, et al. Combined
bioremediation and advanced oxidation of green table olive
processing wastewater. Process Biochemistry, Elsevier, 2005.
Rivas FJ, Beltran FJ, Gimeno O. Joint treatment of wastewater from
table olive processing and urban wastewater. Integrated ozonation–
aerobic oxidation. Chemical engineering & technology, Wiley
Online Library, 2000.
 Evolution of Water and Soil Conservation
Interventions in the Merguellil Catchment:
Impact on the Agricultural Land Protection
and the Income of the Local Population

Taoufik Hermassi and Hacib Amami

Keywords
Water erosion RUSLE Merguellil Mapping. semi arid

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Among the various forms of soil degradation, water erosion
represents the most important form. It has economic, social
and environmental consequences. In the semi-arid zones, in
particular, soil erosion results in the reduction of the water
storage, the siltation of dams and hill reservoirs and the
degradation of the natural environment which threatens the
economic sustainability of rainfed systems and farmers’
incomes.
To reduce erosion and improve the income of the local
population, an integrated management program with
anti-erosive and water harvesting techniques was imple-
mented since the 60s at Merguellil catchment, located in the
central Tunisia and equiped by El Houareb dam. The
assessment of the impact of the achieved interventions as
well as the areas to be developed in the future have become a
necessity.
The objective of this paper was to characterize the
spatio-temporal dynamics of water erosion in the Merguellil
catchment and quantify their impacts. More precisely, it
focused on the (a) study of the dynamics of water erosion
through the evolution of water and soil conservation inter-
ventions, (b) simulation management scenarios based on the
evolution of the five-year management rates and (c) analysis
of the impact of these scenarios on reducing erosion and
improving the income of the local population.
T. Hermassi (&)
H. Amami (&)
National Research Institute for Rural Engineering, Water and
Forestry, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: taoufikhermassi77@gmail.com
H. Amami
e-mail: hacib.amami@gmail.com
The Merguellil catchment is located in central Tunisia and
illustrates typically the problems of environmental degra-
dation (high erosion and low land cover) and the low eco-
nomic income of the semi-arid zones. It covers an area of
1175 km2. The catchment is coverd by olive trees and
orchards (52%), rangelands (26%) and forests (18%). The
average annual rainfall is about 300 mm with an average
annual temperature of 19.5 °C.
The study of the dynamics of water erosion through the
evolution of the Water and Soil Conservation interventions
and the simulation of the impact of the various management
evolutions were carried out using the RUSLE model. This
approach has given suitable results and shown its effec-
tiveness for this type of bioclimate. RUSLE model calculates
the average annual soil loss at the catchment scale and
identifies the most vulnerable areas for a future priority
intervention. In RUSLE model, erosion is a multiplicative
function of rainfall erosivity (R factor), soil erodibility (K
factor), combined topographic factor (LS factors), vegetation
cover (C factor), and management practices factor (P factor)
(Renard et al. 1997).
The WSC maps were obtained from a dichronic analysis
from several sources: from the interpretation of satellite
images and from the digitization of data from Google Earth
for different dates. This quantitative information describing
the water and soil conservation intervention surfaces was
then combined with topographical, soil, and rainfall data to
estimate the impact of different additional scenarios on the
erosion behaviour (Masson 1971). The impact on the social
income of the local population was also analyzed. The
simulated scenarios were based on a five-year rate of change
observed at the catchment scale.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 861

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_252
862
3 Results and Discussion
The first WSC treatment began after the independence and
the first actions were carried out between 1956 and 1962. In
1997, the treated surfaces presented 16% of the total surface
of the catchment, in 2015, the treated surfaces increased to
36% of the total surface of Merguellil catchment. The results
obtained have allowed identifying the temporal and spatial
evolution of the watershed’s water and soil conservation
intervention surfaces for a period of 18 years (from 1997 to
2015) (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Evolution of water and soil conservation interventions at
Merguellil catchment
T. Hermassi and H. Amami
The combination and GIS treatment of RUSLE factors
enabled the development of a map of potential erosion or
erosive risk at the catchment scale. The potential erosion
values (t/ha/year) obtained were then grouped into 5 value
classes (Hermassi et al. 2014). The concentration of strong
vulnerabilities to erosion is located at the foothills of the
mountain massifs which represent areas with low vegetation
cover and steep slopes. Also, the other vulnerable areas were
mainly those poorly developed soils with deep but very
erodible alluvial deposits or calcimagnesic soils on
rangeland.
A spatial expansion of the water and soil conservation
development resulted in a reduction in the silting rate of
the El Houareb dam. The first results of this analysis
showed a qualitative link between these different factors
and the water erosion at Merguellil catchment, which has
undergone an annual reduction of about 10% (Table 1;
Fig. 2).
It should be noted that the average erosion determined in
2010 by the RUSLE model is about 9.31 T/ha/year, this
value is close to the observed value of 9.39 T/ha/year in
2011 measured by bathymetry.
The WSC areas in the Merguellil catchment increased
from 16% in 1997 to 36% in 2015. This resulted in a
reduction in land loss from 10.2 to 9.27 T/ha/year, the
equivalent of a reduction of approximately 109,089 T/year
of sediment that will not reach the dam.
Table 1 Erosion rate evolution for the period 1997–2015
Year 1997 2000 2005 2010 2015
WSC area (%) 16 32 34 35 36
Erosion (T/ha/an) 10.2 9.51 9.41 9.31 9.27
Evolution of Water and Soil Conservation Interventions … 863

Fig. 2 Water erosion spatial distribution at Merguellil catchment for 1997 and 2015

4 Conclusion
References
Watershed scale erosion mapping provides extensive
information about the potential for sediment production
Hermassi T, Cherif MA, Habaieb H. Etude du transport solide au
by water erosion and the spatialization of vulnerable areas. niveau du bassin versant de Merguellil, Tunisie Centrale: Cas des
The simulations showed that water erosion is present and bassins versants d’Ettiour et de Rajela & quot. Int Water J La
visible throughout the Merguellil catchment. Water and Houille Blanche. 2014;4(2014):88–96. https://doi.org/10.1051/lhb/
soil conservation is the main factor that allows assessing 2014043.
Masson JM. L’Érosion des sols par l’eau en climat méditerranéen.
the extent of anthropogenic. In order to control or even Méthodes expérimentales pour l’étude des quantités érodées à
predict the erosion phenomenon, the RUSLE model rep- l’échelle du champ. Montpellier : Université des Sciences et
resents an efficient tool of spatial analysis. This modeling techniques du Languedoc-Montpellier 2, thèse de doctorat, 213
tool could also be highlighted to foster a participatory p. + annexes; 1971.
Renard KG, Foster GR, Weesies GA, McCool DK, Yoder DC.
approach and raise farmers’ awareness of erosion. Predicting soil erosion by water-a- guide to conservation planning
This approach is usefull for managers, planners and with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). Wash-
decision makers as it provides a technical support for ington: Handbook; 1997. p. 404.
intervention in vulnerable areas, the preservation of the
environment and the protection of water storage.
 Hydrological Modeling of Stream Flow
in Trans boundary Catchment
and the Climate Change Impact: Case Study
of Mellegue Catchment

Taoufik Hermassi, Haifa Feki, and Soualhia Chabbi

Keywords
Hydrogical modeling Streamflow Mellegue dam Tunisia Climate change

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Northern Tunisia is characterized by a semi-arid climate with
an irregular and high spatial variability of rainfall. It is
considered one of the least water-endowed countries in the
Mediterranean. The dam’s capacity is continuously
decreasing due to the silting up of reservoirs. To cope with
this water scarcity context, the government has adopted a
rigorous water policy that has lead to the development of the
valuable hydraulic infrastructure in Tunisia. In 2016, Tunisia
has 33 dams total, 253 small dams and 837 hill lakes
(Ministry of Agriculture 2014).
But, this situation is expected to aggravate under the
expected increase of temperature and modification of rainfall
regime predicted by most climate models for the Mediter-
ranean region. Water is a major limiting factor for agricul-
ture in Tunisia and mobilization of surface water resources is
approaching its maximum. Dams are installed on almost all
large watersheds. The hydrological functioning of such
structures and their capacity to satisfy the water demand
under the changing climate will be addressed using simple
models and results were discussed in this paper.
The catchment of Mellegue is considered here for method-
ological development. This watershed (10 563 km2 of which
approximately 6095 km2 are located in Algeria) is situated
in the northwest of Tunisia and north-east of Algeria. It
belongs to the Tunisian Top Tell region and was equipped
by one of the first dams in 1956. Its dominant climate is
semi-arid with an average annual rainfall of 320 mm.
Data on rainfall collected at 23 rainfall stations (17 in Tunisia
and 6 in Algeria) during the period 1983–2013 were analyzed
and used to build a coherent series of monthly rainfalls and
spatially averaged on the watershed using several methods. It
should be noted that rainfall characteristics, in particular the
spatial distribution of rainfall and its intensity, are known to
have a great influence on hydrological modelling and a large
part of the rainfall–runoff modelling errors can be explained by
uncertainties in rainfall estimates. Therefore it is crucial to test
the sensitivity of the hydrological models to different rainfall
inputs, in order to assess their sensitivity and robustness prior to
their use in ungauged catchments (Edijatno and Michel 1989).

3 Results and Discussion

T. Hermassi (&) The spatio-temporal study of rainfall was carried out using
National Research Institute for Rural Engineering, Water and statistical tools and spatial interpolation methods (deter-
Forestry, Tunis, Tunisia
ministic and geostatistical). The results indicate that all
e-mail: taoufikhermassi77@gmail.com
interpolation methods, except the nearest neighbour
H. Feki
S. Chabbi
approach, give similar and valid precipitation estimates at
Ecole Supérieure Des Ingénieurs de Medjez El Beb, Medjez El
Beb, Tunisia the catchment scale. Indeed, the variability of interannual
e-mail: haifa.fki@gmail.com rainfall is significant (coefficient of variation is equal to
S. Chabbi 30%). The global trend shows (1983–2013) a dominance of
e-mail: saberchabbbi@gmail.com dry sequences (Fig. 1) for all the period.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 865

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_253
866 T. Hermassi et al.

Fig. 1 Average rainfall index in

Mellegue catchment

Fig. 2 Calibration of GR2 M

model (01/86–08/00)

Fig. 3 Validation of GR2 M

model (09/00–08/13)

In a second step, rainfall-runoff modeling was used to The observed and simulated stream flows were compared for
estimate runoff and water budget of the dam. The the past situation and the current situation. GR2 M results
rainfall-runoff models GR2 M was considered and evaluated showed that taking into account the spatial distribution of
when using different methods (Makhlouf and Michel 1994). rainfall improved the simulation of stream flows. The
Hydrological Modeling of Stream Flow in Trans boundary …
Fig. 4 Simulation of the Runoff
in Mellegue catchment for the
period between 2070 and 2100
simulation results achieved a Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency
(NSE) of 65 and 80% for calibration (Fig. 2) and the validation
(Fig. 3). Despite the underestimation of floods, the correlation
between observed and estimated flows was satisfactory.
The use of such model to make prediction of stream flow
using downscaled climatic data from GCM was discussed.
Thereafter, the set up model was used for scenarios generation
to investigate the impact of climate change on the stream
flows of Mellegue catchment (Somot 2005). The decrease in
rainfall between the two periods (current and future) gener-
ated lower monthly contribution of 27% (Fig. 4).
4 Conclusion
For Mellgue catchment, the GR2 M model performs well
in terms of forecasting. The initialization parameters
(start-up period and drain reservoir capacity) is an
867
important step that affects the performance of the model.
This performance is more sensitive to precipitation data
than Evapotranspiration data.
The impact of climate change on the Mellegue
catchment has shown that the decline in rainfall may
result in a significant decrease in surface runoff.
References
Edijatno et Michel C. Un modèle pluie-débit à trois paramètres. La
Houille Blanche, no. 1989;2:113–21.
Makhlouf Z, Michel C. A two-parameter monthly water balance model
for French watersheds. J Hydrol. 1994;162:299–318.
Somot S. Modélisation climatique du bassin Méditerranéen : Variabilité
et scénarios de changement climatique. Thèse de Doctorat, Univer-
sité Toulouse III-Paul Sabatier; 2005.
 Drought Stress Effects on Growth and Yield
of Three Soybean Genotypes in Second
Cropping of Moghan Plain of Iran

Manoochehr Farboodi, Masoomeh Rostamzadeh, and Kaveh Khaksar

Keywords
Physical stressors Irrigation Second cropping Evaporation Soybean

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

In point view of drought tolerance, detailed understanding of
the trait and improvement characteristics as well as various
agronomic aspects of soybean varieties is very important in
Iranian dry climate conditions. Generally, water stress
reduces crop growth components and eventually the yield.
The effect of water stress on plant height is from its effects
on reducing the number of main stem nodes. Plant height is
affected more than any other factor by the variety (Kurt et al.
1983). It is reported that most of the effect of drought was on
reduction of photosynthetic area and lateral branches
development than the main stem (Frederick et al. 2001).
A study concluded that the number of pods per plant affect
more than other components on the yield of plant (Weaver
et al. 1991).
M. Farboodi (&)
Department of Soil Science, Miyaneh Branch, Islamic Azad
University, Miyaneh, Iran
e-mail: farboodi1962@gmail.com
M. Rostamzadeh
Department of Crop Science, Miyaneh Branch, Islamic Azad
University, Miyaneh, Iran
K. Khaksar
Department of Civil Engeeneing Science, Roudhen Branch,
Islamic Azad University, Roudhen, Iran
To assess the effects of irrigation levels on yield and yield
components of three varieties of soybeans second cropping
(after wheat harvest), a field experiment was conducted in a
split plot trail with randomized complete block design and
three replications in Moghan Agricultural Research Center
during 2016. The main plots treatments were considered for
4 irrigation levels (i.e. I1 = 60 mm, I2 = 90 mm,
I3 = 120 mm and I4 = 150 mm as evaporation from “class
A pan”) and the sub-plots were allocated for three genotypes
of soybean (i.e. Williams, Linford and L17).
3 Results and Discussion
Analysis of variance for plant height data showed that there
were significant differences between irrigation treatments
and cultivars (P < 0.01). Similar results as evidence that the
reduction in height of low water levels have also been
reported by other researchers. The irrigation treatments had
significant effects on plant height, nodes number, pod
number, internode distance, the pod weight, chlorophyll
content and root weight. By I1 irrigation treatment observed
the highest plant height and number of nodes, also the
highest chlorophyll content and root weight were observed
by I2 treatment had I4 treatment lowest plant height, node
number, pod number, pod weight and root weight respec-
tively and I3 treatment had the highest pod weight and I4
treatment had the lowest plant height, node number, pod
number, pod weight and root weight respectively. There was
a significant difference between varieties in plant height
inter-nod distance (P < 0.01). Lynford had maximum plant
height and internode distance and L17 had the lowest

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 869

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_254
870 M. Farboodi et al.

Table 1 Mean comparison Irrigation Plant Nods Pods Inter-nods Chlorophyll Pods Roots
effects of irrigation treatments on treatments height no. no. distance (µgr/gr) weight weight
some characteristics of second (cm) (cm) (gr/plant) (gr/plant)
cropped soybean in Moghan
region (2016) I1 79.52 15.00 16.93 5.26 40.80 18.83 8.321
I2 75.45 14.63 18.17 5.16 36.09 21.39 9.63
I3 73.74 14.88 20.33 4.93 46.90 22.93 9.11
I4 61.67 13.17 11.77 4.47 37.26 14.04 5.57
LSD %5 14.17 1.59 8.02 0.81 7.31 10.36 0.63

amount. The cultivar  irrigation regimes interactions had References

significant effects on seeds per plant (Table 1).
4 Conclusion
The highest yield and most node numbers were produced
in I1 treatment, while the I4 treatment caused the least plant
height and node numbers. Besides, the most pod numbers
was observed in I2 and the least value of this trait belonged
to I4 treatment. By I3 treatments there were the highest in
chlorophyll content but it was the lowest by I2 treatment.
The heaviest pods weight resulted from I3 treatment and
the lightest from the I4 treatment. The heaviest roots were
resulted by I2 treatment and the lightest originated from I4.
Also, by the ANOVA of data there were significant dif-
ferences in plants height and inter nodes distances between
genotypes (P < 0.01). The tallest plants were observed in
Linford variety and the shortest plants were in L17. The
Linford variety produced the longest inter node distances
and L17 yielded the closest distances.
Anderson LR, Vasylaz BL. Effect of planting date on two soybean
cultivars. Seasonal dry matter accumulation and seed yield. Crop
Sci. 1989;25:999–1004.
Cox WJ, Jollif GD. Growth and yield of sunflower and soybean under
soil water deficits. Agron J. 1986;78:226–30.
Fredrick JR, Camp CR, Bauer PJ. Drought stress effects on branch and
main stem seed yield and yield components of determinate soybean.
Crop Sci. 2001;41:759–63.
Halterlein AJ. Water requirements. Beans; 1990: 158–163.
Kadhem FA, Specht JE, Williams JH. Soybean irrigation serially timed
during stages R1 to R6. II. Yield components.
Agron J. 1985;77:299–304.
Korte LL, Williams JH, Specht JE, Sorence RC. Irrigation of soybean
genotypes during reproductive ontogeny II. Yield component
responses. Crop Sci. 1983;23:528–33.
Weaver DB, Akridage RL, Thomas CA. Growth habit, planting date
and row spacing effects on late-planted soybean. Crop Sci.
1991;31:80–7.
 Analysis of Dam Deformation Using Artificial
Neural Networks Methods and Singular
Spectrum Analysis

Bachir Gourine and Sofiane Khelifa

Keywords
Dam deformation HST model Artificial neural network (ANN) GRNN RBFNN
Singular spectrum analysis (SSA)

and ANN based dam displacements, on the other. The results

1 Introduction
Dams play an important role in water management. They
meet the demand of drinking and industrial water supply.
They control floods and increase dry-weather flows. They
can also maintain a wetland environment that is favourable
to biodiversity. In some cases they can provide indefinitely
renewable hydro-electric power. But besides being a great
source of wealth, dams can also become a source of
accidents.
In order to prevent such accidents, dam safety must be
seriously taken into account when engineers design, build,
operate and maintain the dams. The Dam deformation
analysis is one of the main tasks in dam safety monitoring.
The Hydrostatic, Seasonal, Time displacement (HST) model
is routinely and widely employed. The objectives of this
article were (i) to use the artificial neural networks
(ANN) approach in the HST model in order to perform best
fitting and best prediction of deformation, so it can be crucial
for safety judgment of the dams (ii) to extract the seasonal
effects and trends using the singular spectrum Analysis
method (SSA) and (iii) to combine SSA with ANN
according to HST model for dam displacement prediction.
Besides the well known single linear regression model
(SLR) and HST method, we proposed to perform four
methods based on ANN, for approximation and prediction.
The SSA method is performed to extract the signal features
of the pendulum displacements time series, on the one hand,
and to assess precise fitting and prediction of combined SSA
B. Gourine (&)
S. Khelifa
Département de Géodésie Spatiale, Centre Des Technique
Spatiales, 31200 Arzew, Oran, Algerie
e-mail: bachirgourine@yahoo.com
of the different methods applied on the displacements of the
of Schlegeis (Austria) arch gravity dam, were discussed.
2 Materials and Methods
HST: The data correction method HST is the main analysis
model of auscultation measurements used by EDF in 1967
(France) for data monitoring analysis of dams(displacement,
pressure, flow rate…). The HST model is based on three
effects and can be written as:,dðh; s; t Þ ¼ f ðhÞ þ f ðsÞ þ f ðtÞ
where f ðhÞ is the hydrostatic effect depending on measure-
ments variations in the water level of the reservoir,f ðsÞ is the
thermal effect representing the seasonal variations and f ðtÞ is
the ageing effect. The temperature is handled by the HTT
model.
ANN: The artificial neural networks (ANN) are complex
processing systems which are structured by interconnected
artificial neurons or simply by neurons that are a highly
simplified model of the decision-making processes of a
human brain. There are several ANN models that can be
formed with various architectures, depending on the number
of additional layers and neurons, training algorithms and
activation functions. In this study, two models: Radial Basis
Function Neural Networks (RBFNN) and Generalized
Regression Neural Networks (GRNN) were selected because
of their approximation function features among several kinds
of ANNs. RBFNN (Broomhead and lowe 1988) has a
feed-forward structure consisting of one input layer, one or
more hidden layers, and one output layer, and it is trained by
supervised learning. GRNN was proposed by (Spetch 1991)
for smooth approximation and as an alternative to the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 871

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_255
872
popular back-propagation training algorithm for feed for-
ward neural networks. It is based on the estimation of
probability density functions, having a feature of fast training
times and can model non linear functions. Both models
depend on the selection of the smooth factor (SF), an
important feature for the ANN process.
SSA: The Singular Spectrum Analysis (SSA) is a pow-
erful tool of time series analysis, based on the computation
of the Eigen vectors of the auto-covariance matrix (Khelifa
et al. 2016). As a variant of principal components analysis
(PCA) in the time domain, it decomposes the original time
series into their constituent components: trends, oscillatory
components and noise.
3 Results and Discussion
For this study, we used the deformation data of the Schlegeis
dam (Austria), as daily time series of water level, ther-
mometers temperatures and measurements of a direct pen-
dulum fixed at the dam crest, recorded between January
1992 and December 2000. To test the effectiveness of the
employed methods (HST, ANN, and SSA), we divided the
data into three groups (see Fig. 1): a Learning set consisting
of 2222 samples (67.58% of all data), a test group with 336
samples (10.22%) and Forecast group with 730 samples
(22.20%) corresponding to two last years measurements.
ANN architectures: For both ANN methods, namely,
RBFNN-HST and GRNN-HST, the input layer contains
n nodes (in our case, n = 11), which correspond to the
number of the factors affecting the dam deformation
as: h, h2 , h3 h4 sinðxtÞ, cosðxtÞ, sin2 ðxtÞ, sinðxtÞ cosðxtÞ,
s, es , es . The output layer, with one node, contains the dam
deformation value dðh; s; tÞ. The ANN merging models,
based on HST model and ANN, have augmented the
Fig. 1 Dam displacements time series
B. Gourine and S. Khelifa
architecture, in input layer with HST fitted value and the
difference between measured displacements and fitted ones,
in the output layer.
After many experiments, we have selected the best values
of each method according to the performance parameters
(root mean square error RMSE, correlation coefficientq),
Table 1. We sought the smallest value of RMSE and the
biggest value of the correlation coefficient q, in the valida-
tion stage, so the SF (smooth factor) was selected. This
parameter is an important feature for ANN process. All the
results obtained show a good correlation coefficient close to
99%, except for single linear regression (SLR) method
which was of about 80%. For the testing step, the precision
was improved from ±8 mm (SLR) to ±2 mm (GRNN-HST
and RBFNN-HST). The best precision was performed by the
ANN merging models, (about ±1 mm). The RMSE of
forecast samples revealed that the precision of the SLR
model (±6 mm) was poor while the precision of the ANN
methods (±2 mm) was very good. In fact, an improvement
in the prediction stage (two years data span) was achieved by
ANN merging methods of about of 69%, while the best rate
was around 72% with RBFNN. Also, the ANN merging
models show the best results with a little improvement with
GRNN merging model, Fig. 2.
The first step in the SSA procedure is the choice of the
embedding dimension M which depends on the periodicities
contained in the time series without exceeding half of the
time series length (Khelifa et al. 2012). Figure 3 shows the
displacement time series and its periodicities identified by
the periodogram. The most important peaks on the peri-
odogram indicate the values of the important periodicities
contained in the time series. The results show that the ana-
lyzed series is dominated by an annual signal (365.33 days).
For this fact, we chose M = 366.
Fig. 2 Prediction with ANN merging models
Analysis of Dam Deformation Using Artificial Neural Networks … 873

Table 1 Comparison between Methods Learning phase Forecasting phase Forecasting phase
ANN based methods RMSE (mm)–q RMSE (mm)–q RMSE (mm)–q
(%) (%) (%)
SLR ±7.86–76.1 ±8.09–82.8 ±6.75–75.4
RBFNN-HST(SF = 1.8) ±1.24–99.5 ±2.48–98.5 ±1.90–98.2
RBFNN Hybrid model ±0.97–99.7 ±1.15–99.8 ±2.06–97.9
(SF = 0.1)
GRNN-HST(SF = 0.1) ±0.25–100.0 ±2.03–99.0 ±3.04–95.6
GRNN Hybrid model (SF = 0.9) ±1.17–99.5 ±1.14–99.7 ±1.98–98.0

In the SSA theory, a large isolated eigenvalue in the
diagram of the eigenvalues indicates the existence of a
dominated trend in the time series, and two large isolated
and close eigenvalues are associated to a dominant seasonal
signal activity. As seen in Fig. 4, the first eigenvalue, which
is well detached from the other remaining values, indicates a
signature of a dominant trend represented by the Recon-
structed Component RC 1 with a partial variance of 94.23%
and a slope of about −2.08 ± 0.02 mm/year. The second
and third eigenvalues which are widely separated from the
first, indicate the signature of an annual signal (365.33 days)
represented by the reconstructed components RC 2–3 with a
partial variance of 4.96% and an amplitude between −20.27
and 19.52 mm (15.2 mm in average). The fourth and fifth
eigenvalues correspond to a semi-annual signal (182.67
days) represented by the reconstructed components RC 4–5
with a very low partial variance of 0.49% and an amplitude
between −5.47 and 5.56 mm (3.4 mm on average).
These phenomena are principally due to seasons effects.
Indeed, we observe that the peaks of the annual signal cor-
respond to January/February and July/August months where
the temperatures are extreme (resp., −22 °C, +19 °C). About
the semi-annual signals, the peaks correspond to the four
seasons. So, the water temperature is influenced by the
weather seasons (temperature, atmospheric pressure,…),
which affects the pendulum measurements. Furthermore, in
this study, we investigated the use of SSA combined with
ANN methods under HST model. Many models were pro-
posed for this issue. Table 2 summarizes the performance
parameters of different proposed methods. For the validation
and prediction phases, several statistical indices were used
such as, RMSE, q, NSE, mean absolute error (MAE) and
absolute percentage bias (APBIAS), (Heng and Suetsugi
2013). The lowest RMSE value with a high correlation, in
the validation stage, designed the best model. In forecasting
stage, however, the NSE with values greater than 0.50, low
MAE values and an APBIAS less than 55%, designed the
best predictive model.
It can be seen that SSA-ANN and SSA-ANN hybrid
models yield very satisfactory validation and prediction
stages results. They are better than using the SSA method
alone and less the GRNN and RBFNN solely. Indeed for the
validation stage, the RMSE was improved from (±5.8 and
±15.5 mm, according to GRNN and RBFNN, respectively)
to around of ±3.8 mm for SSA-ANN methods. The best
precision and correlation were achieved with SSA-ANN
hybrid models with a value up to 2.7 mm and close to 99%,
respectively. The prediction, over the last two years, was
performed by an iterative SSA which shows good agreement
in phase but a regression in amplitude values of about 40%,
in annual signals, rather than the poor RMSE result of about
±6.0 mm. However, very good results were obtained when
performing ANN methods with SSA procedure, at the
forecasting stage, because NSE and APBIAS values are

Fig. 3 Displacement time series and its power spectral density PSD (periodogram)
874 B. Gourine and S. Khelifa

80

60

Displacements (mm)
40

20

Original Pendulum data

-20 RC 1 (nonlinear trend)
RC 2-3 (annual signal)
RC 4-5 (semi-annual signal)
-40
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Time (years)

Fig. 4 Diagrams of the first 50 eigenvalues and the superposition of data time series with SSA components

Table 2 Performance Method SF Validation phase Forecasting phase NSE MAE APBIAS
comparison of different methods RMSE (mm)–q (%) RMSE (mm)–q (%) (%)
GRNN only 0.01 ±5.81–91.4 ±9.97–8.0 −0.62 0.64 17.72
RBFNN only 40 ±15.49–22.0 ±13.61–1.1 −4.75 1.87 44.51
SSA only – – ±6.02–82.1 0.64 4.86 0.75
SSA-GRNN 1.0 ±3.88–97.6 ±3.10–95.2 0.90 1.25 2.41
SSA-RBFNN 5.5 ±3.79–96.6 ±2.61–96.6 0.93 0.55 1.07
SSA-RBNN hybrid 1.1 ±2.70–99.0 ±2.52–96.8 0.94 1.97 0.52
SSA-GRNN hybrid 4.5 ±2.00–99.2 ±2.43–97.0 0.94 1.91 0.39

respectively greater than 0.50 and less than 55% of these displacements prediction. These methods performance
methods. The prediction with SSA-ANN hybrid achieved can be a powerful tool in making decision about safety
better precision than SSA-ANN with an improvement of judgment of dams.
about 17%.

4 Conclusion
Through this study, the ANN approach (RBFNN, GRNN
and hybrid models) was used in approximation and pre-
diction of the HST model, and the SSA method was
performed to extract the signal features. The proposed
approach based on SSA and ANN combination was
performed for dam displacement prediction. ANNs show
a great ability to imitate the original data time series
(approximation with good precision), particularly with
ANN merging models. Abs for forecasting, the ANNs are
very efficient. The SSA has demonstrated its utility to
assess the seasonal signals and trends. Good results were
achieved when conjugating the ANN with the SSA for
References
Broomhead DS, Lowe D. Multivariable functional interpolation and
adaptive networks. Complex Syst. 1988;2:321–55.
Heng S, Suetsugi T. Coupling singular spectrum analysis with artificial
neural network to improve accuracy of sediment load prediction.
J Water Res and Protect, 2013;5:395–404.
Khelifa S, Kahlouche S, Belbachir MF. Signal and noise separation in
time series of DORIS station coordinates using wavelet and singular
spectrum analysis. C.R. Geosci. 2012;344(6–7):334–348.
Khelifa S, Gourine B, Taibi H. Assessment of nonlinear trends and
seasonal variations in global sea level using siongular spectrum
analysis and wavelet multiresolution analysis. Arb J Geosci.
2016;9:560.
Spetch. A General regression neural network. IEEE Trans Neural
Networks. 1991;2(6).
 BOD and COD Estimation in Wastewater
Outflow via Artificial Neural Network

Maryam Bayat-Varkeshi, Kourosh Mohammadi, and Reza Najib

Keywords
Artificial neural network Wastewater Performance simulation Environment

1 Introduction processes may well be rather effectively modeled through

Environmental problems have recently attracted remarkable
attention, and enormous efforts have been consacrated to
reduce their effects. In this respect, the wastewater treatment
plant (WWTP) systems are designed to minimize the envi-
ronmental impacts of discharging untreated wastewaters into
the environment. Noteworthy, however, is that treated
wastewater represents a major irrigation-water resource in
arid and semi-arid regions. Actually, the water outflow
quality in WWTPs is variable and depends highly on the
input water quality as well as the implemented treatment
technology. In this regard, models stand as effective tools
whereby managers and decision makers can predict the
effluent quality in advance and operate such plants more
efficiently. Hence, the major challenge facing a good mod-
elling practice lies primarily in deciding on a suitably
practical model, followed by measuring a minimum number
of modeling input parameters, along with accounting for an
optimal accuracy prediction. In this regard, artificial neural
networks (ANN) have been designed for simulating a wide
range of nonlinear problems, and WWTP processes stand as
some of these nonlinear problems that have no pertaining
mathematical governing equations. Hence, WWTP
M. Bayat-Varkeshi
University of Malayer, Malayer, Iran
e-mail: m.bayat.v@malayeru.ac.ir
K. Mohammadi (&)
Orbit Engineering Limited, Brampton, ON, Canada
e-mail: koruosh.mohammadi@orbitengineering.ca
R. Najib
Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations, Rome, Italy
e-mail: reza.najib@fao.org
implementation of the ANN technique, owing mainly to the
high-level accuracy, adequacy and noticeably promising
engineering applications it could provide (Govindaraju
2000; Neelakantan et al. 2001). Accordingly, the WWTP
relating performance might xwell beassessed through
application of such operating parameters as chemical oxygen
demand (COD) as well as biological oxygen demand
(BOD).
Given the diversity of problems associated with water
quality collecting and measuring processes, relating mainly
to the BOD and COD parameters, the present study’s major
objective has been restricted to retrieving the ANN model’s
optimized topology fit for simulating the WWTP related
performance.
2 Materials and Methods
For the purpose of testing the proposed method’s efficiency,
a north Irani case study was selected. The applied data set
was collected through a continuous monitoring of the Gor-
gan WWTP, Golestan, Iran (36°52′40″N 54°26′12″E).
This WWTP started to operate in 2014. The implemented
operating parameters are specified as follows: pH, total
suspended solid (TSS), discharge (Q), BOD and COD
regarding the input wastewater monitoring, and BOD, COD,
and TSS were measured with regard to the treated water
output. The samples were gathered on a weekly basis over a
two-year period, ranging from April 2014 to October neu-
rons 2015. The number of output affecting independent
parameters would help specify the number of input-layer
persistent neurons. As for the number of neurons prevalent

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Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_256
876 M. Bayat-Varkeshi et al.

Table 1 The COD, BOD and A.F. L.A. Structure Parameter NRMSE (-) MAE (mg/L) AAE (-)
TSS relevant performance results
as predicted via ANN Tan LM 5, 10, 3 COD 0.16 2.04 0.120
Tan LM 5, 10, 3 BOD 0.19 0.69 0.140
N.B: A.F.: Activation function, M.F.: Membership function, L.A.: Learning algorithm

Fig. 1 The BOD and COD 9 35

prediction values pertaining to the 8 BOD (mg/L) COD (mg/L)
ANN, ANN-GA, CANFIS 30
7
models 25

ANN (mg/L)
ANN (mg/L)
6
5 20
4 15
3
y = 0.6937 x + 1.2906 10 y = 0.8011x + 3.3215
2
r= 0.802 5 r= 0.851
1
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 10 20 30 40
Observed (mg/L) Observed (mg/L)

in the hidden layer, it would be determined via trial and error
procedure or other techniques during the training process.
The Tanhyporbolic (Tan.) activation function along with the
Levenberg marquate (L.M.) learning rules were also
appealed to as part of this study. Similarly, the normal root
mean square error (NRMSE), mean absolute error
(MAE) and average absolute error (AAE) were used the
models’ evaluating measures.
3 Results and Discussion
The NRMSE, MAE and AAE associated statistical criteria,
relevant to the ANN optimized structure useful for predict-
ing each single parameter are depicted in Table 1.
Thus, the most optimum result relevant to predicting the
water quality parameters regarding a WWTP turns out to be
reached via the application of the Tan transfer function as
well as the LM learning algorithm.
Indeed, the COD relating prediction proves to display an
NRMSE = 0.16, an MAE = 2.04 mg/L and an AAE =
0.120. The same results have also been achieved concerning
the prediction of TSS and BOD. The ANN associated
NRMSE, MAE and AAE values relevant to the BOD pre-
diction are of a rate of 0.19, 0.69 mg/L and 0.140, respec-
tively. One could, therefore, confirm that the intelligent
models’ accuracy level regarding the COD prediction turns
out to be higher than the BOD relating parameter. Con-
cerning the present study, both of the BOD and COD
associated r values were of rates of 0.802 and 0.851,
respectively. The results emanating from comparing the
model’s estimated and observed COD and BOD values,
along with the data fit linear model are illustrated through
Fig. 1.
4 Conclusion
Throughout the present study, five easy-to-measure input
parameters were successfully used for the purpose of
predicting both of the COD as well as BOD parameters.
On comparing the present work’s reached results with
some other studies’ attained ones, it has been demon-
strated that even with a minimum number parameters, the
proposed model’s achieved results appear to highlight
well the advanced framework’s superior performance in
respect of the previously conducted studies’ one. Hence,
applying the ANN model for predicting the WWTP’s
associated quality turns out to display highly promising
outcomes.
References
Govindaraju RS. Artificial neural network in hydrology. II: hydrologic
application, ASCE task committee application of artificial neural
networks in hydrology. J Hydrol Eng. 2000;5:124–37.
Nasr MS, Moustafa EF, Seif AE, Kobrosy EL. Application of Artificial
Neural Network (ANN) for the prediction of EL-AGAMY
wastewater treatment plant performance-EGYPT. Alexandria
Eng J. 2012;51:37–43.
Neelakantan TR, Brion TR, Lingireddy S. Neural network modeling of
cryptoposporidium and giardia concentrations in Delware River,
USA. Water Sci Technol. 2001;43:125–132.
 Wetting Patterns Estimation Under
Subsurface Drip Irrigation Systems
for Different Discharge Rates and Soil Types

Boutheina Douh, Olfa Didouni, Amel Mguidiche, Hiba Ghazouani,

Sami Khila, Abdelhamid Belaid, and Abdelhamid Boujelben

Keywords
Wetting patterns Soil container Subsurface drip irrigation Discharge rates Wetted
radius

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Knowledge about the moisture distribution pattern shape
and volume of soil wetted by an emitter is the basic need
for better subsurface drip irrigation system. The dimen-
sions of the pattern are imperative in selecting the right
spacing between emitters and the suitable distance
between laterals.
The laboratory experiments were conducted at the Higher
Agronomic Institute of chott Meriem. A soil container of
internal dimensions (60 cm length, 60 cm width, and 70 cm
depth) was used in the experiments. plexiglass sheets form
one side of this container to monitor the advance of wetting
patterns at different times during and after irrigation and the
other sides are metal plates. We conduct laboratory experi-
ments with subsurface drip irrigation involving three soil
textures, three discharge rates, and three depth of the drip.

B. Douh (&)
O. Didouni
H. Ghazouani
S. Khila
A. Belaid

A. Boujelben
Dept. of Rural Genuis, High Agronomic Institute of Chott
Mariem, University of Sousse, Sousse, Tunisia
e-mail: boutheina_douh@yahoo.fr
A. Mguidiche
Regional Field Crops Research Center (CRRGC), Beja, Tunisia
H. Ghazouani
Dept. of Agricultural and Forest Science, Università Degli Studi
Di Palermo, Palermo, Italy
The locations of the wetting patterns were recorded by
drawing them on the plexiglass sheets at specified times
during the experiments. At the end of each experiment, the
container was covered then its vertical plane was placed on
an horizontal surface to prevent moisture redistribution
(Li et al. 2003, Douh and Boujelben 2011; Zhang et al.
2015, Al-Ogaidi et al. 2015).
The semi-empirical models for simulation of wetted soil
width and wetted soil depth are presented under:

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878
 0:5 0:065 0:435 
qw Z t 4 Conclusion
W ¼ 3:245
Ks0:065
 0:5 0:177 0:323 
q Z t
D ¼ 3:572 w 0:177
Ks
To evaluate the model performance, some statistical
indexes were calculated such as RMSE, and R2 for the three
profile textures, the three discharge rates between the mea-
sured and the predicted wetted radius for all the experiments
and all the considered times.
3 Results and Discussion
The performance of these models can be tested by com-
paring simulated values against observed values to ensure
model applicability in our case. If the results of comparisons
between the observed and simulated data indicate a good
coincidence, it could then be reliably recommended in
practice.
For evaluation of accuracy of simulated data in compar-
ison to observed data, the statistical parameter ME is used;
positive value of ME is indicative of over estimation and
negative value is indicative of under estimation. Thus the
present models are found under estimating the values to
some extent. The magnitude of RMSE is indicative of per-
formance of the model but does not show the degree of over
or underestimation of simulated values. The EF is another
parameter to evaluate the performance of the model.
For the models, average RMSE values are found 0.86 cm.
Thus it is found that the performance of the models is good
enough with average model efficiency of 90.5%. Therefore,
based on the above results it can be concluded that the
models describing wetted soil width and wetted soil depth
under subsurface drip irrigation can be useful tools to apply
in practice.
B. Douh et al.
The results of this study can contribute to improving the
design and managing of subsurface drip irrigation sys-
tems. In light of the research objective, the conclusion
derived from the study is to verify the efficacy of two
semi-empirical models to simulate wetted soil width and
depth, under subsurface drip irrigation system.
The model applicability and dependability is tested by
comparing the simulated and experimental values. It is
concluded that there exists a good coincidence in
observed values and model simulated ones. This coinci-
dence implies that the models can be a useful tool in
predicting the components of the wetting fronts
throughout the soil profile under subsurface drip irriga-
tion, which can be used in design to check the percolation
losses. By employing these methods, position of the
wetting front can be computed, and thus the extent of the
wetted soil mass under a range of soil, water application
rate and geometric properties can be worked out.
References
Al-Ogaidi AAM, Wayayok A, MK R, Abdullah A.. A modified
empirical model for estimating the wetted zone dimensions under
drip irrigation. J Teknol. 2015;76:69–73.
Douh B, Boujelben A. Improving water use efficiency for a sustainable
productivity of agricultural systems with using subsurface drip
irrigation for maize (Zea mays L.). J Agric Sci Technol B1 (JAST).
2011:881–8.
Li J, Zhang J, Ren L. Water and nitrogen distribution as affected by
fertigation of ammonium nitrate from a point source. Irrig Sci.
2003;22:19–30.
Zhang JJ, Jiu-sheng LI, Zhao B-B, Yan-ting LI. 2015. Simulation of
water and nitrogen dynamics as affected by drip fertigation
strategies. J Integr Agric. 14:2434–45.
 Flood Risk Mapping in the Region of Ouled
Ben Abdelkader in the Wilaya of Chlef,
Northern Algeria
Youssouf ZaÏri



Keywords
Cartography GIS Flood
1 Introduction
Between 1994 and 2004, natural disasters affected 2.5 billion
people, resulting in the death of 478,100 people and esti-
mated economic losses of $ 690 billion. Among these dis-
asters, floods remain one of the most devastating natural
disasters affecting several countries around the world. Sim-
ilar to other countries, Algeria’s liabilities have been marked
by numerous floods. Over the past decade, floods in Algeria
have been the most deadly of those in the countries of the
Mediterranean basin (Forets Conservation Administration of
the wilaya of chlef 2012). Taking as an example the region
of Ouled Ben Abdelkader which experienced torrential rains
creating floods of cultivated land, houses, commercial pre-
mises, schools and the Center of Vocational and Appren-
ticeship Training, blocking the wilaya road number 73 over a
length of 800 meters (Zairi 2008). It is in this context that a
reflection to better understand the functioning of rivers and
flood plains in the region of Ouled Ben Abdelakder is nee-
ded in order to draw a map indicting the areas at risk of
flooding in this region.
2 Materials and Methods
The integration of data in a GIS from multiple sources
to map floodplains, exploiting the different functionalities
of cross-breeding information and analysis of this tool.
Y. ZaÏri (&)
Université Hassiba Ben Bouali Chlef, Chlef, Algeria
e-mail: youcef_2008@hotmail.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_258



Risks Ouled ben abdelkader
These data allowed the development of spatial documents
(digital terrain model and its derivatives, land cover,
hydrographic network, permeability map, slope map, geo-
logical map).In the end, the colled pieces of information
were subsequently combined by multicriteria analysis
methods to produce synthetic information on the most vul-
nerable sites to flooding (Fig. 1).
3 Results and Discussion
This study was carried out in order to establish the flood risk
map in the region of Ouled Ben Abdelkader to allow first of
all the protection of the populations. This has become urgent
because the inventory of the floods across the country for the
period from 1969 to 2008 revealed that there are no pro-
tected regions against this risk and that these events are
unpredictable in time and space.
The complexity and diversity of environmental data have
fostered the application of geographic information systems
(GIS), their adaptation to personal computers has greatly
contributed to the diversification of the use of spatial data.
The application presented allows to clearly see the power of
geographic information systems in the identification of areas
at risk of flooding.
To this end, the methodology consists in developing
layers of information capable of thoroughly describing the
set of parameters that act directly on the medium. The result
of the modeling of the different data was translated on the-
matic maps which represented the different layers of infor-
mation. The resulting maps, after they were analyzed, could
be used to determine the criteria required for the determi-
nation of areas at risk of flooding.
879
880 Y. ZaÏri

The hazard map (Fig. 2) was the result of the super-

position of all the necessary information layers generated
during this study, namely: The permeability layer, the
hydrographic network, the piezometric level, and land
use.
It is noted that the areas at risk of flooding are limited,
after each superposition of the information layers.
There are two types of flood risk in our study area,
flooding by overflowing wadis, for example, in the center of
the city by the waters of Wadi Ben Allous, which is a
temporary Wadi and a flood by rising water table Level of
the Vocational and Apprenticeship Training center where
water damage was very high, according to the center man-
agers (ABH-CZ 2003).

Fig. 1 Methodology organizational chart

Fig. 2 Flood risk map

Flood Risk Mapping in the Region of Ouled Ben Abdelkader …
4 Conclusion
The superimposition of the thematic maps analyzed made
it possible to determine the flood areas. The results show
that in the region of Ouled Ben Abdelkader there are two
types of flooding:
– Flooding by rising groundwater as the case of the Center
for Vocational and Apprenticeship Training.
– Inundation by overflowing of the Oued de Ben Allous
bed.
Certainly, this risk map will help decision-makers and
land-use planners make the right decisions, in order to
881
preserve the lives of the inhabitants in the first place and
all that is natural in the second place.
References
ABH-CZ. schéma directeur d’aménagement hydraulique de la wilaya
de Chlef, ministère des ressources en ea; 2003.
Conservation des forets de la wilaya de chlef. Développement des
zones de montagnes de la Wilaya de Chlef; 2012. P. 28.
Zairi Y, Ziane A. Apport du SIG dans l’étude d’impact pour le choix
d’un site d’une décharge public; 2008.
 How Does the Rainwater Harvesting Protect
the Urban Areas Against Flooding?

Abdelkarim Guebail, Lotfi Zeghadnia, and Yacine Djebbar

Keywords
Rainwater harvesting Flooding urban areas Unconventionnal water

1 Introduction

C.liaw (2006) reported that the urbanization has also been

shown to gradually alter urban watershed hydrology by
increasing both the quantity and the peak of storm water runoff.
Development impacts are typically prevented and miti-
gated using technics such as rainwater harvesting (Roberto L
and Christie W, 2009). The rainwater harvesting systems are
managed in small cost-effective features located at each lot
rather than being conveyed and managed in large, costly
facilities.
This study investigates how the use of the rainwater
harvesting systems can increase the water supply, reduce the
amount of on-site rainwater volume and peak at developed
sites in urban areas.
Rainwater collected by the contact interfaces of buildings
or nature surfaces (green areas, roofs, soil) contributes to Fig. 1 Location of the study area (Bouchegouf, Wilaya of Guelma,
runoff, where the fast drain of this water leads to problems in Algeria)
the sewerage systems.
The trunk sewer of the studied area has the following The results are reported on the graphs Figs. 1 and 2 where
sizing: Ø 1000, 1200. the flow in these pipes was reduced by it is shown clearly how much the consideration of the water
elimination of the harvested rainwater already calculated harvesting in the sewerage system conception can affect the
from the rainfall. decisions.
This quantity of water is stored in tanks sized using the
method of tables proposed by Guebail et al. 2011 according
to different roofs with percentages occupying them in each 2 Materials and Methods
affected sub-basin. Three (03) senarios were proposed: the
total sub-catchement is considered, the sub-catchement To conduct the investigation “COVADIS” software was
without roofs of the buildings, and the sub-basin without used for calculations of the various hydraulic parameters,
buildings and green areas. such as flows in the trunk sewer and Flow velocity. So, we
can deduce an advantage by using the rainwater harvesting
A. Guebail (&)
L. Zeghadnia
Y. Djebbar in the urbain Sub-bassins.
Souk Ahras University, Souk Ahras, Algeria
e-mail: agebaili@yahoo.fr

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Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_259
884
Fig. 2 Aerial view of Bouchegouf (Google Earth)
Fig. 3 Change in flows rate for
each sub-basin
3 Results and Discussion
For the computation of the flows and other hydraulic
parameters for a unitary sewer network, the scenarios pro-
posed above were applied where we note that the flows and
obviously the flow velocity were decreased after recovery in
the three (03) cases as reported in the Fig. 3.
Rainwater harvesting systems decrease the demand for
water in urban areas. They also reduce the amount of runoff
that floods.
The decay of the pipes diameter due to the eliminated
portion of runoff contributes directly to the decay of the
sewer network establishemnt cost.
4 Conclusion
This study presents the method of rainwater harvesting as
a sustainable solution in arid areas. It produces much
more economical remediation systems specific to the
particular conditions in the flooding areas, the reduced
portion of runoff flow using rainwater harvesting might
bring the following advantages:
A. Guebail et al.
• The downscaling of the pipes diameters;
• make down the impacts of storm water discharges in
urban areas;
• Rain is also associated with the flooding problems which
means that there is less soils and pipes erosion.
References
Roberto Lenton and ChristieWalkuski: A Watershed in Watershed
Management: The Sukhomajri Experience.IWRM IN PRACTICE.,
EARTHSCAN, London, Sterling, VA. 2009
Guebail A, Djebbar Y, Guedri A, Boukhari S. Rainwater harvesting in
North Africa: a novel method for reservoir sizing. J Mater Environ
Sci 2011;2(S1):469–472 Guebaili et al. ISSN: 2028–2508 CODEN:
JMESCN.
Liaw CH, Tsai YL, Cheng MS. Assessing Flood Mitigation Alterna-
tives in Shijr Area in Metropolitan Taipei. J AWRA. 2006;42
(2):311–322.
Thomsen R, S øndergaard VH, Jørgensen KI. Hydrogeological
mapping as a basis for establishing site-specific protection zones
in Denmark. Hydrogeology J. 2004;12:550–562.
 Sanitation Scheme Development
of the Urban Community of Harhoura
Contribution to Sectoral Liquid Sanitation
Survey of Skhirat-Témara Province

Hanane Ait Hmeid, Nadia El Khamli, Mustapha Akodad,

Mohamed EL Gattafi, Aziza EL Ouati, and Aknaf Asmae

Keywords
Harhoura Sanitation Modeling PNAL Natural resource Population Flood

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Since the beginning of urbanization, Morocco has experi-
enced a health problem that has arisen dramatically. Due to
the increase in population density, a concentration of waste
of all kinds occurred. Human waste, fecal matter and urine
are the most problematic because, in addition to being highly
olfactory, they are the source of a multitude of infections and
diseases. After many epidemics, urban dwellers had to
organize themselves to resolve this problem in a definitive
way. A new science, urban hydrology, has developed
allowing hydraulic evacuation of human waste. Urban
hydrology is the science of the urban water cycle.
In this context, the project to clean up the commune of
Harhoura was part of a vast project aimed at de-polluting the
Atlantic coast and the Bouregreg valley. It was set up by
REDAL, the concessionary company for the delegated
management of electricity, drinking water and sanitation
services in the cities of Rabat and Salé.
The study of the rainwater problem in the Hurbain commune
of harhoura is based on the development plan of the study
area. It is therefore a sectoral study of an area of 1400. Hence
the establishment of suitable design for the study area was
developed using autocad/covadis, Mensura Genius-4, and
PC-SWMM.
Mensura software for verification and calculation of
networks makes it possible to calculate the flows of the
storm water by means of one of the two models of calcu-
lation (Caquot or rational) limited for an area 200 hectares.
Two types of formulas were used In the case of Harhoura
for the calculation of runoff rates by Mensura software: the
rational method and the superficial method
The surface method “Caquot model” is given by the
general formula:
Qp ðTÞ = KðTÞ: Iu ðTÞ: Cv ðTÞ: Aw ðTÞ m ðTÞ
The rational method gives the decadal peak flow rate by
the following formula:

Qp ðTÞ = C:i ðtc, TÞ:A

H. Ait Hmeid (&)
M. Akodad
M. EL Gattafi
A. Asmae
Laboratory Observatory of the Marchica Lagoon of Nador and The intensity of the rain was obtained from the Montana
Limiting Regions (OLMAN-RL), Multidisciplinary Faculty of equation:
Nador, Mohammed Premier University Oujda-Morocco, Oujda,
Morocco I = a:tc  b
e-mail: hanane.aithmeid@gmail.com
N. El Khamli The coefficients a and b provided by the national mete-
Laboratory of Geosciences Georesources and Environment, orology or by previous studies:
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Cadi
Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco
Period de retour a b
A. EL Ouati
10 ans 4.99 −0.635
Head of Water and Sanitation Unit Campus Veolia
Environnement, Rabat, Morocco

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_260
886 H. Ait Hmeid et al.

Storm Water Mangement Model allowed the simulation The simulation of the flow with the model of the dynamic
of the rainwater behavior from both a quantitative and a wave in the main collector A.
qualitative point of view. It is particularly well suited to the The flow obtained with the Mensura-Genuis at the level
urban basin for the calculation of simple or complex sani- of catchment 150 (Collector A) is of the order of 0.412 m3/s
tation networks and is applicable either for point events or as well as the simulation value using the PC-SWMM of
continuous simulations. order 0.4602 m3/s, this difference of deviation is due to the
There is a multitude of hydraulic modeling softwares for simulation level.
RAUs. Many of them use the Barré de Saint Venant equa-
tions to simulate free surface flows. The models based on
these equations give a good description of the hydraulic
behavior. Their use is highly recommended for diagnostic
studies of existing networks.

3 Results and Discussion

Delimitation of the coefficient of runoff zones: The coefficient

of runoff retained for the study area is of the order of 0.5.
4 Conclusion
Our work contributed to the sectoral study of the commune
of Harhoura by elaborating a sound sanitation scheme and
the dimensioning of its network. As part of the study of the
project Several problems hamper the proper functioning of
the sewerage network, despite the difficulties we encoun-
Projection of the sewerage network.
tered, we finally succeeded in our project. These results
were approved by the Redal project committee.

References
BV 150
Gouzrou A. les ABC d’hydraulique Tome. 2008;2:82 à114.
Gigout M. Étude géologique sur la Méséta marocaine occidentale
(Arrière-pays de Casablanca, Mazagan et Safi); 1951.
 Assessment of the Quality of Liquid Waste
of Traditional Hammams in the Periurbain
of Casablanca, Morocco (Case of Dar
Bouazza Community)

Nihad Chakri, Btissam EL Amrani, Faouzi Berrada, Halima Jounaid,

and Fouad Amraoui

Keywords

Traditional hammams Physico-chemical and bacteriological characteristics Waste water
Well water Environment Sustainable development Liquid discharges

• For liquid waste, implement a demonstration model

1 Introduction
based on a new and innovative technology: the waste
water is treated by a compact purification system for
Hammams are essential elements in Moroccan social and
reuse for irrigation, watering, washing of the roads…
cultural life. However, these hammams consume large
• For the energy aspect, and in order to optimize the energy
quantities of water (60–120m3/day/hammam) and
efficiency of a traditional hammam we propose: the use
wood-energy (1.5 tons of wood/day/hammam) (MARTIN
of improved boilers, the renovation of the premises to
2011). These heavy consumptions result in significant
allow the reduction of the losses of heat through the
environmental damage caused by wastewater discharged
walls, the recovery of the heat from warmer wastewater
directly into the natural, particularly for rural and peri-urban
before treatment, the use of renewable energy sources…
hammams, and on the other hand, of greenhouse gases
produced by the combustion of wood and released into the
In this study, only the water aspect is presented: surveys
atmosphere close to the dwellings.
concerning the hammams of the commune of Dar Bouazza,
The reduction of liquid and gaseous waste generated by
site of the study, were carried out in order to identify the
these hammams therefore presents an environmental and a
hammams and gather all the information in terms of the
sustainable development challenge that must be met. We
water consumption and In the energy. In addition, mea-
propose:
surements of the physicochemical and bacteriological char-
acteristics of the samples taken from the well and waste
water were carried out.

N. Chakri (&)
B. EL Amrani
F. Berrada
H. Jounaid

F. Amraoui 2 Materials and Methods
Laboratoire Giosciences Appliquées à l’Ingénierie de
l’Aménagement (GAIA) Ain Chock, Faculty of Science, Hassan II
University of Casablanca, 20100 Casablanca, Morocco 2.1 Description of the Study Site
e-mail: n.chakri2009@gmail.com
B. EL Amrani The commune of Dar Bouazza is a town in the province of
e-mail: elamrani.btissam@gmail.com Nouaceur, part of the region of the great Casablanca. It has a
F. Berrada population of 151,373 inhabitants with a population growth
e-mail: faouzi_berrada@hotmail.com rate of about 10% per year; One of the most important rates
H. Jounaid in the country (general national census of 2014). It con-
e-mail: jounaidhalima@gmail.com centrates a large number of economic housing projects, as
F. Amraoui well as tourism projects.
e-mail: amraoui_f@hotmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 887

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_261
888 N. Chakri et al.

Table 1 Some parameters of the physicochemical and bacteriological characterization

Parameter T °C pH Conductivity BOD5 Phosphorus Sulfates Chlorides Coliforms Streptococcus
(mS/Cm) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (germs/L) (germs/L)
Well water 24.1 6.93 3.293 30 2.195 205.966 416.458 94000 1500
Drinking water quality grid <20 6.5– <0.750 3  0.1 <100 <200 500 200
(Delegate Ministry in 8.5
charge of Water, Kingdom
of Morocco 2010)
Wastewater 33.5 7.52 3.333 410 20.460 800.528 552.607 6070000 3500
Limit value of direct 30 5.5– 2.700 100 15 600 0.200 – –
releases (Delegate Ministry 9.5
in charge of Water
Kingdom of Morocco 2014)

2.2 Materials and Methods
All analyzes were carried out according to the standardized
methods (Rodier and Afnor) at the Laboratory “Geosciences
Applied to the Engineering of the Development” (GAIA)
team Treatment and valorisation of the waters (TVeau).
Results and Discussion
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Surveys on the Hammams of the Commune
of Dar Bouazza
According to the surveys we carried out, we showed that
there are 20 hammams in the commune of Dar Bouazza of
which 16 hammams are operational with 5 operating without
any authorization. All of them seriously harm the environ-
ment. They discharge their lukewarm and polluted wastew-
ater directly to either a coated soil or to a permeable soil
affecting the groundwater in the longer term. In the best of
these cases, few units discharge their wastewater into the
sewers but unfortunately without pretreatment, deteriorating
the surrounding wastewater system because of their exces-
sively high acidity and temperature far exceeding the stan-
dards in force.
3.2 Physicochemical and Bacteriological
Characterization of Well and Waste Water
The preliminary results of the physicochemical and bacte-
riological characterization show that:
For well water, the majority of these parameters do not
respect the water quality grid, which confirms the hypothesis
of the contamination of the water table because of the dis-
charge of the wastewater from the hammams directly into
the natural environment without any Treatment.
For sewage, it can be seen that all the physicochemical
parameters of the analyzed wastewater exceed the limit
values of a direct discharge and the limit values of an
indirect discharge; which is normal since well water is
already polluted.
The Table 1 presents the results of some parameters of
the complete characterization of the waste water and well
water of these hammams.
4 Conclusion
Hammams cause deforestation, depletion of the ground-
water that is limited and vulnerable, presence of smoke
and releases that have adverse impacts on the receiving
environment.
Indeed, this project aims at solving this problem by
reducing the consumption of water and wood and by the
treatment of the discharges and their re-use either for
irrigation or for another application, and alternative
solutions, namely in water:
• Resizing the septic tank according to the standards.
• The installation of a barrier upstream of the septic tank to
eliminate the large suspended solids.
• The installation of meters downstream from the pumps to
determine and rationalize the quantity of the water
consumed.
• The installation of a wastewater treatment system and
their reuse in the irrigation of green areas, cleaning of the
premises and why not for the flushing of water in eco
toilets …
• Streamlining water consumption firstly by sensitizing
customers to reduce their water consumption but also to
the owners of the Hammams to encourage them to use
water-saving low-flow equipment and to ensure mainte-
nance Equipment to prevent leakage and thereby improve
efficiency.
Assessment of the Quality of Liquid Waste …
References
Delegate Ministry in charge of Water, Kingdom of Morocco. Collec-
tion of Act No. 10–95 on water and its implementing texts. May
2010.
889
Delegate Ministry in charge of Water Kingdom of Morocco. Preser-
vation of the quality of water resources and pollution abatement
[Limit values for discharges to be respected by spills (pollution
standards)]. June 2014.
Martin A-S. 10,000 traditional hammams in Morocco La Vie Eco.
14 Oct 2011.
 Changes in Species Composition
of Brachionidae (Rotifera) Community
in Ghrib Lake (North West Algeria)
Somia Hamil, Mounia Baha, Sihem Arab, Nassima Doukhandji,
and Abdeslem Arab



Keywords
Notholca acuminata Species composition
1 Introduction
Rotifers constitute an important part of the freshwater zoo-
plankton. They are usually unimportant in terms of biomass
(Ruttner-Kolisko 1974), but play a major role in energy
transfer and nutrient cycling (Park and Marshall 2000).
Rotifers may disperse by means of their resting eggs and
their biogeography has been subject of intense controversy.
Knowledge of the rotifer fauna of Algeria is scarce. Rotifera
of the family Brachionidae are amongst the most
well-studied rotifer groups. This is largely due to their
ecological and economic relevance (Segers 2008). Our study
consisted of monthly monitoring, qualitative and quantita-
tive of Rotifers population in the Ghrib dam. The specific
aims of our study were to flow the changes in community
abundance, species richness and composition of
Brachionidae.
S. Hamil (&)
LaDyBi, FSB, USTHB/L.E.B.A, ENS, Kouba, Algeria
e-mail: dj.soumia@hotmail.fr
M. Baha
L.E.B.A, ENS, Kouba, Algeria
e-mail: normalienne@yahoo.fr
S. Arab
LaDyBi, FSB, USTHB/G&G, FSTGAT–USTHB, Bab Ezzouar,
Algeria
e-mail: sihemarab@gmail.fr
N. Doukhandji
A. Arab
LaDyBi, FSB, USTHB, Bab Ezzouar, Algeria
e-mail: nassi.meriem@yahoo.fr
A. Arab
e-mail: abdeslema@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_262


Brachionidae Algeria
2 Material and Methods
Samplings were performed monthly at three stations of Lake
Ghrib (Fig. 1), located in the north-west of Algeria, from Jun
2013 through May 2015. The water depth was about 2 m at
Sta.1, about 4 m at Sta.2 (littoral zone), and was about 17 m
at Sta.3 (pelagic zone). Rotifers zooplankton were collected
by filtering 5 liter of the sampled water through a 50 um
mesh net. They were then fixed with formaldehyde, and
were counted under a microscope in the laboratory.
3 Results and Discussion
The rotifers community was dominated by Brachionidae
(61.9% in average abundance). Fifteen species of Bra-
chionids are recorded from lake in North West of Algeria
(Table 1). One of them Notholca acuminata recorded for the
Algeria’s fauna. The total number of species includes 8
species of the genus Brachionus, 4 species of genus ker-
atella, 2 species of the genus Notholca and 1 species
of Anuraeopsis.
The abundance of Brachionidae ranged between 18 and
2808 ind.l−1 (in October 2013 and April 2014, respectively)
(Fig. 1). Keratella quadrata accounted for 49.7 within the
rotifer com-munity. It dominate the community in spring, the
Sta.3 presente the high density with 1518 ind.l−1, it corre-
spond to the stations with large depth (pelagic zone). In
contrast, the decrease in density in the K. quadrata popu-
lation, during late fall-spring, it might be related to the
predation by larval fishes. K. tropica occurred abundantly
during summer-fall, and their density peaks appeared in July,
August, September and October, respectively.
891
892 S. Hamil et al.

Table 1 Species composition and distribution of zooplankton in the Ghrib dam in Algeria
Species name Stations Month distribution Species name Stations Month distribution
Anuraeopsis fissa 1 1′,2′and 5′ Keratella 1,2,3 8, 3, 7′, 8′, 10′, 2′, 3′, 4′ and 5′
cochlearis
Brachionus angularis 1,2,3 9′, 10′ and 5′ K. tecta 1,2 2′, 3′ and 4′
B. calyciflorus var. 1,2,3 3, 4, 6′, 11′, 12′, 1′, 2′, K. testudo 1,3 1′ and 2′
calyciflorus 3′ and 5′
B. calyciflorus var. 1,2,3 2 and 8′ K. tropica 1,2,3 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 1, 4, 6′, 7′, 8′, 9′, 10′,
amphiceros 11′, 12′, 1′and 4′
B. quadridentatus 1,2,3 9, 2 and 3 K. quadrata 1,2,3 all months except 10′ and 1′
B. quadridentatus var. 1 4′ and 5′ Notholca 1 3′
cluniobicularis acuminate
B. rubens 1,2,3 9, 10, 11, 1, 6′, 7′, 8′, N. squanula 1,3 1′ and 2′
9′ and 10′
B. urceolaris 1,2 4′ and 5′
Note (*) represent new species record for the Algerian fauna. The month of first years coded: 1–12, while the second’s month of years coded from
1′ to 12′

Fig. 1 Temporal variation of Brachionidae composition, at three stations

Present study showed a clear relation ship of rotifer warmth and time are important for the occurrence and
richness and habitat heterogeneity (Table 1). The distribu- abundance of Rotifers.
tion of Brachionidae was non homogenous. Littoral zone of
a Ghrib lake has more biodiversity as light is more available
here which results the abundant vegetation. It causes more
dissolved oxygen in water. So consumers are more in this References
zone. Water is relatively warmer in the littoral zone. Anu-
raeopsis fissa, B. quadridentatus var. cluniobicularis, B. Adamczuk M, Mieczan T, Tarkowska-Kukuryk M,
Demetraki-Paleolog A. Rotatoria-Cladocera Copepoda relations in
urceolaris, K. tecta and Notholca acuminate were recorded
the long-term monitoring of water quality in lakes with trophic
only at littoral zone (Sta.1 and Sta.2). The other species were variation (E. Poland). Environ Earth Sci. 2015;73:8189–96.
common in both sampling zone. Frisch D, Moreno-Ostos E, Green AJ. Species richness and distribution
Some studies showed that environmental variable of copepods and cladocerans and their relation to hydroperiod and
other environmental variables in Doñana, South-west Spain.
strongly influences both the density and distribution of
Hydrobiologia. 2006;556:327–40.
zooplankton (Frisch et al. 2006; Adamczuk et al. 2015). Park GS, Marshall HG. The trophic contributions of rotifers in tidal
freshwater and estuarine habitats. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci.
4 Conclusion 2000;51:729–42.
Ruttner-Kolisko A. Planktonic rotifers: biology and taxonomy. Fresh-
The changes in species composition of Brachionidae water Ecol. 1974;26:1–146.
(Rotifera) community in Ghrib Lake were influenced Segers H. Global diversity of rotifers (Rotifera) in freshwater.
greatly by various factors. From the results it could be Hydrobiologia. 2008;595:49–59.
concluded that availability of safe habitat, food resources,
 Trivariate Copulas for Characterisation
of Past and Future Droughts Over
North-West Algeria
Ayoub Zeroual, Senna Bouabdelli, Mohamed Meddi,
Ramdane Alkama, and Ali A. Assani



Keywords
Drought Climate change
1 Introduction
During the last few decades, the intensity and frequency of
drought have increased especially over the Sahel region,
East Asia and South Africa. (Dai 2011) noted that the areal
extent of arid zones increased considerably in the wake of
the generalized drought experienced since the 1970s in
Africa, Europe and southern Asia, as well as in eastern
Australia and many mid- and high latitude regions of the
northern hemisphere. Because of its geographical location
between the arid (Sahara) and wet (northern Europe) regions,
the Mediterranean region, including Algeria, is also affected
by this trend (Zeroual et al. 2017). Algeria’s location makes
it particularly vulnerable in the context of the climate change
(Mariotti et al. 2015). Several studies also brought out an
aridification trend in the western Mediterranean region
starting from the mid-1920s to 1950 and since the mid-1970s
(Brunet et al. 2007). A similar trend towards a more arid
climate was reported for the African portion of the
Mediterranean basin. Mean precipitations in Morocco, for
instance, have decreased markedly, this decrease being
strongest in the winter and spring seasons. This reduction of
precipitation was associated with the observed warming over
1961–2008 (Driouech et al. 2008). At the same time, many
A. Zeroual (&)
S. Bouabdelli
M. Meddi
Higher National School of Hydraulics, Blida, R.L GEE, Algeria
e-mail: zeroualayoub34@yahoo.fr
R. Alkama
Bio-Economy Unit, European Commission, JRC Directorate D—
Sustainable Resources, TP124 via E. Fermi, 2749, 21027 Ispra,
VA, Italy
A. A. Assani
Environmental Sciences Department, University of Quebec at
Trois-Rivières, Trois-Rivières, QC, Canada
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_263


Copula North-West algeria
studies have highlighted increasingly frequent periods of
drought in northern Algeria (Meddi et al. 2013). Climate
changes expected in the 21st century will have diverse
effects on the recurrent extreme climate event, drought,
which strongly affects every aspect of the natural environ-
ment and human lives. Algeria has been considered to be the
region where there is the best agreement among models
regarding the future decrease in the total rainfall. By the end
of the current century, depending on the types of projections
and models used, it is estimated that total annual rainfall will
be reduced by 15% to 30% (Christensen et al. 2007). Will
this decrease be accompanied by an increase of drought
events in the North-West of Algeria? This portion of Algeria
has already experienced several drought episodes, where the
impact on water resources and crop yields is detected by the
naked eye. This study aimed to try to answer these questions
using two drought indices, namely the metrological index
(SPI) and the hydrometric index (SDI), in two major
watershed of North-West of Algeria: Beni bahdel and
Chouly basins. To this end, the first step of the study will be
to characterize the three drought variables including, severity
(S), duration (D) and intensity (I) from the two drought
indices (SDI and SPI) during the period from 1941 to 2010.
Then, we compared the characteristics of the two observed
types of drought over this period. The results of three
drought variables, estimated from SDI index will be used as
input data for the application of trivariate copulas to evaluate
the joint and conditional return period of observed droughts.
The results of the three drought variables estimated from SPI
index were compared to those calculated from “SPI” derived
from eight simulations of the latest version of the Rossby
Centre Regional Climate Model- RCA4. This version dev-
elloped in the framework of CORDEX over the African
893
894
domain (Jones et al. 2011), in which the boundary condi-
tions of eight GCMs from the Coupled Model Intercom-
parison Project–Phase 5 (CMIP5) have been used. This
allows us to assess the ability of these simulations to
reproduce the drought episodes in terms of severity, duration
and intensity during the historical period (1951–2005).
Finally, we evaluated the future droughts for the 2005-2100
period basing on the two Representative Concentration
Pathway (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) scenarios.
2 Materials and Methods
The used data in this study were gathered from two stations
(precipitation and discharge) that represent two different
river basins of the North-West Algeria. This data cover the
period 1941–2010 at monthly time step. Moreover, this
region was predicated on major issues and challenges per-
taining to water resource management as a result of several
episodes of drought that has affected this area since 1970.
We also used eight simulations of the latest version of the
Rossby Centre Regional Climate Model- RCA4 used as part
of the CORDEX-Africa program (Coordinated Regional
climate Downscaling Experiment) (Jones et al. 2011). We
analyzed the drought characteristics predictions under two
Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) scenarios:
RCP4.5 and RCP 8.5, over (2005–2100). We used the
computation procedure defined in Nalbantis (2008) for SDI
and Mckee et al. (1993) for SPI. The drought characteristics
were calculated according to Dracup et al. (1980). The
underlying mathematical equations of the trivariate copulas
were detailed in Madadgar and Moradkhani (2013).
Fig. 1 Drought variables at 6-month scale. a comparison of SPI and SDI during the reference period 1940–2010. b SPI during the future period
1945–2100 under RCP 8.5
A. Zeroual et al.
3 Results and Discussion
Once the drought duration, severity and intensity at the 3 and
6 months scale have been derived from Streamflow Drought
Index (SDI) calculated during the period 1941–2010, we
noticed that the Beni bahdel basin experienced 35 drought
episodes, with a maximum duration of 59 months and
maximum severity of 75 at the three months scale. At the
6-months scale, 16 drought episodes, with a maximum
duration of 73 months and maximum severity of 91 have
been observed in this basin. For the Chouly basin, at a
6-month scale, we count 13 drought events with a maximum
duration of 147 months and maximum severity of 236. The
mean interarrival time between successive observed
droughts at the 6 months scale is 53 months in the Beni
bahdel basin and 65 months in the Chouly basin. The
comparison of drought characteristics, in both basins, esti-
mated from the two drought indices SPI and SDI has shown
that all hydrological drought episodes come after the mete-
orological drought with more accentuated severity and
duration. Figure 1a shows the comparison of drought vari-
ables in the Beni Bahdel basin computed by SPI and SDI
during the reference period 1940–2010.
The mean interarrival time between successive observed
droughts computed in each basins from the two indices SPI
and SDI are approximately equal either at a 6-month scale or
a 3-month scale.
Drought characteristics from SDI at the 6-month scale
were put into test in order to characterize the appropriate
distribution. The probability distributions fitted to each
variable (severity, duration and intensity) were used to cal-
culate the single-variant return periods of 10, 20, 50, and 100
Trivariate Copulas for Characterisation of Past and Future …
Table 1 Trivariate joint return Beni Bahdel Basin
period using t-copula and
single-variant return period of Univariate marginal distribution
Drought characteristics Return period Severity
(T) (years)
10 11.3
20 41.5
50 81
100 111.8
years as defined by Shiau and Shen (2001) (Table 1). From
the Table 1, for instance in the Beni Bahdel Basin, the
severity, intensity, and duration were respectively, greater
than 41.5, 0.77, and 25 months if the univariate return period
is 20 years. Once the marginal distributions of drought
variables were determined, the trivariate copula was con-
structed to estimate the joint return periods during the
(1941–2010) period. The duration-severity pair shows the
highest correlation using Kendall’s tau among all possible
other pairs in the two basins; hence, the first and the second
vetors in the t-copula represented drought duration and
severity, respectively; and the third corresponds to drought
intensity. Table 1 summarizes drought trivariate joint return
periods using t-copula lasting 10, 20, 50, and 100 years.
Where Tand (DSI) denotes the joint return period for D  d
and S  s and I  I, and Tor (DSI) denotes the joint return
period for D  d or S  s or I  I. From Table 1, we
notice that if all the variables exceeded certain values, the
joint return period (Tand (DSI)) would be longer than when
either variables exceeded those values (Tor (DSI)). For
instance in the Beni Bahdel Basin, the joint return period of
Tand (DSI) = 29.35 years for the case (D  25 and S
41.5 and I  0.77) and 15.07 years for the case (D  28
or S  29.5 or I  0.9).
As far as temporal variability in the future is concerned,
the results of drought variables computed from SPI during
the period 2006–2100 derived from eight simulations, after
correction for the two scenarios, have shown that the drought
severity and duration increase in the two basins particularly
between 2045 and 2098 and especially under the RCP 8.5
scenario. Figure 1b shows the drought severity and duration
computed using the monthly precipitation simulated by the
RCA4-IPSL-CM5A model for the Beni Bahdel basin during
the period 2045-2100 with the RCP8.5 scenario.
4 Conclusion
The temporal evolution of drought events defined by their
three caractristics was analyzed for the period 1941-2100
in two watersheds situated in the North-West of Algeria
using insitu observation data and eight simulations from
895
Tirvatiate copula
Duration Intensity Tand Tor
(months) (DSI) (years) (DSI) (years)
2.1 0.31 11.50 8.80
25 0.77 29.35 15.07
86 1.10 95.55 33.25
166 1.29 211.67 61.05
the CORDEX-Africa program that cover the period
‘1951–2100’. This analysis yielded two main findings:
The return period analysis based on trivariate copulas
showed that climate change causes an increase in drought
severity and duration in the two basins in the future. The
same results were found by eight simulations coming
from the CORDEX-Africa program.
References
Brunet M, Jones PD, Sigró J, Saladié O, Aguilar E, Moberg A et al.
Temporal and spatial temperature variability and change over Spain
during 1850–2005. J Geophys Res Atmos. 2007;112(12).
Christensen JH, Hewitson B, Busuioc A, et al. Climate change, 2007:
the physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the
fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on climate
change, Chapter 11., Regional climate projectionsCambridge:
University Press; 2007. p. 847–940.
Dai A. Drought under global warming: A review. Wiley Interdiscip
Rev Clim Chang. 2011;2:45–65. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.81.
Dracup JA, Lee KS, Paulson EG. On the definition of droughts. Water
Resour Res. 1980;16:297–302. https://doi.org/10.1029/
WR016i002p00297.
Driouech F, Déqué M, Mokssit A. Numerical simulation of the
probability distribution function of precipitation over Morocco. Clim
Dyn. 2008;32:1055–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-008-0430-6.
Jones C, Giorgi F, Asrar G. The Coordinated Regional Downscaling
Experiment: CORDEX–an international downscaling link to
CMIP5. Clivar Exch. 2011;56:34–40.
Madadgar S, Moradkhani H. Drought analysis under climate change
using copula. J Hydrol Eng. 2013;18:746–59.
Mariotti A, Pan Y, Zeng N, Alessandri A. Long-term climate change in
the Mediterranean region in the midst of decadal variability. Clim
Dyn. 2015;44:1437–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-015-2487-3.
Mckee TB, Doesken NJ, Kleist J. The relationship of drought
frequency and duration to time scales. Water. 1993;179:17–22.
Meddi H, Meddi M, Assani AA. Study of drought in Seven Algerian
Plains. Arab J Sci Eng. 2013;39:339–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s13369-013-0827-3.
Nalbantis I. Evaluation of a hydrological drought index. Eur Water.
2008;2324:67–77.
Shiau J-T, Shen HW. Recurrence analysis of hydrologic droughts of
differing severity. J Water Resour Plan Manag. 2001;127:30–40.
Zeroual A, Assani A, Meddi M. Combined analysis of temperature and
rainfall variability as they relate to climate indices in Northern
Algeria over the 1972–2013 period. Hydrol Res. 2017;48:584–95.
 Energy Dissipation by Hydraulic Jump
in a Half Circular Channel with Bench Seat

Mohammed Khattaoui, Sonia Ziani, Omar Boudlal, and Bachir Achour

Keywords
Hydraulic jump Energy dissipation Compound channel Movement quantity equation

1 Introduction sections of the jump respectively correspond to the heights

h1 and h2 indicated in the figure (Fig. 1).
The hydraulic jump occurring in a dissipation basin of a Exact relationships and approached, for the calculation of
compound form, a circular type with a bench seat, was the section and the gravity centre, have been presented.
studied in detail. The objective was to determine the general The movement quantity equation was applied; however,
governing equation as well as its performance allowing to no resistance strength form was proposed. The complicated
size the dissipation basin called to house the hydraulic jump geometry of the canal and the absence of work on our theme
in which its flow incident is known. have made this task impossible theoretically.
The interaction between the minor bed and major bed is
manifested by a transfer of a movement quantity between the
two beds associated with the formation of turbulent struc- 3 Results and Discussion
tures in the separating interfaces (Bousmar et al. 2005) and
(Abril and Knight 2004). For a starry depth upstream, h1 ¼ hd1 the star section, A1 ¼ Ad21

and its center of gravity spangled,  h ¼ h1 can be estimated
1 d
by the following approximate relations proposed using
2 Materials and Methods Excel:

1;46 
1;0127
The circular channel with bench seat consists of a minor bed A1 ¼ 1; 1334 h1 ; 
h1 ¼ 0; 421 h1
of a semi-circular section, Am, surmounted by a major bed of
section, AM, with also a semi-circular shape but of larger Be, AM1 the water section in the major bed, such that the
diameter (Ackers 1991). The upstream and downstream downstream section is A2 ¼ Am þ AM1 . For a relative depth
hM1 ¼ hDM1 ¼ h2 d=2
D given, the section on AM1 and the gravity
M. Khattaoui (&)
S. Ziani
O. Boudlal
B. Achour center in the matter h  , can be calculated by: A ¼
M1 M1

 0;9572
1;0241
and 
Laboratoire de géotechnique de l’environnement et de
l’aménagement (LGEA), UMMTO, Tizi Ouzou, Algeria 0; 851 hM1 hM1 ¼ 0; 547 hM1 .
e-mail: khattaoui_mohammed@yahoo.fr The resulting equation of the application of the movement
O. Boudlal quantity theorem (Euler theorem), linking the different
e-mail: boudlal_geniecivil@yahoo.fr geometric and hydraulic variables, was presented in a
B. Achour dimensionless term in order to give it a general character of
Laboratoire de Recherche en d’hydraulique souterraine et de validity. The introduction of approached relations proposed
surface (LARHYSS), UMKB, Biskra, Algeria regulations has led to show that the resulting equation is a
e-mail: achour.bachir@larhyss.net

functional relationship of the form u Qd ; h1 ; hM1 ; b ¼ 0:
S. Ziani
UAMB, Béjaïa, Algeria
e-mail: zed.soso@yahoo.fr

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 897

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_264
898 M. Khattaoui et al.

The graphic representation of the resulting equation has

AM2 helped to illustrate the effect of each variable dimensionless.
N2 It mainly helped to show that the maximum value of the
AM1 relative throughput reported to the diameter of the minor bed
hM is two-and-a-half, while the rate of enlargement must not
h2 exceed a maximum value of five. Note that these limit values
Am N1 correspond to the practices values, between four and ten, of
A1 h1 the Froude number of the flow incident, allowing to have a
d stable Jump in a rectangular prismatic channel. Experience
D has shown that these limit values of the Froude number,
allowing having a stable jump, did not vary much with the
Fig. 1 Canal geometry shape of the prismatic channel (Figs. 2 and 3).


1 1
1 !
p b2 p
2
Q þ  a2 þ sin a2 cos a2  ða1  sin a1 cos a1 Þ
8 4 2 4
 
3 sin a1  3a1 cos a1  sin a31
¼
24
 
p 2
 
1 p 
1  sin a3 
3 2
 þ bhM1 þ b h  a2 þ sin a2 cos a2 
8 3p 4 M1 2 12

 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
With: a1 ¼ acos 1  2h , 1 sina1 ¼ 1  cosa2 ¼
1
Concerning the performance, the functional resulting

   
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

 ffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 relationship is Qd ; h1 ; hM1 ; b ¼ 0 g ¼ 1
2 
1  1  2h1 ¼ 2 h1  h2 1 , a2 ¼ acos 2hM1 , cosa2 ¼ Q2
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi
1 
2 þ bhM1 þ
d

0;9572 2
2
2h2  b1 ¼ 2hM1 , sina2 ¼ 1  2h2  b1 , h2 ¼ 2 þ hM1
d
¼ ð Þ
2 p=8 þ 0;851b2 h
M1
D Q2
. The graphic representation of
h1 þ d
2;92
hM1 þ 2b1
. 2;5692h
1
this relationship led us to conclude that for the enlargement
This relationship can be also rewritten in the form of


 rate value b, given the yield increases with the increase of
w Qd ; h1 ; h2 ; b ¼ 0 or in the form C F1 ; h1 ; h2 ; b ¼ 0.
Qd and the decrease of h1 . The upper limit of the relative
With the relations approaches the equation can be written as throughput practice increases with the increase in the
follows: enlargement ratio. For a value of hM1 given, the performance

2;4727  
1;9813 
0; 477161 h1  2=ð3pÞ þ bhM1 ðp=8Þ þ 0; 465497b3 hM1
Q2
d ¼ h 
 0;9572 i1 h
 1;46 i1
p 2
8 þ b 0; 851 h M1  1; 1334 h1
Energy Dissipation by Hydraulic Jump in a Half Circular … 899

0,5
h 1*

0,4
1 2 3 4 5

0,3
hM1* =
0.5
0,2
β
1 5
0,1

Qd*
0,0
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5
Fig. 2 Qd as function of F1 for different values of h1
Fig. 3 h1 as function of Qd for different values of b and hM1 ¼ 0; 5

Fig. 4 a η as function of Qd for

different values of h1 and b = 5
b η as function of Qd for different
values of b and hM1 ¼ 0; 5

improves with the increase of b and the decrease in the manage to determine the most cost-effective and eco-
relative throughput (Fig. 4). nomic dissipation basin form.

4 Conclusion
In order to understand the exact behaviour of the flow in
the projection body, especially in the interface between
the minor bed and the major bed, measures of speeds are
necessary in and around this interface; it is a delicate and
long work.
The same work undertaken can also be carried out on
the other forms of channel compounds. Nevertheless the
trials should be performed again. The purpose is to
References
Abril JB, Knight DW. Stage-discharge prediction for rivers in flood
applying a depth-averaged model. JHR. 2004;42(6):616–29.
Ackers P. Hydraulic design of straight compound channels, SR281.
Wallingford, U.K.: HR Wallingford; 1991.
Bousmar D, Rivière N, Proust S, Paquier A, Morel R, Zech Y.
Upstream discharge distribution in compound-channel flumes. J H
Eng. 2005;131(5):408–12.
 Physical and Chemical Quality of Surface
Waters of the Wilaya de Bouira (Northern
Algeria)

Hakim Djafer Khodja, Amine el Cherif, Saad Dahmani,

and Ahmed Ferhati

Keywords
Bouira Surface waters Wadis Water quality Nitrogen Major elements

2.2 The Hydrographic Network

1 Introduction
The willaya of Bouira is located in the two watersheds:
In Algeria, considerable efforts have been made to best meet
the water needs of the population and to ensure that the
• The Isser basin, composed of 05 sub-basins, covers an
needs of an economic development are met. This sector is
area of 4149 km2. The wadi of the same name flowing
the subject of particular attention by the public authorities,
from the south to the north constitutes the principal river
which are devoting increasingly important resources to it.
of the basin.
• The Soummam basin, composed of 10 sub-basins, has an
area of 9 125 km2. The main drainage system of the
2 Materials and Methods basin comprises from the west to the east, the Oued Sahel
and Bou Sellam and their tributaries.
2.1 Description of the Study Zone

The willaya of Bouira is a town in Algeria, with a population

of 88,801. It is located 98 km south-east of Algiers. It is
3 Results and Discussion
located about 119 km southeast of Algiers and south of the
Djurdjura range in the Tellian Atlas (Fig. 1).
The results of the water analysis of the fifty-one sites are
represented by histograms, by a multivariate analysis and by
a cartographic mode (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 12,
13, 14 and 15).
Nitrate pollution and high turbidity separates the sites.
There is a link to continue and extend this work so that a
regular biomonitoring of payroll hydrosystems is initiated.
The development of biotic indexes has to be developed in
H. Djafer Khodja (&)
A. el Cherif
S. Dahmani order to reduce and ensure the cost and reliability of such
USTO Oran, Bir El Djir, Algeria monitoring.
e-mail: djaferhyd@yahoo.fr
A. el Cherif
e-mail: cherif_ea@yahoo.fr
S. Dahmani
e-mail: saadsdsv12@gmail.com
A. Ferhati
ENP Alger, El Harrach, Algeria
e-mail: ferhatiahmedenp28@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 901

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_265
902 H. Djafer Khodja et al.

Fig. 1 Location of La wilaya de

Bouira

Fig. 2 Variation of the

conductivity between the studied
sites

Fig. 3 Variation of the TDS

tenure between the studied sites
Physical and Chemical Quality of Surface Waters … 903

Fig. 4 Chloride tenure variation

between sites studied

Fig. 5 Variation of hydrometric

title between the sites studied

Fig. 6 Variation of the tenure in

calcium TH between the studied
sites
904 H. Djafer Khodja et al.

Fig. 7 Variation of the

magnesium TH tenure between
the sites

Fig. 8 pH variation between

study sites

Fig. 9 Variation in the sulfate

content between the sites studied
Physical and Chemical Quality of Surface Waters … 905

Fig. 10 Variation of nitrate

content between sites studied

Fig. 11 variation of the

phosphate content between the
studied sites

Fig. 12 Variation of potassium

content between sites studied
906 H. Djafer Khodja et al.

Fig. 13 Variation of MES

content between sites studied

Fig. 14 Variation of DBO5

content between sites studied

Fig. 15 Variation of DCO

content between sites studied
Physical and Chemical Quality of Surface Waters …
4 Conclusion
Pollution under various traits (organic or chemical) plays
a predominant role in the typology of the hydro-systems
in the region. Our data distinguish high phosphate and
potassium sites from other sites.
Indeed, this site is subject to the discharge of the
domestic and agricultural wastewater, our data indicate
that gastropods can act as biological markers of this type
of pollution.
References
Barth C, Perron J. Guide d’interprétation des parametres microbi-
ologiques d’intérét dans le domaine de l’eau potable. 1998.
907
Benson BB, Krause D. The concentration and isotopie fractionation of
oxygen. Limnol 1984; 620–30.
Brault JI. Spécificité de l’eutrophisation des lacs et révieres.
Adour-Garonne. 1989;4:20–3.
Cheverry C. Agriculture intensive et quaité des eaux. INRA Editions.
1988.
Djafer khodja H. Contribution to the management of water resources
watershed of Isser (Algeria), IPCBEE vol. 91. 2016. p. 86, ISSN
2010-4618.
Georges G. Gestion intégrée de l’eau par bassin versant conception et
application. 1998.
Jure M. Directives pour l’approche intégrée au développement, a la
gestion et a l’utilisation des ressources en eau. 1998. p. 167.
Ministère des Ressources en eaux Etude d’actualisation du Plan
National de l’Eau en Algérie, Alger. 2016.
 Measuring Crop Evapotranspiration Over
Hilly Areas

Nissaf Boudhina, Masmoudi Mohamed Masmoudi,

Frédéric Jacob, Laurent Prévot, Rim Zitouna-Chebbi,
Insaf Mekki, and Netij Ben Mechlia

Keywords
Evapotranspiration Wheat Hilly terrain Eddy covariance FAO-56

1 Introduction evapotranspiration over crop fields in a hilly terrain requires

Agricultural production systems around the Mediterranean
basin rely mostly on rainfed agriculture in hilly watersheds,
although some irrigation is sustained downstream of water
reservoirs. With climate change and increasing demand for
water, most commonly cultivated species, particularly cere-
als, are exposed to high risks of water shortages during the
growing season. Under such threats, managing agricultural
activities, for optimum water use, requires a good assess-
ment of crop actual evapotranspiration (ET), a major term of
both land surface energy and water balances. In practice, ET
could be obtained either from direct measurements or
through estimations by models using weather and soil
moisture data. The eddy covariance technique (EC), based
on high-frequency measurements of fluctuations of wind
speed and air temperature/humidity, is a direct method used
to determine the convective fluxes between land surface and
atmosphere in terms of sensible heat flux and latent heat flux
which is equivalent to ET. However, characterizing
accounting for relief influences. First, solar and net radia-
tions are larger over south-facing slopes (Raupach and
Finnigan 1997; Holst et al. 2005). Second, soil water content
increases when coming closer to the valley bottom (Hugo
et al. 2013). Third, boundary layer conditions are typified by
specific regimes in terms of thermal stratification, airflow,
wind speed and wind vertical profile (Raupach and Finnigan
1997). Such constraints are not considered in operational
models used for ET estimation, including the widely adopted
Penman-Monteith (ETo) or FAO-56 method (Allen et al.
1998).
The main objective of this study was to assess the vari-
ability of ET during the period of active growth for wheat in
a hilly watershed of northern Tunisia, using flux measure-
ment stations. Experimental data were compared to ET
estimations based on reference evapotranspiration (ETo) and
crop coefficients.
2 Materials and Methods

The experiment was conducted in three wheat fields, located

within the hilly area of Cap-Bon -Tunisia. Two flux mea-
N. Boudhina (&)
M. M. Masmoudi
N. Ben Mechlia
Institut National Agronomique de Tunisie (INAT), Tunis, Tunisia surement stations were installed in sloping parcels (A, B) on
e-mail: nissafboudhina@gmail.com opposite rims and the third in a flat area (C) within a
F. Jacob watershed. In situ monitoring of sensible heat and water
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), UMR vapor fluxes, net radiation and weather factors covered the
LISAH, Montpellier, France months of active growth for wheat (January–April 2013).
F. Jacob
L. Prévot During the experiment, micro-meteorological instability
Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA)—UMR combined with instrumental dysfunctions reduced the vol-
LISAH, Montpellier, France ume of complete data sets. With many missing data in the
R. Zitouna-Chebbi
I. Mekki obtained time series, we had to use the gap-filling method
Institut National de Recherche en Génie Rural, Eaux et Forêts
(INRGREF), Ariana, Tunisia

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 909

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_266
910 N. Boudhina et al.

6.0 energy and underestimates the convective energy (Twine

ET-A ET-B ET-C
ET (mm/day)
4.0
2.0
0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0
ETo (mm/day)
Fig. 1 Daily ET values of wheat estimated in sloping (A, B) and flat
(C) fields versus ETo during the mid-season (March 01–April 15, 2013)
based on the LE/Rn ratio to derive daily ET values from
hourly records, following the technique proposed by Roup-
sard et al. (2006). Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) was
determined from meteorological measurements, according to
the Penman-Monteith equation (Allen et al. 1998).
3 Results and Discussion
Daily ET measurements obtained in the different sites were
compared to corresponding ETo values. Figure 1 shows an
important scatter of ET data, reflecting important variations
in precipitations and climate demand conditions during the
growing season. Strikingly, most of ET points are found
below the line 1:1, while empirically ET/ETo ratio, or crop
coefficient, of the wheat crop is supposed to be around 1.15
during periods of full vegetation (Allen et al. 1998). Several
authors reported on cases of underestimation of ET by the
EC method, arguing that EC overestimates the available
et al. 2000; Evett et al. 2012a, b). The results of Fig. 1 also
indicate that differences between ETo and ET are more
obvious for sloping sites (A, B) than for horizontal terrain
(C). Field configurations could be associated to the effect of
slope and aspect, inducing in the case of upslope winds a
low evapotranspiration (stomata closure and increasing of
the aerodynamic resistance), and in the case of down slope
winds high evapotranspiration (Rana et al. 2007).
On the overall, ET or water consumptive use by the wheat
6.0
crop reported in Fig. 1 is frequently higher on the flat terrain
(C) than on sloping fields (A and B). This means that relief
has an effect on ET, regardless of the possible systematic
underestimations inherent to EC measurements.
During the life cycle of the crop, ET increases following
vegetation growth and in response to increasing ETo. Cal-
culation of mean values over the main growth stages of
wheat shows smaller ET averages in the sloping fields (A, B)
compared to flat conditions (C) (Table 1). ET was at a
minimum of 1.6 for sloping fields and 1.8 for flat area (C) at
early stages of crop development in winter (17/01–28/02)
and maximums of 2.3 and 3.2 mm/day during the period of
maximum vegetation (01/03–15/04). ETo increased during
the same period from 1.9 to 3.1 mm/day. Under adequate
water supply, the ratio ET/ETo, representing empirically the
crop coefficient Kc, is considered to reach its maximum at
full crop growth. ET/ETo ratios during the mid-season stage
(March 1–April 15) were 0.81, 0.74 and 1.03, respectively,
for field A, B and C (Table 1), well below the commonly
used value of 1.15, proposed by the FAO-56 paper (Allen
et al. 1998).
The differences are basically in the range of 10–30%. These
results suggest that it is necessary to take into account
topography in order to have accurate ET estimates when using
the Penman-Monteith model outside standard conditions.

Table 1 Daily averages of ET Period Development (17/01–28/02) Mid-season (01/03–15/04)

(mm/d) for the wheat crop and
ratios of ET/ETo (FAO ET (mm/d) ET/ETo ET (mm/d) ET/ETo
Penman-Monteith), showing the Reference ETo 1.9 1.0 3.1 1.0
range of evapotranspiration
Sloping site (A) 1.6 0.84 2.5 0.81
reduction in sloping terrain
Sloping site (B) 1.6 0.84 2.3 0.74
Flat area (C) 1.8 0.94 3.2 1.03
FAO method 1.7 0.90 3.7 1.15
Measuring Crop Evapotranspiration Over Hilly Areas
4 Conclusion
Used in a comparative study of evapotranspiration over
changing topography, Eddy Covariance method showed
very good performances in semi-arid environments,
despite some problems linked to sensors and missing
data. Measurements demonstrated substantial reduction in
water consumption for wheat grown on sloping fields.
For daily ETo variations between 2.0 and 4.0 mm/day,
ET of actively growing wheat was in the range of 1.6–
3.2 mm/day, well below estimations based on ETo
according to FAO method. Reductions of 10–30%, were
associated to effects of slope and aspect of terrain, sug-
gesting that the EC method is appropriate for testing land
surface water and energy balance models. Also, correc-
tion factors, taking into account topography, should be
used in hilly areas for more accurate estimations of ET.
Acknowledgements This study was supported by the JEAI JASMIN
and ANR TRANSMED ALMIRA projects.
References
Allen RG, Pereira LS, Raes D, Smith M. Crop evapotranspiration—
guidelines for computing crop water requirements—FAO irrigation
and drainage paper 56. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations; 1998. p 465.
911
Evett SR, Howell TA, Baumhardt RL, Copeland KS. Can weighing
lysimeter ET represent surrounding field ET well enough to test flux
station measurements of daily and sub-daily ET? Adv Water
Resour. 2012a; 50: 79–90.
Evett SR, Kustas WP, Gowda PH, Anderson MC, Prueger JH,
Howell TA. Overview of the bushland evapotranspiration and
agricultural remote sensing EXperiment 2008 (BEAREX08): A
field experiment evaluating methods for quantifying ET at multiple
scales. Adv Water Resour. 2012b, 50: 4–19.
Holst T, Rost J, Mayer H. Net radiation balance for two forested
slopes on opposite sides of a valley. Int J Biometeorol. 2005; 49:
275–284.
Hugo AG, Enrique R, Colin Cikoski C, Bruce J, Rafael L, Erkan I. On
the observed ecohydrologic dynamics of a semiarid basin with
aspect-delimited ecosystems. Water Resour Res. 2013; 49: 1–22.
Rana G, Ferrara RM, Martinelli N, Personnic P, Cellier P. Estimating
energy fluxes from sloping crops using standard agrometeorological
measurements and topography. Agric Forest Meteorol. 2007;146:
116–133.
Raupach MR, Finnigan JJ. The influence of topography on meteorog-
ical variables and surface-atmosphere interactions. J Hydrol.
1997;190: 182–213.
Roupsard O, Bonnefond J-M, Irvine M, Berbigier P, Nouvellon Y,
Dauzat J, Taga S, Hamel O, Jourdan C, Saint-André L, Mialet-Serra
I, Labouisse J-P, Epron D, Joffre R, Braconnier S, Rouzière A,
Navarro M, & Bouillet J-P. Partitioning energy and
evapo-transpiration above and below a tropical palm canopy. Agric
Forest Meteorol. 2006;139: 252–268.
Twine TE, Kustas WP, Norman JM, Cook DR, Houser PR, Meyers TP,
Prueger JH, Starks PJ, Wesely ML. Correcting eddy-covariance flux
underestimates over a grassland. Agric Forest Meteorol. 2000;103:
279–300.
 Estimation of Specific Degradation
by Application of a Regional Model
for the North of Algeria
Rachid Chellali and Rabah Ladjal



Keywords
Erosive activity Exutory
1 Introduction
In Algeria, many researchers have developed relationships
linking solid transport with geomorphological and climato-
logical factors for some Algerian watersheds like Achite and
Meddi (2006), Touaibia et al. (2001), Benkhaled and Remini
(2003). As for the, Demmak (1982) and Meddi (2015), they
have developed estimated models of specific degradation for
a large scale in the north of Algeria.
The main objective of this work was to determine the
specific degradation of the Nahr Ouassel watershed using an
adequate model.
The Kef Lasfer station located at the exutory of this
watershed has been de-rated for a very long time and only
concentrations measurement of the sediment can be used.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Presentation of the Study Zone
The Nahr Ouassel watershed covers 3110 km2 of area in the
Cheliff (Fig. 1). It is drained from west to east by the wadi of
Nahr Ouassel itself, originated of the region of Tiaret. Its
exutory is controlled by the Kef Lasfer station at the con-
fluence with wadi Touil.
R. Chellali (&)
University Center of Tissemsilt, Tissemsilt, Algeria
e-mail: chellalidoc@gmail.com
R. Ladjal
University of Tlemcen, Tlemcen, Algeria
e-mail: rabahmag@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_267




Quantification Endoreism Extrapolation Model
It consists of a vast plain called “plateau of Sersou” with
950 m of altitude. This plain is strewn with depressions or
Daïa that trap important surface runoff. The average annual
rainfall in the watershed is 359 mm; the mean annual
evapotranspiration is 1550 mm. The average annual tem-
perature is about 14.7 °C.
The bioclimate of the watershed belongs to the semi-arid
stage with cold winter (Chellali and Guendouz 2017).
2.2 Causes of Sediment Mobilization
Among the parameters that support erosive activity in the
sub-watershed of Nahr Ouassel:
• A very clear spatial-temporal variability of precipitation
across the basin, characterized by a semi-arid climate
with intense and irregular rainfall.
• An obvious relief with a specific gradient Ds = 228.39,
qualified fairly strong (order N°5) by the O.R.S.T.O.M
classification
• A highly developed hydrographic network in the north
where the drainage density is Dd = 0.67.
• A lithologic composition highly vulnerable to erosion
characterized by continental deposits over several tens of
meters of gravel, sand and silt, crowned by a tuffaceous
crust.
2.3 Selection of the Model
To estimate the specific degradation, the author (Meddi
2015) exploited the data of 67 hydrometric stations and
dams distributed over the North of Algeria.
913
914 R. Chellali and R. Ladjal

Fig. 1 Situation of the study

zone

Table 1 Models tested N° Models R2 NASH (%) RRMSE

Calib Valid Calib Valid
1 Ds = 16115.58 Ql0.67* S−0.52 IMF0.10 0.773 77 88 0.428 1.375
2 Ds = 2.14 IMF1.29 S0.09 0.383 40 50 0.981 3.907
3 Ds = 12.55 Ql0.30 IMF1.01 0.589 52 41 0.737 3.214
With:
Ds: Specific degradation (t/km2.y)
Ql: Annual flow (m3/s),
S: Surface of watershed (km2),
MIF: Modified index of Fournier.
NASH criterion (%) = [1−R(√Dsobs−√Dscal)2 /R(√Dsobs−√Dsobs)2]100
RRMSE: Average quadratic error (%) = 1/NR i=1 [(Dsobs−Dscal)/Dsobs]

The relationship of the models linked the specific which decreases the flow and prevents its
degradation (Ds) to the explicative factors concentration.
The regression models were selected on the basis of the • The limitation of the load (head/ha) and the strict
coefficient of determination (R2), the NASH criterion, the observation of rest periods specific to each
mean square error (RRMSE). Table 1 summarizes the dif- phyto-sociological type of path allows the phytomass
ferent regression models tested. The best model was selected to regenerate and ensure the stability of the soil with
on the basis of the highest value of the coefficient of better productivity.
determination and the lowest of the NASH criterion (1969).
Model 1 gives the best NASH values in calibration and (b) Mechanical measures
validation, as well as the coefficient of determination. This
model was used to calculate the specific degradation. Mechanical treatment aims to reduce the flow of surface
water and create a microclimate favorable to the restoration
of vegetation.
Among the tested techniques in the region:
2.4 Preventive Measures
• The Pitting disc
(a) Biological measures • Furrows of continuous levels
• Dense woodlands with well-adapted species provide • Furrows of levels in quincunx
the best protection for watersheds • Thresholds: threshold of gabions, threshold with dry
• Planting of pulses and grasses improves the soil stone, threshold with metal netting, threshold with plastic
structure and ensures a permanent vegetation cover, bags, threshold with worn tires.
Estimation of Specific Degradation by Application …
3 Results and Discussion
(a) Calculation of the average annual liquid flow at the
station of Kef Lasfer by the model
Ds: Specific degradation deduced from the bathymetry
measured at the dam of Bougara (289 t/km2.year)
S: Surface controlled by the kef Lasfer station
S = 3110 km2
MIF: The modified Fournier index calculated by (1)
MIF = 0.43 P0:94 X0:09 ð1Þ
With P: Rainfall in mm, X: Longitude in km, MIF = 50
Application:
Ds ¼ 16115:58Ql0:67 S0:52 MIF0:10 ) Ql ¼ 0:709m3 = s
Let an average annual liquid yield at the station of Kef
Lasfer be Apl = 22.36 hm3/year
(b) Estimate of the average annual solid yield of Nahr
Ouassel
Qs ¼ C*Q , Aps ¼ C*Apl
C: Average sediments concentration measured by
ANRH at Kef Lasfer Station equal to 29.27 g/l
Apl: Annual liquid yield calculated by the model at Kef
Lasfer station
Aps: Annual solid yield estimated at Kef Lasfer station
Aps = C * Apl = 654533 tons/year
(c) Determination of specific degradation in Nahr Ouassel
watershed
Ds = Aps/S = 210 t/km2 year
915
• The real measure of the annual volume regularized by the
dam of Bougara as well as its bathymetry allowed vali-
dating the selected model.
• The measures of sediment concentrations performed by
the national agency of hydric resources were exploited to
assess the annual total solid yield of the watershed.
• As the annual solid yield of the sub-watershed of dam
Bougara was deducted from bathymetry, the bed load
was included in the Ql calculation.
4 Conclusion
After its validation in sub-watershed of dam Bougara, the
selected model allowed estimating the liquid and solid
contributions and deduce the specific degradation of Nahr
Ouassel watershed which amounts to 210 t/km2 year.
The combination of biological and mechanical mea-
sures constitutes a valuable alternative to mitigate the
intensity of this phenomenon.
References
Achite M, Meddi M. Spatio-temporal variability of liquid and solid
inputs in a semi-arid zone. Case of the Oued Mina watershed
(Algerian North-West). J Water Sci. N° 18 Special 2006; 37–56.
Benkhaled A, Remini B. Analysis of the power relationship between
solid flow and liquid flow at the level of the Watersheed Wahrane
watershed (Algeria). J Water Sci. 2003;16(3):333–56.
Chellali R, Guendouz A. Problematic of surface water mobilization and
its impact on sustainable development in the Cheliff watershed
upstream of Boughzoul. Thesis of science doctor. Algeria: Univer-
sity of Bab-Ezzouar; 2017.
Demmak A. Contribution to the study of erosion and solid transport in
northern Algeria. Thesis of Doctor Engineer. Paris: University of
Pierre and Marie Curie; XI, 1982.
Meddi M. Contribution to the study of solid transport in Northern
Algeria. Larhyss J 2015; 24:315–336.
Touaibia B, Aidaoui A, Gomer D, Achite M. Quantification and
temporal variability of solid flow in a semi-arid zone of northern
Algeria. Hydrol Sci J. 2001;46(1):41–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/
02626660109492799.
 Effects of Treated Wastewater Irrigation
of Sfax, Agareb and Mahres Stations
on Olive Plants

Zaineb Bakari, Nesrine Boujelben, Frah Bouhamed, Monem Kallel,

and Boubaker Elleuch

Keywords
Treated wastewater Irrigation Olivier Growth Soil, potable water

Biological alternatives to fumigation, such as biocontrol

1 Introduction
The increased demand of fresh domestic waste by the urban
sector has produced elevated volumes of wastewater.
Nowadays, Reclaiming wastewater for agricultural reuse
is increasingly admitted as an essential strategy in areas of
the world where water is in short supply (Pedrero et al.
2010). This can reduce the contamination of the environment
and save huge amounts of freshwater.
In Tunisia, wastewaters collected by ONAS are from
urban areas, up to 80% domestic. Plants produce about 246
million m3 of water annually, treating 92% of the wastew-
ater collected by the network of ONAS (ONAS 2010).
In 2010, 68 Mm3 treated wastewater TWW was reused
for different activities (irrigation and indirect use). All trea-
ted wastewater produced could meet the water needs cov-
ering about 40000 ha.
Z. Bakari (&)
N. Boujelben
F. Bouhamed
M. Kallel

B. Elleuch
Laboratory of Environmental Engineering and EcoTechnology,
National School of Engineering of Sfax (LR16ES19) (ENIS),
Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: bakari.zaineb@gmail.com
N. Boujelben
e-mail: nesrine.boujelben@tunet.tn
F. Bouhamed
e-mail: bouhamed.farah@gmail.com
M. Kallel
e-mail: monemkallel@gmail.com
B. Elleuch
e-mail: boubaker.elleuch@enis.rnu.tn
and composts, promote sustainability of the soil ecological
balance with less environmental impact. That is why, the
effect of the wastewater on different used samples, soil alone
or mixed with compost and soil mixed with both compost
and peat was analyzed in this work.
The aim of the present investigation was to study the
influence of TWW from three stations on olives when they
are cultivated, on their growth and development after ten
months starting from February 2017.
2 Materials and Methods
Treated effluents were sampled at the outlet of the Sfax
(STW), Agareb (ATW) and Mahres (MTW) wastewater
treatment plant. The parameters measured were: pH, elec-
trical conductivity (EC), SS, sodium (Na+), potassium (K+),
calcium (Ca2+), magnesium(Mg2+), chemical oxygen
demand (COD), biological oxygen demand over five days
(BOD5), ammonium-nitrogen (NH4–N), nitrate-nitrogen
(NO3–N),), bicarbonates (HCO3−), phosphates (PO4–P),
sulphates and chlorides.
Three soil types were used: soil mixed with compost and
peat, soil mixed with compost and only soil taken from a
depth of more than 30 cm. Four experimental plots were
considered for each type of soil; one plot irrigated with water
(PW) and the other irrigated respect with treated wastewater
from the station of Sfax, Agareb and Mahres. More pre-
cisely, plants were drip irrigated with PW and WWT. Young
olives were planted into individual plots of diameter 32 cm,
filled with 3types of soil (soil + Compost, soil + peat +
Compost or only soil) (Figure 1).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 917

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_268
918 Z. Bakari et al.

the removal of biodegradable dissolved and colloidal organic

Fig. 1 Detail of the temporary olives plant installation
3 Results and Discussion
Treated wastewater comes from domestic and industrial
sources and is typically reclaimed at the secondary level
using biological processes. These processes consist in
eliminating the biodegradable matters by their transforma-
tion into microbial residues. Secondary treatment involves
matter (OM) using aerobic biological treatment processes.
Table 1 summarizes the physico chemical characteristics of
Sfax, Agareb and Mahres raw wastewaters. The applied
wastewater always remained alkaline. Levels of biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand
(COD) always largely exceeded the Tunisian standards for
wastewater reuse in irrigation (NT 106.03). Although most
of the previously mentioned parameters exceed the Tunisian
or FAO standards for wastewater reuse in agriculture, the
Sfax, Agareb and Mahres TWE also contain large amounts
of nitrate, phosphate and potassium, which are crucial
nutrients for plant growth and soil fertility. In addition, the
microbiological examination uncovered the absence of
Escherichia coli and helminths eggs from both water sources
applied for the irrigation of olive plants. The safety of TWW
irrigation can be assessed by the microbilogical contamina-
tion (Table 1). Also the low levels or even zero of heavy
metals can reduce the probability of their passage to the
plants and fruits, as confirmed by Christou et al. (Christou
et al. 2014).
Olive trees growth was similar both for the plants irri-
gated with STW, ATW, MTW as for plants irrigated with
PW. Plant height of olive trees, trunk diameter, number of
leaves flowers entirely increased and the number of devel-
oped buds from the crown were analyzed; no significant
differences were found between different types of water and
land.

Table 1 Physico-chemical and Parametere STW ATW MTW Standards (NT 106.03)
microbiological analysis of the
different Treated wastewaters pH 7.78 7.95 7.54 6.5–8.5
EC mS/cm 7.65 3.28 6.99 7
SS(mg/L) 30 198 280 30
DCO(mg/L) 292.4 92.97 19.5 90
DBO5(mg/L) 45 56 28 30
Pt(mg/L) 14.45 10.3 52 –
3−
NO (mg/L) 19.9 26 100 50
NO2−(mg/L) Nd nd 50
NH4+(mg/L) 26.81 35.21 23.6
Cl−(mg/L) 1140 400 1875 600
SO42−(mg/L) 1020 360 1750 2000
Na+(mg/L) 1948 429.46 1286.71 –
+
K (mg/L) 113 32 63 –
Mg2+(mg/L) 217.5 72.46 176.79 –
2+
Ca (mg/L) 190 95.1 168.34
HCO3−(mg/L) 2909.75 483.31 299.75
NTK(mg/L) 53.25 37.66 33.5
E. coli (cfu 100 ml−1) Nd Nd Nd
Helminth egg (egg L−1) Nd Nd Nd
Effects of Treated Wastewater Irrigation of Sfax, Agareb …
Moreover, the number of flowers did not show any dif-
ference for various TWWs compared to PW. Other studies
(Ben Ahmed et al. 2007; Wiesman et al. 2004) showed that
saline water might decrease performance shown by the
number of flowers, at this stage. However, in this study there
is no negative effect, the irrigation treatment worked as
fertigation because the effects of the nutrients (principally N,
P and K) in the wastewater are ambiguous. The higher yield
obtained in TWW irrigated plot was probably a consequence
of nutriment element such as Nt, P, K and the ammonium
cation (Bedbabis et al. 2014).
4 Conclusion
The result revealed that there were no significant differ-
ences in the growth between the crops irrigated with the
treated wastewater and trees irrigated with drinking
water. According to the morphological and vegetative
data obtained during the ten months of the olive planta-
tion, the validity of the use of TWW in agriculture can be
confirmed.
Yield and yield attributes, quality parameters, and
composition of fruits, the validity of using TWW in
agriculture will also be investigated and examined after
the reaping of the olive fruits.
919
Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the Ministry Scientific
Research, Technology and the Development of Competencies of
Tunisia (MRSTDC) for its financial support under Project Assessing
the chemical/microbiological contamination and productivity in the
agricultural production chain of model fruit species grown under irri-
gation with different kinds of reclaimed wastewater.
References
Bedbabis S, Ben Rouina B, Boukhris M, Ferrara G. Effect of irrigation
with treated wastewater on soil chemical properties and infiltration
rate. J Environ Manage. 2014;133:45–50.
Ben Ahmed Ch, Ben Rouina B, Boukhris M. Effect of water deficit on
olive tree cv. Chemlali under field conditions in arid region in
Tunisia. J Sci Horttic. 2007;133:267–77.
Christou A, Maratheftis G, Eliadou E, Michael C, Hapeshi E,
Fatta-Kassinos D. Impact assessment of the reuse of two discrete
treated wastewater; 2014.
ONAS. Office National de l’huile, Ministère de l’Agriculture, des
ressources hydrauliques et de la pêche. Tunisie; 2010.
Pedrero F, Kalavrouziotis I, Alarcon JJ, Koukoulakis P, Asano T. Use
of treated municipal wastewater in irrigated agriculture—review od
some practices in Spain and Greece. J Agric Water Manage.
2010;97:1233–41.
Wiesman Z, Itzhak D, Ben Dom N. Optimization of saline water level
for sustainable Barnea olive and oil production in desert conditions.
J. Sci Hortic. 2004;100:257–66.
 Modeling Watershed Operation: Case Study
of the Chaffia Dam (Algerian Extreme North
East)

Mehdi Nafa, Keblouti Nafa, and Abir Achache

Keywords
Hydrolic dam modeling Water management ArcGIS Algerian hydrology

1 Introduction hydrological regime modeling. The aim was to be able to

The modeling of the hydrological behavior of watersheds is
unavoidable when one is interested in problems related to
the prediction, assessment and optimal management of water
resources. This is illustrated by a quantitative aspect in
countries like Algeria where water supply is a limiting
factor.
Such models are particularly useful for many applications
where the estimation of the parameters and characteristics of
a dam and to go back to the origin of the flows (the rains)
makes it possible to extend the period of quantitative fore-
casting of water which gives a future statistical vision.
Faced with the variability which determines the avail-
ability of water, it is Necessary to control and store surface
water during wet periods in order to be able to use it to all
the water needs of the country during the dry periods. These
difficulties clearly express the demonstrated need to deepen
knowledge of hydrological regimes In semi-arid to arid
regions, their spatial and temporal variability, on represen-
tative watersheds of Algeria and the control of the man-
agement and evolution processes This work is part of the
modeling of hydraulic behavior and its representation at
Bounamoussa watershed located in the city of Chaffia near
Annaba, Algeria.
Our main objective was to characterize the hydrological
functioning of this zone, the various components involved in
the water cycle and their dynamics, in order to achieve the
M. Nafa (&)
A. Achache
Networks and Systems Lab, Badji Mokhtar University,
Annaba, Algeria
e-mail: mehdi.nafaa@gmail.com
K. Nafa
Water and Environmental Engineering Limited, Annaba, Algeria
predict future behavior and try to solve quantitative water
management problems by taking into account a simulation
of climate change scenarios, which can not be summarized
as ‘less than Rain so less flow’ : the change of precipitation
is also accompanied by a modification of the thermal regime
of the Algerian basins. Conclusion In order to meet this
challenge and to meet the challenges posed by water prob-
lems in Algeria, emergency measures can be taken to
improve water policy based on new management principles
of the resource. These measures include: Protection of
existing water resources through the rehabilitation of
drinking water supply and sanitation networks and the
control of waste. The use of non-conventional resources,
Wastewater and seawater desalination. Rational manage-
ment of water resources. Systematic mobilization of avail-
able resources through the design of large dams and hilly
reservoirs, which can contribute to water supply at regional
and However, the first step in the management of water
resources consists in estimating them and controlling their
evolution. For several reasons, several hydrometric stations
have been badly managed, and the hydrometeorological
series have several gaps.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Development Environment
For the realization of this project we have chosen as an
integrated development environment Eclipse IDE for Java
Developers version Neon release (4.6.0) and ArcGIS version
10.3.1 constitutes in a suite of geographic information
software developed by the American company ESRI

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 921

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_269
922
(Environmental Systems Research Institute), a global leader
in GIS. This system consists of different platforms that allow
GIS users, whether office, web, or mobile, to collaborate and
share geographic information.
2.2 Adopted Methodology
2.2.1 Dam’s Filling Function
Water reservoirs such as dams fill up during the year (mainly
during the least stressed period, i.e. in winter) due to rain-
water, or to snowmelt, and the reservoirs connected by the
rivers. The amount of rainwater entering the reservoir will be
determined by the latter’s impluvium. In our study we relied
on the filling model given by Roche (1973).
We have to indicate the importance of the notion of “time
step” in a simulation model. We thus call the duration on
which an elementary calculation of the balance on each of
the hydraulic units was carried out, which makes the cal-
culation operations more efficient.
Incoming Flows
• Precipitation is the only “entry” into the main conti-
nental hydrological systems of watersheds.
• Runoff assessment of runoff is necessary when deter-
mining the water balance in order to understand the
importance of mechanical and chemical erosion that
affects the land.
• Water flows from the ground This flow is considered
only if connected water reservoirs.
• Filling By watercourses The reservoirs connected to the
main drain are fed by the flow of water entering the
watershed. This calculation was performed in the order of
the main watercourse. We considered only the flows
above the reserved flows.
• Filling by the sheet The retainers connected to the sheet
are daily fed by the sheet until filling of the latter.
Outgoing Flows
• Evaporation Represents an important climatic datum to
characterize soil conditions and acts as the amount of
water that can be lost to the atmosphere as evaporation
from the surface and from plants.
• Infiltration The estimation of the importance of infil-
tration processes makes it possible to determine which
fraction of the rain will participate in the surface flow,
and which fraction will feed the underground flows and
thus also participate in the recharge of underground water
tables.
M. Nafa et al.
The continuity equation applied to the experimental data
of small reservoirs or natural depressions allows the defini-
tion of their filling function. The estimate is more precise
than that deducted from the topographic funds that may be
available. Whatever its size and nature, a tank is first char-
acterized by its filling function.
Knowing the volumes entering and leaving the vacuum as
well as the variations of the level of the water, one can
determine the filling function by applying the continuity
equation, which translates the principle of conservation of
the volumes.
Between two instants t1 and t2 the equation of continuity
applied to the depression is written:
W2  W1 ¼ ½ðQe1  Qe2 Þ=2  ðQs1  Qs2 Þ=2
 ðt2  t1 Þ þ ½P  E  ðt2  t1 Þ  A. . .:ð1Þ
with
W 2 − W 1: Variation of the water stock between t1 and t2
[L3]
Qe1 et Incoming flows at times t1 and t2 [L3 T−1]
Qe2:
Qs1 – Qs2: Outbound flows at times t1 and t2 [L3 T−1]
P: Precipitation between t1 and t2 [L]
E: Loss (evaporation, infiltration) per unit area
and time [L3 T−1]
A: Area [L2]
The function of filling a dam is a simple assessment. For
the application, the requests to be acquired are therefore:
The various water flows through the depression:
Precipitation on the water,
Measured inbound and outbound flows,
The overall evapotranspiration and infiltration losses
estimated by the decrease of the water level during the
period of closure of the reservoir.
The altimetry variations of the body of water.
2.3 Acquisition and Preparation of Dam Data
Climatic factors as a whole provide a quantitative expla-
nation of the intensity and variability of the components of
the hydrological regime, both temporally and spatially, in
interaction with the physico-geographic conditions of the
flow of the hydrological zone, study. Thus, the use of
statistical tools is necessary in order to be able to interpret
the hydrological phenomena recorded in the past, their
current functioning and predict their evolution in the
future.
This step requires a good knowledge of the modeling
expectations in order to determine all the data that will be
necessary for the development of the model.
Modeling Watershed Operation: Case Study of the Chaffia Dam …
• Data source:
Based on observations made at the meteorological station
located in the La Chefia watershed provided thanks to
Algerian ANBT “Agence Nationale des Barrage and
Transfert”, where we used rainfall readings, daily water
reserve quantity in the Dam; the water needs in the dif-
ferent sectors, the tributaries/diffluent, the evaporation,
and the wind direction.
• Organization of data:
In view of the quantitative and qualitative importance of
the data, a careful and rigorous organization of a corpus
of original documents is required (such as: monthly and
daily weather bulletins), EXCEL files (fragmented data
seizures, tabulations, diagrams)). Our used data during
the period (1998–2016) stored at the level of the EXCEL
files and then transferred and organized to a sql database
constitute the metadata and the specific data during the
days of the months of each year in order to facilitate their
import and manipulation from java.
2.4 Digital Information and Digital Models
Today, the development of modern techniques for the
acquisition and provision of digital information has made it
possible to represent the topography of the environment by
means of digital terrain models (DTM). The digital terrain
model is a numerical representation of the terrain in terms of
altitude. It provides information not only on landforms but
also on their position (Hocine et al. 2007). It thus corre-
sponds to a schematization of the modeling of the studied
region. The set of points on the established map corresponds
to an altitude allowing to work on a digital surface model.
The digital terrain model is therefore a computer modeling
of relief.
The method relies heavily on the use of a Digital Terrain
Model (DTM) to extract and describe two main hydrological
objects: the hydrographic network (HR) and the boundaries
of the watersheds (BV).
2.5 Delimitation of the “Chafia” Dam
The construction of a prototype study of watersheds requires
adapted GIS computer tools, capable of extracting its
parameters and hydrological characteristics. For this pur-
pose, ArcGIS is used as a GIS software, which provides
interesting tools for calculations and hydro morphological
923
measurements from the MNT maps used for the delimitation
of the dam and the determination of its characteristics.
The delimitation of the study dam went through the fol-
lowing stages:
• Geo-reference: Apply a projection and transformation to
the MNT (Dam file) directly.
• Convert DEM to ArcGis-Readable Raster Image:
Convert DEM File to Raster Projection and Transfor-
mation Image
• Vectorization of the hydrographic network: allows to
generate a layer corresponding to the hydrographic
network.
• Watershed delimitation: allows to create a delimitation
map of the dam.
2.6 Mapping and Level Curve
To carry out its objective, our study is based on the identi-
fication and mapping of the study areas “Barrage la Chafia
Annaba”, which allows the recovery of maps of watersheds
or dams. The topography of the earth’s surface and the
information contained in the topographical maps are recov-
ered and restored by means of contours, which presents the
place of the topographical points of the surface with the
same elevation, i.e. the intersection of the topographic sur-
face with a horizontal plane of given altitude. It therefore
joins a set of points of the same altitude. The difference in
altitude between the horizontal planes is called equidistance
of the contours (Sado 2011).
And from the digitization of the contour we will extract
the dam volume that we will use it in a 3D model while
visualizing their filling at any given moment. Thus, to
integrate in a GIS geographic information system in an easy
and rigorous way, necessary information and data derived
from a Digital Terrain Model and hydrographic networks to
carry out a spatial analysis.
3 Results and Discussion
The prototype of our modeling application of a hydraulic
dam consists of 3 elements:
Element 1: This component presents the main interface of
the application which allows the user on the one hand to
access the 2-dimensional map of the Chaffia dam and on the
other hand to access a sub-system of 3D modeling of the dam.
924
Element 2: This component presents the display window
of the map of the Chaffia dam composed of an arcgis base
map in line and our locally recovered layer which contains
the curve of the level of the dam limited by the limit of the
dam made under arcgis. The window first exposes the map
of the world and then the system zoomes according to the
geographical coordinates to the study area where we find our
delimited dam.
Element 3: In our application the part which takes more
interest and that which serves for the visualization of the 3D
modeling of the variation of the volume of water in the dam
M. Nafa et al.
of La chaffia according to the available data of the period
between “1998–2016”. The main goal of the tool is to
demonstrate the evolution of the dam’s operation in real
time. The water resources managers will have just to intro-
duce the daily informations on the dam (incoming/ongoing
water to/from the dam).
The window allows users to select a year of study in
succession to assign a 3D modeling of the dam as well as
tracking of water level change in the dam with the passage of
months. The user can have graphs of the changes in pre-
cipitation, temperature, water demands in the 3 sectors
Modeling Watershed Operation: Case Study of the Chaffia Dam …
studied and Inputs/Outputs of the selected year’s dam. The
last feature of the window is that it provides an overall
modeling of changes in water volume in the dam, i.e. the
overall average monthly change in the water volume of the
Chafia’s dam over a period of 18 years between 1998–2016
4 Conclusion
This work is the will be provisioning a water
offer-demand confrontation system for the algerian
national water plan. We will push the model further to get
a distributed system of dams that will provide us at any
moment the aggregate water capacity and will ease the
decision making in terms of water management.
In the future we are managing to integrate all algerian
water resources in the same information system in order
to ease the decision making since this resource is
925
becoming more and mor scarce in our country. We
strongly believe that by this tool we can afford the
preservation of millions of m3 of this precious resource.
References
Hocine F, Belhadj Aissa M, Haddoud A, Belhadj Aissa A. « Ectraction
du réseau hydrologique à partir d’un MNT et utilisation du SIG
pour l’étude du bassin versant » , Actes des JSIRAUF, Hanoi, 6–9
novembre 2007.
Roche M. « Hydrologie et aménagement des eaux (méthodes struc-
turale » , Cab O.R.S.T.O.M, série hydrol. 1973; X(1).
Sado K. « utilisation d’un modèle numérique de terrain et du reseau
hydrographique pour la production d’une carte d’Aleas d’inonda-
tion » , thèse de master, université Paris-Est, 2011.
 To What Extent Can Groundwater Uses
Affect Long Term Sustainable Exploitation
Schemes? Case Study of the Bouhefna-
Haffouz Aquifer System (Central Tunisia)

Hamza Jerbi, Sylvain Massuel, Christian Leduc, Jeanne Riaux,

and Jamila Tarhouni

Keywords
Overexploitation Hydrological changes Groundwater management Merguellil basin
Kairouan

expectation of groundwater management strategies and the

1 Introduction
In the previous fifty years, there has been an astounding
boom in agricultural groundwater use, improving livelihoods
and food security (Giordano 2006). Nevertheless, these
remarkable improvements were not possible without a price
to pay: agricultural groundwater use stands as a major threat
to both quantity and quality of aquifers. This is particularly
emblematic in semi-arid and arid regions where groundwater
has always been an attractive solution for agriculture (Leduc
et al. 2017). As a matter of fact, regions where agriculture
strongly depend on groundwater uses such as the Mediter-
ranean regions and Latin American countries are the most
affected by aquifer overexploitation (e.g. Garrido et al.
2005). For instance, a growing awareness of the ground-
water as a critical natural resource leads to an urgent need to
design a governance mechanism at both local and national
levels (Faysse et al. 2011). However, the “silent revolution”
of agricultural development carried out informally outside
the scope of public policies (Fornés et al. 2005) has per-
manently created a wide gap between the pink-colored
H. Jerbi (&)
J. Tarhouni
Institut National Agronomique de Tunisie, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: jerbi_hamza@live.fr
J. Tarhouni
e-mail: elmaainat@yahoo.fr
S. Massuel
C. Leduc
J. Riaux
Instiut de Recherche pour le Développement, Marseille, France
e-mail: sylvain.massuel@ird.fr
C. Leduc
e-mail: christian.leduc@ird.fr
J. Riaux
e-mail: jeanne.riaux@ird.fr
tough reality. In this context, a groundwater management
strategy has been established to the Bouhefna-Haffouz
aquifer in the upstream of the Merguellil basin in central
Tunisia. The current study aimed to discuss the management
strategy implemented for 50 years and based exclusively on
hydrodynamic considerations while irrigation practices and
technical progress drastically changed the individual
groundwater form of access.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 The Bouhefna-Haffouz Aquifer System
Characteristics
In the upstream part of the Merguellil basin, the
Bouhefna-Haffouz aquifer system is so far, the most vulner-
able aquifer due to the intensive industrial and agricultural
water use. The Haffouz aquifer corresponds to a collapsed
basin filled with detrital sediments of miopliocene age. The
Bouhefna aquifer is housed in a very diffusive sandstone
filling of the upper Oligocene formation, it embodies an
important hydrogeological potential. Naturally, the Bouhefna
aquifer is confined; a part of its flow is discharged to the
Merguellil wadi (and overflow springs) and another part to the
Haffouz aquifer (Fig. 1). Since the 1970s, a groundwater
management strategy called “the controlled overexploitation”
was established to drop the water level in the Bouhefna
aquifer to a target depth in order to minimize losses through
evaporation (i.e. reduce flow to overflow springs and to
Merguellil wadi). The main idea of this strategy follows the
groundwater exploitation scheme proposed in Besbes (1967).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 927

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_270
928
Fig. 1 Location of the Merguellil basin and the Bouhefna-Haffouz aquifer system and the water table contours lines of 2007
2.2 A Groundwater Model Set-up
A mathematical groundwater model was designed to inves-
tigate the difference between the expected impact of the
groundwater management strategy and the actual situation of
the aquifer system. The Modflow model has been used to
achieve this work. A regular mesh over the modeled zone
with square cells of 300-m sides has been used (a total of
2862 cells). A constant head condition was considered for
the south-western limit of the oligocene layer (chosen far
enough to minimize its influence) and for the northeastern
limit of the Haffouz aquifer (feeding zone by Djebel Ous-
slet). To simulate drainage by the Merguellil Wadi and
overflow springs, drain conditions were imposed. The
Merguellil wadi bound also the southern limit of the model.
Elsewhere, the model boundaries were considered as a no
flow conditions. According to pumping tests (11 tests spa-
tially homogeneous), the hydraulic conductivity has been
initiated to a value ranging between 5 10−5 and 4 10−4 m/s
for the Haffouz aquifer and between 10−3 and 10−4 m/s for
the Bouhefna aquifer. The storage coefficients ranged
between 3 10−4 and 1 10−3 for Bouhefna aquifer and
between 5 10−2 and 10−1 for Haffouz aquifer. The recharge
rate was estimated according to a relationship between total
annual rainfall and effective annual rainfall (i.e. maximum
recharge in the case of no runoff occurs). The calculation is
based on a Thornthwaite method with monthly values using
H. Jerbi et al.
the estimated mean evapotranspiration values of the El
Haouareb dam station with an RFU value of 50 mm. The
total rainfall-effective rainfall relationship shows that the
threshold beyond which a deep recharge occurs is about
200 mm and that 45% of the 720 years considered in the
calculation are without recharge. The groundwater abstrac-
tions are carried out by various actors, notably the
SONEDE,1 which is the biggest operator of drinking water
supply and the DGRE2 for rural water supply. Official
records of groundwater withdrawal show that the aim of the
groundwater strategy has been fulfilled i.e. groundwater
abstraction has reached a maximum rate over the period
between 1975–1985 (19 h m3 in 1980) and thereafter taken
down to a rate equal to the renewable recharge (9 hm3).
However, official records are highly uncertain and incorpo-
rate only a limited number of individual wells. Nevertheless,
our field investigation shows that there are almost 40 deep
wells only in the region of Khit El Oued. To overcome this
lack of information we decided to calibrate the model over
the period 1970–1980 where hydro-agricultural practices
were less intense. Indeed, our investigation on archival
documents allowed confirming that there are no deep well in
the region over the period 1970–1980, almost all wells at
that time were concentrated around rivers to capture
1
National Water Supply and Distribution Company.
2
General Directorate for Water Resources.
To What Extent Can Groundwater Uses Affect Long Term …
Fig. 2 Observed piezometric levels vs calculated levels with official withdrawal records and calculated levels with adjusted withdrawal for two
observation points in the Bouhefna aquifer
underflow or springs. The model was firstly calibrated in
steady state (1967), subsequently in transient over the period
1970–1980 and finally applied to the period 1980–2015.
3 Results and Discussion
For steady sate calibration 8 polygons of permeability were
defined for the Haffouz aquifer ranging from 10−5 and 9
10−4 and 3 polygons for the Bouhefna aquifer with a per-
meability oscillating between 10−4 and 9 10−4 m/s. The
overall accuracy of the simulation was between 0.5 and 3 m
compared to the observed values, giving a determination
coefficient of 90%. However, the overall quality of the
model is penalized by the absence of observation points in
the southern part of the Bouhefna aquifer and the reconsti-
tution i.e. in this part the calibration is closely related to the
boundaries conditions. In the transient state calibration (pe-
riod 1970–1980), the storage coefficients were calibrated.
For the Bouhefna aquifer, the coefficient of determination is
greater than 65% and the RMSE is less than 1.2 m for all the
points showing a good restitution of the observed piezo-
metric levels (storage coefficient ranged between 3 10−3 and
7 10−3). For the Haffouz aquifer, the coefficient of deter-
mination oscillates between 0.5 and 0.7 and the RMSE
between 0.2 and 2 m (storage coefficient between 10−2 and 5
10−2). The sensitivity tests show that the horizontal perme-
ability of the Haffouz aquifer and the conductivity of the
Merguellil wadi are, by far, the most sensitive parameters, a
variation of ± 50% induces an increase of the RMSE from
15% to 22%. The second most sensitive parameter is the
recharge; a variation of ± 50% of the calibrated value brings
the RMSE from 7% to 11%. The rest of the parameters are
less sensitive (RMSE between 4% and 6%). The application
of the model over the period post-1980 shows, in accordance
with what was expected, that the first part of piezometric
chronicles over the period 1980–1985 was well reproduced
929
by the model, whereas from 1985 onwards the calculated
levels acquired a stabilization which was not observed in
measured water level (Fig. 2). A reduction of groundwater
inputs is difficult to defend here so the most probable
explanation is that some additional outputs occurred at one
point. The official pumping rates might be incorrect or
additional individual groundwater withdrawals occurred.
The withdrawal rate has to be multiplied by 1.7 over the
period 1985–2006 and by 2.2 over the period 2006–2015 to
reproduce the observed piezometric decline. The result
suggests that the annual volumes of pumped water for irri-
gation are comparable to the official pumping by the public
operator. The more intensive exploitation of the Bouhefna
aquifer due to the intervention of unexpected new actors led
also to the reduction of surface water availability by reduc-
ing the baseflow to the wadi and converted even more
farmers to groundwater use.
4 Conclusion
The global change is progressively exerting pressures on
hydrological processes and consequently on water
resources. The dynamics can be relatively slow, often
predictable or even voluntary, but some others can be
insidious because unexpected. The case of the
Bouhefna-Haffouz system showed that the water man-
agement strategy of the groundwater resource was well
hydrodynamically designed and responded to the needs
and social context at its own time. But the lack of
adaptation to the rapid evolution of the hydro-agricultural
practices led to a severe overexploitation with serious
consequences on water resource availability. According
to the modelling, individual pumping mobilizes almost
the same amount of water as the public operator. This
illustrates again the need to consider social aspects for
sustainable water management strategies.
930
References
Besbes M. Contribution à l’étude hydrogéologique de la nappe de
Haffouz. Ph.D. Thesis. Paris, France: Université de Paris IV; 1967.
Faysse N, Hartani T, Frija A, Tazekrit I, Zairi C, Chalouf A.
Agricultural use of groundwater and management initiatives in the
Maghreb: challenges and opportunities for sustainable aquifer
exploitation. AFDB Economic Brief; 2011. p. 1–24.
Fornés JM, la Hera A, Llamas MR. The silent revolution in
groundwater intensive use and its influence in Spain. Water Policy.
2005;7(3):253–68.
H. Jerbi et al.
Garrido A, Martiınez-Santos P, Llama MR. Groundwater irrigation and
its implications for water policy in semi-arid countries: the Spanish
experience. Hydrogeol J. 2005;14:340–9.
Giordano M. Agricultural groundwater use and rural livelihoods in
sub-Saharan Africa: A first-cut assessment. Hydrogeol J. 2006;14
(3):310–8.
Leduc C, Pulido-Bosch A, Remini B. Anthropization of groundwater
resources in the Mediterranean region: processes and challenges.
Hydrogeol J. 2017;25(6):1529–47.
 Part V
Environmental Engineering and Management
 Morphological, Chemical
and Electrochemical Carbon Based
and Nobel Metal Electrode Characterization
for Use in Water Electrochemical Disinfection

Mokhtar Guizani, Kento Yajima, Toshikazu Kawaguchi, Ryusei Ito,

and Naoyuki Funamizu

Keywords
Electrochemical disinfection Carbon electrodes Nobel metal electrodes

disadvantages include high costs for transportation and

1 Introduction storage as well as a poor long term stability. Thus the
electrochemical disinfection emerges as an interesting
Water disinfection is an important final step in water supply
alternative which could be efficient, economic and conve-
and wastewater treatment schemes. Several disinfection
nient. Moreover, using electrochemical disinfection, risks
techniques, examplified by chlorination, ultra violet disin-
associated with transport, storage and handling of hazardous
fection, ozone disinfection and ozone and hydrogen disin-
material are avoided. Furtheremore, It is important to notice
fection, are commonly used to disinfect water. Despite the
that by controlling the potential it would be possible to
risks associated with chlorination by-products and due to the
selectively target specific bonds and reduce by-products
many disadvantages of other alternatives, chlorination
formation. The electrochemical disinfection is relatively an
remains the most common one for its efficiency and cost
old technique, but it has not been well explored. It consists
benefits (Brillas and Martínez-Huitle 2015). Chlorine gas,
of an in situ electrochemical oxidant generation in an elec-
hypochlorites and chlorine dioxide are the common forms of
trolytic cell made of two electrodes immersed in an elec-
chlorine used for chlorine disinfection. However, they are
trolytic solution and connected to a voltage generator. Its
hazardous chemicals and raise safety concerns during their
efficiency is strongly related to the elctrode material, and
transportation, storage, handling and use. Furthermore other
research is able to find the best electrode material. In this
study we investigated six different electrode materials.
M. Guizani (&)
R. Ito Graphene-based porous carbon electrode (C), titanium oxide
Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
coated porous carbon electrode (TiC) and glassy carbon
e-mail: g_mokh@yahoo.fr
electrode (GC) were evaluated. Nobel metal based electrodes
R. Ito
such as Gold palladium alloy(AuPd) electrode (30%Pd +
e-mail: ryuusei@eng.hokudai.ac.jp
70% Au), gold (Au) and Palladium (Pd) were evaluated too.
K. Yajima
Graduate School of Environmental Science, Hokkaido University,
Sapporo, Japan
T. Kawaguchi
N. Funamizu
2 Materials and Methods
Faculty of Environmental Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo,
Japan An electrochemical cell was used to perform Cyclic volta-
e-mail: t_kawa@ees.hokudai.ac.jp gram measurements in this study. The measurements were
N. Funamizu carried out in 0.1 M sodium chloride (NaCl) as an elec-
e-mail: funamizu@eng.hokudai.ac.jp trolytic solution. The reference electrode consisted of a
N. Funamizu silver-silver chloride (Ag/AgCl/saturated KCl) satndard
Specially Appointed Professor at Graduate School of Global Food electrode. Porous graphite electrode (6 cm2) and palatinate
Resources, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
platinum electrode were used as counter electrodes for car-
N. Funamizu bon electrodes and precious metals electrodes, respectively.
Institute of Humanity and Nature, Kyoto, Japan

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 933

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_271
934
Six different working electrodes (porous carbon, a modified
TiC, glassic carbon, Gold, Plladium and Gold palladium)
were used as the anode and were subject of evaluation. Prior
to the assays, the electrodes were washed with MilliQ water
and wiped to remove any contaminants. The electrocatalytic
activity of the electrodes were characterized using cyclic
sweep voltametry (CV) at a sweep rate of 0.1 V. The amount
of free chlorine and hypochlorite produced after a 10-min
reaction at 1 V, respectively, were measured using N,
N-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine (DPD) as well as starch
iodine methods, repectievely. Moreover, electrodes were
characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS -
7000, Rigaku, Japan) with an unmonochromated Mg Ka
radiation (10 kV and 30 mA). A scanning electron micro-
scopy (SEM, S4800, Japan) was used to analyze the surface
morphology of the electrodes before and after the electro-
chemical reaction. Electrodes were rinsed using MilliQ
water to remove any contaminants before analytical analysis.
3 Results and Discussion
It should be noticed that both of the DPD method the iodine
starch reaction led to the same results. Furthermore, it was
confirmed in a separate experiment that potassium iodide
and starch do not cause electrode reaction. The results of the
free chlorine measurements showed that TiC exhibited the
highest catalytic activity in the carbon electrode material
with a higher amount of free chlorine release at 1.4 V. In the
noble metal electrode material it was found that the highest
catalytic activity was exhibited by AuPd alloy. The maxium
amount of free chlorine was observed at 1.2 V for AuPd.
Although the AuPd electrode was the most effective for free
chlorine generation, it may not be a practical choice for its
high cost
The SEM images of carbon based electrodes before and
after electrochemical reaction (Excitation Energy 20 kV,
50000 magnification) show no change in electrodes mor-
phology. Therefore, the stability of carbon based electrodes
is considered to be high and suitable for practical use. The
noble metal electrodes were not evaluated by SEM.
With respect to cyclic voltagrams, the porous carbon
electrodes (C and TiC) were found to have a wide potential
window in comparison with GC. Furtheremore, In the por-
ous carbon electrode, an oxidation current generating a
strongly acidic radical was observed on the electrode surface
from a potential of +0.8 V or more. When the potential was
further swept to the positive side, bubbles, regarded as for-
mation of oxygen and chlorine gas, were observed around
+2.0 V. When the potential was swept to the negative side,
M. Guizani et al.
an increase in the reduction current was observed from
around −0.2 V. This is because a slight amount of hydrogen
peroxide, another strong oxidizing agent, was generated. In
the noble metal based electrode material, when sweeping to
the positive potential side, a peak of the oxidation current
was observed at all electrodes. In Au, a peak derived from
the formation of Au–O was observed. In the case of Pd, a
peak considered to be derived from the formation of Pd–Cl
and Pd–O was observed. As a result, in the AuPd alloy, the
oxidation current peaks are produced by both Pd–Cl and
Au–O. It was also observed that the proton concentration
caused by this chemical reaction locally increases in the
vicinity of the electrode and thus an environment in which
hypochlorous acid or hypochlorous acid ions were likely to
be generated. Moreover, when the potential was swept to the
negative side, it was observed that the reduction reaction of
dissolved oxygen occurred and the formation of a large
amount of hydrogen peroxide was noticed.
X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy Comparison before
and after the electrochemical reaction shows that in the case
of the TiC electrode, the peak of O1 s at 530.8 eV after the
reaction decreased greatly, but this was considered to be
linked to the oxygen deficiency occurring in the TiO2 after
the reaction. This is also reflected in the peak of Ti 2 p at
459.26 eV shifted to the reduction side. The XRD shows
that, in the case of carbon electrodes, graphite is the main
component, with traces of GO.
4 Conclusion
Various surface and electrochemical analytical techniques
were used to characterize the morphological and chemical
changes on six different electrodes. At a given potential,
findings from XPS, SEM and XRD in correlattion with
electrochemical techniques were useful to understand the
reactions taking place and the generated oxidants.
Moreover, these characterizations were useful as a tool
for electrode selection. Free chlorine was successfully
generated during the electrochemical reaction for all
electrodes. Among the carbon electrodes, TiC exhibited
the highest catalytic activity, while in the noble metal the
AuPd alloy was found to exhibit the highest activity.
From the SEM images, there was no degradation of the
carbon based electrodes surfaces reflecting a high stabil-
ity and potential for long time use. For the C and TiC
electrodes, it was confirmed that the layers constituting
the particles consisted of graphite and traces of GO. The
reaction mechanism occurring on the surface of the TiC
electrode was considered as follows. Since
oxygen-deficient TiO+ tends to bond with Cl−,
Morphological, Chemical and Electrochemical Carbon …
hypochlorous acid ions are considered to be more likely
to be produced continuously. The study carried out here
was a simplified configuration and used 0.1 M of NAcl
solution. Further studies are needed to assess the elc-
trodes performances in the presence of organic matter in
water.
935
Reference
Brillas E, Martínez-Huitle CA. Decontamination of wastewaters
containing synthetic organic dyes by electrochemical methods. An
updated review. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 2015;166–
167:603–43.
 Development of Eco-Engineering Sector
Specific Routines and Curricula
for the Mediterranean Region

Slobodan B. Mickovski, Guillermo Tardio Cerrillo, Paola Sangalli,

Jerome Perez, Craig S. Thomson, and Caroline Gallagher

Keywords
Eco-Engineering Ground bioengineering Erosion protection Slope stability
Curriculum dev’t Professional dev’t

currently represent a very small percentage of the stabilisa-

1 Introduction
Mediterranean coastal regions contain large high density
urban populations and support diverse ecosystems. How-
ever, many of the countries in the region are being nega-
tively affected by climate change in terms of increased
flooding and erosion as the coasts fall below normal
high-tide levels, as well as the increase in the number and
landslide occurrences due to changing rainfall patterns
(Gonzalez-Ollauri and Mickovski 2017). Through the Soil
Thematic Strategy (Directive 2004/35/CE and COM(2006)
231/232) and ‘The State of Soil in Europe’ (EUR 25186
EN), the EU has been developing a strategic policy for soil
protection and damage recovery, clearly stressing the
importance of preserving and adequately managing the soil
resource throughout Europe, including its direct neighbours
based on a robust integrated learning programme.
Ecological engineering is an emerging field of research
focused on the application of soils, plants, and water bodies
in engineering design in order to prevent and mitigate
against natural disasters. This holistic approach to solving
engineering problems is seen as more sustainable then ‘hard’
engineered solutions. Ecologically based approaches
S. B. Mickovski (&)
C. S. Thomson
C. Gallagher
Glasgow CaledonianUniversity, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
e-mail: slobodan.mickovski@gcu.ac.uk
G. Tardio Cerrillo
Technical University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
P. Sangalli
Sangalli Y Coronel Asociados, Donostia, Spain
J. Perez
Institut de Recherche Pour Le Développement, AMAP, INRA,
CNRS, CIRAD, Montpellier University, Montpellier, France
tion works undertaken due largely to the gap in awareness
and skills amongst practitioners (Stokes et al. 2014). As part
of the ECOMED project, the skills gap within the industry
was studied in order to develop solutions and trainings
aimed at specialisation within the Mediterranean Eco engi-
neering sector.
2 Materials and Methods
At the preparatory stage of the project, preliminary surveys
of existing curricula at educational institutions, as well as a
practical training within the eco-engineering and geotech-
nical sector accross the northern Mediterranean was con-
ducted and followed by a thorough analysis from the aspect
of learning theory and motivation expectancy theory (Vroom
1964). These surveys covered the ways how the practice is
organized for students in relation to the current needs for
specialization in the sector and were used as a basis for
detailed sector needs assessment and development of spe-
cialisation curriculum.
3 Results and Discussion
Through the analysis, the educational practices that need to
change to embrace ecoengineering use in Mediterranean
scenarios were identified together with gaps in the existing
standards, routines and protocols of the sector (Tardio and
Mickovski 2016). The analysis suggested that posing an
eco-engineering problem within an academic or professional
development context may not be motivating enough. In the
curriculum design there should be a clear definition of the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 937

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_272
938 S. B. Mickovski et al.

Fig. 1 Systematic approach towards eco-engineering curriculum
development for the Mediterranean region
effort which will lead to rewards for the student for whom an
introduction and discussion on subject-specific problem
solving (Fig. 1) wil be needed. Setting up an achievable goal
and positive reinforcement throughout the training would
provide the expectancy, while the instrumentality can be
achieved through individual/group work and engaging in
consultations with the academics/practitioners.
Given the semi-empirical nature of eco-engineering, the
accumulated experience within the sector throughout the
Mediterranean environment can be exploited by recording
(un)sucessful case studies as well as protocol and approaches
which will form part of the curriculum. The analysis of
existing eco-engineering works and projects in the
Mediterranean ecoregion represents an essential source of
information for developing more effective
theoretical-pactical tools and syllabus which, in turn, will
support the specialisation process of the eco-engineering
sector (Fig. 2).
Based on the above, a set of modular training offers can be
developed and accredited jointly/dually at the project partner
institutions. The overall modular scheme will be jointly piloted
by the consortium of HE partners, with the intention to offer
eco-engineering training within an interdisciplinary context
with endorsement and support of the enterprise partners. With
this, a long-term interaction scheme between enterprises and
academia will be generated which will increase the employ-
ment opportunities (e.g. internships, other applied learning) for

Fig. 2 Development of the

industry-academia alliance
through the ECOMED project
which will foster knowledge
transfer and curriculum
development
Development of Eco-Engineering Sector Specific Routines …
students, and also the double-loop learning (Thomson et al.
2014) for the practitioners in the region.
4 Conclusion
The development of modules tailored to eco-engineering
is aligned with The European Cohesion Policy 2014–
2020, which promotes knowledge-based growth through
diversification of technologies, products and services that
are closely related to existing technologies and the
regional skills base by prioritising complementarities
between the economic activities and the development and
transfer of advanced environmentally sound technologies
and know-how. The proposed approach will lead to a
multilateral scientific programme that emphasizes the
vulnerability and proactive sustainable remediation
(Mickovski 2016) of the Mediterranean region.
939
References
Gonzalez-Ollauri A, Mickovski SB. Hydrological effect of vegetation
against rainfall-induced landslides. J Hydrol. 2017;549:374–87.
Mickovski SB. Why is the future ready for Environmental Geotech-
nics? Environ Geotech. 2016;3:63–4.
Stokes A, et al. Ecological mitigation of hillslope instability: ten key
issues facing researchers and practitioners. Plant Soil. 2014;377(1–
2):1–23.
Tardio G, Mickovski SB. Implementation of eco-engineering design
into existing slope stability design practices. Ecol Eng.
2016;92:138–47.
Thomson C, Mickovski S, Orr C. Promoting double loop learning in
flood risk management in the Scottish context In: Raiden AB,
Aboagye-Nimo E editors. Procs 30th Annual ARCOM Conference,
1–3 September 2014, Portsmouth, UK, Association of Researchers
in Construction Management; 2014. p. 1185–1194.
Vroom VH. Work and motivation. New York, NY: Wiley; 1964.
 Codigestion: Toward a Simple Model
to Predict Methane Production

Mokhles Kouas, Philippe Sousbie, Michel Torrijos, Jérôme Harmand,

and Sami Sayadi

Keywords
Anaerobic digestion Solid waste Fractionation Kinetics Modeling Co-digestion

1 Introduction production over time, methane yield and the specific degra-
dation of the three fractions over time. The aim was to propose
In recent years, the interest in renewable energy has grown,
a simple tool for design offices and to plant operators for the
driven by the increasing concern about global warming issues,
optimization of the codigestion mixes and the choice of the
energy security, resource recovery and the high production
organic loading rates (OLR) to be used in a continuous mode.
and disposal of organic solid wastes. Anaerobic co-digestion
(AcoD) combines different organic substrates to generate a
homogeneous mixture as input to the reactor. AcoD offers
2 Materials and Methods
several ecological, technological, and economical advantages
for the management of solid waste. Consequently, many
Batch and continuous experiments were carried out in
studies have been carried out to investigate the AcoD process.
double-wall reactors of 6L effective volume, maintained at
To formalize available knowledge, to optimize the operation
37 °C by a regulated water bath. Good mixing in the reactors
process or to monitor anaerobic digesters, several AcoD
was maintained by a system of magnetic stirring. Biogas
models have been developed (Mata Alvarez et al. 2011). In
production was measured online by Milligascounter MGC-1
this study, a simple model was developed, based on the
flow meters (Ritter gas meters) fitted with a 4–20 mA out-
fractionation of the organic matter of each substrate into three
put. The software Odin Silex developed at the INRA labo-
sub-fractions with decreasing biodegradation rates. To iden-
ratory was used to acquire the data. The reactors were seeded
tify the kinetic parameters, the model was applied to the
at a volatile suspended solids concentration (VSS) of around
methane curve production acquired in batch reactor for 50
15 g VSS/l with anaerobic sludge taken from an
substrates. A substrate database was generated including the 3
industrial-scale anaerobic UASB reactor treating the efflu-
kinetic parameters and the BMPs for each substrate. Sec-
ents from a sugar refinery. In order to assess the kinetic
ondly, the model was applied to co-digestion digesters oper-
parameters used in modeling, successive batches were run
ated in semi-continuous mode in order to predict methane
(6–8 batches) with a S0/X0 ratio of 0.07 g VS/g VSS. In a
continuous mode, 4 reactors were operated for 8 months
and each reactor was fed 5 times per week at increasing
M. Kouas (&)
S. Sayadi
OLR. Several mixtures of 2 substrates were prepared and
Laboratory of Environmental Bioprocesses, Centre of
Biotechnology of Sfax, University of Sfax, Sidi Mansour Road treated in codigestion: M1: Carrot + bread, M2: car-
Km 6, PO Box 1177, 3018 Sfax, Tunisia rot + cow manure, M3: Carrot + cabbage and M4:
e-mail: mokhles.kouas10@gmail.com Tomato + beef meat. The quantities added of each substrate
S. Sayadi in terms of VS for M1, M2 and M3 were: carrot
e-mail: sami.sayadi@cbs.rnrt.tn (50%) + bread or cow manure or cabbage (50%); and for
M. Kouas
P. Sousbie
M. Torrijos
J. Harmand M4: beef meat (30%) + Tomato (70%). M1 and M2 were
LBE, INRA, 102 Avenue des Etangs, 11100 Narbonne, France processed at OLRs of 0.5, 1, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.25 and 2.5, 2.75
e-mail: lbe@supagro.inra.fr

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 941

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_273
942 M. Kouas et al.

and 3 g VS L−1d−1. M3 was operated at the same OLRs
until 2.5 g VS L−1d−1 and M4 was processed at 1, 1.5, 2 and
2.5 g VS L−1d−1.
3 Results and Discussion
A simple model was developed to predict methane produc-
tion from a digester treating solid wastes in codigestion
using the BMP and the kinetic parameters assessed in suc-
cessive batches. The model was based on the fractionation of
the organic matter into three sub-fractions with decreasing
biodegradation rates. The following two hypotheses were
made: first, the degradation of the different sub-fractions of
the organic matter starts immediately after the addition of the
substrate in the reactor; second, the specific degradation rate
of each sub-fraction is constant and follows zero order
kinetics ðdSi =dt ¼ ki Þ. For each compartment i, two
parameters were identified: the degradation rate ki and the
initial concentration Si ð0Þ expressed as % of the substrate
concentration Sð0Þ. ki and Si ð0Þ were expressed in volume of
methane i.e., mLCH4 h−1 for ki and mLCH4 for Si ð0Þ.
Substrate concentration at t = 0 was denoted Sð0Þ or Si ð0Þ: it
represented the maximum amount of methane to be pro-
duced from the degradation of all the substrate introduced or
of the sub-fraction i.
The volume of methane produced by each sub-fraction is:
Voli ðtÞ ¼ minðki * t; Si ð0ÞÞ with i 2 ½1; 2; 3
The total volume of methane produced at t is ¼
P
Voli ðtÞ with i 2 ½1; 2; 3.

Table 1 Comparison between Reactor OLR (g Experimental SMY Modeled SMY DP rAE
the experimental and the modeled VSL−1d−1) (mLCH4 gVS−1) (mLCH4 gVS−1) (%) (%)
specific methane yield with
difference percentage (DP) and Carrot + bread 0.5 352 362 3 20
the relative absolute error 1 378 362 4 17
(rAE) to evaluate the kinetic
1.5 358 352 2 7
fitting
1.75 349 340 3 8
2 332 322 3 9
2.25 328 311 5 4.5
2.5 328 305 7 8.7
2.75 329 297 10 8
3 312 290 7 5
Carrot + cow 0.5 280 292 4.2 22
manure 1 276 291 5.4 21
1.5 268 271 1.2 7.5
1.75 237 254 7.3 13
2 236 238 0.8 10
2.25 238 230 3.4 4.8
2.5 214 217 1.3 6
2.75 215 212 1.3 4
3 209 205 2.0 8.8
Carrot + cabbage 0.5 417 377 10 10.7
1 372 376 1 5
1.5 366 347 5 8
1.75 396 335 15 13
2 372 320 14 13
2.25 386 308 20 17
2.5 369 299 19 17
Tomato + beef 1 433 441 2 11
meat 1.5 438 415 5 9.5
2 428 381 10 14
2.5 436 342 22 35
Codigestion: Toward a Simple Model to Predict Methane Production
The residual concentration of each fraction can be written
as follows: Si ðtÞ ¼ maxðSi ð0Þ ki * t; 0Þ with i 2 ½1; 2; 3.
The total concentration of the substrate left at t is:
P
SðtÞ ¼ Si ðtÞ with i 2 ½1; 2; 3.
The model was applied to the methane production curve
and a substrate database was established involving kinetics
and BMPs for 50 substrates. Then, the model was used to
predict the methane production in semi-continuous opera-
tion. Four digesters were processed at increasing OLRs and
dealing mixes of substrates possessing a different
biodegradability. For the process performance and stability,
M1 will be (Carrot +bread) detailed. The productivity of the
digester fed with C + B increased with increasing OLRs
with 131, 270, 384, 436, 474, 528, 586, 647 and 669 mL
CH4 L−1 d−1 at OLRs of 0.5, 1, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.25, 2.5, 2.75,
and 3gVS L−1d−1, respectively. The average specific
methane yield in this reactor (343 ± 22 mL CH4 gVS−1)
did not vary much when the OLR was increased (see
Table 1) indicating a quite good proportionality between the
volume of methane produced and the quantity of VS added.
No accumulation of volatile VFA was shown until the OLR
of 2 gVS L−1d−1 when a slight quantity of acetate appeared
(0.039 g L−1) but 0.48 g L−1 of total VFA was accumulated
at 3 gVS L−1d−1. Soluble COD increased from 632 mgL−1 at
0.5 gVS L−1d−1 to reach a concentration of 2530 mgL−1 for
the higher applied OLR of 3 gVS L−1d−1. pH was around 7
during the process.
In order to predict the methane production from contin-
uous digesters fed with mixes of 2 substrates, each substrate
was modeled separately, then the methane productions were
added (Esposito et al. 2011). The discussion focused on the
comparison of the modeled and experimental specific
methane yield during the week at increasing OLRs and the
fitting between methane production curves. To evaluate the
predictive capacities of the model a maximal difference
percentage (DP) of 10% on the methane potential was fixed
to judge the prediction as acceptable and a relative absolute
error (rAE) was calculated to evaluate the kinetics fitting
between the modeled and the experimental data (Poggio
et al. 2016). A maximum difference of 20% was fixed to
judge the kinetics prediction as acceptable and reasonable.
For M1, a good correlation between the modeled and the
943
experimental data was found. In fact, the DPs on the SMY
were lower than 10% for all the applied OLRs. Furthermore,
the comparison between the modeled and the measured
methane production gave a good kinetic fitting with rAEs
lower than 20%. The modeling results of the other reactors
are given in Table 1. As can be seen, for M2 and M3 at
higher OLR the DPs were upper greater than 10% with
underestimation of the produced methane. The results for the
highest OLRs suggest that the offset of the kinetics is mostly
due to the sub-fractions ðS3 Þ with degradation rates (i.e. k3)
which seem to be a bit underestimated in batch mode relative
to a continuous mode as confirmed by (Poggio et al. 2016).
Consequently, to improve the predictive capacities of the
model, the kinetics were identified in successive batches at
80% from the final reaction time allowing to ameliorate the
prediction of SMY (DP < 10%) and the kinetic fitting
(rAE < 20%). Therefore, the model made it possible to
follow the evolution of each sub-fraction over time and
determine the OLR from which the substrate is not com-
pletely degraded.
4 Conclusion
The performance and stability of digesters fed with dif-
ferent mixes of solid wastes were studied. Prediction of
the methane produced in semi-continuous digesters mode
of substrates using data acquired in batch mode was
investigated. A reasonable agreement between the mod-
eled and experimental results were found.
References
Esposito G, Frunzo L, Panico A, Pirozzi F. Modelling the effect of the
OLR and OFMSW particle size on the performances of an
anaerobic co-digestion reactor. Process Biochem. 2011;46:557–65.
Mata Alvarez J, Dosta J, Macé D, Astals S. Codigestion of solid wastes:
A review of its uses and perspectives including modeling. Crit Rev
Biotechnol. 2011;31:99–111.
Poggio D, Walker M, Ma L, Pourkashanian M. Modelling the
anaerobic digestion of solid organic waste—substrate characterisa-
tion method for ADM1 using a combined biochemical and kinetic
parameter estimation approach. Waste Manag. 2016;53:40–54.
 Refuse Derived Fuel Gasification Possibilities
in Small Scale Units

Maris Klavins, Dmitry Porsnov, Valdis Bisters, Juris Kalviss,

and Raivo Damkevics

Keywords
Refuse derived fuels RDF Pyrolysis TGA Syngas Waste to energy

1 Introduction waste processing options are actual. Gasification of solid

Fossil fuels use reduction and waste recycling are two great
challenges facing our society nowadays. A concept intended
to solve both problems is Waste-to-Energy (WtE) approach
(Brunner and Rechberger 2015). The routes to the energy
recovery can be grouped as thermo-chemical and biochem-
ical approaches and the selection of the WtE technologies
also depends on the waste composition. Waste sources can
be industrial and agricultural production and urban regions
but growing attention is paid to municipal solid waste in
OECD countries (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata 2012) con-
sisting dominantly of organic materials (27%), paper (32%),
plastic 11%, glass, metal and other components. Most
widespread technologies for MSW thermal conversion are:
(1) MSW incineration; (2) co-combustion with other fuels;
(3) gasification; (4) pyrolysis (Astrup et al. 2015). Further,
the selection of the most appropriate technology depends
also on the wastes amounts and their logistics. MSW
incineration is a relatively widely used robust approach,
however requiring extensive purification of flue gases and
creating a problem of the combustion waste utilisation.
Incineration technologies cannot deliver cost effective small
scale solutions needed for distributed waste management
systems. As a prospective, the gasification approach can be
considered, especially when pre-treated urban wastes are
used (refuse derived fuels RDF) and local (decentralised)
recovered fuels can make a difference if coupled with effi-
cient gas cleaning and energy recovery. The efficiency of the
system lies at the integrated feedstock preparation, gasifi-
cation process and gas cleaning for a final product—car-
bonized solids, syngas and condensable liquids.
The aim of the study was to evaluate RDF gasification
and development possibilities, and validate the gas cleaning
system in conditions of feedstock variability of solid
recovered fuel applicable for small-scale installations.
2 Materials and Methods
Refuse derived fuel samples were collected from Latvia and
neighbouring countries: Lithuania and Estonia and were
characterised by elemental composition (C, H, N, O, S, Cl),
ash amount as well as heating value. The thermal decom-
position process of RDF was studied using thermo-
gravimetrical analysis. A laboratory scale set up was
developed to test the RDF samples gasification characteris-
tics and efficiencies. In gasification tests, the RDF samples
were pyrolysed in an electrically heated quartz batch reactor.
Composition of syngas was monitored and the process was
studied at differing temperature regimes with RDF and with
RDF + lime additions. Further, metals and trace elements in
RDF and in the formed ashes were analysed using dissolu-
tion in Aqua regia with a following analysis by ICP-OES.

3 Results and Discussion

M. Klavins (&)
D. Porsnov
V. Bisters
J. Kalviss
R. Damkevics Refuse derived fuel samples from Latvia and other Baltic
Department of Environmental Science, University
countries in general in respect to their elemental composition
of Latvia, Raina blvd 19, Riga, LV 1586, Latvia
e-mail: maris.klavins@lu.lv are similar to RDF samples from UK, Netherlands, Sweden

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 945

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_274
946
and Germany, however a significant variability has been
found if compared samples obtained from large cities and
countryside at first in respect to presence of metals and
proportion of plastics and wood residues. As some problems
might be considered like wastes disinfection, some limita-
tions to further processing might be created.
RDF samples calorific values on dry basis are close to
thse of coal and are sufficient to use only the RDF samples in
the pyrolysis process. The tudy of thermal decomposition
using thermo-gravimetrical analysis helps to reveal thermal
decomposition stages and support the selection of the ther-
mal decomposition process regime.
As challenges for pyrolysis application of the RDF can be
considered: (1) optimisation of the thermal decomposition
process; (2) reduction of the organochlorine formation;
(3) formation and removal of tars; (4) development of
methods for utilisation of ashes formed during the pyrolysis
process. To solve these problems, the following approaches
were suggested: (1) lime admixtures; (2) the pyrolysis pro-
cess optimisation (thermal regime, RDF loading rate);
(3) syngas plasma post-treatment. The suggested approaches
provided possibilities to obtain high-quality syngas with
achieve good energy efficiency of the pyrolysis process. The
above mentioned process is used to design the RDF gasifi-
cation unit using fluidised bed for small—medium scale
RDF processing.
Further, the bottom ash and fly ash composition were
analysed and metal and chlorine concentrations were deter-
mined. Metal speciation analysis has been achieved, to study
not only the total, but also the biologically available metal
fractions. Ash utilisation possibilities were studied and
M. Klavins et al.
potential use in building industry applications was
demonstrated.
4 Conclusion
The results of this study have shown that calorific values
of RDF samples are close to those of coal and are suffi-
cient to use of sole RDF samples in the pyrolysis process.
However: (1) lime admixtures; (2) pyrolysis process
optimisation (thermal regime, RDF loading rate);
(3) syngas plasma post-treatment can help to achieve high
quality syngas and utilise the formed wastes (ash).
Optimised gasification conditions are used to design
fluidised bed RDF gasification unit for small—medium
scale RDF processing.
Acknowledgements This work has been supported by the European
Regional Development Fund within the project No. 1.1.1.1/16/A/050
“Variable fuel gasification for municipal solid waste recovery”.
References
Astrup FH, Tonini D, Turconi R, Boldrin A. Life cycle assessment of
thermal waste-to-energy Technologies: review and recommenda-
tions. Waste Manag. 2015;37:104–15.
Brunner PH, Recherberger H. Waste to energy—a key for sustainable
waste management. Waste Manag. 2015;37:3–12.
Hoornweg D, Bhada-Tata P. What a waste: a global review of solid
waste management. Urban development series. Knowledge papers
no. 15. Washington, DC: World Bank; 2012 http://documents.
worldbank.org/curated/en/2012/03/16537275/waste-global-review-
solid-waste-management.
 Removal of Methylene Blue Dye
by Fenton-like Process Using Laterites

Gloria M. R. Kpinsoton, Hela Karoui, Yohan Richardson,

and Hamma Yacouba

Keywords
Laterite Methylene blue Organic dyes Heterogeneous Fenton-like process

1 Introduction heterogeneous Fenton catalyst. Khataee et al. (2015) used an

Several synthetic dyes are produced yearly around the world.
MB has mostly been used as prototypical dye and has two
aromatic rings which are hardly degradable. Advanced
Oxidation Process (AOPs) are effective in the degradation of
bio-reluctant organic pollutants. Fenton process is an AOP,
based on the generation of hydroxyl radicals with hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) and ferrous iron (Fe2+). However, the
homogeneous process generates, Iron sludges due to the
complexity of the Iron species mainly at pH up to 3. Thus,
the use of solid catalysts has been recommended in previous
studies to get rid of these drawbacks. Zeolites (Fukuchi et al.
2014), clay (Tabet et al. 2006), activated carbons (Le et al.
2015) are the most used materials as catalysts in Fenton
system. Laterite is an Iron rich soil available in tropical
zones so a stable laterite can be an attractive and a promising
G.M.R. Kpinsoton (&)
Laboratoire Eau Dépollution Ecosystème et Santé (LEDES) et
Laboratoire Biomasse Energie et Biocarburants (LBEB), Institut
International d’Ingénierie de l’Eau et de l’Environnement (2iE),
Rue de la Science, 01 BP 594 Ouagadougou,
Burkina Faso
e-mail: mkpinsoton@gmail.com
H. Karoui
LEDES, 2iE, Rue de la Science, 01 BP 594 Ouagadougou,
Burkina Faso
e-mail: hela.karoui@2ie-edu.org
Y. Richardson
LBEB, 2iE, Rue de la Science, 01 BP 594 Ouagadougou,
Burkina Faso
e-mail: yohan.richardson@2ie-edu.org
H. Yacouba
Laboratoire Hydrologie et Ressources en eau (LEAH), 2iE,
Rue de la Science, 01 BP 594 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
e-mail: hamma.yacouba@2ie-edu.org
Iron rich laterite soil with mesoporous structure for the
degradation of an azo dye, Acid Red 17, by heterogeneous
photo Fenton. This study focused on the formulation of a
Fenton catalyst using a Laterite and its ability in MB
removal by a heterogeneous Fenton process.
2 Materials and Methods
The laterites used in this study come from Dano, a city in the
southern part of Burkina Faso. In order to formulate the
laterite, the raw laterite was firstly crushed. Then, it went
through a heat treatment at 800 °C under air. X-ray
diffraction analysis on the same Laterite was performed in
a previous work (Kenda et al. 2017). The XRD pattern
showed some main peaks which were associated to quartz
and hematite according to the standard powder diffraction
data (JCPDS).
Nitrogen adsorption/desorption, using a Micromeritics
3Flex, was performed to determine the porous texture of the
catalyst LT-800. The surface area was calculated according
to the BET method. The total pore volume was taken at
p/po = 0.99, the highest relative pressure. Isotherms of MB
adsorption were carried out in 100 ml Erlenmeyer flasks. 1 g
of laterite was stirred with MB solutions at initial concen-
trations from 20 to 80 mg L−1 during 15 h. The different
tests were performed at non modified pH and at room
temperature.
The MB removal tests were performed under magnetic
stirring at pH3 and at ambient temperature. 3 g of the
catalyst LT-800 was added to one liter of MB solution at
40 mg L−1. After 20 min, a desired amount of H2O2 solution
was added to initiate hydroxyls radical formation by Fenton

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 947

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_275
948 G.M.R. Kpinsoton et al.

60 the natural materials (Maiti et al. 2010). The curve Qe = f

1
(Ce) represented in Fig. 1 illustrated the isotherm of MB
50 adsorption on LT-800. According to the classification of the
isotherms profile for molecules adsorption in liquid phase
40 made by Gilles et al. (1960), the isotherm looks like type L.
Qe (mg/g)

The MB molecules were fixed on the laterite sites until their

30
20
10
0 hydroxyl radicals produced through the Fenton reagent and
0 5 10
Ce (mg/L)
Fig. 1 Adsorption isotherm of MB
reaction. Aliquots were taken each 20 min to monitor the
variation of MB concentration. The aliquots absorbance was
measured at 661 nm, a maximun wavelength, using a UV–
vis spectrophotometer and then, their MB concentration was
calculated with a calibration curve.
3 Results and Discussion
The surface area, the pore volume and the Average pore
diameter of the LT-800 are respectively 7 m2 g, 0.047 cm3
g-1 and 25.6 nm. the Average pore diameter of the laterite is
within the range of the mesopore size. The Laterite has weak
porosity with low surface area and pore volume as most of
saturation making it difficult for the MB to find a free
adsorption site.
The MB removal rate was respectively 4, 19 and 96%
using H2O2, LT-800 (adsorption) and LT-800 + H2O2
(Fenton oxidation) after 100 min. These results indicate that
the MB removal in the oxidation test was really achieved by
15 20 25 30 not only by adsorption. The UV-Vis spectrum obtained
during the MB removal by adsorption and by the Fenton
oxidation using LT-800 are respectively represented in
Fig. 2a, b. MB molecule has two aromatic rings. The
UV-Vis spectrum of an MB solution has two main peaks:
around 291 and 661 nm. It is assumed that the aromatic
rings are responsible for the peak at 291 nm. It has been
noticed that after 100 min of treatment, the peaks almost
disappeared in the case of the Fenton oxidation and just a
small decrease was observed during the adsorption kinetics.
The disappearance of the peak located at 291 nm can be
attributed to the degradation of aromatics rings. In order to
check the stability of the catalyst, leaching tests were carried
out. The concentration of iron ions leached in the solution
was 0.08 mg L−1. This value is low comparatively to the
iron contained in the LT 800 used for the experiments. It can
therefore be deduced that the catalytic activity was essen-
tially heterogeneous. The degradation was mainly due to the
catalyst LT-800, and not to the leached iron ions.

(b)
(a) 10

14 10
12 8
Absorbance

8
6
Absorbance

12 6 0 min
10
4
0 min
4 20 min 2 20 min
40 min 40 min
10 2
60 min 0
Absorbance

250 300 350

8 60 min
Absorbance

0 80 min Wavelength (nm)

80 min
240 260 280 300 320 340
100 min 100 min
8 Wavelength (nm)

6
6
4
4
2
2

0 0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)

Fig. 2 Aliquots spectrum UV/Visible during a adsorption b Fenton process

Removal of Methylene Blue Dye by Fenton-like Process …
4 Conclusion
Calcined Laterites have been investigated as heteroge-
neous Fenton catalysts for MB removal. Nitrogen
adsorption and desorption revealed that the LT-800 has a
weak BET specific area, around 7 m2 g−1. The MB
removal rate was of 96% after 100 min of Fenton reac-
tion at room temperature. The MB removal was based on
both adsorption and degradation processes. However, the
degradation process was essentially heterogeneous.
References
Fukuchi S, Nishimoto R, Fukushima M, Zhu Q. Effects of reducing
agents on the degradation of 2,4,6-tribromophenol in a heteroge-
neous Fenton-like system with an iron-loaded natural zeolite. Appl
Catal B Environ. 2014;147:411–9.
949
Gilles C, MC Evant M, Nakhawas SW, Smith DJ. J Chem Soc
1960;3973(1).
Kenda ES, Py X, N’Tsoukpoe KE, Coulibaly Y, Sadiki N. Thermal
energy storage materials made of natural and recycled resources for
CSP in West Africa. Waste Biomass Valorization. 2017; 1–15.
Khataee A, Salahpour F, Fathinia M, Seyyedi B, Vahid B. Iron rich
laterite soil with mesoporous structure for heterogeneous
Fenton-like degradation of an azo dye under visible light. J Ind
Eng Chem. 2015;26:129–35.
Le STT, Ngo TT, Khanitchaidecha W, Nakaruk A. Synthesis of
iron/GAC catalyst for wastewater treatment using heterogeneous
Fenton reaction. Bull Mater Sci. 2015;38:1039–42.
Maiti A, Basu JK, De S. Removal of arsenic from synthetic and natural
groundwater using acid-activated laterite. Environ Prog Sustain
Energy. 2010;29:457–70.
Tabet D, Saidi M, Houari M, Pichat P, Khalaf H. Fe-pillared clay as a
Fenton-type heterogeneous catalyst for cinnamic acid degradation.
J Environ Manage. 2006;80:342–6.
 Effects of Recycled Materials Added
to the Substrate on Nursery Trees

Francesca Bretzel, Eliana Tassi, Francesca Vannucchi,

Manuele Scatena, and Fabrizio Cinelli

Keywords
Deinking sludge Soil compaction Nitrogen SPAD Tree transplant stress

1 Introduction been successfully employed as a gowing media component

Transplant can be a shock for plants, especially when they
are moved from the nursery, where the environmental con-
ditions are very favourable, to urbanised areas, where
resources and maintenance are scarce. Moreover, some
characteristics of urban soils, such as alkaline pH and
compaction, make it difficult for trees to adapt. Recycled
organic material (compost) added as mulch to trees plantings
is effective in contrasting compaction in urban soils
(Scharenbroch and Watson 2014). Designed soil materials
can promote successful urban tree planting, allowing better
root growth and plant development (Grabosky et al. 2001).
The industry of recycled paper produces tons of waste,
which in some cases can be a source of pollutants (Tandy
et al. 2008). The deinking sludge we choose is a clean
material consisting mainly of cellulose, that can be poten-
tially used as a component in plant growth substrate. This
material has a good water retention and porosity and it has
F. Bretzel (&)
E. Tassi
M. Scatena
Institute of Ecosystem Studies, CNR, Via Moruzzi 1,
56124 Pisa, Italy
e-mail: francesca.bretzel@ise.cnr.it
E. Tassi
e-mail: eliana.tassi@ise.cnr.it
M. Scatena
e-mail: manuele.scatena@ise.cnr.it
F. Vannucchi
Institute of Life Sciences, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Pisa, Italy
e-mail: f.vannucchi@santannapisa.it
F. Cinelli
Department of Engineering DESTeC, University of Pisa,
Pisa, Italy
e-mail: fabrizio.cinelli@unipi.it
(Vannucchi et al. 2017). In the present study the deinking
sludge converted into pellets has been added to the growing
media of nursery trees, with the aim of increasing the water
storage in the substrate and, at the same time, of contrasting
soil compaction. In order to get the permission to use the
waste in the experiment, an application was submitted to the
local planning authorities primarily intended to manage
industrial waste.
2 Materials and Methods
The experiment was carried out at the Marino Favilla nurs-
ery (Lucca, Italy). The control substrate (CS) was the one
usually used by the nursery, consisting of peat, pumice,
zeolites (chabasite) and compost; the experimental substrate
(ES), was made up of zeolites (chabasite), pumice, green
waste compost and pellet of deinking sludge (PDI). The
deinking sludge was pelletised in order to increase the
characteristics of water retention. The substrates were anal-
ysed for pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Cation Exchange
Capacity (CEC), organic carbon (Corg), inorganic carbon
(Cinorg), total nitrogen (Ntot) (ASA-SSSA 1996). Water
retention curves of pellets were obtained in terms of dry
weight (DW) with a pressure plate apparatus (Richard 1965).
Three species of trees, largely employed in urban plantings
in Mediterranean climate, 28 Quercus ilex, 26 Lager-
stroemia indica, 30 Prunus serrulata “Kanzan”, were
planted in 40 cm Ø pots using the two substrates. Plant
responses were monitored by measuring trunk diameter, bud
length and chlorophyll content index with SPAD. First
surveys were conducted at vegetative recovery: the trunk
diameter, bud length and SPAD were detected. The

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 951

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_276
952 F. Bretzel et al.

Table 1 Properties of the Substrates pH EC Corg Cinorg Ntot CEC

substrates
H2O milliS/cm % % % cmol kg−1
CS 7.4 ± 0.01 2917 ± 74.2 8.3 ± 1.6 0.44 ± 0.1 0.63 ± 0.04 31.4 ± 1.4
ES 7.2 ± 0.02 6277 ± 24.7 19.5 ± 1.1 0.74 ± 0.1 1.09 ± 0.02 30.6 ± 1.4
T-test * * * *
CS = Control substrate; ES = experimental substrate. Asterisks represent significance of p < 0.05

Table 2 Bud lenghts measured Species CS ES

in each species for the two
substrates tested CS = Control P. serrulata 50.4 ± 15.5a 30.9 ± 17.3b
substrate; ES = experimental Q. ilex 36.5 ± 4.3a 34.8 ± 9.4a
substrate
L. indica 94.9 ± 12.5a 88.8 ± 13.3a
Different letters means significant statistically difference among the treatments for p < 0.05 as determined by
Tukey test

Table 3 Chlorophyll content Species CS ES

index with SPAD measured in
each species for the two P. serrulata 46.7 ± 1.81a 43.7 ± 6.32a
substrates tested CS = Control Q. ilex 45.6 ± 7.2a 55.0 ± 17a
substrate; ES = experimental
L. indica 59.2 ± 3.8a 58.5 ± 6.4a
substrate
Different letters means significant statistically difference among the treatments for p < 0.05 as determined by
Tukey test

experiment is still going on, by September we will have the
data of one season of growth. The experiment was set up in a
completely randomized design. In order to evaluate the
differences between CS and ES, substrate data were sub-
jected to t-test. One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s
Multiple Comparison Test (P  0.05) was performed to
determine the statistical significant difference of the plant
parameters. Statistical analyses were performed using R
version 1.0.44 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing,
Vienna, Austria).
starting point showed homogeneous values between the two
treatments in all the species.
After the first vegetative season, bud length measure-
ments (Table 2) did not show significant differences for Q.
ilex and L. indica, highlighting the suitability of ES for these
species. For P. serrulata a lower growth was observed in the
experimental substrate. The three species tested showed a
good health status in terms of chlorophyll content index
(Table 3), indeed no statistical difference within species
were detected for SPAD (Grabosky et al. 2001; Cinelli et al.
2004).

3 Results and Discussion

The properties of deinking sludge (DI) were as follows: pH
8, Corg 19%, Ntot 0.19%; the properties of green waste
compost (GWC) were as follows: pH 7.5, Corg 26.5%, Ntot
1.5%; all the trace metals values were under the low limits
for those materials. The water holding capacity values of the
pellets showed that the absorption capacity was 85% DW
and the water saturation, field capacity and wilting point
values were, 42. 7 and 35% DW. The two substrates showed
different properties reported in Table 1. ES is suitable as
growing media and the values of EC, Corg and Ntot are
more effective for growing plants than the ones of CS. The
preliminary results imply that ES will be suitable as growing
media for the trees in nursery and may represent an excellent
amendant. The monitoring of the trunk diameter at the
4 Conclusion
These preliminary results show that the properties of
deinking sludge pellet and municipal green waste com-
post are suitable to be employed as component of nursery
substrate. This evidence may be useful to find substitutes
to traditional growing media such as peat and to enhance
the circular economy processes related to recycle of
wastes.
References
ASA-SSSA. Methods of soil analysis, Part 1 and 3 physical and
chemical methods. 2nd ed. Madison, Wisconsin, USA: ASA-SSSA;
1996.
Effects of Recycled Materials Added to the Substrate …
Cinelli F, Tamantini I, Iacona C. Nutritional (Fe-Mn) interactions in
‘Big Top’ peach plants as influenced by the rootstock and by the
soil CaCO3 concentration. Soil Sci Plant Nutr. 2004;50(7):
1097–102.
Grabosky J, Bassuk N, Irwin L, Van Es H. Shoot and Root growth of
three tree species in sidewalks. J Environ Hortic. 2001;19(4):
206–11.
Richards LA. Physical condition of water in soil. In: Black A et al.,
editors. Method of soil analysis Part 1; Agronomy, vol. 9. Madison,
Wis., USA: American Society of Agronomy; 1965. p. 128–51.
953
Scharenbroch BC, Watson GW. Woodchips and compost improve soil
quality and increase growth of Acer rubrum and Betula nigra in
compacted urban soil. Arboric Urban For. 2014;40(6):319–31.
Tandy S, Williamson JC, Nason MA, Healey JR, Jones DL. Deinking
paper fibre application to agricultural land: soil quality enhancer or
copper polluter? Soil Use Manag. 2008;24(2):217–20.
Vannucchi F, Pini R, Scatena M, Bretzel F. Influence of roof substrate
composition on the establishment of native herbaceous species
under dry climate. Acta Horticulturae, 2017. In press.
 Effect of Acclimatization on Earthworm’s
(Eisenia Andrei) Potential on Olive Mill
Wastewaters Detoxification

Barhoum Kharbouch, Hicham Lakhtar, Sandrine Amat,

Sevastianos Roussos, Nathalie Dupuy, and Abdelhamid El Mousadik

Keywords
Olive pomace Olive mille wastewaters Vermicomposting Eisenia andrei
Acclimatization Total phenols

1 Introduction can be used as organic amendments to promote plant growth

In Morocco, olive production was estimated to about 16
million tons of olive and 3 million tons of olive oil (Lakhtar
and Roussos 2016). The extraction of olive oil generates
huge quantities of wastes (olive pomace OP and olive mill
wastewaters OMWW), that have a devastating impact on
land and water environments because of their high phyto-
toxicity. Therefore, there is a need for guidelines to manage
these wastes through technologies that minimize their
environmental impact and lead to a sustainable use of
resources. Although various physical, chemical and biolog-
ical methods of disposal of organic solid wastes are currently
in use, theyare time consuming and involve high costs.
Therefore, there is a pressing need to find out cost-effective
alternative method of shorter duration particularly suited to
Moroccan conditions. In this regard, the viability of using
vermicomposting technique with cost-effective to stabilize
and manage the organic solid wastes. The subsequent
application of vermicompost to soil demonstrates that they
B. Kharbouch (&)
H. Lakhtar
Laboratory of Microbial Biotechnology and Crop Protection,
Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Zohr University, BP 8106 Cité Dakhla
Agadir, Morocco
e-mail: kharbouch-barhoum@hotmail.fr
B. Kharbouch
S. Amat
S. Roussos
N. Dupuy
Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, IRD, Avignon Université,
IMBE (Mediterranean Institute of Biodiversity and Marine and
Continental Ecology), UMR 7263, 13397 Marseille Cedex20,
France
A.E. Mousadik
Laboratory of Biotechnology and Valorization of Natural
Resources, Faculty of Sciences, University of Ibn Zohr, BP 8106
Cité Dakhla Agadir, Morocco
and regenerate degraded soils (Melgar et al. 2009).
The aim of the present study was to test the effect of
acclimatization of earthworms to OMWW on their potential
in vermicomposting at the laboratory scale, and to test
earthworm’s potential for OMWW detoxification after and
before acclimatization as a means of recycling and treating
olive by-products (OMWW and OP).
2 Materials and Methods
Two groups of earthworms (with clitellum) belonging to the
species Eisenia (Bouché 1972), the first groups of earth-
worms were acclimated by the addition of moderate
OMWW concentrations to their breeding environment (olive
pomace, horse manure and wheat straw) for six months prior
to our experimentation. The second groups of earthworms
were bred in the same mixture without OMWW. Mixture
composed of olive-pomace (60% D.W), horse manure (30%
D.W) and wheat straw (10% D.W) were made. Olive mill
wastewater (OMWW) was added to the mixture then
pre-composted for one month. The vermicomposting study
of olive oil by-products on a laboratory scale was carried out
in 2.5 l plastic box (1 kg of the mixture) and inoculated with
5 adult earthworms. Two experiments were carried out; the
first one was inoculated with acclimated earthworms and the
second one was inoculated with unacclimated earthworms.
Each treatment was run in triplicate.
The earthworm growth was measured in each mixture.
On the basis of the obtained data about the biomass, other
parameters of earthworm such as biomass increase rate
(mg day−1) and maximum weight achieved were produced

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 955

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_277
956
with the help of the recorded data for different mixtures. The
homogenized samples of the substrate material were col-
lected every ten day during two months from each mixture,
and they were analyzed for total phenol.
3 Results and Discussion
– Earthworm growth
The mean earthworm biomass in mixture with acclimated
earthworms increased significantly. In fact, the maximum
mean biomass (ANOVA, F = 11.05, P ˂ 0.05) reached in
this mixture was 3.58 g ± 0.30 after 50 days, then a
decrease in the biomass was observed to reach
3.44 ± 0.24 g. It was suggested that decline of earthworms
biomass at the end of the vermicomposting process was due
to the substrate conversion and depletion (Garg et al. 2006).
However unacclimated earthworms present a decrease in
average biomass after ten days of laboratory vermicom-
posting. After ten days a slight increase in the average bio-
mass was recorded, to reach 2.45 ± 0.13 g at the end. This
result shows the positive effect of earthworm’s acclimatiza-
tion on their potential to adapt to OMWW.
The growth rate expressed in mg of biomass acquired per
earthworm per day was considered as a very good indicator
for comparing earthworm growth in different substrates
(Edwards and Arancon 2004). The maximum growth rate
was achieved in mixture with acclimated earthworms
Fig. 1 Phenol concentrations with unacclimated ( ) and acclimated (
Table 1 Earthworms biomass and growth rate during the vermicomposting process (mean ± SD, n = 3)
Mixture Mean initial earthworm Mean
biomass (g) maximum
biomass
achieved (g)
Acclimated 2.27 ± 0.18 3.58 ± 0.3
Unacclimated 2.17 ± 0.11 2.45 ± 0.1
B. Kharbouch et al.
(21.83 ± 0.01 mg worm−1day−1) (Table 1). However, the
growth rate of unacclimated earthworms (4.67 ± 0.01 mg
worm−1day−1) was 4.7 lower than reported with acclimated
earthworms. Ganesh et al. (2009) reported that raw materials
with high phenols fraction and lignin concentration (such as
OP and OMWW) are not well adequate for growth and
development of most earthworms’ species. In this study the
difference in mass gain between earthworms can be attributed
to the effect of the acclimation of earthworms. El Hajjouji
et al. (2007) attributed the difference of earthworm’s growth
rate between mixtures to antimicrobial and toxic effect of
OMWW, which inhibits microbial activity that is essential
for organic matter degradation by earthworms.
– Polyphenols
Changes in polyphenols concentration are reported in
Fig. 1. The mixture with acclimated earthworms showed
highest phenols concentration reduction (72%), indicating
that acclimatized earthworms have well tolerated their cul-
ture medium. Zenjari and Nejmeddine (2001) attributed the
decrease of phenol concentration to the microbial biocon-
version of polyphenolic compounds and their interaction
with secondary metabolites contributing to the biosynthesis
of humic substances. While unacclimated earthworms did
not allow for a significant reduction in the phenols concen-
tration (41%). These results demonstrate the positive effect
of the acclimatization of earthworms towards OMWW in
order to obtain a high rate of detoxification.
) earthworms during vermicomposting
Mean biomass achieved at Net biomass acquired Growth rate
the end (g) earthworm−1 at mg
the end (g) worm−1day−1
3.44 ± 0.24 1.31 ± 0.12 21.83 ± 0.01
2.45 ± 0.13 0.28 ± 0.02 4.67 ± 0.01
Effect of Acclimatization on Earthworm’s (Eisenia Andrei) …
4 Conclusion
The results of this study support the potential of Eisenia
andrei to grow and reproduced favorably in the OP mixed
with HM, WS and socked with diluted OMWW.
Acclimatization of Eisenia andrei allows a higher repro-
ductive rate and a higher rate of OMWW detoxification than
unacclimated earthworms. The phenols reduction rate
(72%) obtained with acclimatized earthworms demon-
strates the positive effect of acclimatization.
Although OMWW are a recalcitrant organic by-product for
decomposition, acclimatization of earthworms can enhance
their potential adaptation to high OMWW concentrations.
Acknowledgements This research work was financially supported by
PHC Toubkal TBK/15/03—Campus France N° 32548XH project.
References
Bouché MB. Lombriciens de France: écologie et systématique. Annales
de Zoologie Ecologie Animale, INRA Editions, Paris, France; 1972.
p. 671.
957
Edwards CA, Arancon NQ. The use of earthworms in the breakdown of
organic wastes to produce vermicomposts and animal feed protein.
Earthworm ecol. 2004; 2nd ed. 345–380. Boca Raton, FL: St. Lucie
Press.
El Hajjouji H, Fakharedine N, Ait Baddi G, Winterton P, Bailly J,
Revel J, Hafidi M. Treatment of olive mill waste-water by aerobic
biodegradation: an analytical study using gel permeation chro-
matography, ultraviolet–visible and Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy. Biores Technol. 2007;98:3513–20.
Ganesh PS, Gajalakshmi S, Abbasi SA. Vermicomposting of the leaf
litter of acacia (Acacia auriculiformis): Possible roles of reactor
geometry, polyphenols, and lignin. Biores Technol.
2009;100:1819–27.
Garg V, Yadav Y, Sheoran A, Chand S, Kaushik P. Livestock excreta
management through vermicomposting using an epigeic earthworm
Eisenia foetida. Environmentalist. 2006;26:269–76.
Lakhtar H, Roussos S. Solid State Fermentation of Lentinula edodes on
solid olive substrate: evaluation of growth factors. J Appl Sci.
2016;16:562–9.
Melgar R, Benitez E, Nogales R. Bioconversion of wastes from olive
oil industries by vermicomposting process using the epigeic
earthworm Eisenia andrei. J Environ Sci Health, Part B.
2009;44:488–95.
Zenjari B, Nejmeddine A. Impact of spreading olive mill wastewater on
soil characteristics: laboratory experiments. Agronomie. 2001;21
(8):749–55.
 Production and Characterization
of Activated Carbon from Orange Peels
by Chemical Activation with Sulfuric Acid

Sami Guiza, Salwa Hajyahia, Franck Launay, and Mohamed Bagane

Keywords
Orange peels Activated carbon Chemical activation Sulfiruc acid Physical
activation

1 Introduction for 4 days then at 110 °C inside a convection oven for 8 h to

Oranges represent 75% of the total citrus fruits (Guiza 2017)
throughout the world, and Tunisia is one of the major juice
producers. Orange peels could cause a significant disposal
problem but they are also valuable biomass wastes (Valdes
et al. 2002; Fang et al. 2005; He et al. 2010). They are rich in
cellulose and hemicellulose (Lee et al. 2007; Gomes et al.
2010) but have also unique natural pores at the origin of high
surface area values and high porosity in comparison with
other agricultural wastes (Jiang et al. 2003). Based on these
observations, it has been considered that the natural pores of
those peels could be useful to generate activated carbons
with enhanced mesoporosity. Moreover, the active agent
(here H2SO4) (Wang et al. 2005; Kannan and Sundaram
2001; Liu et al. 2010) diffusion in the precursor material
should be facilitated thus affording an activation process
under milder conditions as well as pores enriched with
surface functional groups.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Biomass Preparation (ACOP)
Orange peels have been washed with tap water, then rinsed
with double-de-ionized water and dried first in the sun light
constant weight. Resulting dried peels were ground and
sieved through 0.225 mm pore size.
2.2 Impregnation Using Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)
In a 1 L flask, 50 g of OP was contacted with Vac mL of 50
wt% sulfuric acid during a fixed period of impregnation
time, timp (E. Bernard et al. 2013). The solids were recovered
by filtration and dried at room temperature for 3 days. The
impregnation rate value, timp is given by simp ¼ðV ac Þ=ðwOP Þ
where wOP (weight of dried orange peels) and Vac are
expressed in g and mL, respectively. Nine samples were
hence prepared.
2.3 Calcination Under Nitrogen
Activated orange peels (5 g once) were calcined under
nitrogen at 200 °C for 2 h in a muffle furnace. After, the
as-prepared carbon was rinsed with double-ionized water
until pH 6 and dried at 40 °C inside a convection oven for
24 h. Further calcination at 500 °C was tested in the case of
the material having the best textural properties after the
treatment at 200 °C.

S. Guiza (&)
S. Hajyahia
M. Bagane 2.4 Characterization Methods

Departement of Chemical Engineering Process, National
Engneering School of Gabés, University of Gabés, Gabés, Tunisia
e-mail: sami_guiza@yahoo.fr Physicol-chemical properties of the materials were studied
by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction
F. Launay
Laboratoire de Réactivité de Surface (LRS), Sorbon Universités, (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR),
UPMC Univ Paris 06, CNRS, UMR 7197, 75005 Paris, France

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 959

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_278
960 S. Guiza et al.

25

Impregn. rate = 2
20 Impregn. rate = 3
Impregn. rate = 4

BET surface(m 2/g)

15

10

0
2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Impregnation time (h)

Fig. 1 Effect of the impregnating rate, simp and impregnation time, timp, on the surface area of OPAC materials treated under nitrogen at 200 °C

Table 1 Influence of the Tcal Tcal SBET Total pore volume

calcination conditions on the (°C) (h) (m2/g) (cm3/g)
textural properties of sample B
400 4 448 0.17
550 4 690 0.17
550 6 1934 0.81

Nitrogen adsorption-desorption, X-Ray Fluorescence spec- the recovered solids were submitted to a mild calcination
troscopy (XRF) and thermogravimetric analyses (TGA). treatment at 200 °C.

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Characterization of the ACOP Materials

Nine samples (A to I) were prepared by varying both the Data concerning ACOPs calcined under mild conditions
impregnation rate and time. Values of the first one simp , were were examined to investigate the influence of the impreg-
fixed at either 2, 3 or 4 mL of 50 wt% H2SO4/g of dried nation rate and time. The impregnation rate plays an
orange peel with 2, 3 or 4 h of impregnation times, timp. All important role in the textural characteristics of the final solid
Production and Characterization of Activated Carbon …
as shown by the evolution of the specific surface area values
(Fig. 1) The specific surface area increases with the extent of
impregnation, simp . at fixed timp. In the following experi-
ments, the value of simp are constant and equal to 4. For
simp ¼ 4, it can be noted that the specific surface area value
decreased with longer impregnation times Table 1.
4 Conclusion
Activated carbons with a well-developed pore and
specific surface 1934.4 m2/g structure were prepared
from orange peels by chemical activation with sulfuric
acid.
References
Bernard E and Jimoh A. Adsorption of Pb, Fe,Cu and Zn from
industrial electroplating wastewater by orange peel activated
carbon. Int J Eng Appl Sci. 2013, p. 95–103.
Fang B, Wei YZ, Suzuki K, Kumagai M. Surface modification of
carbonaceous materials for EDLCs application. Electrochim Acta.
2005;50:3616–21.
Gomes HT, Miranda SM, Sampaio MJ, Silva AMT, Faria JL. Activated
carbons treated with sulphuric acid: catalysts for catalytic wet
peroxide oxidation. Catal Today. 2010;151:153–8.
961
Guiza S. Biosorption of heavy metal from aqueous solution using
cellulosicwaste orange peel. Ecol Eng. 2017;99:134–40.
He JX, Li SB, Shao WL, Wang DY, Chen MY, Yin WQ, Wang W,
Gu YY, Zhong BL. Activated carbon nanoparticles or methylene
blue as tracer during video-assisted thoracic surgery for lung cancer
can help pathologist find the detected lymph nodes. J Surg Oncol.
2010;102:676–82.
Jiang ZX, Liu Y, Sun XP, Tian FP, Sun FX, Liang CH, You WS,
Han CR, Li C. Activated carbons chemically modified by concen-
trated H2SO4 for the adsorption of the pollutants from waste water
and the dibenzothiophene from fuel oils. Langmuir. 2003;19:731–6.
Kannan N, Sundaram MM. Kinetics and mechanism of removal of
methylene blue by adsorption on various carbons-a comparative
study. Dyes Pigments. 2001;51:25–40.
Lee YS, Kim YH, Hong JS, Suh JK, Cho GJ. The adsorption properties
of surface modified activated carbon fibers for hydrogen storages.
Catal Today. 2007;120:420–5.
Liu QS, Zheng T, Li N, Wang P, Abulikemu G. Modification of
bamboo-based activated carbon using microwave radiation and its
effects on the adsorption of methylene blue. Appl Surf Sci.
2010;256:3309–15.
Valdes H, Sanchez-Polo M, Rivera-Utrilla J, Zaror CA. Effect of ozone
treatment on surface properties of activated carbon. Langmuir.
2002;18:2111–6.
Wang SB, Zhu ZH, Coomes A, Haghseresht F, Lu GQ. The physical
and surface chemical characteristics of activated carbons and the
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Sci. 2005;284:440–6.
 Cheap and High Quality Housing
with Emphasis on Modular Building
Shaham Asadi, Hassan Mohammad Jafari Sadeghi,
and Ataollah Beigzade



Keywords
Housing Quality
1 Introduction
Shelter is a fundamental need and right of people everywhere
—it is hard to argue otherwise. But housing is more than
shelter. Decent and affordable housing provides access to
education for children and access to jobs for adults. People
who live free from the fear of sudden eviction are able to invest
in improvements in their homes and livelihoods and increase
their economic prospects (GHI 2005). The main aim of
housing is creating an adaptable environment with human life.
In other words, besides providing personal needs of residents
(e.g. Sleep, food, resting, protection against climate and nat-
ure), their qualitative and social needs should be also fulfilled
(Pourdeihami 2012), (Hosseinalipour and Shariatinia 2010).
However, Rapoport considered social and cultural factors as
important in the form of house and said: housing is created
based on a complex series and it is not merely a building. As
building a house is a cultural phenomenon, the form of house,
organizing and its spatial order are affected by cultural envi-
ronment to which house is dedicated (Rapoport 2009).
Rapoport considers cultural interaction as an effective factor
on house and does not consider it as only providing living
S. Asadi (&)
A. Beigzade
Department of Architecture, Higher Education Institute Rozbeh,
Zanjan, Iran
e-mail: Shahamasadi@gmail.com
A. Beigzade
e-mail: ataollahbeigzadeh@gmail.com
H. Mohammad Jafari Sadeghi
Department of Architecture, Zanjan University, Zanjan, Iran
e-mail: hmjafari@gmail.com
S. Asadi
H. Mohammad Jafari Sadeghi
A. Beigzade
Plaque 806, Valfajr 6 Alley, Tarbiatbodni St., Kaleybar,
East Azerbaijan Province, Iran
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_279



Cheap housing Modular building Mass production
conditions. He believes that house is a life creature, talking; it
is effective and can be affected. Sometimes, it is raised as a
symbol. The term “settlement” does not mean merely eco-
nomic relationship; it is an existential concept referring to the
symbolization of a meaning. If human-made environment is
significant, human is “at house” (Schulz 2012). Schulz con-
siders merely the expression of pure economy as no unique
index in production and considers quality based on meaning.
Schulz is inspired by Heidegger regarding being/residing. He
states that: “Existential space” and “being” are equal and
“being” is in existential concept of architecture purpose.
A human being settles if he is adapted to the environment, or
briefly when he experiences the environment as meaningful
(Schulz 2012) (Image 1). The concept of meaning and
thought in house are based on quality of building and existing
basics in society and culture. Schulz considers this existential
concept of being and settlement as acquired by environment
and this is a type of interpretation of quality of building.
2 Impacts of Housing Estates on Quality
of Life
When speaking of housing estates one usually refers to large
residential complexes in suburbs or on the edge of cities.
Housing estate planning focuses on introducing buildings
with regard to built public spaces, green spaces and traffic
areas. The abovementioned urban planning elements are
denoted by the term “open space”, in its current sense, which
is playing an increasingly important role in housing estate
development in terms of space morphology along with
identity and quality of life. Open space is a common term for
parks and recreation areas, green spaces and promenades.
Open space is designed for leisure time, recreation, sport,
963
964
Image 1 Diagram of view of Heidegger to settlement concept
assembly, socializing etc., whereby the offer and accessi-
bility of it are vital as they facilitate the well-being of dif-
ferent age groups.
It is important that it facilitates several activities and
related experiences, which, in terms of their location in the
area and the diversity of the programmers, are decisive
factors in satisfying human needs in a well-arranged and
maintained environment. Consequently, residents can spend
their active and passive leisure time in the immediate
vicinity of their homes and satisfy their socializing needs
with other dwellers, all of which considerably influences
their attitude to the housing environment (Skalicky and Sitar
2012). The concept of control and security in open spaces at
urban or residential scales can increase quality. Quality
should be observed not only in structure of building and
materials, but also in understanding as significant and a basic
role should be explained by it.
3 Definition of Cheap Housing
Cheap houses and settlement for poor families have been
raised for the first time in a global conference and modern
architecture got familiar with this problem, Frankfort, 1939
(Le Corbusier 2009). Cheap housing is used for low-income
people who cannot buy a house and as living right is beyond
economic assets and can provide identity and political
power, it is a basis to encourage other rights.
In the definition of cheap housing, we can say that
although this house is low in terms of price but we try to use
old architecture and traditions showing our Iranian identity
(Modiri and Modghalchi 2010). As saving and long-term
aids are the sources of funding of housing, those without
house cannot afford it by saving and even they cannot rent a
house and they include average income groups with low
work experience. In housing market, one of the effective
factors in demand is income and saving of household or
affordability of household. As shown in Pruitt–Igoe com-
plexes, affordability of household in terms of quality and
security plays an important role in these buildings.
About half of the world’s urban population lives in poverty
and about 600–800 million people occupy substandard hous-
ing (Datta and Jones 2002). In Germany, industry with suitable
assembly lines reduced costs. Modernization of construction
methods and logical designs of cheap houses with other
advancements were important regarding the solution of
S. Asadi et al.
shortage of housing (Ostrowski 2008). The current equipment
in the world for buildings construction play an important role in
production and improvement of housing as consistent with the
needs of society form qualitative and identity aspects. Criti-
cising the housing built in Iran namely in the margin of cities
Dr. Falamaki stated that “The cheap houses and townships in
margin of Iranian cities in recent decades had form, technical,
applied and environment alternative features not belonging to
the past residency culture nor the modern construction-
urbanization forms in our country. Also, they were not based
on the construction modeling in third world countries and not
based on specific spatial visualization as ideal (Felamaki 2006).
The housing industry is a major contributor to climate change,
resource depletion and pollution at a global level. Therefore,
environmental protection should be thought of and be impor-
tant. Environmental sustainability prevents harmful and irre-
versible effects on the environment by the efficient use of
natural resources, encouraging renewable resources, as well as
protecting the soil, water and air from contamination (Asadi and
Farrokhi 2014).
4 Quality Concept
Architecture transpires when boundless space gets restricted
by architectural elements. When visual sculptures implying
different places with applications differing from each other
are put together the absolute and unbounded space which had
no specific definition assume a definite form and thereby the
city is defined (Farrokhi Kaleybar et al. 2015). Quality is
formed by encountering a person, an issue, building or a
place and it includes features of an individual, goal and sit-
uation. The architectural history with the changes in aesthetic
styles did not have any fixed answer to the question: “What is
quality? (Le Corbusier 2009). The term architectural quality
is limited on the one hand and it includes a wide range on the
other hand. Quality of architecture is regarding the combi-
national and visual quality and cultural or symbolic meaning
(Derurt and Van Gan 2013). Christopher Alexander explains
about quality: The first place I think of, when I try to tell
someone about quality without name is a corner of an English
country garden, where a peach tree grows against a wall
(Alexander 2011). Christopher Alexander considers the dif-
ference between good and bad building as objective and it is a
postmodern view to building and qualitative issue is relative
not absolute. The spirit in a rural garden is above modern and
modular building. The qualities as the most important values
of residents in an environment are general concepts and it is
not considered easily in the design of housing for life. These
qualities are affected by many issues as people life style,
various types of houses, different arrangements of units in
Cheap and High Quality Housing with Emphasis on Modular Building
sets, action and advantage of each of the types and arrange-
ments or providing qualities in design and in various cultures
on the behavior method of a human and his interaction with
his environment.
This quality without name causes the viewer to see the
fire and be motivated. Human being is entangled with his
loneliness in winter and the fire flames can make him
comfortable. This quality is not similar everywhere as it gets
its shape from specific place as occurred in it. Thus, place is
effective on quality of building and building is affected by it
and this quality is comfort in one place and in another place
order and carelessness. This quality is a tender type of being
released of internal contrasts (Alexander 2011). Alexander
calls it timeless quality and it is based on personality and
mental changes as people consider it does not accept specific
time and place, quality is inner and outside as formed and
accepting.
As a system has an internal unity, it is qualified and if it
has no rule, its quality is lost to be adaptable with internal
forces and this quality (quality without name) is called and if
it is inconsistent with internal forces, it is lost (Alexander
2011). We can be alive as the buildings and cities where we
live are alive. Quality without name is timeless and it exists
in us, if it is in our buildings, we can be in it (Alexander
2011). This quality leads to life in buildings and people are
inclined to establish social interactions with each other. The
thoughts of people are different based on income and their
awareness to the surrounding world. (See Image 2)
Image 2 Diagram of Alexander attitude to concept: Source: Authors
965
5 Modular Building
It seems that mass producers in our country don’t believe in
modular design and consider the effect of this factor on
construction costs as ignored. The advantage of modular
design based on Table 1.
In a modular design, production path in production lines
is uniform as all products pass definite path and production
process is similar for all equal products and only in final
assembly, extra parts are placed according to the taste of
customers (Kharidar 2011). One of the main goals in using
system principles is modular coordination and coordinating
sizes and guiding building to a set of basic standard sizes
(Nikravan Mofrad and Arfai 2002).
The criticism of modular building from the view of
Christopher Alexander
Christopher Alexander criticizes modular building and says
that one of the most common types of these buildings is their
modularity. These buildings are full of similar parts, similar
rooms, similar houses and similar apartments in similar com-
plexes. This thought that each building can-should be com-
posed of modular units- is one of the most common
assumptions of the 20th century architecture (Alexander 2011).
In his criticism, he compares modular building with
existing models in nature and says: Nature is not modular.
Nature is full of similar units (waves, raindrops, leaves,
grass). All of them are similar from structural aspects but
none of them are equal in details.
966
Table 1 The advantages of modular design, Source: Authors
Advantages of modular design
1-Reduced execution time, improving quality and reduction of costs
2-Selection of modular dimension and its observing in all design stages
3-Consistency of all materials, components and equipment with each other as we don’t need reforms in construction location.
4-Consistency of architectural design networks and conformity of these networks with utilities, furniture and equipment
5-Components organization and segmentation and construction parts
6 Conclusion
Housing is one of the main needs of human being to fulfill
the needs such as the mental and physical ones and from
structural bases; it should have good and positive feedback
in city and urban identity. In modular building, house con-
struction is achieved by facilities to facilitate work and
reduce execution time that developed and developing
countries are inclined to modular building. Modular build-
ing is a method enabling prefabrication for execution in
buildings and it creates a high quality building in terms of
applied materials as achieved by factory method. This
method avoids re-working and high costs. This method
presents flexibility in housing easily. In the design of these
houses, it is necessary to consider Iranian identity and Ira-
nian community culture as along with Islamic basics. The
view of paper is immediate strategy to existing thoughts in
cheap houses by which a high quality house is presented to
residents to reduce house execution costs and also consider
quality. The support of government in this regard is a must.
The paper attempted to refer to quality and residency form
the view of Schulz and Rapoport with the thoughts based on
past and culture. The formation of place for living is
investigated and culture is a requirement. In recent decades,
modular building and cheap price of building and quality
basis are raised as two contradictory issues. This concern
that current houses are not consistent with our past identity
and culture is used not only in Iran but also in most of the
countries considering the view to the past for vitalization of
spaces. Although modular building and pre-fabrication have
great advantages in cost and time, they could not present any
answer for critics and there is no limitation for using it and it
is used as a suitable system to fulfill the population problems
and needs in cities.
References
Alexander Ch. The Timeless Way of Building. (Trans: Mehrdad
Qayumi Bidhendi), 2nd ed. Third publication. Shahid Beheshti
University publications; 2011. https://books.google.com.
S. Asadi et al.
Asadi Sh, Farrokhi M. The challenges of sustainable development and
architecture. Special Issue: Research and Practice in Architecture
and Urban Studies in Developing Countries. Int J Sci Technol Soc.
2014;. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsts.s.2015030201.13.
Corbusier L. Athens charter (4th international congress of modern
architecture). (trans: Felamaki MM) 3rd ed. Tehran: Scientific and
cultural institute of space; 2009.
Datta K, Jones G. Housing and finance in developing countries. New
York: Routledge; 2002. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0197-3975
(00)00038-2.
Dorut VV. Quality-based architecture an introduction to planning,
design and evaluation of performance quality. (trans: Bastani M) 1st
ed. Turkey: Ketabkade Kasra publications; 2013.
Falamaki MM. Formation of Iranian architecture in Iran trade and west.
2nd ed. Tehran: Scientific and cultural institute of space; 2006.
Farrokhi Kaleybar M, Asadi Sh, Rashid Kalvir H. The role of urban
graphics in objectivity of a compact city form case sample (Vali’asr
District, Tabriz). Current World Environment, vol. 10 (Special Issue
1), 2nd national conference on applied research in civil engineering,
Architecture and Urban Planning; 2015. p. 690–98. http://dx.doi.
org/10.12944/CWE.10.Special-Issue1.82.
GHI: Global Housing Indicators: Evidence for Action, Habitat for
Humanity International; 2005 www.habitat.org.
Hosseinalipour SM, Shariatinia M. The investigation of effective design
factors on construction costs of Maskan Mehr complexes and
optimization of plans. J Urbanization and Archit Year 20. 2010; 69.
Kharidar F. Modular design and quality of products. J Qual Control.
2011;47:46–54, Mashhad. doi:http://www.magiran.com/view.asp?
Type=pdf&ID=900746&l=fa.
Modiri A, Madghalchi N. Giving the right of maintain housing a
method to encounter housing challenge of low-income citizens.
City J Urbanization and Archit Year 20. 2010; 69. doi:http://www.
magiran.com/magtoc.asp?mgID=1472&Number=69.
Nikravan Mofrad M, Arfai Sh. The regulations of design of architecture
based on consistency principle of modular networks in building
production systems. 1st ed. Tehran: Research center of building and
housing; 2002.
Ostrowski W. Contemporary town planning from the origins to
the Athens Charter. (trans: Etezadi L) 4th ed. Tehran: Academic
center publications; 2008.
Pourdeihami Sh. City, house, sets. 1st ed. Arman Shahr publications; 2012.
Rapoport A. Anthropology of housing. (trans: Afzalian K) 1st ed.
Tehran: Herfe Honarmand publications; 2009.
Skalicky V, Sitar M. Architecture, research/arhitektura, raziskave, the
concepts on quality of life in the maribor post-WW2 housing
estates; 2012. http://www.fa.uni-lj.si/ar/.
Schulz NCh. Genius loci towards a phenomenology of architecture. (trans:
Reza Shirazi M). 3rd ed. Tehran: Rokh Dadno publications; 2012.
 Methylene Blue Removal from Aqueous
Solution by Using Smectite Clay and Silty
Soil: Batch and Fixed Bed Column Studies

Sana Dardouri, Asma Jedidi, and Jalila Sghaier

Keywords
Methylene blue Adsorption Kinetics Smectite clay Silty soil

1 Introduction
The use of organic dyes in many industrial products may
threaten the water systems. For instance, the Methylene Blue
(MB) is a cationic dye which is found in many industrial
effluents (textile, cosmetic industries, paper and plastic). It is
an important contaminant in soil and water bodies and it may
induce health problems (Xing et al. 2010). Hence, the
removal of MB from wastewater is a fundamental step to
ensure non contaminated water supplies. Several adsorbents
were used to remove the MB such as the activated carbons
(Yang and Qiu 2010; Foo and Hameed 2011), Kapok fiber
(Liu et al. 2012), chitosan clay composite (Auta and Hameed
2014), modified bamboo powders (Guo et al. 2014), Natural
zeolite (Wang et al. 2013), sludge (Mitrogiannis et al. 2015)
and swelling clay (Li et al. 2013). Adsorption to subsurface
materials is one of the major processes that dominate the dye
transfer. This process can be performed using batch and
column experiments (Auta and Hameed 2014; Zhang et al.
2011; Hamdaoui 2006) but the dynamic adsorption systems
(column experiments) are preferred because they describe
well the dye adsorption capacity (Reza and Ahmaruzzaman
2014). Sorption is also one of the most important processes
which reduce the chemical infiltration in soils, but it is not
the only dominating processes that control the MB migration
S. Dardouri (&)
A. Jedidi
J. Sghaier
Unité de recherche thermique et thermodynamique de procédés
industriels, Ecole national d’ingénieurs Monastir,
5019 Monastir, Tunisia
e-mail: sanadardouri_en@yahoo.fr
A. Jedidi
e-mail: jed-asma@hotmail.fr
J. Sghaier
e-mail: jalila.sghaier@enim.rnu.tn
in continuous fixed bed column. The main goal of this work
was to study the adsorption of MB in soils with different
properties (clay and silty soil) using batch and column
experiments and investigate the effect of both experimental
conditions of MB adsorption in soils.
2 Materials and Methods
Both samples (silty soil and clay) used in this study were
collected from an industrial zone in the region of Sousse in
Tunisia. The particle size distribution of silty soil and clay
by laser diffraction particle size analyzer (Microtrac S3500)
was carried out. The mineralogy of the clay sample was
established by X-ray diffractometer (XPert PRO PANalyti-
cal). Granulometric analysis of a soil sample was made with
Robinson pipette. The adsorption isotherms were performed
in a set of glass flasks (60 ml) containing 25 ml of MB
solutions with different initial concentrations (0, 5, 6, 10, 14,
20, 25, 40 mg/l) and a 0.5 g of adsorbent added to each
solution. These MB solutions were kept under stirring speed
of 450 rpm for 48 h, to ensure that sorption equilibrium was
reached. Then the supernatants were fitted and centrifuged
before the measurement of its absorbance. The absorbance
was measured using a UV-vis spectrophotometer (Spec-
troFlex 6100) by monitoring the absorbance changes at
wavelength of maximum absorbance (663 nm). The sorption
kinetics experiments were performed in vials containing 1 g
of sample and 20 ml of MB solutions with 150 mgl−1 initial
concentration shaken at 450 rpm for 90 min. At the end of
the predetermined time interval, the vials were filtered then
centrifuged at 2500 r/min. The supernatant solution was
analyzed using a UV-visible spectrophotometer (Spec-
troFlex 6100) to determine the dye concentration. Each
experiment was replicated 3 times to verify the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 967

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_280
968 S. Dardouri et al.

Fig. 1 a Particle size distribution of both soils b XRD diagram of smectite clay

Fig. 2 Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherms for MB using a Clay, b Silty soil

reproducibility of the experience. The amount of dye The MB breakthrough curves (BTC) were obtained by
adsorbed per unit weight of the ample qe (mgg−1) and the plotting relative concentrations (C/C0) versus time (t).
adsorption capacity, qt (mg/g) were calculated respectively
as:
3 Results and Discussion
ðC0  Ce ÞV
qe ¼
m The X-ray diffraction pattern (Fig. 1b) had three significant
C0  Ct
qt ¼ V reflections at 15.6°A, 3.34°A and 1.45°A.The two reflection
m distances of 3.31°A and 1.45°A indicated the presence of
Where qt is the dye concentration on adsorbent at time t silice and that the clay is a dioctahedral smectite, respec-
(mg/g), C0 and Ct are the concentrations of the MB solution tively. The Robinson pipette analysis shows that the soil
before and after adsorption respectively (mg/L), C0 is the sample contains 6% sand, 19% clay and 72% silt and by
dye solution at equilibrium (mgL−1), V is the volume of MB identification using the textural triangle.
solution and m is the mass of dry sample (g). The sorption behavior of MB in clay and silty soil was
In fixed bed column experiments, we used a glass column tested using linear and non linear fitting. The good fitting of
with 3.5 cm in diameter and 25 cm in length. The column the model with experimental data was represented by a high
experiments were conducted at the fixed bed column of 2 cm value of correlation coefficient. For the clay and silty soil
and filled with smectite clay. The effect of the initial con- adsorbents, the Freundlich model provides a better fit in the
centration of MB was performed using both MB solutions MB adsorption isotherm (Fig. 2). The Freundlich isotherms
concentrations of 500mgl−1 and 1000mgl−1. During the model predicts multilayer adsorption and describes equilib-
experiment, the effluent samples were collected at the col- rium on heterogeneous surfaces (Nandi et al. 2009).
umn outlet and measured for MB concentration immediately The adsorption kinetics prediction is needed to evaluate
after sampling. The MB concentrations in the column the adsorption efficiency using three models. The pseudo
effluents were determined using UV-vis spectrophotometer. first order equation represented very shabbily the kinetic data
Methylene Blue Removal from Aqueous Solution … 969

of MB in clay and silty soil. The best regression of experi-
mental data for both adsorbents is using the type 1 of pseudo
second order kinetic equation (Fig. 3).
The discordance between the two kinetic adsorption curves,
one with stirring speed of 450 rpm and the other without stir-
ring, is obvious (Fig. 4). Thereby, the agitation favors the
adsorption phenomenon. When the stirring speed increases, the
solution removal is enhanced in the last stage (Zhang et al.
2011). The increase in agitation speed, reduces the film
boundary layer encircling particles and intensify the adsorption
of the dye molecules (20). Thus, the difference in agitation
speed causes changes in the adsorption capacity kinetics.
The effect of two initial MB concentrations is shown in
Fig. 5b. This figure indicates that the breakthrough time

Fig. 3 Pseudo-second order kinetic adsorption of MB for clay and silty soil

Fig. 4 Effect of stirring on MB adsorption capacity

Fig. 5 a Effect of MB initial concentration on kinetic adsorption in silty soil and on smectite clay adsorption
970
decreases with the increase of the initial concentration.
The MB solution of low initial concentration needs more
time to reach the same initial concentration in the effluent.
On the other hand, the augmentation of the initial concen-
tration raises the adsorption capacity and the occupancy of
adsorption site becomes faster. Figure 5a shows that the
amount of MB adsorbed increased with the increase of MB
initial concentration, in static mode and through batch study.
4 Conclusion
The amount of MB adsorbed rises with the increase of the
initial dye concentration and agitation speed. The equilib-
rium data for isotherm models and the characteristics
parameters and kinetic equation have been determined. The
Freundlich model was found to fit best the adsorption pro-
cess for silty soil and clay respectively. The kinetics data was
better in harmony with the pseudo—second order model.
References
Auta M, Hameed BH. Chitosan–clay composite as highly effective and
low-cost adsorbent for batch and fixed-bed adsorption of methylene
blue. Chem Eng J. 2014;237:352–61.
Foo KY, Hameed BH. Preparation of activated carbon from date stones
by microwave induced chemical activation: Application for
methylene blue adsorption. Chem Eng J. 2011;170(1):338–41.
S. Dardouri et al.
Guo JZ, Li B, Liu L, Lv K. Removal of methylene blue from aqueous
solutions by chemically modified bamboo. Chemosphere.
2014;111:225–31.
Hamdaoui O. Dynamic sorption of methylene blue by cedar sawdust
and crushed brick in fixed bed columns. J Hazard Mater. 2006;
B138:293–303.
Li JH, Du L, Chen R, Zhang LM. Numerical investigation of the
performance of covers with capillary barrier effects in South China.
Comput Geotech. 2013;48:304–15.
Liu Y, Wang J, Zheng Y, Wang A. Adsorption of methylene blue by
kapok fiber treated by sodium chlorite optimized with response
surface methodology. Chem Eng J. 2012;184:248–55.
Mitrogiannis D, Markou G, Çelekli A, Bozkurt H. Biosorption of
methylene blue onto Arthrospira platensis biomass: Kinetic, equi-
librium and thermodynamic studies. J Env Chem Eng. 2015;3
(2):670–80.
Nandi BK, Goswami A, Purkait MK. Adsorption characteristics of
brilliant green dye on kaolin. J Hazard Mater. 2009;161:387–95.
Reza RA, Ahmaruzzaman M. Comparative study of waste derived
adsorbents for sequestering methylene blue 3 from aquatic
environment. J Environ Chemical Eng. 2014(1);3:395–404.
Wang Y, Wang W, Wang A. Efficient adsorption of methylene blue on
an alginatebased nanocomposite hydrogel enhanced by
organo-illite/smectite clay. Chem Eng J. 2013;228:132–9.
Xing Y, Liu D, Zhang LP. Enhanced sorption of methylene blue by
EDTAD modified sugarcane bagasse and photocatalytic regenera-
tion of the sorbent. Desalination. 2010;259(1):187–91.
Yang J, Qiu K. Preparation of activated carbons from walnut shells via
vacuum chemical activation and their application for methylene
blue removal. Chem Eng J. 2010;165:209–17.
Zhang W, Dong L, Yan H, Li H, Jiang Z, Kan X, Cheng R. Removal of
methylene blue from aqueous solutions by straw based adsorbent in
a fixed-bed column. Chem Eng J. 2011a;173:429–36.
 A Theoretical Study on Municipal Solid
Waste Characterization in Jordan
and Its Economic Feasibility
Khalid Bani-Melhem and Mahmoud Alshorman
Keywords


Municipal solid waste in Jordan
Composting Feasibilty
1 Introduction
During the last few years, the municipal solid waste
(MSW) has increased dramatically in Jordan as a result of
the rapid population growth (Fig. 1). This undesirable trend
has led to create serious administrative challenges in
managing municipal solid waste in all Jordanian cities
(Jaradat and Al-khashman 2013). According to The
Department of Statistics, about 97.5% of MSW are disposed
in open dumpsites in Jordan (Department of Statistics 2011).
The waste collection and disposal fees paid by various
sectors to municipalities in 2011 amounted to 26.1 million
Jordanian dinars, while the total expenditure by municipal-
ities on environmental protection projects amounted to 61.5
million Jordanian dinars in that year. Generally, Jordan lacks
advanced and serious recycling efforts as most of municipal
solid wastes are disposed in open dumpsites. Nowadays, the
time is coming to consider the MSW as a valuable source for
energy recovery or composit production instead of disposing
of it in open dumpsites. The decision-maker should focus on
recycling the MSW which can support the Jordanian econ-
omy and could lead to reduce the fiscal deficit in the country.
However, the lack of adequate information about the phys-
ical characteristics, quantities and chemical compositions of
MSW are considered serious challenges for all investors who
might invest in this domain.
K. Bani-Melhem (&)
M. Alshorman
Environmental Management Program, Department of Water
Management and Environment, College of Natural Resources and
Environment, The Hashemite University, Al-Zarqa, Jordan
e-mail: kmelhem@hu.edu.jo
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_281



Characterizations Methan production
There are many previous studies pointed out to the
importance of investment in MSW in Jordan (Jaradat and
Al-khashman 2013; Al-Momani 1994; Mohammad and
Al-Dabbas 1998). However, most of these studies did not
provide adequate information about the physical and
chemical characteristics of MSW in Jordan. Consequently,
the main objective of this study was to provide more reliable
information about MSW characteristics in Jordan, specifi-
cally in the largest three cities: Amman, Irbid and Al Zarqa.
In addition, the study aimed to evaluate the applicability of
municipal solid waste for recovery options.
2 Materials and Methods
The research methodology was based on a theoretical study
to characterize the MSW properties and its compositions in
the largest cities of Jordan (Amman, Irbid, Al Zarqa).
Specifically, the study examined the physical and chemical
properties in order to assess the suitability of using the
organic fraction of MSW for recovery options. All the cal-
culations of this study were based on the typical components
of municipal solid waste (MSW) in three cities (Fig. 2).
Many of the chemical equations and calculations have been
used to complete the calculations and to find the results
about solid waste characteristics (Tchobanoglous et al.
1993). For example, the estimation of energy content in
MSW was determined using the ultimate content of water,
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur for each
fraction in MSW based on Dulong formula according to the
following equation (Tchobanoglous et al. 1993).
 
O
EnergyðkJ/kgÞ ¼ 337  C þ 1428  H  þ 95  S
8
ð1Þ
971
972 K. Bani-Melhem and M. Alshorman

Fig. 1 Population and solid

waste generation in Jordan for the
period of 2000–2014 (SWEEP
2010)

Fig. 2 Mass composition 100

percentages of municipal solid Organic materials Paper PlasƟc Metals Glasses Inerts
waste in main three cities of
Jordan 80

60
%

40

20

0
Amman Irbid Al-Zarqa

where C is the carbon mass percentage, H is the hydrogen 3 Results and Discussion
mass percentage, O is the oxygen mass percentage and S is
the sulfur mass percentage. It is worth mentioning that all the Amman, Irbid and Al-Zarqa are the three largest cities in
above percentages in the Dulong formula are based on the Jordan. Amman is the largest city in terms of population.
dry mass of the MSW. Almost all the areas of Amman city are urban areas while
Where a, b, c and d are the mole ratios for each of carbon, fewer areas are considered as rural. It generates 2500 tons of
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, respectively, in the chemical MSW per day (SWEEP 2010). It was estimated that the
formula. average capita production of MSW is about 0.95 kg/day
The methane gas that can be produced from the anaerobic (SWEEP 2010). Irbid city is the second largest city in terms
digestion of municipal solid waste can be estimated theo- of population. Most of the population of Irbid city lives in
retically using this equation (Tchobanoglous et al. 1993). the rural areas with a percent of 83% of the total population
while the rest, 17% of the population lives in urban areas
4ab2c + 3d
Ca Hb OC Nd þ H2 O (SWEEP 2010). In terms of MSW production, Irbid city
4 generates about 1000 tons of municipal solid waste per day.
4a + b2c3d 4ab + 2c + 3d
! CH4 þ CO2 þ dNH3 The average MSW production is 0.95 kg per capita per day
8 8
in urban areas and 0.85 kg per capita per day in rural areas
ð2Þ
(SWEEP 2010). Al Zarqa city is the third largest population
where a, b, c and d are the mole ratios for each of carbon, in Jordan. Its population forms 14.89% of the total popula-
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, respectively, in the chemical tion in Jordan. The city of Al Zarqa generates 900 tons of
formula. municipal solid waste per day. The estimated municipal
A Theoretical Study on Municipal Solid Waste Characterization …
Table 1 Properties of the municipal solid waste in the main three cities in Jordan
MSW Property
Chemical formula
3
Density (D) (kg/m )
Moisture content (MC) (%)
Heat content (kj/kg)
Volume of air required for aerobic conversion (V air) (m3/tone)
solid waste per capita is about 0.95 kg/day in urban areas
and 0.85 kg/day in rural areas (SWEEP 2010).
Generally, the results of this study showed that the
characterizations of MSW are very similar in the three cities
which might be due to the similarity in wastes components
and the environmental conditions in these cities. The MSW
consists of major six components of organic materials,
paper, plastics, metals, glass, and other inert materials
(Fig. 2).The MSW consists mainly of organic materials
expressed in percentages as follows: 54.4, 77.5 and 73% for
Amman, Irbid, and Al Zarqa, respectively (Fig. 2). The
second major component in MSW is the paper with a per-
centage around 14% in all MSW produced from the three
cities. In terms of moisture content, the results show that the
MSW contains a high percentage. The calculated perentages
of H2O in MSW is 40.3, 55.4 and 52.2% for Amman city,
Irbid city, and Al Zarqa city, respectively, which makes the
thermal recovery option for the solid waste in these cities
unfeasible from an economic point of view.
Table 1 summarizes the final results about MSW pro-
duced from the largest cities in Jordan. Based on the cal-
culated normalized mole ratios, the approximate chemical
formula of municipal solid waste produced from all three
cities are: (i) C93.02 H343.5 O145.2 N1.7 S1 (amman city),
(ii) C52.8 H287.2 O135 N1.5 S1 (Irbid city) and (iii) C62.3 H300.7
O135N1.5 S1 (Al-Zarqa city). The density of the MSW
showed some variations, the MSW produced from Irbid city
has the largest value (198.4 kg/m3) while the MSW pro-
duced in Amman city has the lowest value (163.4 kg/m3).
In terms of energy production by direct burning of MSW,
the results of theortical calculations (Eq. 1) show that the
energy content is relatively low in the MSW produced from
the three cities: 10574.8, 7584.2, and 8796.1 kJ/kg for
Amman city, Irbid city and Al Zarqa city; respectively.
However, the aenorobic conversion of MSW into Methane
production showed some feasibility. Methan production
from MSW was almost the same for Amman (505 m3/tonne)
and Irbid (507 m3/tonne) cities, while it decreased in Al
Zarqa city (483 m3/tonne). On the other side, the high
973
Amman city Irbid city Al Zarqa city
C93 H343O145N1.7 S1 C52 H287 O135 N1.5 S1 C62.3 H300O135N1.5 S1
163.4 198.4 184.5
40.3 55.4 52.2
10574.8 7584.2 8796.11
5714 5735 5848
biodegradable organic portion and the good nutrient contents
indicate that the recovery of biological conversion products
can be carried out efficiently with good economic returns as
in composting operations. Table 1 shows the volume of air
required for the purpose of reducing composting material.
Almost all MSW in the three cities requires the same amount
which is on avaerge around 5766 m3/tone.
4 Conclusion
In this Study, a theoretical calculations were conducted to
determine the physical and chemical properties of the
MSW in the main three cities in Jordan (Amman, Irbid,
Al Zarqa). The results show that the organic material is
the main portion of MSW. The direct thermal recovery
option might not be feasible from economic point of
view. However, the MSW is a valuable source for bio-
logical transformation processes due to the high
biodegradable organic portion. It is possible to benefit
from the recovery of biological conversion products that
can be derived from the MSW as in composting opera-
tions and methane gas production.
References
Al-Momani AH. Solid-waste management: Sampling, analysis and
assessment of household waste in the city of Amman. Int J Environ
Health Res. 1994;4(4):208–22.
Department of Statistics Environmental statistics. http://www.dos.gov.
jo/dos_home_e/main/index.htm. (2011). Accessed 2 May 2014.
Jaradat A, Al-khashman O. Evaluation of the potential use of municipal
solid waste for recovery options: a case of Ma’an City. Jordan J
Earth Environ Sci. 2013;5:9–15.
Mohammad AF. Reduction of methane emissions and utilization of
municipal waste for energy in Amman. Renew Energy. 1998;14(1–
4):427–34.
SWEEP. Country Report on the Solid Waste Management in Jordan.
The regional solid waste exchange of information and expertise
network in Mashreq and Maghreb countries. SWEEP NET. 2010.
Tchobanoglous G, Theisen H, Vigil S. Integrated solid waste manage-
ment: engineering principles and management issues. McGraw-Hill
Inc. 1993.
 Optimization of Cost and Pollutant Emissions
from MSW Collection Using GIS. The Case
Study of Mostaganem, Western Algeria

Islam Safia Abdelli, Fatiha Abdelmalek, and Ahmed Addou

Keywords
Municipal solid waste Optimization Collection GIS Mostaganem Western algeria

1 Introduction speed, the roads state, the quantity of wastes produced in

The collection and transport of household wastes are among
the most important factors in the management of wastes,
hence representing a major part of the budget. Consequently,
it is essential for a lasting management to reduce the impact
on the environment, on the one hand, and minimize the cost
of collection and transport, on the other. For this purpose,
one must have reliable elements for optimizing the collection
circuits, which shows the most common difficulties in this
type of management (Faccio et al. 2011).
The aim of our work was to optimize the collection of
household wastes in Mostaganem city, because no studies
have been conducted to date. This optimization involves the
reduction of costs (including the maintenance cost, labour,
working time and fuel), as well as the reduction of pollutant
emissions quantities (carbon oxide, CO2, NOx and particu-
late matter (PM).
The constraints have been taken for the travelled dis-
tances, the number and capacity of vehicles, the trucks
each collection point, the filling rate, the number of rotation,
etc. Several scenarios have been proposed in order to
improve the collection system. Our study was achieved on
the existing network of containers (the same collection
points) and using the software ArcGis.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 City Area
The city of Mostaganem is among the largest cities of
Western Algeria with a population of 190,000 inhabitants
and producing about 150 t of household solid wastes a day
(Abdelli et al. 2015).
The city is divided in 16 sectors, with an average length of
155.5 km collection route. Figure 1 shows the different col-
lection points of the city. Because of non-optimised routes
and the non-normalised trucks capacities (from 8 to 12 m3),
some are forced to unload after each filling, which implies an
increase of travelled distances (more rotations) and more
collection frequencies to landfills per day. Knowing that the
distance between the city and the landfill is 27 km, it results
in a high collection cost, estimated to 18.7 € t−1.

I. S. Abdelli (&)
F. Abdelmalek
A. Addou

Laboratoire des Sciences et Techniques de l’Environnement et de
2.2 Vehicle Routing Optimization
la Valorisation, Université de Mostaganem, 27000 Mostaganem,
Algérie
e-mail: abdellisafia@yahoo.fr We used the maps software ArcGis 10.2 and the analyst
F. Abdelmalek network extension of the Environmental Systems Research
e-mail: fatiha.abdelmalek@univ-mosta.dz Institute (ESRI) series to optimize the household wastes
A. Addou collection.
e-mail: Ahmed.addou@univ-mosta.dz

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 975

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_282
976 Islam Safia Abdelli et al.

Fig. 1 Municipal solid waste

management in Mostaganem city

Table 1 .
Current state Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4 Scenario 5
Travelled distance Total Quantity (km/j) 2488.3 2313.4 2441 1575.80 701.55 615.77
Optimized Quantity / 174.9 47.30 912.5 1786.75 1872.53
(km/day)
Savings in % / 7.03 1.9 36.67 71.81 75.25
Time Total Quantity 398 390 312.6 334.8 324 217
(min/day/sector)
Optimized Quantity / 8 85.4 63.20 74.00 180.80
(min/day/sector)
Savings in % / 1.96 21.42 15.84 18.55 45.4
Fuel Consumption Total Quantity (L/day) 914.4 842.9 896.9 529.2 255.57 206.8
Optimized Quantity / 71.5 17.5 385.2 658.83 707.6
L/day
Savings in % / 7.82 1.91 42.12 72.05 77.38
Collection cost Total Quantity (€/T) 18.75 10.71 10.80 10.32 9.98 9.92
Optimized Quantity (€/ / 8.04 8.04 8.43 8.77 8.83
T)
Savings in % / 42.9 42.4 44.96 46.77 47.09
Pollutant emissions CO Savings in % / 9.06 6.2 31.09 60.12 63.43
CO2 Savings in % / 16.32 11.17 34.81 67.93 71.31
NOX Savings in % / 34.38 23.55 37.82 74.19 77.68
PM Savings in % / 12.7 8.73 33.73 65.01 68.34

2.3 Proposed Scenarios
Scenario 1 (S1): Route optimization. We kept the same
collection sectors used now by the collecting service, with
the same number of vehicles and the same capacity. We just
looked for the shortest path.
Scenario 2 (S2): Time optimization. We also kept the same
collection system used and we optimized the vehicles routes
for the shortest time.
Scenario 3 (S3): Route optimization with a proposal to use a
12 m3 truck capacity. We have standardized the vehicle
capacities to 12 m3 with only one rotation.
Optimization of Cost and Pollutant Emissions from MSW …
Fig. 2 The results obtained for all scenarios
Scenario 4 (S4): Route optimization with a proposal to
construct a waste transfer station. In this case we proposed
the construction of a waste transfer station utilizing trucks of
12 m3 capacity as planned in the S3.
3 Results and Discussion
With the goal of comparing the proposed scenarios perfor-
mances, we summarized all results in Table 1 taking into
account distances of daily trips, working time, fuel con-
sumption, total collection cost and pollutant emissions. It
should be noted that the actual cost of collection is 18.7 € t−1
and the pollutant emissions are on average 655 t y−1 (CO,
CO2, NOx and PM) where CO2 represents the major part.
Scenarios 1 and 2 gave a small reduction of collection
cost and pollutants emissions which were reduced by 45 t
y−1 for Scenario 1 and 12 t y−1 for Scenario 2. This was a
non-conclusive result essentially owing to important trav-
elled distances for collection, important number of rotations
977
and non-appropriate capacities of trucks. For these reasons,
we removed these two scenarios.
Scenario 3 has improved the collection cost by lowering it
to 10.3 € t−1 and the pollutant emissions to 427 t y−1. On the
other hand, Scenarios 4 and 5 have been the most optimal
propositions, where we recorded the lowest collection cost,
10 € t−1 for Scenario 4 and 9.9 € t−1 for Scenario 5. The
quantities of pollutant emissions have fallen to 210 t y−1 and
188 t y−1, respectively. These improvements were achieved
thanks to the construction of a waste transfer station and a
decrease of emptying rotations following the increase in
trucks capacity to 12 m3 (Fig. 2).
4 Conclusion
The proposed method was implemented in ArcGis and is
in relationship with the optimal planning results. Includ-
ing the total collected waste quantities of vehicles, the
equivalent routes, the travelling distance of vehicles, the
pollutant decrease and the total operational time that are
obtained by simple queries. Among the five scenarios
978
studied, the most interesting in terms of cost and pollutant
reduction are those favoring the waste transfer station
construction. This proposition can be exploited in the
short run by the construction of a waste transfer station.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Algerian
National Administration of Scientific Research (DG-RSDT) for the
financial support.
Islam Safia Abdelli et al.
References
Abdelli IS, Asnoune M, Arab Z, Abdelmalek F, Addou A. Management
of household waste in sanitary landfill of Mostaganem district
(Western Algeria). J Mater Cycles Waste Manage. 2015;. doi:10.
1007/s10163-015-0415-6.
Faccio M, Persona A, Zanin G. Waste collection multi objective model
with real time traceability data. Waste Manag. 2011;31:2391–405.
 Optimal Locations Determination
for an Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure
in the City of Tunis, Tunisia

Seifeddine Bouguerra and Safa Bhar Layeb

Keywords
Electric vehicle Charging station location Integer linear programming Network
design strategies

1 Introduction depending on size independent costs (Ghamami et al. 2016),

Over the last decade, using Electric Vehicles (EV) has
increasingly been considered as a reliable potential solution
for many global problems such as air pollution, acoustic
pollution and dependence on petrol consumption. However,
the Electric Vehicle short range hinders their adoption. In
order to overcome this issue, authorities should deploy
public infrastructure for drivers. Thus, charging infrastruc-
ture network design problem is under extensive investigation
of both practitioners and researchers around the world.
Lisbon (Frade et al. 2011), Seattle (Chen et al. 2013), and
Beijing (Zhu et al. 2016) are examples of cities in the pro-
cess for optimizing their corresponding charging infrastruc-
ture. This exploratory study concerns the center of Tunis
city; capital of Tunisia.
per unit charger cost (Baouche et al. 2014) and prefixed
station capacity. Without loss of generality, only fast
chargers were considered. Deciding on charger technical
details would be a tremendous achievement by itself and
well beyond the scope of this work.
To decide in which candidate sites charging stations are
going to be installed, two Integer Linear Programming
(ILP) models have been developed. Based on the
well-known NP-hard set covering problem (Conforti et al.
2014), the proposed models ensure a “good” EV drivers
accessibility. The first ILP model (M1) minimizes the
number of installed stations while ensuring a prefixed cov-
erage radius R. The second model (M2) integrates the pro-
posed costs by minimizing the total stations installation cost
while respecting the coverage radius R.

2 Materials and Methods 3 Results and Discussion

As considered in previous studies such as (Chen et al. 2013)
and (Chan and Hua 2014), chargers could be installed in
parking stations as well as gas stations. As illustrated in
Fig. 1a, we used Google maps to locate 39 potential
charging stations: gas and parking stations marked in blue
and red, respectively, within a 4.5 by 2.5 km service area.
Then, an adjacency graph was constructed based on the
neighbor stations and Cartesian distance. For each potential
charging station, an installation cost was calculated
S. Bouguerra
S. B. Layeb (&)
UR-OASIS, National Engineering School of Tunis, University of
Tunis El Manar, Rommana, Tunisia
e-mail: Safa.Layeb@enit.utm.tn
To find the optimal infrastructure deployment, we used the
commercial general-purpose Mixed Integer Programming
solver Cplex (version 12.7.1). The optimal locations were
found in an average CPU time of 20 s.
In Table 1, we reported a summary of computational
experimentation analyzing the impact of the coverage radius
value. More precisely, for each fixed R value, the two
models were solved separately to select charging locations.
The first model output the minimal number of stations to
install; then, the corresponding construction cost was cal-
culated. The second model came out with the minimal total
installation cost; then, the number of selected stations was
derived.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 979

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_283
980 S. Bouguerra and S. B. Layeb

Fig. 1 a The case study network b EV Charging Stations location (model M1, R = 0.8 km) c EV Charging Stations location (model M2,
R = 1.2 km)

Table 1 Impact of the coverage radius value

R (in km) Model M1 Model M2
Total number of stations Total cost (in k€) Total number of stations Total cost (in k€)
0.4 17 11,173 18 5513
0.6 11 10,154 12 2743
0.8 10 3823 11 1753
1 8 8369 10 1329
1.2 8 8369 10 1219

Clearly, increasing the coverage radius involves
decreasing the total installation costs as well as the number
of stations to select. Based on model M1 results, the best
economic deployment, with 10 selected stations, is illus-
trated in Fig. 1b and does not correspond to the minimal
number of stations equal to 8. Furthermore, another 10 sized
deployment is found by model M2 and exhibited in Fig. 1c.
Actually, we found that the second model selected potential
stations with smaller capacities, as they were less costly.
Thus, reducing the number of installed stations is not
equivalent to reducing installation costs.
4 Conclusion
Appropriate Electric Vehicle charging infrastructure is
crucial for prompting the adoption of EVs. Without
wasting public resources while keeping a desired level of
user convenience, two ILP models are proposed to find
optimal deployments in Tunis City. More precisely,
several EV charging network installation schemes are
provided based on the appropriate objective to optimize.
Our ongoing research works are investigating the issue of
charging stations sizing related to EV drivers behavior.
References
Chen T, Kockelman K, Khan M. Locating electric vehicle charging
stations: parking-based assignment method for Seattle, Washington.
Transp Res Record J Transp Res Board. 2013;2385:28–36.
Frade I, Ribeiro A, Gonçalves G, Antunes A. Optimal location of
charging stations for electric vehicles in a neighborhood in Lisbon,
Portugal. Transp Res Record J Transp Res Board. 2011;2252:
91–8.
Zhu ZH, Gao ZY, Zheng JF, Du HM. Charging station location
problem of plug-in electric vehicles. J Transp Geogr. 2016;52:
11–22.
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Chen C, Hua G. Optimal deployment of electric vehicle charging and
battery swapping stations based on gas station network. Int J
Control Autom. 2014;7(5):247–58.
Ghamami M, Nie Y, Zockaie A. Planning charging infrastructure for
plug-in electric vehicles in city centers. Int J Sustain
Transp. 2016;10(4):343–53.
981
Baouche F, Billot R, Trigui R, El Faouzi NE. Efficient allocation of
electric vehicles charging stations: optimization model and appli-
cation to a dense urban network. IEEE Intell Transp Syst Mag.
2014;6(3):33–43.
Conforti M, Cornuéjols G, Zambelli G. Integer programming models.
In: Integer programming. Springer International Publishing; 2014.
pp 45–84.
 Preparation of Graphite Ultrafiltration
Membrane Over Macroporous Graphite
Support for Oily Waste Water Separation
by Air Gap Membrane Distillation
Imen Derbel and Raje Ben Amar
1 Introduction
Many researchers focused their attention on the preparation
of high performance ceramic membranes using an asym-
metric multilayer configuration. The development of such
structure includes shaping an appropriate support material
and preparing an active layer to be deposited onto the sup-
port. Centeno et al. (2004) were prepared carbon membranes
via thin layers coating of phenolic resin over the internal
surface of porous alumina tubes supports. Wei et al. (2010)
also used a tubular support made of novolac resin particles
and coated it by a 60% resin solution in alcohol. They
showed that only one-time coating-carbonizing operation is
enough for the formation of a defect-free carbon layer. To
the best of our knowledge, few studies have been conducted
so far to prepare an asymmetric membrane totally made from
carbon material.
2 Materials and Methods
Graphite powder from TIMCAL Group (Switzerland) as the
main carbon source and novolac-phenolic resin (NPR) (Irons
Resins S.A, Spain) as the second source of carbon were used
in this work. Organic additives as corn starch powder
(RG03408, Cerestar, France), ethyleneglycol, amijels (Cplus
12072, Cerestar, France) and methylcellulose (Dow Chem-
ical Company) were agent of porosity, lubricants and plas-
ticizers, respectively were added to form a paste to be
extruded to obtain the tubular configuration.
I. Derbel (&)
R. B. Amar
Laboratoire Sciences Des Matériaux et Environnement, Faculté
Des Sciences de Sfax, Université de Sfax, Rte. de Soukra Km 4,
3000 Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: imen.derbel88@yahoo.fr
R. B. Amar
e-mail: benamar.raja@yahoo.com
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_284
MF and UF layer were achieved from suspensions con-
taining carbon powder having grain size of 1.8 µm (MF) and
63 nm (UF) and novolac phenolic resin.
In this work, oily waste water from petroleum industry
has been selected as the representative wastewater to be
treated by air gap distillation. It was not suitable for direct
application as it contained considerable amount of free
floating oil on the top and solid particles at the bottom which
are likely to clog the membrane pores and obstruct the flow
through the piping’s used in the experiment. So, preliminary
treatments were carried out with the sample.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Preparation of Ultrafiltration Membrane
The first step for the fabrication of a UF membrane was the
elaboration of high-quality macroporous support system
without defects. The tubular support having a pore volume
of 37% and a mean pore diameter of 3 µm was prepared by
extrusion-carbonization process. Due to the large pore
diameter of the support, an intermediate MF layer was
deposited onto the support having a mean pore diameter of
0.7 µm and a thickness around 20 µm and then the UF top
layer with a thickness around 12.6 µm and pore size of 4 nm
(MWCO of 92 KDa) was achieved. The final graphite UF
membrane is characterized by its hydrophobic character
which allows applying the air gap membrane distillation for
the separation of the aqueous phase from the oily
wastewater.
3.2 Membrane Characterization
– The viscosity is a primary parameter that should be taken
into consideration to have a good adhesion of the slip in
the support and to avoid fast absorption of the
983
984 I. Derbel and R. B. Amar

suspension. It can be concluded that the slip has a plastic Characterization Salt Oil Turbidity COD
behavior of Bingham and that the value of the limiting Rejection rates (%) 98 99 99.96 96
shear stress is 11 Pa.
– Under the optimized conditions of slip-casting, the best
UF layer was achieved with a thickness of about 9 lm
after 8 min of casting duration. The elaborated mem- 4 Conclusion
brane was applicable to ultrafiltration experiments. The preparation and application of ultrafiltration graphite
– The UF membrane contact angle was found to be equal membrane over macroporous tubular graphite support
to 120° which confirmed a good hydrophobicity. This were studied in this work. Following are the major
hydrophobic character allows the application of the air conclusions.
gap membrane distillation process for the separation of
the aqueous phase from the oily wastewater. – Preparation of macroporous support with porosity of
– The pore size distribution of the graphite membrane about 3 lm and 37%, respectively.
elaborated proved that there was a relatively narrow – Achievement of UF having a thickness around 12.6 µm
distribution with an average pore size of about 4 nm. and pore size of 4 nm.
– The elaborated ultrafiltration membrane exhibits perme-
ate flux of more than 20 l/m2 h and oil rejection beyond
99%.
3.3 Application to Oily Waste Water Treatment
by Air Gap Membrane Distillation

Air gap membrane distillation (AGMD) experiments were References

performed for emulsion treatment. The evolution of the
permeate flux and the rejection rates with temperature was
then achieved. The feed side temperature varied from 65 to
95 °C, while keeping the cooling system temperature con-
stant at 5 °C. The flow velocity was kept at 2.6 m/s. The
below table shows the rejection rates of oily waste water
after AGMD using graphite membrane.
Centeno TA, Vilas JL, Fuertes AB. Effects of phenolic resin pyrolysis
conditions on carbon membrane performance for gas separation.
J Membr Sci. 2004;228:45–54.
Wei W, Xia S, Liu G, Gu X, Jin W, Xu N. Interfacial adhesion between
polymer separation layer and ceramic support for composite
membrane. AIChE J. 2010;56:1584–92.
 Diagnostic and Treatment of Leachate
from Municipal Solid Waste in Morocco
Using Experimental Design Methodology

Meriem Abouri, Imane Chanaa, Salah Souabi, Hajar Qachach,

and Amane Jada

Keywords
Coagulation flocculation process SIWW Cactus Leachate from municipal solid waste


FeCl3 COD

1 Introduction operational costs. The study also compared the different

In Morocco, the production of solid waste is increasing, due
to population growth and increased economical activity (El
kharmouz et al. 2013a). According to this author, the pro-
duction is estimated to be about 4.5 million tons per year of
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) and about 800,000 tons per
year of industrial waste (El kharmouz et al. 2013b). The
evolution of wastes in landfills and their interactions with the
external environment led to the dispersion of pollutant flows,
mainly through the emergence of the leachate (El fadel et al.
1997).
The aim of this study was to evaluate and optimize pH
and dosage coagulant of the coagulation–flocculation pro-
cess in fresh leachate from MSW of Mohammedia city, from
the standpoint of a balance between efficiency and
M. Abouri (&)
I. Chanaa
S. Souabi
Laboratory of Process Engineering and Environmental, Faculty of
Sciences and Techniques Mohammedia, Hassan II University,
Casablanca, Morocco
e-mail: meriemabouri@hotmail.com
I. Chanaa
e-mail: chanaaimane@gmail.com
S. Souabi
e-mail: salah.souabi@gmail.com
H. Qachach
Laboratory of Interface, Materials and Environment, Faculty of
Science Aïn Chock, Hassan II University, Casablanca, Morocco
e-mail: qachach.hajar@gmail.com
A. Jada
Institute of Materials Science of Mulhouse, (IS2M-UMR 7361
CNRS - UHA) 15, Rue Jean Starcky, BP 2488 68057 Mulhouse
Cedex, France
e-mail: amane.jada@uha.fr
dosage of Steel Industry Wastewater SIWW (rich in FeCl3)
alone and mixed with Cactus with commercial coagulant
(ferric chloride 40%) on the removal of pollution; turbidity,
colour, COD, BOD5 and total suspended solids. The opti-
mization of the doses of coagulant and bioflocculant was
performed using factorial design of experiments.
2 Materials and Methods
To obtain samples of leachate, a garbage compactor truck
was chosen at random, it contained about 5.5 tons of solid
wastes. The MSW leachate samples were collected in 50 L
plastic bottles, then transported to the laboratory, and finally
stored at 4 °C. These samples were then removed from the
refrigerator and left at ambient temperature, for about 2 h,
before their characterization and their physicochemical
treatment.
A laboratory-scale evaluation of chemical coagulation
and flocculation was performed using a six-place jar test
apparatus. The experimental process consisted of three
subsequent stages: an initial rapid mixing followed by a slow
mixing, and then a final settling step for 2 h. The pH of
leachate was adjusted with H2SO4 38% and NaOH 30% to a
desired value in the range of 4.32–9.68.
Cactuses were collected from Mohammedia city and
processed in a laboratory. They were washed, milled, and
then sieved to obtain cactus juice as a raw material to treat
leachate samples. The cactus juice is a green viscous liquid,
his pH is 6.5, miscible in water and it can retain its floccu-
lating capacity outside any conservation system for several
days.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 985

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_285
986
The SIWW is a rejection of the steel industry (Maghreb
Steel), and was valorized as coagulant in the treatment of
leachate in this study. Maghreb steel industry uses
hydrochloric acid in various cleaning processes. Iron oxide
and hydrochloric acid react to form iron chloride (ferrous
and ferric), which is soluble in water. The SIWW is the
liquid waste of rinsing with hydrochloric acid, it is rich in
ferric chloride (295 g FeCl3/l, 101.3 g Fe3+/l).
A central composite experimental design and response
surface methodology were used to optimize the coagulation–
flocculation process of leachate from MSW of Mohammedia
city. The software JMP® 10 was used for the experimental
design, data analysis, model building, and graph plotting.
3 Results and Discussion
The observed value of the turbidity of the raw effluent is
2070 NTU, which indicates a fresh leachate, highly rich in
colloidal and Suspended Matter (SM) which has a value
equal to 16 g/l. The aqueous phase pH is 5.4, indicating
hence a very young leachate that may be contaminated with
industrial waste. The conductivity value, as measured
at 25 °C, is 10,120 ls cm−1. This parameter gives an overall
assessment of the ion concentration present in the leachate,
essentially of mineral type. The study of BOD5/COD ratio is
a good indicator of the effluent biodegradability. In the
present work, the MSW leachate investigated has a BOD5/
COD ratio equal to 0.41, indicating a high biodegradability.
Further, the total phosphorus value in the leachate is
1880 mg P L−1. However, there is low content of heavy
metals, concentrations ranging from 0.53 mg L−1 for Pb to
2.5 mg L−1 for Cr (Fig. 1).
In another work, we studied the removal of pollution
from municipal solid waste fresh leachate using a technique
of continuous and discontinuous aeration in order to predict
the efficiency of a low-cost biological treatment for this type
of effluent. The biological treatment has shown higher
removal rates of pollutants in fresh leachate by continuous
aeration, with 53% elimination of COD, whereas
Fig. 1 Analysis of the heavy metals of the leachate from MSW of
Mohammedia city
M. Abouri et al.
discontinuous aeration has eliminated 44% of COD (Abouri
et al. 2015). In this work we studied the removal of pollution
of the same leachate by coagulation flocculation process; in
order to compare the effectiveness of each treatment, we
chose in this study a physico-chemical treatment with the
aim of comparing and combining the two treatments (bio-
logical and physico-chemical) for better depollution
efficiency.
The study of the effect of coagulant dosage on the dec-
anted sludge, the color, COD removal and turbidity removal
of the fresh MSW leachate has been undertaken by varying
the pH, concentration of SIWW rich in FeCl3, volume of
Cactus, time and speed of stirring using the experimental
design methodology. The parameter levels and coded values
are given in Table 1.
The regression coefficient (R2 = 0.94) indicates the
sample variation explained by the model. The p-value for the
model was lower than 0.05, there was a statistical relation-
ship between COD removal and the selected variables at a
95% confidence level. The p value is associated with a test
statistic. It is the probability, if the test statistic really were
distributed as it would be under the null hypothesis, of
observing a test statistic [as extreme as, or more extreme
than] the one actually observed (Martin et al. 2011).
At pH 9, and after 15 min of gentle stirring, the COD of
the leachate passes from a gross value of 64 g L−1 to a final
value of 30 g L−1 with 1.5 g Fe3+ L−1 of SIWW and
15 ml L−1 of cactus. At pH 5 the stirring time has a sig-
nificant effect on reducing the COD. After 15 min of gentle
agitation, the COD value is 27.8 g L−1 with concentrations
of coagulant and flocculant around 3.45 g Fe3+ L−1 and
15 ml L−1; respectively. For these same concentrations and
after 30 min of stirring, the value of COD is 21.1 g L−1,
which shows that at this pH, the stirring time has a signifi-
cant effect on reducing of pollution. At a neutral pH, the
optimum for the COD reduction is 2.5 g L−1 of coagulant
and 20 ml L−1 of flocculant at a stirring speed around
40 rpm. Under these conditions the COD value decreases
from 64 to 27.84 g L−1.
This work has also demonstrated that the SIWW can be
used effectively without pH adjustment in the treatment of
leachate. The SIWW was found to be better than the com-
mercial coagulant ferric chloride 40% for leachates of MSW
in order to remove the color and turbidity with low sludge
production. The SIWW can remove 44.5% of COD at the
concentration equal to 9600 mg L−1 of FeCl3.
4 Conclusion
A central composite experimental design and response
surface methodology were used to optimize the coagu-
lation–flocculation process of leachate from Municipal
Solid Waste of Mohammedia city for reducing the
Diagnostic and Treatment of Leachate from Municipal Solid Waste … 987

Table 1 Experimental field of Variable (Xj) Unit Coded variables: X1, X2, X3, X4, X5
selected factors
a – 0 + A
X1 = pH – 4.32 5 7 9 9.68
X2 = SIWW g L−1 (Fe3+) 1.15 1.5 2.5 3.5 3.84
X3 = Cactus ml L−1 13.3 15 20 25 26.7
X4 = Stirring time min – 15 – 30 –
X5 = Stirring speed tr min−1 – 20 – 40 –

number and cost of experiments and improving the pro-
cess at an industrial scale.
The advantages of the proposed coagulation in addi-
tion to pollutants removal, the processes using SIWW
alone or mixed with cactus were mainly: simple, cost
effective, and easy for onsite implementation. This
coagulant can be successfully selected as coagulant that
can be used as a process prior to biological treatment.
References
El fadel M, Findikakis AN, Kekei JO. Modeling leachate generation
and transport in solid waste landfills. Environ Technol.
1997;18:669–686.
El kharmouz M, Sbaa M, Chafi A, Saadi S. The study of the impact of
the former landfill of the city of Oujda (Eastern Morocco) on the
physico- chemical quality of ground and surface water.
Larhyss J. 2013a;16:105–119.
El kharmouz M, Sbaa M, Saadi S, Chafi A. Evaluation of phytotoxicity
and salt stress soil of the former landfill of the city of Oujda.
Laboratory bioassays, Les technologies de laboratoire. 2013b;8(32).
Martin MA, Gonzalez I, Berrios M, Siles JA, Martin A. Optimization of
coagulation-floculation process for wastewater derived from sauce
manufacturing using factorial design of experiments. Chem Eng.
2011;771–782.

Abouri M, Souabi S, Bahlaoui MA, Zouhir F, Baudu M, Moharram R,

Pala A. Aerobic treatment of leachate from municipal solid waste in
Morocco. Waste Res Manage. 2015;169(WR2):92–100.
 Combined Process for Olive Oil Mill
Wastewater Treatment Based
on Flocculation and Heterogeneous
Photocatalysis
Gassan Hodaifa, Jose Antonio Páez Fernández,
and Cristina Agabo Garcia



Keywords


Olive oil mill wastewater
Treatment Water quality
1 Introduction
It is suggested that advanced oxidation processes (AOPs)
can be integrated with other physicochemical pre-treatment
methods in order to reduce the operational costs in
wastewater treatment (Alver et al. 2015; Michailides et al.
2011). In this work, a combined process for olive oil mill
wastewater (OMW) was proposed. The OMW treatment
process proposed consists of a flocculation-sedimentation
unit and an heterogeneous photocatalysis reaction unit. TiO2
was used as a catalyst. Wastewater treatment efficiency and
final water quality were determined.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 OMW Samples
Wastewater samples were collected in April after the
2013/2014 olive campaign, from several evaporation rafts of
Andalusian olive oil mills (Spain). Wastewaters were char-
acterized measuring different quality parameters: pH, electric
conductivity, turbidity, total solid (TS), volatile matter and
moisture (V), organic matter (OM), ash, chemical oxygen
demand (COD), total carbon (TC), total organic carbon
(TOC), inorganic carbon (IC), total nitrogen (TN), NO2 +
NO3, total iron (TFe), chloride and total phenolic com-
pounds (TPCs).
G. Hodaifa (&)
J. A. P. Fernández
C. Agabo Garcia
Molecular Biology and Biochemical Engineering Department,
Chemical Engineering Area, Faculty of Experimental Sciences,
University of Pablo de Olavide, 41013 Seville, Spain
e-mail: ghodaifa@upo.es
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_286



Flocculation Photocatalysis Heterogeneous reaction
2.2 Procedure
Flocculation as a pretreatment was performed at laboratory
scale in a 1L Imhoff cone that could be integrated in the
complete process. The selected commercial flocculant was
QG-2001 because it presents greater efficiency in settling
than other usual flocculants (Martínez Nieto et al. 2011a).
The flocculant had to be prepared before sedimentation
(Rossini et al. 1999). OMW-4 was used in order to study the
pH effect on flocculation by flocculant QG-2001. Different
pH values (3–10) were tested in order to obtain the best pH
value for greater separation. During experiments, the vol-
umes occupied by the solids (sludge) were recorded along
the time to 150 min. In addition, after flocculation treatment,
the final wastewater quality was determined.
During the photo-oxidation experiment, the mixture
among OMW samples was carried out to obtain MOMW
with a COD value equal to 6–7 g O2/L. All oxidation
experiments were performed in a batch stirred photoreactor
(work volume = 600 cm3). Real crude OMW and TiO2
catalyst were added to photoreactor. Then, artificial ultravi-
olet light (UV-light) was switched on and a solution of
hydrogen peroxide at 7.5% w/v was added and the time was
started from zero. Samples were taken at 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 60,
120 and 180 min (Martínez-Nieto et al. 2011b; Hodaifa et al.
2015). Finally, the common operation conditions in all
photo-oxidation experiments were: 7.5% (w/v) of H2O2,
TiO2/H2O2 ratio = 0.03; 0.514 g TiO2, T = 20 °C and an
agitation rate = 150 rpm.
989
990 G. Hodaifa et al.

Table 1 Characterization of raw, mixed and treated OMWs

Parameters Raw OMW Mixed OMW Treated OMW
OMW-1 OMW-2 OMW-3 OMW-4 MOMW QG-2001 UV/H2O2/TiO2
pH 8.5 8.6 8.8 8.8 9.3 3.0 2.9
V, % 97.7 88.6 99.1 74.3 – – –
TS, % 2.32 11.4 0.95 25.7 – – –
OM, % 0.32 1.8 – 3,4 – – –
Ash, % 2.01 9.6 – 22.3 – – –
COD, mg O2/L 6,187 18,537 24,302 56,055 6,667 5,588 3,370
TC, mg/L 2,636 14,077 16,077 31,893 4,476 – 1,708
TOC, mg/L 1,891 11,561 13,371 27,578 3,668 – 1,489
IC, mg/L 745 2,516 2,706 4,315 808 – 212
TN, mg/L 113 390 375.9 890 87 – 40.8
NO3 + NO3, mg/L Trace Trace Trace Trace – – –
Conductivity, mS/cm 31.1 167.2 182.9 183 – – –
Turbidity, FTU 322 997.0 885.3 1,685 154 81 8,8
TPCs, mg/L 37.8 190.0 179.2 423 31.9 21.0 10.5
TFe, mg/L 7.04 42.3 110.6 111 – – –
Chloride, mg/L 10,033 11,544.1 12,024.9 11,575 – – –
Sulphates, mg/L 3,921 1,298.6 1,298.6 3,117 – – –

3 Results and Discussion fact can explain why a greater removal, in all parameter, was
obtained when the flocculation was achieved at pH = 3
3.1 OMW Characterization (Fig. 1).

The variation of the main OMW parametrs were turbidity

(142.6–2900 FTU), electric conductivity ‘EC’ (31–182.9
mS/cm), total chlorides (10,033–12,021.5 mg/l), total phe-
nolic compounds ‘TPCs’ (189.6–465 mg/l), COD (4,062.2–
56,055.2 mg O2/L), total Carbon ‘TC’ (2,636–
31,893.4 mg/l) and total organic carbon ‘TOC’ (1,890.5–
27,578.3 mg/l). These high recorded values were due to the
evaporation during the months after campaign. The basic pH
(8.2–9.2) detected is probably due to the mixture of the
different waters in the mill (olive and olive oil washing
wastewaters with cleaning water devices), Table 1.
3.2 Effect of PH on Flocculantion by QG-2001
In general, after flocculation all water parameters were
increased with the increase of pH values (Fig. 1). Only the
wastewater turbidity was decreased at pH 9 and 10. The
flocculant QG-2001 has a negative charge which means that
it is able to neutralize particles with positive charge. This
3.3 Removal Efficiency of the Combined Process
During the combined process proposed for OMW treatment
all the parameters were decreased. Flocculation reduces the
organic matter content before photooxidation where the
removal percentages %COD = 16.2%; %TPCs = 34.2%
were determined. Flocculated OMW had a COD = 5,588
mg O2/L, turbidity = 81 FTU and TPCs = 21 mg/L. In this
process, after flocculation and heterogenous photocatalysis
(H2O2/TiO2/UV) the following removal percentages %
COD = 49.5%, %COT = 59.4% and %TPCs = 67.1% were
determined.
4 Conclusion
OMW is difficult to treat by conventional methods such
as the biological treatment. A new process consisting
flocculation and chemical oxidation has been addressed
as an alternative for OMW treatment. In the first step,
higher sludge volume of OMW flocculated was obtained
Combined Process for Olive Oil Mill Wastewater Treatment … 991

(a) (b)
1800 60000
Turbidity ,FTU TN,mg/L EC, µS/cm TPCs,mg/L COD, mg/L TC, mg/L TOC, mg/L IC , mg/L
1600
50000
1400
40000

Parameter values
Parameter values

1200

1000 30000

800 20000
600
10000
400

200 0

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
pH pH

Fig. 1 Effect of pH on OMW-4 flocculation using QG-2001

when operated at higher pH values. However, the water
quality for clarified phase was better when flocculation
occurred at low pH values. Comparing the reduction on
the organic matter for OMW-4 and MOMW it can be
concluded that at higher organic load, greater removal
percentages by flocculation were recorded. It could be
possible to take account that in the highest organic loaded
wastewater it is possible to build bigger and denser flocs
than in wastewater with less organic loads.
In the second step, treated wastewater without the
characteristic color of OMW was obtained and high
reduction in the organic load was recorded. This com-
bined method avoids the long treatment times (>24 h)
when using similar systems based on solar ilumination
and other UV-lamps (Baransi et al. 2012; Uğurlu and
Karaoğlu 2011), with comparable final elimination
results. In addition, in a heterogeneous catalysis, TiO2 is
easily recovered compared to homogeneous catalysis
using FeCl3 (Martínez Nieto et al. 2011a).
The final water quality is not that good for use in
irrigation or its reuse in the process itself. New steps need
to be included after the chemical oxidation (as
neutralization-flocculation and filtration) with the aim to
obtain water with a COD < 0.5 g O2/L (Spainish legis-
lation for the reuse of OMW in irrigation).
Acknowledgements The Junta of Andalusia and Ministry of Econ-
omy and Competitiveness (Spain) are acknowledged for financial
support through Project Ref.: AGR-7092 “Application of advanced
oxidation technologies for treating of washing wastewaters of olive oil
and olives”.
References
Alver A, Baştürk E, Kılıç A, Karataş M. Use of advance oxidation
process to improve the biodegradability of olive oil mill effluents.
Process Saf Environ Protec. 2015;98:319–24.
Baransi K, Dubowski Y, Sabbah I. Synergetic effect between photo-
catalytic degradation and adsorption processes on the removal of
phenolic compounds from olive mill wastewater. Water Res.
2012;46(3):789–98.
Hodaifa G, Páez JA, Agabo C, Ramos E, Gutiérrez JC, Rosal A.
Flocculation on the treatment of olive oil mill wastewater:
Pretreatment. World Acad Sci Eng Technol Inter J Chem Mol
Nucl Mater Metallu Eng. 2015;9(5):645–50.
Martínez-Nieto L, Hodaifa G, Rodríguez S, Giménez JA,
Ochando J. Flocculation–sedimentation combined with chemical
oxidation process. CLEAN–Soil Air Water. 2011a;39(10):949–55.
Martínez-Nieto L, Hodaifa G, Rodríguez S, Giménez JA,
Ochando J. Degradation of organic matter in olive-oil mill
wastewater through homogeneous Fenton-like reaction. Chem
Eng J. 2011b;173(2):503–10.
Michailides M, Christou G, Akratos CS, Tekerlekopoulou AG,
Vayenas DV. Composting of olive leaves and pomace from a
three-phase olive mill plant. Inter Biodeter Biodegr. 2011;65(3):
560–4.
Rossini M, Garrido JG, Galluzzo M. Optimization of the coagulation–
flocculation treatment: influence of rapid mix parameters. Water
Res. 1999;33(8):1817–26.
Uğurlu M, Karaoğlu MH. TiO2 supported on sepiolite: preparation,
structural and thermal characterization and catalytic behaviour in
photocatalytic treatment of phenol and lignin from olive mill
wastewater. Chem Eng J. 2011;166(3):859–67.
 Analyses of Complex Rainfall Change Using
Non Parametric Trend Tests in Semi Arid
Zone-Case Study: Center of Tunisia

Manel Snoussi, Mohamed Hamdi, and Jamila Tarhouni

Keywords
Rainfall trends Mann-kendall test Sens’s sploe test Center of Tunisia
Rainfall stations Resources management

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

In water scarce regions where every drop matters, assess-
ment of rainfall trends turns out to be a pertinent issue that
could affect the water resources sustainability. This assess-
ment of rainfall anomalies will contribute to better planning
adaptation to water shortages, planting crops timing, and
limiting the nature and variety of crops to be cultivated (Bibi
et al. 2014). Climate models developed by IPCC (Inter-
governmental Panel on Climate Change) predict lower pre-
cipitations in the Maghreb countries (IPCC 2014). However,
these results were deduced on the basis of global model
simulations. It would be interesting to analyze the validity of
these predictions on a regional scale and using available
historical climatic data. Therefore, this study aimed to
highlight the complex rainfall fluctuations in time and space
of the Central Tunisia which constitutes a transition region
between the north humid area and the south dry ones. To
detect trends, non parametric tests were more often used than
the parametric ones due to their suitability for data with
specific distribution properties (e.g. non Gaussian) (Onyutha
et al. 2015).
M. Snoussi (&)
M. Hamdi
J. Tarhouni
National Agronomic Institute of Tunis, University of Carthage
Tunis, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: manelsnoussi@yahoo.fr
J. Tarhouni
e-mail: elmaainat@yahoo.fr
M. Hamdi
Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, Tunis,
Tunisia
e-mail: hamdiinat@gmail.com
In order to ensure a good quality of the results, quality con-
trolled long term monthly rainfall series were adopted for this
study, according to WMO (World Meteorological Organi-
zation) rules (WMO 2000a, b). The data sets, which included
monthly time series spanning from 1950 to 2014, were
gathered from the Tunisian Water Resources Direction
(DGRE). The length of the time series of each rainfall station
varies according to the available data recorded at DGRE at
selected stations. These stations were selected because they
are evenly spread throughout the study region and have
continuous rainfall records extending over a period of 40
years. Referring to the administrative division, these stations
belong to three governments which are Kairouan, Sidi bouzid
and Kasserine. After testing the autocorrelation of time series
for each station, two non parametric tests of Mann-kendall
(Mann 1945) and Sen’s slope (Sen 1968) were compiled
using MAKESENS algorithms. Indeed, the first test was
applied to estimate the presence of monotonic trend. This
trend was evaluated using the Z value. A positive (negative)
value of Z indicates an upward (downward) trend (Salmi
et al. 2002). Furthermore, the Sen’s slope method was used
for estimating the linear trend slope which is the magnitude of
the monotonic trend and is given as follows to estimate the
true slope of an existing trend (as change per year).
3 Results and Discussion
Mann-Kendall test results analysis shows that only data
recorded in four rainy months, which are September, Octo-
ber, and March has revealed significant trends at 95 and 99%

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 993

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_287
994 M. Snoussi et al.

Table 1 Results of Kendall test Station identification Kendall’s ZK

for rainy month for more than 40
years of data in central Tunisia September October February March
Haffouz DRE 1.73 −1.64 −1.84 −0.93
Sidi bouzid FME 0.2 −2.26a −1.53 −2.19a
Tala SM 0.83 −2.3a −1.91a −1.31
Kairouan SM 0.66 0.003 −1.34 −1.79
Sidi Saad Jeaugeage 1.15 −1.14 −1.76 −1.03
Nebhana Dam 1.26 −0.19 −2.74a −0.66
Ain Jeloula 1.71 0.46 −1.35 −0.76
Zk values shown in bold are the significant positive or negative trends, Zk values marked witha are the
significant trends at 99% level of confidence

Fig. 1 Spatial distribution of trend magnitude (mm/year) for annual trend for more than 40 years of rainfall data in the Center of Tunisia

limit of confidence. These results area gathered in Table 1.
A positive trend was recorded in September rainfall at all
stations. However, this trend remained non-significant
except for two stations at 95% confidence limit. For the
rest of the rainy month, a negative Z statistic (Zk) has been
recorded for almost all the stations. In fact, October rainfall
has manifested a high significant negative trend (99%
interval of confidence) for two stations. Furthermore,
February rainfall data has indicated the highest negative
significant trend recorded at the four stations at 95 and 99%
limit of confidence. Indeed, that rainfall decrease generally
coincides with the timing of planting crops which means
considering special measurements during this month.
Though, the maximum monthly decrement indicated by the
Analyses of Complex Rainfall Change Using Non Parametric …
Sens’s slope index (−9 mm per decade) was found in March
precipitation data recorded in the South-Center of Tunisia.
Considering the dry season, including the hottest month with
less precipitation, no specific trends have been detected for
almost all the stations due to the abundance of zero value
especially in July. This finding makes it possible to retrace a
significant increasing trend in September rainfall, however a
significant decrease in the rest of rainy months especially in
February rainfall for more than 40 of rainfall data.
In contrast with the monthly precipitation trends, a single
station (West Central of Tunisia) has revealed a significant
negative trend of annual precipitation with a 95% confidence
interval. The magnitude of this negative trend illustrated in
Fig. 1 has indicated the maximum decrement in the study
area by (−1.96 mm/year). Then, a decrease of annual pre-
cipitations in the West Central Tunisia may indicate a rain-
fall shortage in rainy areas marked with mean annual
precipitation exceeding 425 mm (Fig. 1). However, a posi-
tive magnitude of the trend (2.31 mm/year) was found in the
East central Tunisia (Ain jeloula) but it remained insignifi-
cant at 95% level of confidence. These findings prove the
irregularity in time and space of rainfall trends in the center
of Tunisia, thus regionalization of rainfall decrease in
semi-arid area is not evident.
4 Conclusion
Rainfall trends in semi arid areas are becoming relevant
to predict the future scenarios of water resources man-
agement. In fact, studying the variations of irregular
precipitations in time and space requires a special trend
test which is the non parametric ones. The outputs of
995
algorithms compilation show not only a difference in
trends between monthly and annual ones, but also a
higher interannual variability spread unequally over the
space. The finding is imperative for agriculture, espe-
cially in rain shortage periods.
Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the Team of The
Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources, Hanover,
Germany (BGR) for their assistance and also acknowledges their
financial support.
References
Bibi UM, Kaduk J, Balzter H, spatial-temporal variation and prediction
of rainfall in Northeastern Nigeria. Open Access Clim. 2014;pp
206–222. doi:10.3390/cli2030206.
IPCC. Climate change. synthesis report. 2014. p 112. assessment-
report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_Final.
Mann HB. Nonparametric tests against trend. Econometrica. 1945;13
(3):245–259.
Onyutha Ch, Tabari H, Meron T, Taye, Gilbert N Nyandwaro,
Willems P. Analyses of rainfall trends in the Nile River Basin.
J Hydro-environ Res. 2015. doi:10.1016/j.jher.2015.09.002.
Salmi T, Anu M, Pia An, Tuija R-A, Toni A. Detecting trends of annual
atmospheric pollutants by the Mann Kendall test and Sen’s slope
estimates-the excel template application MAKESENS, Finnish
Meteorological Institute. Air Q Re. 2002. ISSN 1456-789X.
Sen PK. Estimates of the regression coefficient based on Kendall4 s
Tau. J Am Stat Assoc. 1986;63:1379–89.
WMO. Detecting trend and other changes in hydrological data. In:
Kundzewicz ZW, Robson A, editors. World climate program-water.
2000a.
WMO/UNESCO. WCDMP-45, WMO/TD-No.1013: Geneva, Switzer-
land. 2000b. p 157.
 Catalytic Wet Air Oxidation of Phenol Using
W-La/CexZr1−XO2 Catalysts

Mohamed Achraf Bouabdellah, Lassaad Ben Hammouda,

Gwendoline Lafaye, Jacques Barbier, Jr, and Zouhaier Ksibi

Keywords
CWAO Tungsten Zirconia-ceria Hydrothermal

1 Introduction way was gradually imposed as an excellent alternative to this

The wet oxidation is a commonly used technique for the
treatment of wastewater. It was originally developed by
Zimmermann (Zou and Li 2007) and its first industrial
application appeared in the late 1950s (Levec and Pintar
2007).
It can be defined as the oxidation of pollutants dissolved
or suspended in water by a source of gaseous oxygen, which
may be either pure oxygen or air under extremely severe
conditions. Organic contaminants can be partially degraded
to form biodegradable or fully mineralized intermediates to
harmless inorganic compounds (CO2, H2O and mineral
salts).
Like any other techniques, the OVH has limitations: it
can only treat liquid residues containing a very limited
amount of chlorine because of the risks of corrosion. In order
to soften the rigorous working conditions of the OVH, to
accelerate the oxidation reaction and to oxidize the refractory
organic products (acetic acid and ammonia), the catalytic
M. A. Bouabdellah (&)
L. B. Hammouda
Z. Ksibi
Laboratory of Chemistry of Materials and Catalysis, University of
Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: bouabdellah.achref@gmail.com
L. B. Hammouda
e-mail: bhlassaad@gmail.com
Z. Ksibi
e-mail: ksibizouhaier@yahoo.fr
G. Lafaye
J. Barbier Jr
Institute of Chemistry, Materials and Materials (IC2MP),
University of Poitiers & CNRS, UMR7285, 4 Rue Michel Brunet,
TSA 51106, 86073 Poitiers, France
e-mail: gwendoline.lafaye@univ-poitiers.fr
process and has been the subject of numerous studies in
recent years. Heterogeneous catalysts and homogeneous
catalysts can be distinguished. The latters are mainly soluble
metal salts and metal complexes. They are very active and
the most effective among them are the copper and iron salts.
However, solid catalysts, which are readily recoverable and
reusable, are preferred since they make it possible to solve
the problem of catalyst/water separation caused by the use of
a homogeneous catalysts. They can be classified into two
families: the first group contain transition metal oxides,
either supported (on Al2O3, CeO2 …) or not, such as CuO,
ZnO, MgO, MnO2 …(Kim and Ihm 2011)
The oxides of Ce, Ti, Zr and Al are frequently used as
supports in OVHC. Imamura et al. Have compared and
classified different OVHC supports of polyethylene glycol
and cerium oxide proved to be the most active (Imamura
et al. 1988): TiO2 < ZrO2 < NaY (zeolite) < Al2O3 < CeO2.
The second family is noble metals (Ru, Rh, Pd, Pt …)
deposited on stable supports (the oxides of Ce, Al, Zr and
Ti). It should be noted that several problems have to be
solved concerning the stability of the heterogeneous cata-
lysts under the hydrothermal operating conditions.
Consequently, researchers should look for systems with
cheaper but active compounds (zirconia, lanthanum, nickel,
etc.) and reduce their solubility by incorporating them into a
lattice of the catalytic support. They should still see the effect
of the acid-base properties of the catalysts on the reaction
yield. This work is particularly interested in comparing the
structural, textural and catalytic activities, in the CWAO of
phenol, of W-La/CexZr1−xO2 catalysts prepared by different
processes and using different molar ratios nCe/nZr.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 997

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_288
998
2 Materials and Methods
Ammonium metatungstate ((NH4)6H2W12O40), lanthanum
chloride (LaCl3), zirconium propoxide (Zr(OPr)4), cerium
nitrate (Ce(NO3)2,6H2O), 1-propanol (C3H8O), nitric acid
(HNO3) and aqueous ammonia (NH4OH) were obtained
from Aldrich, zirconium oxynitrate (ZrO(NO3)2.2H2O) and
etylacetoacetate (C6H10O3) was purchased from Prolabo.
W-La/CexZr1−xO2 catalysts were prepared by three dif-
ferent methods. The first one consists in preparing the mixed
oxide CexZr1−xO2 support by precipitation (p) followed by
wet impregnation with tungsten (15wt%) and lanthanum
(5wt%) species. Three different molar ratios between zirco-
nia and ceria fixed to 1/3, 1 and 3 were used in this case. In
the second method, the support was obtained by sol-gel
(Ae) process also followed by impregnation with W and La.
Concerning the hydrothermal process (H), it consists in
preparing the support by precipitation followed by
hydrothermal treatment, into a Teflon-lined steel autoclave,
followed by its impregnation with the tungsten and lan-
thanum species.
It should be noted that the molar ratio nCe/nZr used in the
sol-gel and the hydrothermal process was fixed to 1. All the
obtained samples were then calcined in oxygen at 700 °C
during 3 h.
3 Results and Discussion
Once the catalysts were prepared, they were characterized by
N2 physisorption, X-ray diffraction and temperature pro-
grammed reduction of H2 (H2-TPR). Their catalytic perfor-
mances were evaluated in the catalytic wet air oxidation of
phenol at 160 °C and under an oxygen pressure of 25 bar.
Fig. 1 N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms of samples
M. A. Bouabdellah et al.
N2 physisorption analysis shows that catalysts which
have a molar ratio nCe/nZr = 1 are classified as mesoporous
materials (isotherm type IV) and exhibit high surface area
and pore volume (Figs. 1 and 2).
XRD analysis reveals that the intensity of the peaks rel-
ative to the tetragonal phase of ZrO2 increases when the
cerium loading increases, confirming that the cerium species
stabilize the metastable quadratic phase of zirconia (Fig. 3).
TPR analysis confirms that the interaction between the
mixed oxide support and the WO3 species leads to a slight
modification in the reduction temperatures of ZrO2 and
CeO2 and therefore to the redox potential of the ZrO2–CeO2
solid solution (Fig. 4).
As shown in Table 1. it is clear that, when the precipi-
tation method was used as a synthesis method, the molar
ratio nCe/nZr = 1 leads to the most efficient catalyst. In fact,
in this case the mineralization of phenol and the total organic
carbon reached 25.6 and 71.6% respectively.
Moreover, concerning the effect of the preparation
method on the catalytic performances of W-La/CexZr1−xO2
Fig. 2 Pore size distributions
Fig. 3 XRD patterns of the W-La/CexZr1−xO2 catalysts
Catalytic Wet Air Oxidation of Phenol Using … 999

(P) W-La/Ce 0,25 Zr 0,75 O 2

-2
catalysts during the CWAO of phenol, the obtained results
(P) W-La/Ce 0,5 Zr 0,5 O 2 10
(P) W-La/Ce 0,75 Zr 0,25 O 2 indicated that both the mineralization and the total organic
(Ae) W-La/Ce 0,5 Zr 0,5 O 2 carbon, reached after 390 min of reaction, were higher in the
TCD signal (A.U.)

(H) W-La/Ce 0,5 Zr 0,5 O 2

case of catalysts prepared by precipitation or by hydrother-
mal route.

4 Conclusion
The results of the various catalytic tests show that the
obtained samples with a molar ratio nCe/nZr = 1 exhibit
the highest performances. We also noted that the best
mineralization and Total Organic Carbon were obtained
using catalysts prepared by precipitation or by the
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
hydrothermal route.
Temperature (°C)

Fig. 4 H2-TPR profiles of the catalysts

References
Table 1 Effects of Zr/Ce molar ratio and preparation method on the
catalytic performances of W-La/CexZr1−xO2 catalysts during the Imamura S, Fukuda I, Ishida S. Ind. Eng Chem Res. (1988);27:718.
CWAO of phenol Kim KH, Ihm SK. J Hazard Mater. 2011;186:16–34.
Levec J, Pintar A. Catal Today. 2007;124:172–84.
Catalyst Mineralization M (%) Total organic Zou LY, Li Y, Hung YT. Advanced physicochemical treatment
carbon TOC (%) technologies. Handbook Environ Eng. 2007;5:575–610.
(P) W-La/Ce0.25Zr0.75O2 3.4 32
(P) W-La/Ce0.5Zr0.5O2 25.6 71.6
(P) W-La/Ce0.75 Zr0.25O2 11.7 59.6
(Ae) W-La/Ce0.5Zr0.5O2 16.1 66
(H) W-La/Ce0.5Zr0.5O2 19.2 73
 Comparative Study of Pressure Reduction
Valve Controllers in Water Distribution
Systems

Mouna Doghri, Sophie Duchesne, Annie Poulin, and Maxim Ouellet

Keywords

PID controller Pressure reducing valves Water distribution systems Experimental
study Real time control

1 Introduction (Meniconi et al. 2016). PID controllers are commonly used

Pressure control at the entrance of District Metered Areas
(DMAs) is one of the four tools suggested by the Interna-
tional Water Association (IWA) for leakage reduction and
mitigation on the trend of water distribution systems (WDSs)
deterioration. Indeed, it has been shown that higher pressures
increase the frequency of breaks and the discharge rate of
leakage (Thornton et al. 2008; Walski et al. 2006). Given
that water demands are highly dynamic and have a signifi-
cant impact on the hydraulic conditions in WDSs, it is rec-
ommended to continuously adjust the pressure valve settings
(Meniconi et al. 2016). The PID (Proportional–Integral–
Derivative) controller process of Ziegler and Nichols (1942)
is commonly used in the fields of hydraulic engineering. It
ensures a continuous reduction of the difference between the
actual pressure value and the desired pressure (Campisano
et al. 2012; Kumar et al. 2009b). Despite the current use of
pressure reduction valves (PRVs) in WDSs and the impor-
tant role they play to ensure pressure control strategies, only
a few studies are available in the literature concerning the
characterization of the hydraulic behaviour of the tool
M. Doghri (&)
S. Duchesne
M. Ouellet
INRS-ETE, Québec, Canada
e-mail: mouna.doghri@ete.inrs.ca
S. Duchesne
e-mail: sophie.duchesne@ete.inrs.ca
M. Ouellet
e-mail: maxim.ouellet@ete.inrs.ca
A. Poulin
ETS-Montreal, Montreal, Canada
e-mail: annie.poulin@etsmtl.ca
for PRVs, but no study has experimentally demonstrated the
difference between the effectiveness of the different control
types of these valves.
The main aims of this paper were to: (i) characterize the
response of PRVs to various setpoints in a reduced scale
WDS (INRS laboratory), and (ii) find the ideal controller
type (P, PI, or PID) for the valves in the INRS laboratory
(see description hereafter).
2 Materials and Methods
The hydraulic laboratory at INRS (Fig. 1) consists of a
reduced scale WDS and is a closed system. It comprises
several apparatus: flow meters, pressure sensors, butterfly
valves, ball valves, two pumps (pump 1: maximum dis-
charge Q1max = 70 l/s, maximum pressure P1-
max = 620 kPa; pump 2: maximum discharge
Q2max = 3.5 l/s, maximum pressure P2max = 460 kPa), a
tank (8 m3), PVC pipes (nominal diameters 100 and
150 mm) and four Singer PRVs (model 106/206-PR). The
configuration of the system can be modified by moving
some elements from one place to another. The electronic
components are related to a central computer system,
allowing an automated system control, which mainly con-
trols the settings of the different valves, the state and velocity
of the pumps. It is also possible to control the system
through the Matlab software. Scripts can be written to per-
form various operating scenarios of the WDS modeled.
In this study, we tested the performance of different PID
controllers for the PRV opening adjustment, by tuning the
three constants in the PID algorithm and comparing the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1001

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_289
1002 M. Doghri et al.

Fig. 1 Laboratory Network Diagram

impact of each controller type (P, PI and PID) on pressures For each tested PRV, different trials were performed with
in the system. The general expression is as follows: the same system configuration, same initial valve setting,
and same setpoint. The same Matlab script was run with a
Zt
deðtÞ modification of the parameters to change the controller
uðtÞ ¼ Kp eðtÞ þ Ki eðtÞ dt þ Kd ð1Þ nature (PID, PI or P). The three controllers were tested and
dt
0 the parameters were calibrated seperately for each one under
the same conditions.
where u is the control variable (PRV’s downstream pressure
in our case), e is the error term, Kp, Ki and Kd are the
controller parameters, and t is the time.
3 Results and Discussion
PID controllers will be hereafter called PI or P controller
in the absence of either the derivative or both the derivative
The PRVs react differently under the different controller
and integral parameters respectively. The undesired control
types. Moreover, the tests carried out revealed the impor-
term is removed by setting the appropriate parameter to zero.
tance of the controller calibration. This observation was also
The objective was to define the most appropriate controller
mentioned by Campisano et al. (2012) for the P controller.
type.
When increasing the values of Kp in Eq. 1, small and slow
The appropriate values for the controller parameters were
regulations of the valve settings were achieved in the
obtained using the Ziegler-Nichols rule (Kumar and Kumar
beginning and thereafter, oscillations appeared for the
2009a; Ziegler and Nichols 1942). In Table 1, the optimum
highest parameter values.
setting for the three types of controllers are presented. Su and
An example of calibration is shown in Fig. 2, with an
Pu are respectively the ultimate sensitivity and period.
objective pressure of 350 kPa ± 10 kPa. The test was car-
The response of the PRV can be described in terms of the
ried out starting with Su = 0.4 (Kp = 0.2) and the coefficient
presence or absence of oscillations, the ability to converge to
was decreased by 0.1 until the oscillations disappeared.
the setpoint, the duration of the adjustment or the percentage
For PI and PID controllers, the same procedure was followed
of error between the final state of the valve and the desired
with optimazation of both Su and Pu. The couples of
setpoint.

Table 1 The controller Control Type Kp Ki Kd

parameters setting
P 0.50Su – –
PI 0.45Su 0.54Su/Pu –
PID 0.60Su 1.2Su/Pu 3SuPu/40
Comparative Study of Pressure Reduction Valve Controllers … 1003

520 Obj pressure The same behaviours were observed for another valve
Su=0.4 (with an initial opening of the valve of 100% and an initial
480 Su=0.3 pressure of 495 kPa) and with an objective pressure of
Su=0.2 300 kPa. For these conditions, it took respectively 120 s,
Pressure (kpa)

440 Su=0.1 145 s and 155 s to converge for the P, PI and PID con-
trollers. The two last controllers showed small oscillations.
400

360
320
280
0 10 20
Time step (s)
Fig. 2 P controller calibration
parameters retained were those that showed rapid conver-
gence to the setpoint and stabilization of the PRV’s down-
stream pressure.
Figure 3 compares the results for P (Su = 0.1), PI (Su =
0.1 and Pu = 120) and PID (Su = 0.1 and Pu = 120) con-
trollers, with an initial opening of the valve of 35% and an
objective pressure of 380 kPa ± 10 kPa. As can be seen, the
P and PI controllers are the most accurate ones with a better
result for P. Indeed, the pressure falls gradually from
445 kPa to the objective pressure (setpoint) and stabilizes
after 35 s and 28 s respectively for P and PI controllers.
The PID controller shows oscillations around the setpoint.
4 Conclusion
Depending on the equipment used, the system configu-
ration and the management requirements, it is sometimes
more adequate to set to zero one or two terms of the PID
30
controller. In the cases presented here, the P controller
seems to be the more accurate. This was observed for the
four PRVs installed in the system and for all the other
simulated cases not presented herein (with a minimum of
three tests per PRV). Oppositely, the PID controller,
which oscillates around the setpoint, seems not to be
appropriate for PRVs in WDSs according to our results.
In real systems, continuous variations in water con-
sumptions affect pressure signals and require the contin-
uous adjustment of the valve settings. For the real time
pressure control in WDSs, experiments should be carried
out to evaluate the performance of the controllers when
moving from one intermediate control situation to
another. An ideal control time interval should be deter-
mined and adopted.
References

Campisano A, Modica C, Vetrano L. Calibration of proportional

470 PID controllers for the RTC of pressures to reduce leakage in water
PI distribution networks. J Water Res Plann Manage. 2012;138
450 (4):377–384.
P
Kumar MP, Kumar MM. Comparative study of three types of
Obj pressure
Pressure (KPa)

430 controllers for water distribution networks. Am Water Works

Assoc J. 2009a;101(1):74–86.
410 Kumar MP, Kumar MM, Boranyak S. Tuning of PID controllers for water
networks-different approaches. J AWWA. 2009b;101(7):95–107.
390 Meniconi S, Brunone B, Mazzetti E, Laucelli DB, Borta G. Pressure
reducing valve characterization for pipe system management.
370 Procedia Eng. 2016;162:455–462.
Thornton J, Sturm R, Kunkel G. Water loss control. 2nd ed. New York:
350 McGraw-Hill; 2008.
0 20 40 60 Walski T, Bezts W, Posluszny ET, Weir M, Whitman BE. Modeling
Time step (s) leakage reduction through pressure control. J AWWA. 2006;98
(4):147–155.
Fig. 3 Variation in time of the pressure under P, PI and PID Ziegler JG, Nichols NB. Optimum settings for automatic controllers.
controllers Trans ASME. 1942;64(11):759–765.
 Salt Solar Wastelands: To New “ Saltscapes”
Resilient in the Mediterranean

Jean-Louis Pacitto and Odile Jacquemin

Keywords

Solar salt ecosystem Thermal storage Climate change Resiliency Eco-design
strategies Saltscapes

disappearance. Natural, agricultural, craft or industrial

1 Introduction
Between fresh water and salt water, between water and solar
energy, between nature and culture, solar salt wastelands are
a territorial heritage resource and tool of the first magnitude
for a reflection on the potential of sustainable development
of these ecosystems and of these iconic figures in the mosaic
of landscapes of coastal or continental water (ancient “salt
roads”) under Mediterranean climate subject to evolution
processes, adaptation and resilience in the face of climate
change (Pacitto and Jacquemin 2009). If we took custody,
the areas and waters coastal, continental or island, and in
general the “water landscapes” located near the sea and
waterways downstream from watersheds: lagoons, swamps,
ponds, lakes, sebkhas, chotts, solar salt, lidos, tombolos, …
are and should be more and more, because of the combined
urban coastal and climate change phenomena characterized
by a growing density of vestiges and wasteland landscape of
all kinds and configurations, subject to processes of change,
until more recent hypotheses looking even the submergence
marine partial or total. The presence of water in these places
invested by man, despite the ease of transport of materials
and goods by sea, has indeed, over time, gave birth to
countless typologies of architectures of more or less sus-
tainable landscapes under an activity strongly marked by the
seasons, and are now in danger of destruction or
J.-L. Pacitto (&)
University of Avignon, ED 537, Avignon, France
e-mail: jlpacitto@gmail.com
O. Jacquemin
GIS AMPHIBIA, Chemin St Lazare CFPPA 32, Hyeres, France
e-mail: odilejacquemin@gmail.com
vocations, they illustrate again for some of them the evolu-
tion of local techniques of resource protection (dikes, …),
knowledge make (the movement of water, …), production
craft or industrial (salt …), traffic and transport modes (the
floating, rail, …), but also of quasi ecosystem interaction that
developed over time between these human activities and the
physical environment which they created. These architec-
tures of coastal life today in confront, or urban (port facili-
ties, warehouses, arsenals, warehouses, various
manufactures, …), rural and maritime (solar saliniers spaces,
closed aquaculture, protection works, retention ponds, paddy
fields, ponds and natural spawning, …) often of ancient
origin and using innovative construction, protection and
planning techniques for their time, represent all areas com-
bined, an integrated heritage of great historical and archi-
tectural value common to all the Mediterranean coastal
countries and presenting serious backup and problems of
economic and landscape development (Pacitto 2011a, b).
2 Materials and Methods
Managed, preserved, or abandoned by man, the Mediter-
ranean was endowed with such variety of structures and
landscape traces variously related to the dynamics of coastal
waters (and their rarity), nested between freshwater and
saltwater and presenting a spectrum of space sizing very
important (from a few m2 to several thousands of hectares of
wet or dry, sometimes below the level of the sea), should
allow groups of motivated players to integrate issues of
global change (climate, socio-economic, cultural) to imagine
requalification or reallocations relevant, total or partial, of

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1005

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_290
1006
these spaces, and new eco-friendly socio-economic uses of
their traditional cultural values, which would be a guarantee
of sustainability of the spirit of innovation long attached to
this heritage of water.
An original and innovative methodological approach: the
territorial geo-bio-inspiration (Pacitto J.-L. and al). Promis-
ing scientific work on the geo-bio-inspiration helped mod-
eling of territorial approaches based on taking into account
of “wastelands”, in the broad sense, in the face of global
changes, where the choice of this geo-bio-inspired method-
ology was made for our “solar salt wastelands”. This col-
lective must not only allow these sites drivers to be
innovative in their development, their organization, their
infrastructure, energy, mobility, protection of biodiversity,
but also anticipate responses to climate change using the
lessons of adaptation or resistance of nature. This method-
ology of approach by the wildfires will have three compo-
nents: “coastline, risk, impact,” “geo-bio-inspired
approaches, sustainable innovation,” and “environmental
engineering”. It will mobilize laboratories and agencies in
connection with all the other actors and the general public.
3 Results and Discussion
Some examples of current operations exist and are expected
to revive the discussions for an interdisciplinary exchange of
information and experiences at the Euro-Mediterranean level
between the many actors, from the backup actions to the
development by innovation of this heritage (policymakers,
researchers, developers, territorial engineers, geographers,
architects, engineers, ecologists, historians, archaeologists,
museologists, tour operators, specialists in communication,
etc.) fallow concrete around a series of experiments. In the
face of climate change it will testify the approaches to
planning what can reconcile landscape creativity and
eco-technologies, environmental sustainability and
socio-economic feasibility. The challenge is to promote
various eco-innovative architectures that can sign a return to
the “productive nature” of ecosystem services, cultural for-
tiori, from a ‘fallow nature’ can no longer be described as a
J.-L. Pacitto and O. Jacquemin
‘wild nature’, while revaluing the ancient “salt roads” terri-
torial heritage from their connections to the coastal areas. It
is also essential to create awareness and participation of the
general public towards the identity values conveyed by these
coastal works natural or built by humans, and the importance
of re-use for activities of collective interest for development
and a sustainable coastal management. The project is
expected to enhance the development and the intelligence of
various approaches, best practices and technologies covered
sites—with a focus on the problem of solar saltworks spaces
in activity or fallow.
4 Conclusion
This proposal should have the merit of reopening a
space-time of strong cooperation on this salt continental
and maritime heritage, today at climate risk widespread in
the Mediterranean, with relevant updates mirrored
North-South like for example the saltworks heritage of
Hyeres in the Region Provence Alpes Côte d’Azur,
Molentargius in Sardinia, … and many others on the
periphery and the islands of the Mediterranean: Saltworks
of Giraud in Provence Alps Côte d’Azur, to
Aigues-Mortes in Occitania, Sfax and Sousse in Tunisia,
San Margherita di Savoia in Puglia, of Misolonghi in
Western Greece, etc.… forming the list of thirty of these
saltworks still in activity, or partially fallow ecosystems,
either abandoned, or protected and “re-naturalised”,
which could be established in the first analysis, as well as
the structures of management, public or private, they
depend on for their future in the face of climate change.
On this basis an important Euro-Mediterranean partner-
ship has been implemented with the Autonomous Region
of Sardinia, which sets as a leader associated with
MALTAE initiator and project manager for answers to
this problem in the context of the call for proposals of the
European programme IEV CFT MED 2014–2020 laun-
ched the summer of 2017, and for which among other
eligible countries, Tunisia, through its governorates of
Sousse and Sfax, should be widely involved for a period
of 3 years.
Salt Solar Wastelands: To New “ Saltscapes” Resilient … 1007

Sfax: A Mediterranean example of potenƟal complementarity "salt pans and basins solar/city-port-territory" (Source GIS Amphibia)

Experimental solar pond: Source University El Paso

1008
References
Pacitto J.-L. Coastal wastelands, the territories of pedagogy. In:
International pluridisciplinary conference “The littoral: challenge,
dialogue, action”, Lille, France, in Proceedings. 2008.
Pacitto J.-L, Jacquemin O. Amphisolar: between water and energy, new
“salt roads” for the Mediterranean Union. In: Coastal and marine
Mediterranean conference, 1st ed. Hammamet; 2009. pp 323–326.
http://dx.DOI.org/10.5150/cmcm.2009.079-4.
Pacitto J.-L. Amphisalines: integrated heritage of coastal waters, a
potential for solar ponds for the sustainable development of the
J.-L. Pacitto and O. Jacquemin
coastal territories under Mediterranean climate. In: Mediterranean
Conference coastal and maritime, 2nd ed. Tangier; 2011. pp 437–
442. http://dx.doi.org/10.5150/cmcm.2011.089.
Pacitto J-L. Bio-inspired urban and sustainable development of the
metropolitan area. Marseille: Contribution Summer University of
Architecture Silo of Arenc; 2011.
Pacitto J.-L, Jacquemin O. Amphibium, resilient coastline. The
approach of a bio-inspired territorial modeling International sym-
posium “Littoral 2016”. In: Coastlines in the making—Anticipation
and adaptation to climate change. Biarritz. 2016.
 Radioactive Waste Management
in South Africa

Thabo Matyaba, Priscilla Keche, and Roman Tandlich

Keywords
Radioactive waste Nuclear energy High level waste Used nuclear fuel
Management

1 Introduction South Africa has come a long way in terms of radioactive

South Africa’s electricity consumption has been marked
with a rapid surge ever since 1980, which makes the gov-
ernment appeal to nuclear power as a potential solution
(World Nuclear Association 2017). Presently, almost 5% of
the nation’s electricity is generated from nuclear energy, and
most of the remaining 95% is coal-based (Eskom 2017). The
two South Africa based operational nuclear reactors are the
koeberg nuclear power station (KNPS) owned by Eskom, in
Cape town and the South Africa Fundamental Atomic
Research Installation (SAFARI-1) located in Pelindaba
(30 km west of Pretoria) (World Nuclear Association 2017).
The SAFARI-1 is owned and controlled by the South
African Nuclear Energy Corporation SOC Limited (Necsa)
and is the main supplier of medical radioisotopes in Africa,
exclusively, the only local producer and major international
supplier of Molybdenum-99 (Necsa 2017). Necsa is a state
corporation established after the Atomic Energy Corporation
(AEC) under the Nuclear Energy Act, Act No. 46 of 1999,
and is responsible for research, development and innovation
in the field of nuclear energy, radiation sciences and tech-
nology (Necsa 2017).
T. Matyaba (&)
P. Keche
R. Tandlich
Environmental Health and Biotechnology Research Group,
Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Rhodes University, P.O. Box 94, Grahamstown, 6140, South
Africa
e-mail: g13m1611@campus.ru.ac.za
P. Keche
e-mail: g13k0482@campus.ru.ac.za
R. Tandlich
e-mail: r.tandlich@ru.ac.za; roman.tandlich@gmail.com
energy utilization, as reflected in the legislation and policies
that have been implemented over the years. Initially, in the
mid 1940s, the nuclear exploration programme was started
mainly as a military strategy, and over the years, the country
moved away from just accounting for radioactive energy
considerations for exclusive military purposes (World
Nuclear Association 2017). In 1991, the country ratified the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), announcing that
South Africa voluntarily dismantled its nuclear weapons
programme in 1993; further confirmed in 1995 by the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (Maree and
Carolissen 2017). In 1996, the country signed the African
Nuclear Weapon Free Zone Treaty, also dubbed the
Pelindaba Treaty, and in 2002, South Africa signed the
additional protocol relative to its safeguards agreements with
the IAEA (National Nuclear Regulator 2014). South Africa
is a contracting party with the Joint Convention on the
Safety of Spent Nuclear Fuel Management and Safety of
Radioactive Waste Management, the first international
organism aimed at achieving and maintaining a high level of
safety relating to spent fuel and radioactive waste manage-
ment (National Nuclear Regulator 2014).
The production of nuclear energy in South Africa has led
to the emergence of radioactive waste emanating from a
wide range of activities associated with operational and
decommissioning phases of different facilities including
nuclear reactors, decommissioning activities, industry,
defense related operations, research and medicine (Depart-
ment of Minerals and Energy 2005). For regulatory pur-
poses, radioactive waste is defined as “Material that contains
or is contaminated with radio-nuclides at concentrations or
activities greater than clearance levels as established by a

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1009

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_291
1010
regulatory body, and for which no use is foreseen”
(Department of Minerals and Energy 2005). Radioactive
wastes may exist in gaseous, liquid or solid states, ranging
from low to highly radioactive wastes. Low radioactive
wastes include medical and laboratory wastes, along with
certain mining wastes, while the highly radioactive wastes
may involve used fuel or certain used radioactive sources
(National Nuclear Regulator 2014). In the South African
context, the term “used fuel” instead of “spent fuel” is used
to refer to nuclear fuel that has been irradiated in a nuclear
reactor. In other words, used fuel is considered to still
contain useful material and is no longer classified as
radioactive waste (Maree and Carolissen 2017). The present
study is intended to highlight the progress recorded in the
area of radioactive waste management in South Africa, with
respect to the current legislation and its implementation,
along with the prevalent gaps/challenges that may persistent,
with reference to the relevant literature.
2 Materials and Methods
Intensive literature search was performed using electronic
search engines such as Google, Google scholar, publishing
sites and other scientific databases. Reports from interna-
tional, regional and national organizations, conference
papers, books and websites were also investigated as extra
study sources.
3 Results and Discussion
The waste management options in South Africa are: Waste
Avoidance and Minimization; Re-use, Reprocessing and
Recycling; Storage; Conditioning and Disposal. Long-term
storage of certain types of wastes such as HLW, long-lived
waste(LLW) and high activity disused radioactive sources
may also stand as some steps undertaken for the manage-
ment process and, finally, disposal is regarded as an ultimate
step in the radioactive waste management process (National
Nuclear Regulator 2014). Currently, above ground disposal
and near surface disposal are the two long-term radioactive
waste management options opted for concerning Low and
Intermediate-Level Waste, at Vaalputs facility, a national
repository located in the Northern Cape. Dry and Wet stor-
age mechanisms are used for the management of used
nuclear fuel and HLW in South Africa (Department of
Minerals and Energy 2005). The HLW and used nuclear fuel
generated at KNPS are currently stored in situ authorized
used fuel pools (on site) as well as in casks designed and
constructed for dry storage purposes. Zs for the SAFARI-1
used fuel, it is initially stored in the reactor pool for at least
T. Matyaba et al.
two years to facilitate cooling, prior to being transferred to
the Thabana Pipe Store, an authorized dry storage facility
located on the Pelindaba site (National Nuclear Regulator
2014). The current storage capacity at KNPS is limited and
finite, so, integrated long-term solutions relevant to the
radioactive waste and used fuel management seems critically
imposed (Sibiya 2000).
Various options regarding the long-term waste manage-
ment of used nuclear fuel and HLW are being considered,
including: Long-term above-ground storage in an off-site
licensed facility; reprocessing, conditioning and recycling,
Deep geological disposal, and transmutation (National
Nuclear Regulator 2014). Currently, investigations con-
cerning these options are being undertaken, including the
reprocessing, conditioning and recycling of used fuel in
South Africa, while no current investigation or research
regarding transmutation of used fuels is being seriously
carried out, but the government shall continue with moni-
toring developments internationally (Department of Minerals
and Energy, 2005). In turn, the public shall participate in the
process of selecting a site for long-term waste management
of used fuel and HLW, and all investigations’ conclusions
concerning the most suitably fit option shall be subject to
public scrutiny (Department of Minerals and Energy 2005).
A Centralized Interim long term off-site Storage Facility
(CISF) and Deep Geological Repository (DGR), which
sound socially acceptable, cost-effective, technically and
environmentally sound for final disposal purposes will be
required for any used fuel and HLW long-term management
option adopted (Maree and Carolissen 2017). Additionally,
an urgent need for extensive technical studies and analyses at
Vaalputs site is also imposed, for the site to be qualified as a
suitable high-level waste disposal location (Sibiya 2000).
Investing in reviewing the approach to research and devel-
opment activities that were scaled down in the past years
would potentially increase the capacity for the relevant
managerial, scientific, and technical skills needed in the
future (Phillip 2008).
In 2005, the South African government approved of the
radioactive waste management policy and strategy, outlining
the relationship between the different implicated stakehold-
ers responsible for regulating the radioactive wastes, namely,
the government, regulatory bodies along with the radioactive
waste generators and operators (Department of Minerals and
Energy 2005; Phillips 2008). It also defines the institutional
structures necessary for policy and strategy implementation,
namely, the: (i) NCRWM, responsible for the implementa-
tion of the policy; (ii) NRWDI, established in terms of the
NRWDI Act 2008 (Act No. 53 of 2008), regulated by NNR
and responsible for the Minister’s institutional obligations to
manage the disposal of radioactive waste on a national basis;
(iii) RWMF to be established by the Statue, for the purpose
Radioactive Waste Management in South Africa
of managing the radioactive waste disposal institute funds at
the national level and ensuring the availability of sufficient
fund provisions for the long-term management options of the
various waste forms (National Nuclear Regulator 2014,
Phillips, 2008). The RWMF related legislation was devel-
oped and is currently undergoing legal reviews. South Africa
adopted the “Polluter Pays Principle”, whereby the contri-
butions to the RWMF will be derived from the radioactive
waste generators, and these contributions shall be equitably
managed, on the basis of the generated waste category and
volume (National Nuclear Regulator 2014).
NRWDI has been responsible for the radioactive waste
disposal in South Africa ever since 2014 (National Nuclear
Regulator 2014). Prior to that, it was Necsa which had been
responsible for the Radioactive Waste Management, through
managing and operating the National Radioactive Waste
Disposal facility before NRWDI (Phillips 2008). Transi-
tional arrangements were established, stating that Necsa
must continue to maintain the Vaalputs National Radioactive
Waste Disposal Facility up until NRWDI is in a position to
take over the functions to the satisfaction of the NNR
(National Nuclear Regulator 2014).
The radioactive waste management policy and strategy
relates to all radioactive as well as potential radioactive wastes
(including used fuel), with the exception of operational
radioactive liquid and gaseous effluent discharges, which are
permitted to be released into the environment routinely under
the authority of the National Nuclear Regulator (NNR) and
the Directorate of Radiation Control in the Health Department
(National Nuclear Regulator 2014). The major concerns
attached with the NRWDI Act involve the insignificant dis-
tinction between waste management/storage and disposal
processes in the policy, besides, the Act does not seem to
cover the entirety of the NRWDI associated functions, in
addition to the possible overlap of the respective functions of
NRWDI, Necsa, NNR and the Directorate of Radiation
Control in the Department of Health (Phillips 2008).
Currently, the nuclear sector in South Africa appears to be
predominantly governed by the Nuclear Energy Act, 1999
(Act No. 46 of 1999) (NEA) along with the National Nuclear
Regulator Act, 1999 (Act No. 47 of 1999) (NNRA), which
superseded the ex-Nuclear Energy Act 1993 (Act No. 131 of
1993) (National Nuclear Regulator 2017). It is actually the
Department of Minerals and Energy which is responsible for
administering these acts, while the Minister is responsible
for the managing the radioactive wastes and following up the
country’s international commitments (Department of Min-
erals and Energy 2005). Additionally, the governance and
regulation of radioactive waste management are also subject
to the provisions of the Hazardous Substances Act, 1973
(Act No. 15 of 1973), Mine health and safety Act, 1996 (Act
No. 29 of 1996), Mineral and petroleum resources devel-
opment Act 2002 (Act No. 28 of 2002), National
1011
Environmental Management Act 1998, National Water Act,
1998 (Act No. 36 of 1998) and Dumping at sea Control 1980
(Act No. 73 of 1980). As a matter of fact, joint partnerships
between the government and the private sector stands as a
highly crucial undertaking for an effective and sustainable
implementation of the legislative, regulatory and adminis-
trative measures to take place. Furthermore, the need to
update the Safety Standards and Regulatory Practices in
conformity with the NNR Regulations was identified and
critically imposed (National Nuclear Regulator 2014).
4 Conclusion
The South African Government appears to be well aware
of the paramount cruciality of safely managing the used
nuclear fuel and radioactive wastes, and this is reflected
in the national commitment to fulfil the Joint IAEA
Conventional obligations through the establishment of a
Radioactive Waste Management Policy and Strategy
relevant to the South African Republic. Indeed, the
developed Radioactive Waste Management Governance
Framework is focused on managing the radioactive
wastes in such a way as no undue burden would be
imposed on the future generations. The post-closure
safety assessment of the Vaalpits faculty has revealed
well that the disposal site operational safety could be
improved by making the respective facilities and designs
more highly robust to limit the exposure of waste pack-
ages to extreme external events. In situ storage of used
fuel and HLW (on site) has been clearly stated to be
indefinitely unsuitable as a procedure, and various
long-term options are being considered. Involving public
participation in selecting the site stands as an effective
strategy, whereby awareness can be kindled, to highlight
that implementation of the Radioactive waste manage-
ment policy is not an exclusively governmental matter,
but that both of the private sector and civil society should
contribute efforts and play a crucial role in this respect.
Ultimately, a greater focus on research, innovation and
development would represent an effective potential
investment in the future.
References
Department of Minerals and Energy. Radioactive Waste Management
Policy and Strategy for the Republic of South Africa; 2005.
Eskom. Nuclear energy: koeberg power station. COP17 fact sheet.
http://www.eskom.co.za/OurCompany/SustainableDevelopment/
ClimateChangeCOP17/Pages/Climate_Change_COP_17.aspx.
2017.
National Nuclear Regulator. South African national report on the
compliance to obligations under the joint convention on safety of
spent fuel management and on the safety of radioactive waste
management; 2014.
1012
National Nuclear Regulator. http://www.nnr.co.za/policy-legislation/.
2017.
Necsa. http://www.necsa.co.za/Necsa/SAFARI-1. 2017.
Maree V, Carolissen A. The management of used (Spent) Fuel and high
level waste in South Africa. Uni J Manage. 2017;5(2):53–7.
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Phillips O. Challenges faced by South Africa for the establishment of a
National Radioactive Waste Disposal institue. Int Atom Energy
Agency; 2008.
Sibiya G. Radioactive waste disposal challenges that face the nuclear
energy industry. WM’00 Conference. Tucson AZ; 2000.
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library/country-profiles/countries-o-s/south-africa.aspx. 2017.
 Numerical Simulation of Dye
Adsorption/Desorption in Three Layered Soil
and Models Comparison

Sana Dardouri, Asma Jedidi, and Jalila Sghaier

Keywords
Modeling Adsorption/desorption Layered soil Kinetic adsorption

1 Introduction was focused on the study of the capillary barrier effect

(Aubertin et al. 2009; Khirc 2000; Ng et al. 2015; Sadegh
In recent years, many researchers are interested in soil et al. 2014; Mancarella et al. 2012; Prédelus 2015).
contamination by persistent organic pollutant and focus their
studies on the impact of persistent pollutants on human
health (Ferencz and Blag 2010). While the dye adsorption 2 Organic Pollutant Transport Modeling
studies on soil are relatively restricted. Some studies con-
centrate on MB the sorption onto the soil in batch and In this study, three approaches have been investigated for
continuous fixed bed column (Dardouri and Sghaier 2016; data fitting of MB breakthrough curves. These models
Yukselen 2008; Arab et al. 2015; Auta and Hameed 2014, include Thomas, convection dispersion and
etc.…). In order to study the impact and mobility charac- mobile-immobile models.
teristics of methylene blue pollutant, it is necessary to predict
their adsorption and transport in porous media and include
the factors affecting their migration and accumulation in soil 2.1 Thomas Model
which is a stratified medium. Soil is made up of different
layers and each layer has its own characteristics that make it The Thomas model assumes that a Langmuir isotherm and
distinct from all of the other layers. Soil is also a multiphase second order kinetic fitted well the experimental data. The
system, thus the knowledge of the mechanisms and the equation of Thomas model can be described as:
coupled process associated with contaminant transport in
Ct 1
soil is of great significance to deal with the remediation ¼ ð1Þ
solutions. Layered soil was proposed in this work as a cover C0 1 þ expððq0 m  C0 #tÞ k#th Þ
to prohibit the organic pollutant infiltration into groundwa-
where kth is Thomas rate constant (ml min−1mg−1), q0 is the
ter. Because of the relatively high costs of traditional covers
equilibrium adsorption capacity (mg g−1), m is the mass of
(Suter 1993), the cover with capillary barrier effects (CCBE)
the adsorbent, C0 and Ct are the MB concentration in the
represents a promising alternative. Previous research work
influent and at time t (mg l−1) and t is the flow rate
S. Dardouri (&)
A. Jedidi
J. Sghaier (ml min−1).
Unité de recherche thermique et thermodynamique de procédés
industriels, Ecole nationale d’ingénieurs Monastir, Monastir,
5019, Tunisie 2.2 Advection–Dispersion-Adsorption Model
e-mail: sanadardouri_en@yahoo.fr
A. Jedidi This model is based on convection dispersion equation
e-mail: jed-asma@hotmail.fr
[Eq. (2)] for two dimensional flows through a porous bed.
J. Sghaier
e-mail: jalila.sghaier@enim.rnu.tn

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1013

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_292
1014 S. Dardouri et al.

@ðhCÞ @ X X 2.3 Mobile-Immobile Model

þ ðqb Cp Þ þ rðhDL rC þ UCÞ ¼ Rþ S
@t @t
ð2Þ The one-dimensional equation of the MIM transport model
for a reactive solute in unsaturated media is:
where C and Cp are the concentration in the liquid and solid
phase respectively (kg m−3), qb is the bulk density (kg m−3), @Cm @Cim
ðhm þ f :qd Kd Þ þ ðhim þ ð1  f Þ:qd Kd Þ
h is the bed water content, kp is the adsorption rate @t @t
(m3 kg−1), U is the Darcy velocity (m s−1), R and S are the @Cm @ 2 Cm @Cim
¼ q þ D m hm 2
ðhim þ ð1  f Þ:qd Kd Þ
reaction and DL is the hydrodynamic dispersion tensor. @z @z @t
@C ¼ Km ðCm  Cim Þ
The accumulation rate in the solid phase term ( @tp ) was
ð8Þ
accounted for the following equation
where hm et him represent the mobile and immobile water
@Cp
¼ aðKL C ðqm  Cp Þ  Cp Þ ð3Þ fractions, respectively, f is the fraction mobile, qd is the bulk
@t
density, Kd represent the distribution coefficient, Cm et Cim
a is the rate constant (s−1), qm is the maximum Langmuir are the pollutant concentrations in mobile and immobile
adsorption parameter, Cp is the adsorbent capacity (kg m−3) phases, respectively, Dm is the diffusion coefficient in the
and KL is the Langmuir adsorption parameter (m3 kg−1). fraction mobile, q represent the Darcy velocity.
Severe incorporation of Richard equation [Eq. (4)] is to
describe the Darcy flow through porous media was coupled
with advection dispersion–equation. This coupling is 3 Results and Discussions
through Darcy velocity equation [Eq. (5)]. The Richard
equation is expressed as follows: 3.1 Comparison Between Thomas
and Convection Dispersion Adsorption
@Hp Models
ðC þ Se SÞ þ rðKrðHp þ DÞÞ ¼ Qm ð4Þ
@t

u ¼ Ks kr rðHp þ DÞ ð5Þ A numerical simulation using the advection-dispersion-

adsorption model for three layer porous media was carried
where Hp is the pressure head (m), C is the specific moisture out. Sorption is considered linear for silty soil and clay while
capacity, Se represents the effective saturation, S is the it is Langmuir type in the sand sample. The equation
storage coefficient, K is the hydraulic conductivity, kr is the describing the transport of MB in a porous medium consisting
relative permeability, D represents the elevation (m), and Qm of three areas of different physical and chemical properties are
is the fluid source or sink. The unsaturated soil properties described by Eq. 2. The selected geometry is very similar to
were described using the van Genuchten model. the physical reality of the experiment. The chosen triangular
im mesh is refined at the interfaces between the fields and the
K(hÞ = KS S2e ½1  ð1  Se Þ1=m ð6Þ time step retained during the simulation is 30000 s. The
boundary conditions are described in Fig. 1. For short time
where m is the Van Genuchten parameter and Ks denotes the (t < 170 days), the convection-dispersion-adsorption model
hydraulic permeability. reproduced fairly well the experimental data and for long time
The initial and boundary condition for two dimensional (t > 170 days), the numerical curve is well below the exper-
problem used for solving this model are: imental measurements and the standard error of the simula-
8 tion with Thomas model gets weaker (Fig. 2).
>
< C ¼ 0 kg=m3 t ¼ 08z
C ¼ C0 z ¼ 10 cm ð7Þ
>
:
 n Di rCi ¼ 0 z ¼ 0 cm 3.2 Kinetic Adsorption in a Layered Medium

For the Richard equation, the initial condition is a linear
function which describes the pressure head evolution in the
column at time 0 s. The upper and lower conditions are two
interpolation functions which describe the pressure head
evolution at any time throughout the experiment.
Figure 3 represents the evolution of adsorption kinetics
along the column in the breakthrough time (t = 8, 64, 106 s)
and in the end of the experiment (t = 1.72, 107 s). Indeed
the adsorption kinetics increased in two capillary barriers
(z = 9 cm: interface between silty soil and sand; z = 2 cm:
interface between sand and clay).
Numerical Simulation of Dye Adsorption/Desorption …
Fig. 1 Geometrie and boundaries conditions for layered meduim
Fig. 2 Comparison of experimental data of MB transport in three
layered medium with the convection-dispersion-adsorption and Thomas
models
Fig. 3 Kinetic adsorption for three layer porous media (at t = 100
days and t = 200 days)
1015
Fig. 4 Comparison between simulated (lines) and measured (sym-
bols) MB relative concentration. Solid lines correspond to MIM model
and dashed lines correspond to CDE model
3.3 Simulation of MB Adsorption
Both modeling approaches available in HYDRUS-1D for
MB transport were used and compared prior to assisting in
the interpretation of the field data. Figure 4 shows the MB
breakthrough curve and model results obtained from the
advection–dispersion transport equation, the mobile–immo-
bile solute transport—MIM and Thomas model. The simu-
lated data obtained by the MIM model (Fig. 4) are coherent
with the experimental data acquired since they prove that
MB solution takes 350 h to break through a fixed-bed col-
umn of 10 cm in height. It is also expected that the shape of
the breakthrough curve is not asymmetric, causing a sig-
nificant adjustment error for the convection-dispersion-
adsorption model. However, MIM model better reproduced
the experimental data. This means the existence of an
immobile water fraction in the porous medium.
4 Conclusion
The three-layer capillary barrier cover system performs as
inhibitor to minimize pollutant percolation. In the capil-
lary barrier, the MB kinetic adsorption is inversely pro-
portional to the flow velocity. The comparative analysis
between three models proves that the mobile-immobile
model is the most suitable one to describe the adsorption
and transport of MB in unsaturated soil.
References
Arab PB, Araújo TP, Pejon OJ. Identification of clay minerals in
mixtures subjected to differential thermal and thermogravimetry
1016
analyses and methylene blue adsorption tests. Appl Clay Sci.
2015;114:133–40.
Aubertin M, Cifuentes E, Apithy SA, Bussière B, Molson J, Cha-
puis RP. Analyses of water diversion along inclined covers with
capillary barrier effects. Can Geotech J. 2009;46(10):1146–64.
Auta M, Hameed BH. Chitosan–clay composite as highly effective and
low-cost adsorbent for batch and fixed-bed adsorption of methylene
blue. Chem Eng J. 2014;237:352–61.
Dardouri S, Sghaier J. Combined effect of unsaturated soil condition
and soil heterogeneity on methylene blue adsorption/desorption and
transport in fixed bed column: Experimental and modeling analysis.
J King Saud Uni Sci. 2016.
Ferencz L, Balog A. A pesticide survey in soil, water and foodstuffs
from central Romania. Carpathian J Earth Environ Sci. 2010;5
(1):111–8.
Khire MV, Benson CH, Bosscher PJ. Capillary barriers: Design
variables and water balance. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng. 2000;126
(8):695–708.
Mancarella D, Doglioni A, Simeone V. On capillary barrier effects and
debris slide triggering in unsaturated layered covers. Eng Geol.
2012;147:14–27.
S. Dardouri et al.
Ng CW, Liu J, Chen R, Xu J. Physical and numerical modeling of an
inclined three-layer (silt/gravelly sand/clay) capillary barrier cover
system under extreme rainfall. Waste Manag. 2015;38:210–21.
Predelus D, Coutinho AP, Lassabatere L, Bien LB, Winiarski T,
Angulo-Jaramillo R. Combined effect of capillary barrier and
layered slope on water, solute and nanoparticle transfer in an
unsaturated soil at lysimeter scale. J Contam Hydrol. 2015;181:69–
81.
Sadeghi M, Tuller M, Gohardoust MR, Jones SB. Column-scale
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity estimates in coarse-textured
homogeneous and layered soils derived under steady-state evapo-
ration from a water table. J Hydrol. 2014;519:1238–48.
Suter GW, Luxmoore RJ, Smith ED. Compacted soil barriers at
abandoned landfill sites are likely to fail in the long term. J Environ
Qual. 1993;22(2):217–26.
Yukselen Y, Kaya A. Suitability of the methylene blue test for surface
area, cation exchange capacity and swell potential determination of
clayey soils. Eng Geol. 2008;102(1):38–45.
 Nitrogen Oxide Removal from Nitric Acid
Production Process by Absorption
into Hydrogen Peroxide Solution

Ons Ghriss, Hédi Ben Amour, Mohamed-Razak Jeday,

and Hassen Chekir

Keywords
Nitric acid Nitrogen oxide Hydrogen peroxide Absorption

1 Introduction
Currently, Nitric acid (HNO3) is a significant product at the
industrial scale. In fact, nitric acid is used in many industrial
sectors, such as chemistry, metallurgy and explosives (Yil-
dirim et al. 2012). The annual world production of com-
mercial nitric acid was around 45.5 million tons in 2010
(Yildirim et al. 2012). About 70% of the nitric acid use is in
the manufacture of fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate
(NH4NO3) (Yildirim et al. 2012). Lately, The OSTWARD
process, proposed by Wilhelm Oslwald has been one of the
most important and commonly used processes of nitric acid
production (Yildirim et al. 2012), despite the substantial
amounts of nitrogen oxide (NOx) released during the oper-
ation of such units. NOx emissions contribute to the pro-
duction of photochemical smog, ozone and acid rain
(Dvorak et al. 2010). It is important to note that the limit
level of NOx emission fixed by the international environ-
mental regulations is equal to 1.5 kg NOx t−1 of 100%
HNO3 produced (Kamphus et al. 2013). Therefore, several
methods have been developed to reduce NOx from the gases
flue including chemical adsorption, selective catalytic
reduction (SCR), selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
and adsorption. NOx chemical absorption is the most com-
mercially mature and leading candidate technology (Kenig
et al. 2009). Several solvents such as water, basic solutions,
hydrogen peroxide, sodium chlorite, potassium perman-
ganate are used commercially (Liémans et al. 2013). Actu-
ally, NOx reduction with chemical absorption using
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) proves to be the most suitable
technology (Liémans et al. 2013). Its main advantage is that
it allows the reduction of gaseous pollution in a clean way,
without generating liquid waste and hence without shifting
the problem of pollution (DePaiva et al. 1998). The present
study investigated the application of NOx chemical absorp-
tion into H2O2 solution. A laboratory Bubble contactor in the
nitric acid manufacturing unit of the Tunisian Chemical
Group (GCT) was used to study the effect of the gas flow
rate, the absorption time and the initial H2O2 concentration.

2 Materials and Methods

O. Ghriss (&)
H. Ben Amour
M.-R. Jeday The industrial gas was extracted from the chimney of the
National Engineering School of Gabes (ENIG), Research Unit: industrial nitric acid production unit of the Tunisian
Energy and Environment, Gabes University, Omar Ibn Kattab Chemical Group (GCT) using a vacuum pump. It passed
ZRIG, Gabes, 6029, Tunisia
e-mail: Onsgh@hotmail.fr through three fritted bubblers of 1.5 L each connected in
series. The first bubbler was for collecting the water droplets
H. Ben Amour
e-mail: benamorhedi@gmail.com contained in the gas (Fritted bubbler N°1). The second called
‘laboratory bubble contactor’, where the gaseous effluent
M.-R. Jeday
e-mail: raz.jday@yahoo.fr was bubbled continuously in 1 L of an absorbent solution.
The third one was left empty to ensure the protection of the
H. Chekir
Tunisian Chemical Group (TCG), B.P. 72, Gabes, 6000, Tunisia vacuum pump (Fritted bubbler N°2) and the gas meter used
e-mail: chekir.hassen@gct.com.tn for determine the gas flow rates. The pH and the temperature

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1017

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_293
1018 O. Ghriss et al.

Fig. 1 Experimental apparatus

for the absorption of NOx by
hydrogen peroxide solution

Table 1 Evolution of total Gas flow rate (L/min) [H2O2]0 (g/L) 0 0.367 0.788 1.576
acidity versus gas flow rate
6 Total acidity (mol/l) 0.1071 0.1197 0.1260 0.1512
8 0.1197 0.1260 0.1323 0.1575
10 0.0756 0.0882 0.0945 0.1008
12 0.0693 0.0819 0.0882 0.0945
16 0.0630 0.0693 0.0756 0.0882

Fig. 2 Absorption mechanism of NOx in water (a) and in the presence of H2O2 (b)

of the solution were controlled by a combined pH/°C meter
probe. All experiments were performed in atmospheric
pressure and ambient temperature of (27 ± 2 °C).
The Total acidity was measured using the classical titra-
tion with a sodium hydroxide solution. H2O2 analysis was
performed by an iodometric method which involves the
addition of potassium iodure KI and titration of the formed I2
with sodium thiosulfate solution. Finally, a NOx analyzer
(Model-EL3010, IR type) was used to measure the NO and
NO2 concentration in the inlet and outlet gases.
NOx absorption into water and into nitric acid containing
hydrogen peroxide may be schematized by Fig. 1.
Nitrogen Oxide Removal from Nitric Acid Production Process …
Fig. 3 Effect of contact time and initial H2O2 concentration on NOx
absorption
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Effect of gas flow rate on the absorption
of NOx
We began this part by studying the effect of the gas flow rate
on the NOx absorption into a hydrogen peroxide solution.
The H2O2 concentration was varied from 0 to 1.567 g/L
while the gas flow rate was varied from 6 to 16 L/min. The
volume of the absorbent was maintained at 1 L and the
volume of gas bubbling was fixed at 240 L. The total acidity
analysis of H2O2 aqueous solution at different absorption
times gave the results displayed in Table 1 (Fig. 2).
It is clear from this table that for all H2O2 concentrations,
the total acidity in the absorbent solution increased slightly
with the rise in the gas flow rate from 6 to 8 L/min. Then, a
drop was observed for greater values of the gas flow. Low
flue gas flow rate means high gas-liquid contact time and
much NOx absorption. So, the gas flow rate was fixed at
8 L/min for the rest of the study.
3.2 Effect of contact time and initial H2O2
concentration on NOx absorption
From this figure, it can be seen that for water, the NOx
concentration in the gas outlet exceeded, after 4 min only,
the limit value (245 ppm). These results can be explained by
the fact that the gaseous phase is mainly composed of NO
which is an insoluble compound into water (Suckar and
Joshi. 1994). In contrast, the operating time of the absorber
is approximately equal to 6 min for the initial hydrogen
peroxide concentration of 0.365 g/L. The addition of
0.788 g/L H2O2 decreased the NOx outlet concentration and
increased the operation time at 10 min. Finally, as can be
seen, hydrogen peroxide with an initial concentration of
1019
1.567 g/L reduced the NOx concentration of the treated gas
which remained above the limit value until about 20 min
which corresponds to 160 L of treated gas against 32 L
without H2O2. The NOx absorption efficiency increased
significantly from 25% in distilled water to 42% when the
applied H2O2 concentration was fixed at 1.567 g/L. This is
due to the fact that the addition of H2O2 increased the NOx
absorption efficiencies, because H2O2 is able to oxidize
HNO2 and NO into HNO3 as reported by (De Paiva and
Kachan 1998; Suckar and Joshi 1994) (Fig. 3).
4 Conclusion
The main purpose of this study was to determine the
optimal operating parameters for the NOx absorption
process from an industrial gas emitted by the nitric acid
manufacturing unit of the (GCT). The main results
obtained using a laboratory bubble contactor can be
summarized as follows.
– An optimal gas flow rate of 8 L/min was selected for the
operation of the absorber when using both distilled water
and H2O2 aqueous solution.
– The absorption efficiency improved by using hydrogen
peroxide which can oxidize both NO and HNO2 into
HNO3 and thereby enhancing mass transfer. Therefore,
the NOx absorption efficiency and functional time rose
respectively to 42% and to more than 20 min (160 L of
treated effluents gases) when the initial H2O2 concen-
tration was fixed at 1.576 g/L and the inlet NOx was at
853 mg NO2/m3.
References
DePaiva JL, kachan GC. Modeling and simulation of a packed column
for NOx absorption with hydrogen peroxide. Ind Eng Chem Res.
1998;37:609–614.
Dvorak R, Chlapek P, Jecha D, Puchyi R, Stehlık P. New approach to
common removal of dioxins and NOx as a contribution to
environmental protection. J Clean Prod. 2010;18:881–8.
Kamphus M. Emission monitoring in nitric acid plants. Nitro-
gen + syngas 2014;328:48–53.
Kenig E, Seferlis P. Modeling reactive absorption. Reactions and
separation 2009;65–73.
Liémans I, Thomas D. Simultaneous NOx and SOx reduction from
oxyfuel exhaust gases using acidic solutions containing hydrogen
peroxide. Energy Procedia. 2013;37:1348–56.
Suchak NJ, Joshi JB. Simulation and optimization of NOx absorption
system in nitric acid manufacture. AIChE J. 1994;40:944–56.
Yildirim O, Kiss AA, Huser N, Lebmann K, Kenig EY. Reactive
absorption in chemical process industry: a review on current
activities. Chem Eng J. 2012;213:371–91.
 Effect of Preparation Manufacturing Process
on the Quality of Cotton Recycled DENIM
Yarn

Mohamed Ben Hassen, Béchir Wanassi, and Béchir Azouz

Keywords
Recycled fiber Low cost yarn Industrial DENIM waste Quality fiber index
DENIM ecologic product

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Cotton fiber is one of the most important fibers in the textile
industry as it represents 40% of the fibers consumed in 2004
(Faulkner et al. 2012). World cotton consumption could
increase by 2% in 2015/16 to rise to 25 million tones. The
manufacturing cost of cotton yarn depends, essentially, on
the price of the raw material (50% of the total cost) and the
energy cost (Kaplan and Koç 2010). The optimization yarn
quality must be investigated in order to give a competitive
worldwide yarn cost.
The price of cotton yarn depends on several parameters.
Kaplan et al. explained that the difference in price could be
due to incurring cost of several factors such as the energy
cost, taxes, raw material cost, labor cost etc. (Kaplan 2004);
(Koç and Kaplan 2007).
Cotton waste is usually used for low product value
(wiping product), because the preparation step is not opti-
mized and the fiber quality is bad. The objective of this study
was to optimize the preparation process of a Denim cotton
spinning waste to obtain fiber with acceptable quality. This
fiber can be reused in the process in blend with virgin fiber to
minimize cotton yarn cost and also finally obtain a DENIM
Ecological product.
M. Ben Hassen (&)
College of Engineering: Industrial Engineering Department,
Taibah University, Medina, Saudi Arabia
e-mail: benrayen@yahoo.fr
M. Ben Hassen
B. Wanassi
B. Azouz
Laboratory of Textile Engineering of iset ksar-hellal, University of
Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
2.1 Fiber Analysis
During this study, both instruments Uster AFIS and
Uster HVI were investigated. Uster AFIS measurement was
carried out (Table 1) with ten replications of 3000 individual
fibers to determine the Mean Length (ML), Short Fiber
Content (SFC), Neps count (Neps) and fineness. Uster HVI
measurement was carried out with five replications to eval-
uate the tenacity (Str), Upper Half Mean Length (UHML),
Uniformity Index (UI), Micronary (MIC) and the grade (Rd
and +b) of tuft of recycled cotton fibers.
2.2 Total Quality of Fiber
The recycled fiber quality was evaluated using two fiber
quality indices: Fiber Quality Index (FQI) and Spinning
Consistency Index (SCI). The reason to attribute a quality
index to recycled fiber was to evaluate its suitability and to
combine several quality criteria of fiber in one overall quality
index.
ML  Str
FQI ¼
Fineness
where ML was the mean length in mm, Str was the tenacity
in cN/Tex.
SCI was calculated to evaluate the spinnability of cotton
fiber according to its properties. The regression equation
used to determine the SCI was as follow.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1021

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_294
1022
Table 1 Characteristics of Parameters
recycled fibers
Neps (Cnt/g)
Mean length (mm)
Short fiber content (%)
Linear density (mTex)
Strength (cN/Tex)
Fiber quality index
SCI ¼ 414:67 þ 2:9 Str þ 49:1 UHML þ 4:74 UI
 9:32 MIC þ 0:95 Rd þ 0:36b
where Str was the tenacity in cN/Tex, UHML was the upper
half mean length, UI was the uniformity index, MIC was the
micronary index, Rd and b were the grade of recycled fiber.
2.3 Recycling Process
In this study, the waste of yarn was collected from the
Spinning Company (SITEX) from Tunisia. The recycling
process was performed with AMP7/AMP2 DELL’ORCO
machines and with Shirley: SH (Fig. 1). The recycling
machine consists of a large breaker and six workers with saw
teeth. The fraying of the fibers takes place gradually from
one worker to another.
3 Results and Discussion
After yarn waste fraying with three technologies, the
recovered material was a mixture of yarn bits and recycled
cotton fibers. The fraying efficiency (Y %) is the mass
fraction of fibers in the recovered material. According to
Fig. 2 it can be seen that increasing the number of passages
(Pass Nbres) of the yarn waste can effectively improve the
fraying efficiency. This was explained by the transformation
of the yarn bits that contained the reclaimed materials into
fibers after each passage with a recycling machine. It should
Fig. 1 Recycling machines. a AMP2, b SH and c AMP7
M. Ben Hassen et al.
Recycled Fibers
189
19.6
20.6
146
26.3
353.1
Fig. 2 Fraying yield
be noted that AMP7 technology has been the highest fraying
efficiency. This is due to the progressive behavior of
mechanical action.
On the other hand, the number of passages has a signif-
icant effect on the quality of the reclaimed fibers. Indeed,
there was an increase of the Neps count and the ratio of short
fibers (SFC). This is explained by the fact that increasing the
number of passages, the solicitation on the fibers increases.
The reclaimed fibers mean length decreases from 15.3 to
14.4 mm after four passages. This is due essentially to the
decrease of the length of bits of yarn that generate those
fibers. Nevertheless, it can be seen that there is not a sig-
nificant effect of passage numbers on the UHML and the
uniformity index (UI). This means that the effect of this
parameter mainly concerned the short fibers distribution.
Both FQI and SCI as composite quality index were
Effect of Preparation Manufacturing Process on the Quality …
investigated in order to evaluate the effect of passages
number on the technological value of the recycled cotton
fibers. It can be seen that when the passages number
increases from 1 to 7, the FQI increases from 262 to 278
despite the SCI decrease from 835 to 799. It can be con-
cluded, therefore, that, if we consider the finesses, the
tenacity and the mean length as the main criteria of the
recycled fiber quality, we can say that there was an
improvement of the reclaimed fibers total quality as well as
an increase of the number of passages. However, an opposite
behavior on the relation with SCI as quality index was
remarked. Indeed, when the passages number increases, the
SCI quality index decreases. Compared to FQI, previously
interpreted, it can be concluded that if the grade, the
Micronary index and the uniformity index were considered
as the quality criteria of reclaimed fiber, the passages number
show a decrease in the total quality of the reclaimed fibers.
4 Conclusion
This study investigated the use of industrial yarn waste in
spinning of rotor yarn with high ratio of recycled fibers
via three mechanical recycling processes. Firstly, the
determination of the total quality of the recycled fibers
1023
has been investigated considering the individual HVI and
AFIS characterizations. The recycling process optimum
conditions were investigated using FQI and SCI as a
technical value. In the optimum condition, the recycling
process was with AMP7 technology after four passages is
the best. Experiments were achieved to investigate the
effect of spinning parameters on the quality and the cost
of the obtained yarn.
References
Faulkner WB, Hequet EF, Wanjura J, Boman R. Relationships of
cotton fiber properties to ring-spun yarn quality on selected high
plains cottons. Text Res J. 2012;82(4):400–14.
Kaplan E. The cost factor in textile industry and general utilization of
energy cost Ms.C. Thesis. Cukurova University, Institute of Natural
and Applied Science, Textile Engineering Department, Adana.
Turkish, 2004.
Kaplan E, Koç E. Investigation of energy consumption in Yarn
production with special reference to open-end Rotor Spinningt-
ponly. Fibres Text Eastern Eur. 2010;18(2):7–13.
Koç E, Kaplan E. An investigation on energy consumption in Yarn
production with special reference to Ring Spinning. Fibres Text
Eastern Eur. 2007;63(4):18–24.
 Methylene Blue Removal from Brackish
Water by Natural Algerian Clay

Ammar Fadel and Nacef Saci

Keywords
Methylene blue removal Brackish water Adsorption Bentonite

Table 1 Mechanical composition of raw clay

1 Introduction
Composition SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO K2O Na2O SO3 Cl

Water is an essential part of our lives. Hence its pollution is ℅ 45.92 11.40 4.80 32.28 2.62 1.67 0.45 0.84 0.02

the greatest danger for humanity. Pollutants that affect water

quality are diverse including methylene blue widely used in
several areas. Its remarkably high toxicity urged environ-
mental services to look for ways to normalize its concen-
tration in water in order to reduce its impact on humans and
the environment.
The adsorption on clay supports has shown efficiency
compared to other techniques used with dyes (Karagozoglu
et al. 2007; Tahir et Naseem 2006; Aerdizzone et al. 1993;
Barton 1987; Errais 2011).
The objective of this study was to determine the optimal
conditions for the adsorption process for the removal of
methylene blue dye.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Raw Clay
The raw clay used and which is rich in montmorillonite was
obtained from Ain Touta-Batna mine (East Algeria).The
characteristics of this clay which were determined by the
laboratory were summarized in the Table 1.
A. Fadel (&)
University of Biskra, Biskra, Algeria
e-mail: am.fadel@univ-biskra.dz
A. Fadel
N. Saci
Laboratory of Chemical Process Engineering (LGPC),
Department of Chemical Engineering,
Ferhat Abbas University of Setif, Sétif, Algeria
3 Results and Conclusion
The study of the adsorption of Methylene blue on Ain Touta
clay requires knowledge of the parameters that influence this
phenomenon, namely: Initial concentration, adsorbent mass,
pH, and stirring time.
4 Conclusion
The results obtained in this study confirm the interest of
use Algerian clays (Raw clay of Ain Touta-Batna) for
adsorption of dye from an aqueous solution.
Methylene blue elimination efficiency increased with
the increase of the introduced dose of adsorbent (Clay of
Ain Touta) when the optimal dose (0.2 g/L) performance
achieved (99%) and increased gradually with increasing
the initial methylene blue concentration.
The best performance was with pH 4 with an elimi-
nation rate equal to 99 ℅.
The adsorption on this type of clay is very fast, its
maximum efficiency (96.4 ℅) was reached after 20 min
for a rate of 250 rpm.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1025

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_295
1026
References
Aerdizzone S, Gabrielli G, Lazzari P. Adsorption of methylene blue at
solid/liquid and water/air interfaces. Colloids Surface. 1993;76:
149–57.
Barton SS. The adsorption of methylene Blue by active carbon. Carbon.
1987;25:243–350.
Errais E. Réactivité de surface d’argiles naturelles-Etude de l’adsorp-
tion de colorants anioniques, mémoire de doctorat en géochimie de
l’evvironnement; université de Strasbourrg, 2011.
A. Fadel and N. Saci
Karagozoglu B, Tasdemir M, Demirbas E, Kobya M. The Adsorption
of Basic Dye (Astrazon Blue FGRL) from Aqueous Solutions onto
Sepiolite, Fly Ash and Apricot Shell Activated Carbon: kinetic and
Equilibrium Studies. J Hazardous Mater. 2007;147(1–2):297–306.
Tahir S. S. et Naseem R. Removal of a cationic dye from aqueous
solutions by adsorption onto bentonite clay. Chemosphere. 2006;
63(11):1842–8.
 On the Use of Brouers-Sotolongo Kinetics
Equation and Isotherm for the Removal
Fluorine from Aqueous Solutions by Clay

Francois Brouers and Sami Guiza

Keywords
Kinetics equation Isotherms Sorption in aqueous phase Brouers-Sotolongo

!1=a
1 Introduction ð0:5Þn þ 1 1
s50% ¼s ð2Þ
n1
One can find nowadays a large quantity of works, both
experimental and theoretical, dealing with the problem of As discuss in references (Brouers and Sotolongo-Costa
vital interest for humanity of the (ad-, chemi- and bio-) 2006; Brouers 2014; Al-Musawi et al. 2016), from the
sorption of harmful or potentially deadly pollutants from air, general equation BSf (a, n) equation, one can derive some of
water and rocks. the most used empirical sorption kinetics equations.
Many experimentalists still use routine, old-fashioned
methods to interpret their results. BSf (1, 1) is the pseudo-first order kinetics equation.
We present here a method based on genuine statistical BSf (1, a) is the fractal pseudo-first order or Weibull-Avrami
functions which can bring more reliable modeling and give a equation.
solid ground to the interpretation of sorbing processes. BSf (2, 1) is the pseudo-second order kinetics equation.
BSf (2, a) is the Hill (or log-logistic) kinetics equation (see
Fig. 1).
2 Materials and Methods
Based on the same statistical method most of the empir-
The BSF (n, a) Brouers-Sotolongo kinetics equation [1] has ical isotherm can be derived from the general
been used now in a number of recent papers []. It reads: Brouers-Sotolongo isotherm:

1 

t a n1 QeGBS ð xÞ 1=c
BSf ðn; aÞ  qðtÞ ¼ qm 1  1 þ ðn  1Þ ð1Þ ¼ 1  ½1 þ cðx=bÞa  ð3Þ
s Qem

where qðtÞ is the time dependent sorbed quantity, qm the
maximum sorbed quantity in appropriates units. s is a
characteristic time, a a fractal time exponent, and n a frac-
tional reaction order. The half time s50% corresponding to
qðtÞ ¼0.5 qm is given by:
F. Brouers
Faculty of Applied Sciences, Liege University, Liège, Belgium
S. Guiza (&)
Department of Chemical Engineering Process, National
Engineering School of Gabés, University of Gabés, Zrig
Eddakhlania, Tunisia
e-mail: sami_guiza@yahoo.fr
where x is the sorbate pressure or concentration, Qe the
up-take and Qem, the saturation up-take in appropriate units.
The coefficient c and a are form parameters and b is a scale
factor. They depend on the sorption energy heterogeneity
and the pore structure of the sorbent.
As shown in detail in Brouers and Marquez-Montesino
(2016), some of the most popular empirical and
semi-empirical isotherms can be derived simply from the
GBS isotherm, others are purely empirical such as the
Redlich-Peterson isotherm. They are not correct asymptoti-
cally and, in our opinion, should be discarded.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1027

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_296
1028 F. Brouers and S. Guiza

For c = 0, a = 1, one gets the Janovich isotherm:

QeJ ð xÞ
¼ 1  expððx=bÞa Þ ð4Þ
Qem
For c = 0, one gets the Brouers-Sotolongo isotherm:

QeBS ð xÞ
¼ 1  expððx=bÞÞa ð5Þ
Qem
F c = 1, one gets the Sips isotherm:

QeS ð xÞ ðx=bÞa
¼ ð6Þ
Qem 1 þ ðx=bÞa Fig. 2 Isotherm Sorption of fluorine on clay at 45 C: dot Dashed
curve : Brouers-Sotolongo isotherm, full line Brouers-Sotolongo
For c = 1, a = 1, one recovers the Langmuir isotherm: isothem with a time dependent fractal coefficient
QeL ð xÞ ðx=bÞ
¼ ð7Þ
Qem 1 þ ðx=bÞ Kinetics of sorption of fluorine on clay at 40 C:
When x ! 0, GBS, BS and S isotherms give the Fre-
qm a s s50% R2
undlich isotherm (Fig. 1):
1st 23.7 1 6.6 4.6 0.9950
WF ðjÞ 0:36  0:05 12:2  3
¼ ðj=bÞa ð8Þ W 29.7 4.4 0.9995
Wmax  2:5 3
2nd 25.9 1 4.20 4.2 0.9984
In the present work we have generalized the theory by
H 35.2 0.44 8.9 8.9 0.9993
introducing a time dependent fractal coefficient which
improves considerably the results (see Fig. 2).

4 Conclusions
3 Results and Discussion In all the cases which will be presented at the conference,
the Brouers-Sotolongo formalism based on rigourous
We have applied these models for the removal of fluorine
statistical methods which obey the principle of maximum
from aqueous solutions by clay.
entropy (Brouers 2015) overcomes the other methods
Here some typical results from those which will be pre-
used in the litterature provided the data are taken untill
sented at the conference.
saturation.

References

Al-Musawi TJ, Brouers F, Zarrabi M. Kinetic modeling of antibiotic

Fig. 1 Kinetics of the sorption of fluorine on clay at 40 C: Dotted
curve: pseudo-first ordre, dashed curve: pseudo second order, dot-
dashed W: Weibull BSf (1, a) kinetics. The kineticspractically does not
depend on n
adsorption onto different nanomaterials using the Brouers–Soto-
longo fractal equation. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2016;1–10.
Brouers F. Statistical Foundation of Empirical Isotherms. Open J Stat.
2014b;4(09):687.
Brouers F. The fractal (BSf) kinetics equation and its approximations.
J Modern Phys. 2014a;5(16):1594–8.
Brouers F. The Burr XII distribution family and the maximum entropy
principle: power-law phenomena are not necessarily “Nonexten-
sive”. Open J Statist. 2015;5(07):730.
Brouers F, Al-Musawi TJ. On the optimal use of isotherm models for
the characterization of biosorption of lead onto algae. J Molecul
Liquids. 2015;212:46–51.
Brouers F, Marquez-Montesino F. Dubinin isotherms versus the
Brouers-Sotolongo family isotherms: a case study. Adsorpt Sci
Technol. 2016;34(9–10):552–64.
On the Use of Brouers-Sotolongo Kinetics Equation and Isotherm …
Brouers F, Sotolongo O, Marquez F, Pirard JP. Microporous and
heterogeneous surface adsorption isotherms arising from Levy distri-
butions. Physica A. 2005;349(1):271–82.
Brouers F, Sotolongo-Costa O. Generalized fractal kinetics in complex
systems (application to biophysics and biotechnology). Physica A.
2006;368(1):165–75.
Figaro S, Avril JP, Brouers F, Ouensanga A, Gaspard S. Adsorption
studies of molasse’s wastewaters on activated carbon: modelling
with a new fractal kinetic equation and evaluation of kinetic models.
J Hazard Mater. 2009;161(2):649–56.
Hamissa AMB, Brouers F, Mahjoub B, Seffen M. Adsorption of
textile dyes using Agave americana (L.) fibres: equilibrium
and kinetics modelling. Adsorpt Sci Technol. 2007;25(5):311–
25.
1029
Hamissa AB, Brouers F, Ncibi MC, Seffen M. Kinetic modeling study on
methylene Blue Sorption onto Agave Americana fibers: fractal kinetics
and regeneration studies. Sep Sci Technol. 2013;48(18):2834–42.
Kesraoui A, Selmi T, Seffen M, Brouers F. Influence of alternating
current on the adsorption of indigo carmine. Environ Sci Pollut Res.
2016;1–11.
Ncibi MC, Altenor S, Seffen M, Brouers F, Gaspard S. Modelling
single compound adsorption onto porous and non-porous sorbents
using a deformed Weibull exponential isotherm. Chem
Eng J. 2008;145(2):196–202.
Ncibi MC, Mahjoub B, Seffen M, Brouers F, Gaspard S. Sorption
dynamic investigation of chromium (VI) onto Posidonia oceanica
fibres: Kinetic modelling using new generalized fractal equation.
Biochem Eng J. 2009;46(2):141–6.
 Numerical Study of Soil Water Content
to Estimate the Hydraulic Properties of Soil
in Tunisia

Asma Jedidi, Sana Dardouri, and Jalila Sghaier

Keywords
Hydraulic properties Unsaturated zone Inverse modelling Mualem model Van
genichten model Soil water content

1 Introduction 1963; Seki et al. 2015) which is specifically designed for

solving least-squares problems. Another is the sequential
With the fast development in industrial scale, the problem of quadratic programming (SQP) (Qiao et al. 2017) which is
water and soil pollution has become more serious. As suitable for dealing with large-scale problems with many or
increasingly more complicated flow and transport models are difficult constraints.
being developed, the accuracy of the numerical simulation
depends upon the accuracy with which various model
parameters are estimated. Knowledge of the soil hydraulic 2 Material and Methods
properties is especially important when numerical models
are used to simulate variably water flow and contaminant 2.1 Study Site
transport. Soil hydraulic parameters can be estimated by
many direct or indirect methods. Direct methods are based Sample of sand used in this study were collected from an
on small soil sample laboratory experiments or small scale industrial zone in the region of Sousse in Tunisia in order to
field this methods involve high cost, significant time demand study their hydrodynamic properties.
and are very sensitive to small scale heterogeneity. On the
other hand, inverse modeling aims to find the hydraulic
parameters by minimizing the difference between simulated 2.2 Methods and Theory
and observed data such as water content, head pressure or
geophysical prospection (Le Bourgeois et al. 2016). The aim The one-dimensional horizontal model in the unsaturated
of this study was to determine the soil hydraulic properties water flow equation is expressed as Richards’ equation as
of sand of Sousse using two different numerical method from follows:
soil water content observation by two inverse methods, one Asma Jedidi / Proceedings of EMCEI
is a Levenberg Marquardt algorithm’s (LM) (Marquardt

@hðhÞ @ @h @KðhÞ
¼ K ð hÞ þ ð1Þ
A. Jedidi (&)
S. Dardouri
J. Sghaier @x @x @x @x
UNITE DE RECHERCHE THERMIQUE &
THERMODYNAMIQUE DES PROCEDES INDUSTRIELS, where K(h) is unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (L/T), h(h)
Département de Génie Energétique, Ecole Nationale D’Ingénieurs is the water content (L3 :T3 ), h is the water pressure head
de Monastir, Avenue Ibn Eljazzar, 5019 Monastir, Tunisie (L) and x is the horizontal position (L).
e-mail: jed-asma@hotmail.fr
To solve Richards’ equation, the water retention function
S. Dardouri h(h) and the hydraulic conductivity function K(h) must be
e-mail: sanadardouri_en@yahoo.fr
defined. We used the combined formulation of (Van Gen-
J. Sghaier uchten et al. 1989) and Mualem (1976):
e-mail: jalila.sghaier@enim.rnu

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1031

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_297
1032 A. Jedidi et al.

m
hðhÞ ¼ hr þ ðhs  hr Þ½1 þ jahjn  ð2Þ Ci ðbÞ ¼ 0 i ¼ ¼ 1; 2; . . .me ð6Þ
h  m i2 Ci ðbÞ  0 i ¼ me þ 1; . . .; m ð7Þ
K ðhÞ ¼ Ks Sle 1  1  S1=m
e ð3Þ
where the Ci ðbÞ is the constraint functions me and m rep-
hð hÞ  hr resent the amount of the equality and inequality constraints,
Se ðhÞ ¼ ð4Þ
hs  hr respectively.

where Se is the effective water saturation, Ks [L/T] is the

saturated hydraulic conductivity, hr [L3 :L3 ] and hs [L3 :L3 ]
are the residual and saturated soil water content, h [L] is the
pressure head, l is the pores connectivity parameter (l = 0.5),
n and m = 1–1/n are the shape parameters of soil water
characteristic. The a [1/L] parameter controls capillary ris-
ing, while n and m parameters control shape and slope of the
curve.
3 Results and Discussion
After the convergence of the two algorithm, the solutions of
the optimization procedure by Levenberg MArquardt and
SQP are represented in Figs. 1 and 2.
The results indicate that the measured and predicted soil
water contents showed a quite good agreement. The opti-
mization showed that the SQP’s estimation is more stable

2.3 Numerical Methods

0,35
In this part, we combine the experimental data of soil water optimised
content h with the value calculated by two different methods, 0,30 measured
thus we minimize the objective function, it reflects the
squared of the difference between the calculated and mea- 0,25
theta (cm3 cm-3 )

sured values, an iterative process starting from the initial

values of the parameters until stopping criterion of the 0,20
objective function.
0,15
2.3.1 Levenberg-Marquardt Algorithm
Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) algorithm is one of the iterative 0,10

method which is used in parameter estimation of nonlinear

model (Marquardt 1963). LM algorithm is an interpolation 0,05

between Gauss-Newton algorithm and gradient descent 0 100 200 300 400 500
method, the vector of parameters is estimated by using the x(cm)
Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method.
The objective function minimized: Fig. 1 Measured and fitted soil water content by LM’s algorithm

X
n  2
Obðb; hÞ ¼ wi hmes ðhi Þ  hfit ðhi Þ ð5Þ 0,35
i¼1
optimised
0,30 measured

2.3.2 Sequential Quadratic Programing

theta (cm3 cm-3)

0,25
(SQP) Algorithm
It’s a method in which have proved highly effective for 0,20
solving constrained optimization problems with smooth non
linear functions in the objective and constraints. SQP algo- 0,15
rithm is based on quasi-Newton approximations of Hessian
and Jacobian matrices, which is suitable for the solution of 0,10
general nonlinear programming problems involving equality
and inequality constraints. 0,05

The nonlinear constrained optimization problem can be

0 100 200 300 400 500
formulated as: X(cm)
Minimize Ob(b)
Subject to Fig. 2 Measured and fitted soil water content by SQP’s algorithm
Numerical Study of Soil Water Content to Estimate … 1033

0,35 computed by SQP can be seen to generally have higher

LM confidence than that by Levenberg Marquardt algorithm.
0,30 exp
The estimated hydraulic parameters are given in Table 1,
theta (cm3 cm-3 )

SQP
0,25 those results showed a higher confidence to the measured
0,20
parameters.

0,15
4 Conclusion
0,10 This paper describes the approach evaluation of the
0,05 hydraulic properties of unsaturated soil in industrial zone
in the region of Sousse in Tunisia. We used two inverse
0 100 200 300 400 500
modeling approaches in which were investigated and
X (cm)
tested based on one-dimensional numerical modeling of
Fig. 3 Comparison of experimental and the two different numerical the soil water dynamics process. The results showed a
solutions quite good agreement with the two methods.

Table 1 The hydraulic parameters estimated by inverse methods and

direct method References
Parametres Direct method SQP’s algorithm LM’s algorithm
estimation estimation Le Bourgeois O, Bouvier C, Brunet P, Ayral PA. Inverse modeling of
soil water content to estimate the hydraulic properties of a shallow
hr [cm3cm-3] 0.06 0.0708 0.106
soil and the associated weathered bedrock. J Hydrol. 2016;541:116–
hs [cm3cm-3] 0.31 0.31 0.322 26.
Ks [m/s] 2.25  10-5 2.25  10-5 2.5  10-5 Marquardt DW. An algorithm for least-squares estimation of nonlinear
parameters. J Soc Ind Appl Mathe. 1963;11(2):431–41.
a[1/m] 1.42 2.5 1.899 Mualem, Y. A new model for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of
n 2.702 2.7947 2.7 unsaturated porous media. 1976.
Qiao YB, Qi H, Ren YT, Sun JP, Ruan LM. Application of SQP
algorithm for fluorescence tomography with the time-domain
equation of radiative transfer. J Quant Spectrosc Radiati Trans.
and robust than LM algorithm’s estimation (Fig. 3). The 2017;193:21–30.
globally convergent SQP method involves modifying the Seki K, Ackerer P, Lehmann F. Sequential estimation of hydraulic
parameters in layered soil using limited data. Geoderma.
function to be minimized in order to take account of the 2015;247:117–28.
constraints, which reduce the domain of the admissible Van Genuchten MT, Leij FJ, Lund LJ. (eds). Indirect methods for
solutions, so it can be seen also that the parameters estimating the hydraulic properties of unsaturated soils. 1989.
 An Alternative Method for Predicting Bed
Load Transport Rate in River—Application
to the Medjerda River, Tunisia
Mohamed Gharbi, Amel Soualmia, and Denis Dartus



Keywords
River Hydraulic
1 Introduction
An alternative way for predicting bed load transport rate in
rivers for laminar flow was proposed by Charru et al. (2004).
The main goal of this paper was to apply this new approach
to quantify the bed load rates for a real case, which is the
Medjerda River. To this end, a hydro-sedimentary model
was set up in order to describe the basic phenomena related
to the bed load process. A comparative analysis was per-
formed between the new and classical methods for predict-
ing bed load transport rates, in order to ensure the
trustworthiness of this new approach, and to identify the
advantages and restrictions of this new approach for esti-
mating the sediment transport rates.
2 Materials and Methods
The bed load transport is the dominant mode of transport for
baseflow and also in the case of coarse sediments, whereas the
suspended load transport dominates for fine sediment and
during high water flow period García (2006). Despite the
large number of works addressing the problem, bed load
transport remains poorly understood until now Van Rijn
(1993). In fact, bed load transport is the result of the move-
ment of particles rolling or traveling in a series of low jumps
M. Gharbi (&)
D. Dartus
Laboratory of Water Science and Technology, The National
Agronomic Institute of Tunisia, University of Carthage, Tunis,
Tunisia
e-mail: mohamedgharbi2007@hotmail.fr
A. Soualmia
Institute of Fluid Mechanics of Toulouse, National Polytechnic
Institute of Toulouse, University of Toulouse, Toulouse, France
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_298




Model Bed load Erosion Deposition
or along the river bed, is of fundamental importance for river
morphodynamic (Lajeunesse et al. 2010). An alternative way
for predicting the bed load transport rate in rivers for laminar
flow was proposed by Charru et al. (2004). In 2006, Charru
developed an extension of this model for turbulent flow. The
main goal of this paper was to apply this new approach to
quantify the bed load rates for a real case, which is the
Medjerda River. The variation of n(x, t) is governed by the
conservation equation (Lajeunesse et al. 2010).
@n @Q
¼ n_ e  n_ d  where Q ¼ nUp ; ð1Þ
@t @x
where ṅe is the erosion rate, ṅd is the deposition rate and Up
is the mean particle velocity. Referring to ‘Eq. (1)’, the
variation in rate of n is related to exchanges with the fixed
bed, through the erosion rate (ṅe) and the deposition rate
(ṅd); and to the divergence of the bed load flux. This
erosion-deposition model was developed and tested in lab-
oratory for laminar case by Charru et al. (2004), then for
turbulent case by Lajeunesse et al (2010).
The objective of this contribution was to apply this new
approach to a real case which is the medjerda river in order
to quantify sediment transport during a major flood. The
Medjerda is located in the Mediterranean coast of North
Africa flowing from northeast Algeria across Tunisia before
emptying into the Mediterranean Sea. The Medjerda River is
the longest river of Tunisia with a length of 450 km (Rodier
et al. 1981). Despite the normally low rainfall in the Med-
jerda watershed during the autumn and spring, serious floods
may occur during these seasons (Fig. 1).
We limited our research to the middle valley of the
Medjerda, which has been flooded at least three times in the
last few last years (Rodier et al. 1981).
1035
1036
Fig. 1 The study area: Middle valley of the Medjerda in Tunisia
This work focused on the implementation of the
hydro-sedimentary model in order to quantify the bed load
transport rate carried by the Medjerda River during major
floods. To this end, a 2D hydraulic model via TELEMAC 2D
was set up in order to determine the various hydraulic param-
eters (Water depth, velocity fields, bed shear stress etc.…)
during the flood along the Medjerda River. For our study area,
an adapted mesh size and shape were established to properly
define the geometry of the river. Triangular meshes were
therefore considered to obtain accurate results. However, a
relatively coarser mesh was created at the major bed Wu (2008).
3 Results and Discussion
For the resolution of the erosion-deposition model of Charru
(2006), it is mandatory to determine the erosion rate (ne), the
deposit rate (nd). The estimation of these two processes has a
great importance in controlling the rivers morphological
evolution. Figure 2 below introduces the evolution of the
erosion and deposition rates at the Medjerda River during
floods.
The erosion and deposition rates are proportional to the
exceeding of the bed shear stress to the threshold of particle
movement. On the 28/01/2003, the water flow rate observed
at the Slouguia station is about 700 m3/s, for this flow, the
results show that the erosion process is dominant. The
M. Gharbi et al.
erosion capacity is nine times greater than the deposition
capacity. However, the 03/02/2003 corresponding to a water
flow rate equal to 400 m3/s; the erosion capacity decreased
and became six times greater than the capacity of deposited
sediments. The variation of the erosion and deposition rates
of sediments for two different instants of the extreme
hydrologic event shows that there is an alternation between
the two processes according to the hydraulic conditions
Roche et al. (2012). Once all the variables (ne, nd, Up, n) are
calculated, the bed load transport rate may be determined
from the following relationship.
qb ¼ dv nUp ð2Þ
For the purpose of verifying the validity of this new
approach, a comparative analysis was performed with the
results obtained in the work of Gharbi et al. (2014). Figure 3
describes the bed load rates evolution along the Medjerda
River during the flood of 2003 predicted through the two
approaches.
In comparison with the bed load rate calculated with other
classic models of sediment transport, the new model of
Charru et al. (2006) gives satisfactory results. The bed load
capacity simulated by several models is closely correlated.
At the grain scale, the analysis indicates that the Medjerda
transports low amounts of sediments as bed load. However,
these quantities transported influences largely the Medjerda
morphological changes.
An Alternative Method for Predicting Bed Load Transport Rate … 1037

Fig. 2 Evolution of the erosion

and deposition rates during the
flood of 2003

1.E-4
9.E-5 TELEMAC 2D - SISYPHE
TELEMAC 2D - Charru
References
8.E-5
7.E-5
García M. Sedimentation engineering: processes, measurements, mod-
qb (m2/s)

6.E-5
eling, and practice, in examining. USA: The Confluence of
5.E-5
Environmental and Water Concerns, World Environmental and
4.E-5
Water Resource Congress; 2006. p. 91–4.
3.E-5 Gharbi M, Soualmia A, Dartus D, Masbernat L. A comparative analysis
2.E-5 of Lajeunesse model with other used bed load models—effects on
1.E-5 river morphological changes. J Water Res Ocean Sci. 2014;4:61–8.
0.E+0 Lajeunesse E, Malverti L, Charru F. Bed load transport in turbulent
0 3000 6000 9000 12000 15000 18000 flow at the grain scale: experiments and modeling. J Geophys Res.
Distance (m) 2010;115:1–29.
Roche PA, Miquel J, Gaume E. Hydrologie quantitative, Processus,
Fig. 3 Bed load transport rate evolution (qb) calculated by different modèles et aide à la décision. France: Springer Books; 2012.
models Rodier J, Colombani J, Claude J, Kallel R. Monographie hydrologique
du bassin de la Medjerda. France: ORSTOM; 1981.
Van Rijn LC. Principles of Sediment Transport in rivers. Estuaries and
4 Conclusion Coastal Seas: Aqua Pub; 1993. p. 1–612.
This paper illustrated the application of an alternative Wu W. Computational river dynamics, Sediment laden drainage;
Betsiboka River, Madagascar. Courtesy of NASA, National Aero-
approach for predicting the quantities of sediments nautics and Space Administration. Taylor & Francis Group:
transported as bed load by the Medjerda River during Houston, USA., London; 2008.
major floods. The analysis shows satisfactory results Charru, F ; Mouilleron, H ; Eiff, O. (2004). Erosion and deposition of
allowing understanding many problems encountered in particles on a bed sheared by a viscous flow. Journal of Fluid
Mechanic, 519, pp.55–80.
the Medjerda River. The present study has achieved Charru, F. (2006). Selection of the ripple length on a granular bed
modeling and simulations, leading to a first qualitative sheared by a liquid flow. Journal Physics of Fluids. Vol. 18,
description of the bed load rate carried by the Medjerda pp. 121508-1.
River during major floods. Finally, we have to notice that
the measure of the bed load transport capacity at the
Medjerda River is required and recommended in order to
improve model predictions.
 Adsorption of Model Dyes Onto Porous
Materials: Effect of pH and Temperature
on the Parameters of Brouers-Sotolongo
Kinetic Fractal and Generalized Isotherm
Taher Selmi, Mongi Seffen, François Brouers, Vanessa Fierro,
and Habib Sammouda



Keywords
Adsorption Dyes Activated carbon
Heterogeneity surface
1 Introduction
Kopelman (1988) and Meilanov and his collaborators
(Meilanov et al. 2002) expressed the need for developing
new kinetics and isotherm models taking into accounts
the fractal porosity and heterogeneity of systems
adsorbat/adsorbent. This new approach was developed by
Brouers and his collobarators. In 2006 Brouers and Soto-
longo (2006) developed a new kinetic fractal (BSf), Eq. (1),
and Brouers et al. (2014a) a generalized isotherm
(GBS) showed by Eq. (2).
t 1
qn;a ðtÞ ¼ qe:BSf ½1  ð1 þ ðn  1Þð Þa Þðn1Þ  ð1Þ
sc
Ce a 1c
qe;GBS ¼ qe:max:GBS ½1  ð1 þ c:ð Þ Þ  ð2Þ
b
The interesting property of these models is that they can
reduce some of the popular empirical formulas for
well-defined values of the parameters “n” and “a” for kinetic
(Brouers 2014b) and “a” and “c” for isotherm (Brouers
2014a). In practice, one of the two approximations BS
T. Selmi (&)
M. Seffen
H. Sammouda
Laboratory of Energy and Materials (LabEM), Sousse University,
ESSTHS BP 4011Hammam Sousse, Sousse, Tunisia
e-mail: taher-selmi@hotmail.com
F. Brouers
Department of Chemical Engineering, Liege University, Liège,
Belgium
e-mail: fbrouers@yahoo.fr
V. Fierro
Institut Jean Lamour, UMR CNRS 7198 27 Rue Philippe Séguin,
Epinal Cedex, 60026, 88026, CS, France
e-mail: vanessa.fierro@univ-lorraine.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_299




Fractal kinetic Stochastic isotherm
(c = 0) or BS (c = 1) one of these gives a better fit, when
data give a fluctuation sometimes BS others HS. The solu-
tion proposed by Brouers and Al-Musawi (2015) is to fit the
results fixing the constant c of 0.5. which was the case in this
paper.
Fractality and heterogenity of system adsorbat/adsorbent
are influenced by the physico-chemical characteristic of
porous materials (Gaspard et al. 2006). The objective being
to determine the correlation between the adsorption operator
conditions and models parameters clarifying its physical
meaning.
2 Materials and Methods
We have studied the influence of pH (2.5; 5 and 8) and
temperature (25; 35 and 50 °C) on the parameters of GBS
isotherm and BSf kinetic using adsorption of methylene blue
(MB) and methyl orange (MO) dyes, onto activated carbon
(AC) Filtrasorb 300 (F300), characterized by specific surface
area SBET = 884 m2/g, total volume Vtot = 0.43 cm3/g, total
surface functional group 0.61 mmol/g and pHPZC = 8.03.
3 Results and Discussion
We presented here some typical results from those that will
be presented at the conference.
For kinetic the best fit was given when the reaction order
“n” = 1, note BSf(1,a). For isotherm, the best fit was given
when the constant c = 0.5 (BG model case). Figures 1 and 2
show, respectively, the effect of adsorption parameters
(pH and Temperature) on the BSf(1,a) kinetic constants
1039
1040
Fig. 1 Effect of pH and temperature on parameter of BSf(1, a) kinetic model used MO adsorption onto F300 (C = 40 mg/L)
Fig. 2 Effect of pH and temperature on parameters of GBS isotherm model used MO data onto F300
(sc and a) and BG isotherm constants (“a” and “b”) for the
MO adsorption on F300. We recapitulated in Table 1 the
parameters of BG and BSf (1, a) and its relation with tem-
perature. A similar table will be presented at conference
recapitulating the effect of pH on the models’ parameters.
The results show that the best conditions of adsorption
finding at T = 50 °C indicating the endothermic character
and pH2.5 for MO adsorption and pH8 for MB adsorption.
The exponent a is always inferior 1 (0.66 < a < 0.99)
indicate the fractal character of MO adsorption onto F300.
The fractality phenomenon is clear at pH2.5 at 30 °C,
increasing pH and temperature at same time, the surface
becomes gradually homogenous and a close to 1 starting to
eliminate the fractality phenomenon (Brouers 2014b).
Temperature and pH have a significant effect on the char-
acteristic time sc (Fig. 1a). At ambient temperature, increasing
pH from 2.5 to 8, sc increases from 16 to 23 min. Then, fixing
pH at 2.5 and increasing the temperature from 25 to 50 °C the
T. Selmi et al.
characteristic time sc decreases from 16 to 10 min which
makes the reaction faster. Increasing the pH and Temperature
at same time the characteristic time sc remains almost constant
because pH and temperature have a contradictory effect.
Contrariwise, in the case of MB adsorption is favorable for
pH = 8 which is due to the increase of pH and Temperature,
causing a clear decrease of sc and consequently the reaction
becomes faster (Brouers 2014b).
Coupling the result found by the constant “a” of BG
isotherm and the constant “a” of BSf (1, a) the kinetic
mentioned in Table 1, concluding that when a <1, it is a sign
of a slow initial sorption and when a >1 it is a sign of a rapid
initial sorption, showing that the exponent a is a measure of
the scaling (fractal) properties of a heterogeneous system
(Brouers 2014a; Brouers and Al-Musawi 2015). At a
favorable pH, the constant “b” decreases with temperature,
this is related to half-adsorbed concentration (Brouers
2014a).
Adsorption of Model Dyes Onto Porous Materials … 1041

Table 1 BG and BSf parameters Dyes MB MO

determined by adsorption of MB
at pH = 8 and MO pH = 2.5 on Conditions T = 25 °C T = 35 °C T = 50 °C T = 25 °C T = 35 °C T = 50 °C
F300 at different temperatures Brouers-Gaspard isotherm
qe max 23.37 78.33 27.89 30.67 33.67 29.59
a 2.15 0.44 1.57 1.09 1.26 0.99
b 2.37 81.90 0.20 2.50 0.79 1.03
v 2
1.58 0.75 4.44 0.80 1.43 1.19
R2 0.976 0.990 0.960 0.993 0.990 0.990
BSf (1,a) kinetic
qe.BS 14.26 16.69 18.68 13.19 13.20 13.42
sc 22.18 15.94 6.19 17.33 12.78 10.78
s1/2 15.32 11.01 4.27 11.97 8.83 7.45
a 0.99 0.99 0.79 0.85 0.66 0.76
R2 0.999 0.999 0.999 0.999 0.999 0.999
v 2
0.010 0.003 0.0009 0.004 0.001 0.001

A stochastic analysis of physicochemical reactions in interesting information on fractality and heterogeneity of

complex system by the Wroclaw school and collaborators the system.
(Stanislavsky and Weron 2013) has shown that the exponent
c is related to the cluster or aggregation structure of meso-
scopic structure system. References

Brouers F. Statistical foundation of empirical isotherms. Open J Stat.

4 Conclusion
The goal of the present research was to study the effect of
pH and temperature on the parameters of a kinetic fractal
and stochastic isotherm. Adsorption was carried out at
three temperatures (25, 35 and 50 °C) and three pHs (2.5,
5 and 8). The constant a decreased slightly with the
temperature indicating the great variation of adsorption
energy. The constant a increased clearly with pH but
remained inferior to 1 indicating the high heterogeneity of
the surface except for the case when a >1.
In ambient temperature the constant “a” of BG isotherm
model increased with pH. When the pH was fixed, “a”
increased slightly with temperature. This shows that the
parameters of BSf (1, a) and BG can be correlated with pH
and temperature (as shown Figs. 1 and 2) giving
2014a;4:687–701.
Brouers F. The fractal (BSf) kinetics equation and its approximations.
J Mod Phys. 2014b;5:1594.
Brouers F, Al-Musawi TJ. On the optimal use of isotherm models for
the characterization of biosorption of lead onto algae. J Mol Liq.
2015;212:46–51.
Brouers F, Sotolongo-Costa O. Generalized fractal kinetics in complex
systems (application to biophysics and biotechnology). Phys A Stat
Mech Appl. 2006;368:165–75.
Gaspard S, Altenor S, Passe-Coutrin N, Ouensanga A, Brouers F.
Parameters from a new kinetic equation to evaluate activated carbons
efficiency for water treatment. Water Res. 2006;40:3467–77.
Kopelman R. Fractal Reaction Kinetics. Science. 1988;241:1620–6.
Meilanov RP, Sveshnikova DA, Shabanov OM. Fractal nature of
sorption kinetics. J Phys Chem A. 2002;106:11771–4.
Stanislavsky A, Weron K. Is there a motivation for a universal
behaviour in molecular populations undergoing chemical reactions?
Phys Chem Chem Phys. 2013;15:15595–601.
 Evaluation of Diallyl Phthalate
Biodegradation Mechanisms
in the Treatment of Synthetic Wastewater

Ehsan Ahmadi, Mitra Gholami, Mahdi Farzadkia, and Ramin Nabizadeh

Keywords
Wastewater Diallyl phthalate Biological attached growth system Kinetic modelling

1 Introduction investigated. In this regard, laboratory scale glass reactor has

Phthalic acid esters including Diallyl phthalate (DAP),
which commonly named as phthalates, are considered as top
priority and hazardous pollutants, and have received signif-
icant concernsover the last decades (1, 2). In this study,
performance of moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) for
biological removal of DAP and DEP from synthetic
wastewater was evaluated.
2 Materials and Methods
In this research, Diallyl phthalate selected from phthalic acid
ester [DAP] families and Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor
[MBBR] performance was evaluated by investigating dif-
ferent operation conditions including hydraulic retention
time, organic loading and aeration rate. Degradation path-
ways of Diethyl phthalate has been determined by metabo-
lites surveying in effluent at different hydraulic retention
times. Also Co-removal of selected compound was
E. Ahmadi
R. Nabizadeh
Department of Environmental Health Engineering,
School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences,
Tehran, Iran
e-mail: ehsanahmadi_eh@yahoo.com
R. Nabizadeh
e-mail: rnabizadeh@tums.ac.ir
M. Gholami (&)
M. Farzadkia
Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of
Public Health, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
e-mail: gholamim@iums.ac.ir; gholamimitra32@gmail.com
M. Farzadkia
e-mail: farzadkia.m@iums.ac.ir
been used. It consists of three vertical parts (the 1st part c for
keeping temperature adjustment (25 ± 2 °C), The 2nd and
3rd part are a combination of the MBBR with settling tank in
series. The operating volume of MBBR was 4.2 L and filled
with % 50 carrier elements. The carriers were made from
HDPE and had a surface area and a density equal to 535 m2
m3 and 0.95–0.98 g cm3, respectively. The bottom of this
reactor was designed in a triangular form to prevent the
settlement of the carriers and detached biofilm. Aeration and
mixing were provided to the reactor by an air compressor
and distributed by air diffuser.
Airflow rate was controlled by rotameter. To setup the
system, the reactor was seeded with activated sludge from
one of municipal wastewater treatment plant. Synthetic
wastewater was pumped from storage tank into the reactor
through dosing pump (Etatron-Italy) continuously and it
controlled the Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT), also
another dosing pump was used to recycle the sludge from
settling tank only in start-up phase.
In the first stage acclimation has been done with synthetic
wastewater which uses glucose as the sole carbon source and
had Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) equivalent to
200 mg/L. After reaching COD removal efficiency to %80,
glucose were substituted stepwise by DAP until DAP
formed the only sole carbon source. At the downstream of
MBBR a ‘‘V’’ shape settler unit with one baffled applied to
separate the biomass from the effluent and because of vari-
ation in wastewater HRT in MBBR tank it had multiple
outlets to ensure the effluent HRT and was kept above 7 h in
settling tank.
For DAP analysis, 10 ml wastewater sample were filtered
through 0.7 lm glass fiber filter and then extracted using

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1043

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_300
1044
2 ml of n-hexane and finally were measured by Gas Chro-
matograph which equipped with Flame Ionization Detector
(FID) and capillary HP-5 column.
3 Results and Discussion
The performance of the MBBR under different hydraulic
retention times (step A), organic loadings (step B) and
aeration rates (step C) for DAP removal (Fig. 1). The
results from study stage (A) indicate that high DAP
removal efficiencies are attained even at high organic
loading rate (study phase A-1) with %76.7 and by
decreasing organic loading and increasing HRT, removal
efficiencies of DAP, TOC and COD in study phase A-5,
increased in the step (B). The maximum removal efficiency
was achieved in 300 mg for DAP (92.9% removal effi-
ciency for DAP and 91.82% for COD in phase B-4). The
comparison of attached microbial mass (g TS and g VS) of
study phase B-1 versus B-4 for selected compound
revealed that the increase of organic loading led to higher
secretion of enzymes and biofilm growth. The minimum
efficiencies for COD, TOC and phthalates removal were
observed in the phase C-1 with lowest aeration rate of 60
L/h, but the performance of MBBR did not follow linear
pattern and after increasing aeration rate up to 180 L/h,
MBBR performance was not improved. Although the
highest total attached biofilm mass (g TS) and SRT for both
Fig. 1 Experimental results for MBBR performance in DAP removal (Ahmadi et al. 2015)
E. Ahmadi et al.
phthalates removal were observed in phase C-1 but low
aeration rate may reduce phthalates diffusion, and also can
decrease biofilm sloughing that leads to a thicker biofilm
structure which consequently minimize bioavailability of
inner layers of the biofilm to substrate, biofilm VS/TS ratio
and finally active area of biofilm. Despite of lower volatile
attached biofilm in phase C-3 (17.21 g VS) compare to
phase C-1 (18.96 g VS), MBBR showed the highest DAP
and COD removal efficiency due to increasing catabolic
activity of biofilm as aeration and consequently dissolved
oxygen increased. Similarly, the same results were recor-
ded for DAP removal. However, increasing aeration rate up
to 220 L/h slightly reduced removal of both phthalates,
which might be linked to extreme biofilm washout (Borghei
et al. 2008; Pirsaheb et al. 2009).
COD and TOC experiments showed that In optimum
conditions, 93.85% removal efficiency were achieved for
DAP. Moreover, MBBR achieved to remove about 92.44%
of COD. The results showed that DAP had a high
biodegradation, according to the selected parameters such as
half saturation constant, overall reaction rate and maximum
specific growth rate. The Stover-Kincannon and second
order (Grau) models were found as the best models for
designing and predicting MBBR performance due to their
high coefficent of determination which were more than 0.98.
Increasing hydraulic retention time (HRT) can increase solid
retention times which consequently can improve MBBR
performance (Xu 2013).
Evaluation of Diallyl Phthalate Biodegradation Mechanisms … 1045

Fig. 2 DAP degradation pathway

1046
4 Conclusion
Biofilm mass particularly as volatile solids (VS) found as
vital parameter which can affect the overall efficiency of
MBBR. DAP can be adsorbed by biofilm mass even with
higher concentration of Higher aeration rates (more than
180 L h-1) did not significantly influence the MBBRs’
performance. Total attached biomass (as VS and TS),
Volatile solid to total solid ratio and SRT found as other
contributors in performance.
The main metabolites were phthalic acid and catechol
which can demonstrate that side ester chains
(De-esterification) detachment is the main microbial
degradation pathway. Finally, the remained benzene ring
was broken to 2-Hydroxy muconic semi-aldehyde.
According to the bio-degradation pathway and metabo-
lites produced, MBBR process can be considered as a
reliable way for treating DAP wastewater. Biodegrada-
tion intermediates were detected using GC which equip-
ped with Mass Spectrometer (MS) detector (Fig. 2).
E. Ahmadi et al.
References
Ahmadi E, Gholami M, Farzadkia M, Nabizadeh R, Azari A. Study of
moving bed biofilm reactor in diethyl phthalate and diallyl phthalate
removal from synthetic wastewater. Biores Technol. 2015;183:
129–35.
Borghei SM, Sharbatmaleki M, Pourrezaie P, Borghei G. Kinetics of
organic removal in fixed-bed aerobic biological reactor. Biores
Technol. 2008;99(5):1118–24.
Pirsaheb M, Mesdaghinia A-R, Shahtaheri SJ, Zinatizadeh AA. Kinetic
evaluation and process performance of a fixed film bioreactor
removing phthalic acid and dimethyl phthalate. J Hazard Mater.
2009;167:500–6.
Xu H, Shao X, Zhang Z, Zou Y, Wu X, Yang L. Oxidative stress and
immune related gene expression following exposure to di-n-butyl
phthalate and diethyl phthalate in zebrafish embryos. Ecotoxicol
Environ Saf. 2013;93:39–44.
 Abnormal Behavior of Chott Ain Beida
Brines, Ouargla Basin, Algerian Sahara

Merzouk Zatout, Messaoud Hacini, Ahmed Hichem Hamzaoui,

and Adel M’nif

Keywords
Surficial geology Geochemistry Chott Anthropogenic pressure Urban waters
Evapoconcentration

1 Introduction 3 Results and Discussion

The subject of this study, Chott Ain Beida, is close to Ouargla
city and surrounded by a vast palm plantation (Fig. 1). In the
70s, it was temporarily a solar evaporation pond of the Alge-
rian Society of Salts (ENASEL). Since 2000s, it has been
crossed by an artificial drainage network (Fig. 2), made up to
evacuate the water surplus resulting from groundwater level
rise. Presently, its brines do not show normal hyper arid cli-
mate evaporation response and highlight a strong hetero-
geneity. The aim of this study was to answer was to find out
whether anthropogenic inputs are the only source of these
brines’ abnormal behavior. To this end, geological and geo-
chemical approaches were performed.
2 Material and Methods
Five wells (AB1, AB2, AB3, AB4 and AB5) were drilled.
Four brines sampling stations (S1, S2, S3 and S4), from
December 2011 to end of May 2012, were chosen (Fig. 2).
Three parameters were measured in situ, temperature, pH
and TDS. Furthermore, density and ion analyses were
measured in the laboratory. Phreeqc (Appelo and Postma
1996) software was used for the geochemical study.
M. Zatout (&)
M. Hacini
Laboratoire de Géologie du Sahara, Université Kasdi Merbah
Ouargla, BP 511, 30000 Ouargla, Algeria
e-mail: zatoutm@gmail.com
A. H. Hamzaoui
A. M’nif
Laboratoire de Valorisation des Matériaux Utiles, Centre National
de Recherche en Sciences des Matériaux, Technopole Borj Cedria,
B.P. 73, 8027 Soliman, Tunisia
The rocks forming the basement of the chott show rapid
lateral and vertical changes in lithology (Fig. 3), passing
from very fine to fine eolian sand to sabkha evaporite
deposits dry period (Chamley 1988) represented by halite
and gypsum, intercalated by lacustrine non degraded
organic matter humid period. For this reason, insulated and
permeable areas exist inside the chott. Three chemical
brines families are identified after Piper diagram: Na+ +
Mg2+_chloride, Na+ + Mg2+_sulfate and non-dominant
anion. Moreover, TDS concentration factors (CF) calcu-
lated after chlorine and ionic strength (IS) vary strongly
through the Chott. Indeed, S1 and S3 show high TDS
(>230 gL−1), high CF (4  8) and high IS (>3) while S2
and S4 present low TDS (<200 gL−1), low CF (1  4) and
low IS (<3) (Figs. 4 and 5). Highly concentrated brines are
Na+ + Mg2+_chloride and located in the insulated areas
while low concentrated brines are Na+ + Mg2+_sulfate
located in the permeable ones. This observation corroborate
to brines geochemistry in closed basins (Hardie and Eugster
1970).
Furthermore, Gibbs plot (Fig. 6) for Chott Ain Beida
brines, has clearly established the evapoconcentration
process (green arrow) characterizing the diluted brines of
S2 & S4 and the quasi stationarity (red arrow) of the
concentrated S1 & S3 brines. The slight fluctuations of
high concentrated brines are due to the recorded rainfalls
during the observation period. Also, saturation indices
have established that insulated places present higher val-
ues than the accessible ones for halite, gypsum and bas-
sanite (Fig. 7). These observations are explained by: direct
application of urban diluted waters (TDS: 1  2 gL−1) in

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1047

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_301
1048
Fig. 1 Study area location map
Fig. 2 Drains, wells and stations
position map
S2; S4, relatively far from drains, may be fed by these
water arrivals by subsurface circulation and deep subsur-
face aquifers (Guendouz et al. 2003) more concentrated
than urban waters (TDS: 2  8 gL−1); and finally S1 and
S3 are rainfed stations. Exceptional values of S3 are due
to its flooding in February by the drain.
M. Zatout et al.
According to saturation indices given by Phreeqc using the
Pitzer database for the simulation of Ain Beida brines evap-
oration, the salts crystallization sequence is: Calcite ! Gyp-
sum ! Bassanite ! Mirabilite ! Halite ! Epsomite !
Bloedite ! Sylvite. A similar sequence has established by
Hamdi-Aissa and all (Hamdi-Aissa et al. 2004) in 2004.
Abnormal Behavior of Chott Ain Beida Brines … 1049

Fig. 3 Lithological logs

Concentration Factor Vs Stations Ionic strength Vs TDS

8,0
6,0

7,0 S1& S3
5,0
6,0 S1
S1
Concentration Factor

5,0 4,0
Ionic strength

S3
S2
4,0
3,0
3,0 S4
S3
2,0
S2 & S4
2,0
S2
S4
1,0 1,0

0,0
18/11 7/1 26/2 17/4 6/6 0,0
50 100 150 200 250 300
Sampling Date
TDS (g/L)
Fig. 4 Brines concentration factor
Fig. 5 Brines ionic strength
1050 M. Zatout et al.

Gibbs plot
1000

S1

S2

TDS (gL-1)
100 S3

S4

10
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
Na+/Na+ + Ca2+

Fig. 6 Brines Gibbs plot

SI Vs TDS for Halite TDS (g/L)

SI Vs TDS for Gypsum SI Vs TDS for Basanite
0,0 1,0
50 100 150 200 250 300 2,0
-0,5
S1 0,5 S1
-1,0 1,5 S1

S2 S2
S2
SI

-1,5

SI
0,0
SI

1,0
S3
0 100 200 300
S3
-2,0 S3
TDS (g/L)
0,5 -0,5
S4 S4 S4
-2,5

-3,0 0,0 -1,0

50 100 150 200 250 300
TDS (g/L)

Fig. 7 Minerals saturation indices versus TDS by station

4 Conclusion
Rapid change in lithology has given rise to the identifi-
cation of insulated and accessible areas in Chott Ain
Beida. In the first ones, represented by S1 and S3, brines
are very concentrated through the year and characterized
by high TDS values, ionic strength and minerals satura-
tion indices. In the second ones, represented by S2 and
S4, brines begin to relatively dilute before undergoing
progressively an evapoconcentarion process (Gibbs 1970)
which characterizes the hyperarid climate. These acces-
sible zones receive permanent anthropogenic inflows
and/or deep subsurface aquifers (Guendouz et al. 2003).
Thus, in addition to the anthropogenic pressure, surficial
geology and hydrological context are the causes of the
abnormal geochemical response and the heterogeneity of
Chott Ain Beida brines.
References
Appelo CAJ, Postma D. Geochemistry, groundwater and pollution.
Rotterdam: Balkema; 1996.
Chamley H. Les milieux de sédimentation. BRGM éditions; 1988:173
p.
Gibbs RJ. Mechanisms controlling world water chemistry. Science.
1970;170:1088–90.
Guendouz A, Moulla AS, Edmunds WM, Zouari K, Shand P,
Mamou A. Hydrogeochemical and isotopic evolution of water in
the complexe terminal aquifer in the Algerian Sahara. Hydro-
geol J. 2003;11:483–95.
Hamdi-Aissa B, Valles V, Aventurier A, Ribolzi O. Soils and brine
geochemistry and mineralogy of hyperarid desert playa, Ouargla
Basin, Algerian Sahara. Arid Land Res Manage. 2004;18:103–26.
Hardie LA, Eugster HP. The evolution of closed-basin brines. Miner
Soc Am Spec Pap. 1970;3:273–90.
 Dimunition of Pollution by Improving
the Properties of Polymers Against Climatic
Aleas

Noureddine Hassini

Keywords
Polymers Agro meteorology Sandstorm Gamma irradiation Cold plasma

1 Introduction West Algeria), Ouargla (South East Algeria) and Bechar

Polymers are widely used in all agri-food sectors. Despite
their low cost, among their main disadvantages is their short
life span and consequent pollution. We were interested in the
modifications introduced by particular climatic conditions on
the evolution of the surface properties of polymers treated by
cold plasma and gamma irradiation. We looked for a simple
and inexpensive way to improve the qualities of the surface
to increase the lifetime of the material. This would result in
reduced waste.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Sand Wind Simulation Device
This device simulates a sand wind. The air introduced by a
tube creates a Brownian motion causing the movement of
sand. The sample is fixed inside the device and subjected to
the action of the sand. The sand used was picked up after a
sandy wind in the Ouargla region.
(South West Algeria). These facilities have allowed us to
acquire a great mastery of the agro-meteorological and
physical factors that would influence the greenhouse energy
behavior and the its walls natural aging.
2.3 Glidarc Cold Plasma Treatment
The device allowing cold plasma is localized at STEVA
laboratory located at Mostaganem University. An electric arc
forms between two diverging electrodes raised to a conve-
nient voltage difference at the minimum gap. The arc was
pushed away from the ignition point by the feeding gas flow
and swept along the maximum length of the electrode gap,
forming a large plasma plume. A new arc then appeared and
developed according to the same procedure. The plasma
plume was disposed close enough to the liquid target, so that it
licked the liquid surface, and allowed the chemical reactions
to take place at the plasma-solution interface the resulting
plasma was actually quenched plasma at atmospheric pressure
and quasi-ambient temperature (Dobbi et al. 2012).

2.2 Natural Aging Device 2.4 Gamma Irradiation

The greenhouse used for agro-meteorological monitoring
and the study of natural aging on real sites, is a standard
tunnel greenhouse with a metal framework covered with
polymer. The greenhouses used are located in Oran (North
N. Hassini (&)
Faculté des Sciences Exactes et Informatique, Université de
Mostaganem, Mostaganem, Algeria
e-mail: noureddine.hassini@univ-mosta.dz
The treatment was carried out at the Nuclear Research
Center of Algiers (C.R.N.A.). The radioactive source used is
a Cobalt source 60 enclosed in a cylindrical jacket of
stainless steel having a height of 115.2 cm. The rate with
which we irradiated was about 1.8 KGy/hr. The doses of
irradiation varied between 20 and 200 KGy. The duration of
treatment for each sample varied from a few hours to the
highest doses, up to several days for the low doses.

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_302
1052
3 Results and Discussion
The optical properties were strongly altered in the
UV-Visible domain (Fig. 1). Transmission was practically
halved after sand wind treatment. A FTIR spectral compar-
ison allowed us to detect silicate compounds on the surface
(Fig. 2). The alteration of the surface caused the appearance
of chromophoric sites which promoted the absorption of UV
radiation, and therefore degradation. For treatment with cold
plasma the most important results can be summarized in the
fact that the peaks characteristic of the presence of silica
were less obvious on the treated sample. The changes on the
untreated sample were more important and reflect the pres-
ence of chemical reactions in depth, in fact, the oxidation
100.0
80
60
%T
40
20
200.0 400
λ nm
Fig. 1 UV-Visible transmission of the untreated (a) and treated polymer (b)
Fig. 2 Infrared (FTIR) curves of
treated and untreated samples
N. Hassini
can be revealed by the new peaks that appeared especially on
its FTIR curves (Guenachi et al. 2001; Hassini et al. 2002).
The Young’s modulus, at 1% deformation, as a function
of the plasma treatment showed no significant variation in
Young’s modulus (Fig. 3). This means that the treatments
did not detract from the elastic properties of the material
because the crosslinking phenomena tended to improve the
cohesion of the material (Hassini et al. 2012).
Gamma radiation influences the crystalline fraction of the
material, increasing, or on the contrary, deteriorating the
mechanical properties of the material. Its lifetime is modified
according to the dose received. FTIR spectra on Fig. 4
show the modifications made by a treatment of 60 kGray
during 10s.
a
b
600 800 1000
Dimunition of Pollution by Improving the Properties …
Fig. 3 Mechanical properties of
treated and untreated samples
Fig. 4 FTIR spectra for irradiated (1) and unirradiated samples (2)
4 Conclusion
Solutions to improve the quality of the material and to
optimize the use conditions have been studied. The
plasma treatment of the polyethylene and its treatment
with a simulated sand wind allowed us to continue our
research for the improvement of the surface properties of
this material. Reduction of material transmission in the
visible range is one of the main results observed after
sandblasting. The surface changes, visible on the infrared
spectra in absorbance and reflection, appeared to be both
physical and chemical. Continuous research through the
1053
various analytical techniques will allow us to better
understand the combined effects of plasma and wind
sand.
Gamma irradiation influences the crystalline fraction
of the material, increasing, or on the contrary, deterio-
rating the mechanical properties of the material. Its life-
time is modified according to the dose received.
Radiation treatment allowed us to compare the effects
of plasma treatment and gamma radiation. Our scientific
approach would be complete with studying natural aging
in areas with high sand winds.
References
Dobbi A, Bouabdallah A, Meghoufel FZ, Bouchama M, Hassini N.
Effects of plasma treatment on greenhouse polyethylene cover aged
under natural Sub Saharan conditions. Polym Eng Sci. 2012;52
(11):2304–9.
Hassini N, Dobbi A. Plasma helps polyethylene weather the sandstorm.
Society of Plastics Engineers (SPE), Plastic Research Online; 2012.
Hassini N, Guenachi K, Hamou A, Saiter JM, Marais S, Beucher E.
Polyethylene greenhouse cover aged under simulated sub-Saharan
climatic conditions. Polym Degrad Stab. 2002;75:247–55.
Guenachi K, Hamou A, Hassini N, Saiter JM, Marais S, Beucher E.
Influence of sand winds on the durability of polyethylene green-
houses aged under sub-Saharan climatic conditions. Mater Res
Innovations. 2001;6(4):174–83.
 Prediction of Solid Transport
in the Wandering Section of the Maritime
Reach of the Congo River, Accounting
for the Limits of the Ashmore’s Method

Edouard Konzi Panise Siamo and Yohanan Dzama-Likwanda

Keywords
Divagation region Solid transport Ashmore’s method Sanding recurent
Prediction model

1 Introduction
Between Kinshasa and Matadi on a distance of 366 km, the
Congo River drops from an altitude of 300 m, and the nar-
rowness of this channel and the violent currents that develop
there, prevent sedimentation. From Boma (downstream of
Matadi), the Congo river, which has become a wandering
river, digs its bed into the alluvial plain, 60 km long and
19 km wide, where recurrent silting occurs. The erosive and
alluvial mechanism which conditions the life of the passes of
the wandering region begins to lose its effectiveness and
there is an increase in the degree of silting. The capacity of
solid transport has greatly decreased despite the high current
speeds detected during the various hydrological periods of
recent years. It is a question here of quantifying this solid
transport because of the recurring silting up of this wan-
dering section which disrupts the navigation road of ships.
as the Delft 1 bottle (DF1) for the suspension (L.R.H 1982).
In addition to the reels, the CVM used floats made of 1.40 m
T-shaped wooden boards and weighted to emerge from 25 to
35 cm. The average velocity U on the vertical is given by the
formula: U = 0.85 Us
where Us is the velocity measured at the float and 0.85 the
coefficient considered to be valid for the Congo river (L.R.H
1982). The sedimentation tube made it possible to carry out the
granulometric analysis of the sediments and the results gave an
average median diameter d50 = 0.387 mm for a density of
2650 kg m−3 (L.R.H 1983; Cumps 2008; Peters 2008).
3 Results and Discussion
This led us to test the Ashmore method hereafter by com-
paring the results to the solid flows measured by bed load
(Ashmore 1988):

2 Materials and Methods £ ¼ 3:11ðs  0:03Þ1:37 ð1Þ

where ∅ is the non-dimensional solid flow, s is the Shields

49 samples were used of measurements made by the Com-
parameter and 0.03 represents the critical constraint for
mercial of Waterways (ex R.V.M) for the period between
moving sand (Rodrigues 2011).
1988 and 1989, in the Ntua-Nkulu Channel upstream of the
From this comparison, we obtained an efficiency
diving zone. The solid flow measurements were carried out
r = 1.27.
with a B.T.M.A (Bed-load Transport Meter -Arnhem) sam- QsSim
pler, for sampling the bottom load, with a Delft 1 bottle Note that r ¼ QsMes . is the ratio between the simulated
(DF1) for sampling sand transported near the bottom as well solid flow QsSim et and the measured solid flow QsMes
(Recking 2010).
E. Konzi Panise Siamo (&)
Y. Dzama-Likwanda By looking for the origin of this overestimation, we have
Department de Physique et des Sciences Appliquées, Faculté des
found that it is the estimate of the constraint s that can be
Sciences, Université Pedagogue Nationale, BP 8815, Kinshasa,
Democratic Republic of the Congo the cause.
e-mail: Edouard.konzi@upn.ac.cd

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_303
1056
Fig. 1 Qs ChariTotal (t d−1)
measured sediment fluxes
calculated by the Ashmore Qs
ASM (t d−1) method and the
adjusted Qs AASM(t d−1)
Ashmore method as a function of
liquid flow Q (m3.s−1), in the
wandering region of the Congo
River
Therefore, we proposed to replace the exponent 1.37 by
0.5 but without changing the critical constraint Motion,
which is 0.03 (Konzi 2014).
The formula (1) becomes:
£ ¼ 3:11ðs  0:03Þ0:5 ð2Þ
Figure 1 shows the comparison of total QsCharTotal
(t d−1) sediment flows measured by the Ashmore QASM
(t d−1) method and the adjusted QsAASM (t d−1) Ashmore
method, dependent on the liquid flow Q (m3 s−1).
The efficiency of the new AASM method was 0.52
(52%). To improve it, we eliminated 11 values of the solid
flow rate considered to be singular being very far from the
other values. By comparing the Ashmore method
(ASM) and the adjusted Ashmore method (AASM), using
the in situ measurements, the effectiveness of ASM deteri-
orated by 1.27 (127%)–1.90 (190%), while that of AASM
improved from 0.52 (52%) to 0.82 (82%).
We proposed that if the number of Shields is raised, one
must multiply it by a correction factor, by raising it with the
 52
exponent 52 instead of 32 (Konzi 2014), we will get: n ¼ KK
p l’administration générale de la coopération au développement;
(with K = total coefficient of Strickler, Kp ¼ coefficient
of Stickler of skin). Formula (2) becomes:
£ ¼ 3:11ðns  0:03Þ0:5 ð3Þ
4 Conclusion
The wandering section of the Congo River seaway is the
seat of a solid transport mainly composed of sands. The
application of the Ashmore method to quantify the
E. Konzi Panise Siamo and Y. Dzama-Likwanda
sedimentary flux has shown the limits outside the con-
ditions of use. The reason for this result is the Shields
number high values.
The adjustment of this method gave encouraging
results which were improved by removing eleven
values deemed singular. The validation of this model
adapted to the conditions of solid transport in the
region of the Congo River requires a large scale test in
space and time.
References
Ashmore P. Bed load transport in braided gravel-bed stream models.
Earth Surf Proc Land. 1988;13:677–95.
Cumps F (2008) Hfrométrie: Mesure de débits liquides, mesure de
débits solides, Borgerhout, 87 p.
Konzi PSE. Estimation du transport solide en rivière: Cas test au
Pool-Malabo sur le fleuve Congo (rive-droite). Kinshasa: Thèse de
doctorat, Université Pédagogique Nationale; 2014.
L.R.H. Débits liquides et solides dans le bief maritime du fleuve
Zaïre-Inventaire, MOD.255-19, Borgerhout-Châtelet: Projet de
1982.
L.R.H. Granulométrie des sédiments du lit de la région divagante,
MOD.255-21, Borgerhout-Châtelet: Projet de l’administration
générale de la coopération au développement; 1983.
Peters JJ. Bief maritime du fleuve Congo évolution morphologique de
la région divagante, Stage RVM; 2008. 34 p.
Recking A. A comparison between flume and field bed load transport
data and consequences for surface‐based bed load transport
prediction. Water Resour Res. 2010;46:W03518. doi:10.1029/
2009WR008007.
Rodrigues S. Le transport solide grossier en rivière, Université
François*Rabelais, Tours; 2011. 71 p.
 The Communication Process
for a Sustainable Urbanism in Algeria
Lyazid Hadj-Smaha



Keywords
Sustainable urbanism
1 Introduction
Many researchers have sought to clarify the concept of
sustainability by focusing on the current debates of the city,
its planning, its governance and the adaptation paths to a
sustainable development often using the analysis methods in
the field of social sciences and humanities, quiet specifically
in urbanism, environment, architecture and sociology. These
works agree that the concept of a sustainable urban devel-
opment is considered today as an absolute necessity with the
aim of “the emergence of a new way to design, construct and
manage the city” (Plan “Sustainable City”1Meadow states
“in France to the Council of Ministers on October 22nd,
2008) introducing a new vision imposing new challenges to
the decision-makers, City planners, Architects, Planners, and
even the citizens who put the city in a sustainable context but
also the whole field of the urban planning generally, taking
into account the goals of sustainable development aimed at
reconciling growth, environmental preservation, social and
economic responsibility.
Our objective in this context, was to study what the urban
planning actors have as data to think of the Sustainable City
or Sustainable Urban planning, and to analyse the informa-
tion and the communication processes between these dif-
ferent actors involved in the achievement of this concept. It
is in this interdisciplinary context that our work can be set;
1
http://www.logement.gouv.fr/le-plan-d-action-ville-durable-1126.
L. Hadj-Smaha (&)
DeVisu Laboratory, University of Valenciennes and Hainaut
Cambrésis, Valenciennes, France
e-mail: smahalyaz@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_304


Urban actors Urban communication Good governance
including both the field of urban engineering and commu-
nication sciences.
2 Materials and Methods
The environmental concerns and the need to move from the
quantity to the quality are strongly present in the Algerian
official speeches and the legislative documents referring
systematically to the sustainable development since the year
2001. Although some reforms were undertaken as regards
planning instruments to align with the international evolu-
tions, the system of urban planning did not change whether
at the local or national levels, causing thereby various
problems including the continuity of disproportionate spatial
extension northward., the mass production of housing with
repetitive typology (often marked by a lack of sociability
places, public spaces and vegetations, giving birth to bed-
room communities), the increase of the daily trips by the
private car at the expense of the collective transport, the loss
of the biodiversity, the economic inequality, the weakening
of the ecosystems and the social and environmental
problems.
Our topic focuses on this paradoxical phenomenon that
demonstrates the willingness in the political speech to transit
towards the sustainable urban development on one hand, and
the conflicting results, on the other.
The work presented in this context tends to describe a
kind of state of the art of the urban management in Algeria
by focusing on the adoption of laws for a sustainable urban
development and explaining some projects said sustainable
and affirming then the assumption of a dysfunction of the
coordination process between the various urban actors
(Planners, administrators, citizens and investors).
1057
1058
We can mention the example of the national plan of
Town and country planning (SNAT) for the horizon 2030
where controlling the north fringe growth and the movement
of inhabitants towards the High plateaus, constitute a
guideline in this instrument. However, the strategies of urban
planning being employed by the individual and institutional
urban actors has increased the continuity of disproportionate
spatial extension northward.
We can also mention the introduction of the sustainable
development in the habitat in Algeria in 2005 through the
program of 600 Housing EHP (energy High performance)
distributed in eleven (11) Wilayas from various climatic
zones, but the result is almost identical to the classic housing
given that the same policy based on urgent matters, the
insufficiency of deadlines as well as the laws required by the
contracting authorities were adopted.
3 Results and Discussion
We can say that the policies orientations concerning urban
planning in Algeria “cannot be examined without reference
to a sustainable development” A. Dacunha 2005. However,
this new reference does not seem to modify the urbanistic
methods: obsolete techniques are renewed, even if they are
huge space and energy consumers.
Beyond these conflicting mechanisms and the dilettante
communication between the political speech and the various
urban actors (administrators, planners, citizens), this obser-
vation may lead us to reflect on a cultural evolution. This
means that there is a difficulty of transition from a strictly
“technicist” culture based on the quantitative studies con-
ducted in short deadlines to “another more global and more
interdisciplinary culture in which the quality takes over the
quantity”.
conflicting Dynamics of the urban actors and profound
differences between the citizen and the other urban actors
(Planners, administrators, and investors) are clearly stated, in
other words “the burden of the civil society in the devel-
opement and management city are very reduced”.2 It would
therefore be desirable to move towards a participative
democracy by promoting the dissemination of good prac-
tices at different levels: habitat, district, etc., and entering
into urban governance in the sense of a management based
“on a multitude of actors and emphasize the role of the
mediators, the mobilization of the social agents and the
search for a compromise between the competing interests”3
2
Najet Mouaziz-Bouchentouf. The myth of the urban governance in
Algeria, the case of Oran. Think of the city—comparative approaches,
Oct on 2008, Khenchela, Algeria, p. 159, 2009.
3
KHARROUFI Mr. (2000): “governance and civil society. The urban
transfers in the Maghreb” Africa East.
L. Hadj-Smaha
For this purpose, a good transmission of information and a
reliable communication should be established between the
various urban actors to lead to a strategic urban planning for
a sustainable urban development.
In addition, ICT (INFORMATION AND COMMUNI
CATION TECHNOLOGY) can play the role of an accel-
erator of institutional changes by improving the transmission
of information and the overall efficiency. They can also play
a similar role for societal changes by raising awareness and
involving the society to pass towards a participative
democracy.
4 Conclusion
Asking questions about the decision-making practices
related to the sustainability in the Algerian cities at local
or national levels and on the inconsistencies in the
urbanistic methods is of key importance to understand
this paradoxical phenomenon. The Role of communica-
tion between partners as well as the coordination and the
mobilization of multitude of actors, social groups, and
institutions are fundamental to achieve the objectives
discussed and defined collectively and face the
social/environmental problems.
References
Bagnasco A, Le Gales P. «Les villes européennes comme société et
comme acteur» dans A. Bagnasco, P. Le Galès (dir.),Villes en
Europe, op. cit., p. 38.
Bailleul H. «Les nouvelles formes de la communication autour des
projets urbains: modalités, enjeux, impacts pour un débat partici-
patif», Métropoles, no. 3; 2008.
Bailleul H. Communication et projets urbains. Enjeux et modalités de la
communication entre acteurs du projet et habitants, thèse de
doctorat en aménagement- urbanisme, sous la direction de Denis
martouzet, université François rabelais, tours, 591 p. (soutenue le 7
décembre 2009); 2009.
Benabbas-Kaghouche S. «La ville algérienne: crise, défis et enjeux!»,
Séminaires sur la ville présentés aux étudiants de la première année
post-graduation option urbanisme, promotion; 2003.
Belguidoum S, Mouazziz N. L’urbain informel et les paradoxes de la
ville algériennes: politiques urbaines et légitimité sociale, espaces et
sociétés, No 143 2010/3; 2010: 101–116.
Bendjelid A, Brule JC. Aménageurs et aménagés en Algérie. Héritage
des années Boumedienne et Chadli – Synthèse. In: Bendjelid A,
Brule JC, Fontaine J, editors. France: L’Harmattan; 2004. pp. 31–
68, 419p.
Boulekbache-Mazouz H, Laudati P. «Acteurs et processus communi-
cationnels dans l’acte de construire». Colloque «Acteurs, auteurs,
spectateurs?», DIJON (France), actes, 20–21 Nov 2012.
Bouchemal S. La production de l’urbain en Algérie: entre planification
et pratiques. In: Djelouli Y, Emelianoff C, Bennasr A, Chev Alier J,
editors «L’étalement urbain: un processus incontrôlable». Rennes:
Presses Universitaires de Rennes; 2010. 206p.
Emelianoff C, Stegassy R. Les pionniers de la ville durable. Récits
d’acteurs, portraits de villes en Europe, Paris, Editions Autrement,
collection Villes en mouvement; 2010. 304 p.
The Communication Process for a Sustainable Urbanism in Algeria
Fabry N. Le rôle des TIC dans l’émergence des territoires en transition:
le cas du Tadjikistan., Tic & Territoire: quels développements? île
Rousse 2005.
Gagnebien A. et BAILLEUL H., «La ville durable imaginée: formes et
modalités de la communication d’un projet de société», Études de
communication, 37 | 2011.
Khainnar S, Laudati P. «Les enjeux des politiques urbaines décen-
tralisées: Comment communication et management de la ville se
rejoignent pour construire une démocratie participative» 2006.
Khainnar S. Incertitude et complexité urbaine: rôle de l’information
ascendante dans les processus décisionnels. Colloque Spécialisé en
Sciences de l’Information COSSI. Poitiers 19, 20 juin 2012, pp. 114–126.
1059
Kharroufi M. «Gouvernance et sociétés civiles. Les mutations urbaines
au Maghreb», Afrique Orient 2000.
Laudati P. «Communication et information urbaines: un nouveau
paradigme sémantico-actionnel de l’urbain». XVIème Congrès de la
SFSIC Les sciences de l’information et de la communication:
affirmation et pluralité, COMPIEGNE (France); 2008.
Libaert T. Communication et développement durable:des relations
ambiguës. In: Communication et langages, no 150, 2006. La «
valeur» de la médiation littéraire. pp. 127–133.
Mouaziz-Bouchentouf N. Le mythe de la gouvernance urbaine en
Algerie, le cas d’Oran. Penser la ville – approches comparatives,
Oct 2008, Khenchela, Algerie; 2009. p. 159.
 Simplification of Soil Description
for the Modeling of Nitrogen Leaching
with STICS Model

Rahma Ines Zoghlami, Virginie Parnaudeau, and Christian Walter

Keywords
Modelling Cropping systems STICS Nitrogen leaching Root profile Soil horizons

1 Introduction 2 Material and Methods

Excessive soil N input may lead to N export, mainly as
nitrate (NO3−), to ground and surface water by leaching and
lateral runoff. This results in a range of negative impacts on
the environment and human health, such as eutrophication of
fresh water and coastal ecosystems, fish kills, and reduction
of drinking water quality (Rabalais 2002; Schlesinger 2009).
In regions with severe ground and surface water pollution
most N export originates from agricultural land (Van
Egmond et al. 2002); hence these systems have been the
focus of studies quantifying N budgets (Velthof et al. 2009).
Many modelling studies on nitrogen leaching have been
presented in the past decades, for both agricultural and
natural ecosystems (Li et al. 2006). However, the majority of
these models are computationally intensive and require site
specific calibration and exhaustive soil parameters; hence
they are difficult to apply at a global scale.
The main objective of the study is to simplify the soil
description in STICS (Cropping model with step of daily
time) in terms of soil horizons number and the shape’s curve
of the root profile, while preserving the quantity of leaching
nitrogen calculated coherent with the results of the exhaus-
tive soil description.
R. Ines Zoghlami (&)
Water Research and Technology Center, University of Carthage,
P.O. Box 2738020 Soliman, Tunisia
e-mail: inesrahma.zoghlami@gmail.com
V. Parnaudeau
C. Walter
UMR SAS, INRA, Agrocampus Ouest, 35000 Rennes, France
e-mail: Virginie.Parnaudeau@rennes.inra.fr
C. Walter
e-mail: Christian.Walter@agrocampus-ouest.fr
The considered cultures are: wheat, corn and mustard. The
study was realized for three regions of France: Brittany,
Picardy and Midi-Pyrénées. The plans of simulation
stipulate that every region contains four different grounds
(one soil which horizons are contrasted in terms of
humidity and three soils which horizons are not con-
trasted) and two contrasted climates (a rainy climate and a
dry climate).
In order to simplify the soil description, our strategy was
to reduce the number of soil horizons. We defined three
scenario. In all three cases, the first horizon was not grouped
with other horizons. This assumption was taken into con-
sideration for the following reason: the richness of the first
horizons in organic matter and humus, hence its specificity
in terms of water retention and mineral transfer.
The first scenario consists to calculate the arithmetic
mean of the moisture, and the apparent density of all hori-
zons. The second scenario consists to calculate the average
weighted by the thickness of each horizon. The third sce-
nario consists in extending the moisture and apparent density
values of the second horizon for the rest of the soil depth.
The integration of each scenario to STICS model was real-
ized in order to view the root profile of each culture in
different environment (climate and soil). So we compared
between cylinder and profile type formalism.
2.1 Statistical Analysis
A Pearson product–moment correlation matrix (P  0.05)
was developed to determine the strength of relationship
(r) between the calculated soil parameters. To reveal the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1061

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_305
1062
similarities and differences between calculated variables with
different approach and to assess the relationships between
the observed variables, Principal Component Analysis
(PCA) (Wold et al. 1987) was performed on all the data.
3 Results and Discussion
The simulation conditions chosen for this study allowed us
to find similarities between the profile type and cylinder
formalisms in terms of nitrogen absorbed by plants and
leached nitrogen in the soil. We observed a strong correla-
tion between the studied output variables of the two for-
malisms: cylinder and profile type. In terms of the quantity
of leached and absorbed nitrogen, we concluded that the
effect of the root profile formalism does not influence the
result in terms of the leached and absorbed nitrogen amount,
since there is no difference between significant mean
between the two formalisms studied. The study therefore
concluded that the difference between the average and the
standard deviations of the output variables observed for the
two independent samples (individuals of the root profile and
those of the density root profile formalism) are not signifi-
cant. Each output variable observed in the root profile for-
malism is strongly correlated with the other, formalisms
studied according to the Pearson correlation coefficient. The
principal component analysis confirms the strong correlation
between the variables of the amount of nitrogen for all the
regions combined. The different scenarios do not differ
considering the nitrogen amount and root lengths. Since the
R. Ines Zoghlami et al.
last scenario imagined (S3: according to the method of
prolonging the characteristics of the second horizon on the
rest of the soil profile) is the simplest, it would be more
useful to use this way in soil describing.
4 Conclusion
In summary, the cylinder formalism and the three sce-
narios imagined are equivalent in terms of nitrogen flux
in the soil and root profile with the formalism profile and
the initial scenario in STICS. These assumptions should
be validated on “observed” actual data. The idea of val-
idating the cylindrical formalism in nitrogen amounts was
to validate the option root profile in STICS.
References
Li C, Farahbakhshazad N, Jaynes DB, Dinnes DL, Salas W, McLaugh-
lin D. Modeling nitrate leaching with a biogeochemical model
modified based on observations in a row-crop field in Iowa. Ecol
Model. 2006;196(1–2):116–30.
Rabalais NN. Nitrogen in Aquatic Ecosystems. AMBIO J Hum
Environ. 2002;31(2):102–12.
Schlesinger WH. On the fate of anthropogenic nitrogen. Proc Natl Acad
Sci. 2009;106(1):203–8.
van Egmond K, Bresser T, Bouwman L. The European nitrogen case.
AMBIO J Hum Environ. 2002;31(2):72–8.
Velthof GL, Oudendag D, Witzke HP, Asman WAH, Klimont Z,
Oenema O. Integrated assessment of nitrogen losses from agricul-
ture in EU-27 using MITERRA-EUROPE. J Environ Qual. 2009;
38(2):402.
 Design and Achievement of a New Hybrid
Filter System Used in Cement Works

Abbes Ouari, Ahmed Alibida, Farid Miloua, and Amar Tilmatine

Keywords
Air pollution Hybrid filter Electrostatic precipitation Bag filters Capacitance
measurement

1 Introduction high-speed extractor, PASCO scientific capstone interface,

Nowadays, because of the developed industry, air of atmo-
sphere contains a lot of pollutants and impurities. Most of
them have a negative effect on almost all the systems of the
human body and on human health in general (Grigoriu et al.
2012). To face these forms of air pollution, the University of
Sidi-Bel-Abbès Applications of Plasma, Electrostatics &
Electromagnetic Compatibility (APELEC) laboratory adop-
ted a new environmental protection policy called a hybrid
filter, which combines advantages of electrostatic separation
with those of mechanical separation (media filter) (Mohsen
Zadeh et al. 2006; Boudaghpour and Jadidi 2009). This
technology is easily adapted for new installations as well as
ESP improvements. This filter was the subject of a detailed
experimental study.
Electronic scale, LC meter 500, and a Computer.
The experimental method which is to evaluate a new
filtering technique consists of supplying the hybrid filter
with a high voltage source of negative polarity. Then an
amount of white cement of 400 g was injected into the
hybrid filter. The cement was aspirated by a high-speed
extractor chained to the filter. In this experiment, we mea-
sured the amount of mass filtered in (%) for the same
introduced mass value and at different voltage values. Then
measured the amount of charge and the charge decay in the
electro-filter with the aid of a measuring device (PASCO
electrometer) linked to a faraday cage.
3 Results and Discussion

In this section, we tried to look at the effect of the charge

2 Materials and Methods density deposited on the sample on the decline in surface
potential. The measurements shown in Fig. 2. displays the
The experimental setup is schematically shown in Fig. 1, temporary evolution of the DPS for different values of the
which consisted of a high Voltage Continuous Generator, air deposition potential. During the first instants, there was a
compressor, Hybrid filter, Electric bag filter, Faraday cage, very large decrease of the sample. After a certain time, the
charge has almost disappeared from the surface of the
A. Ouari
A. Alibida
F. Miloua (&)
A. Tilmatine
sample. For a discharge of −12 kV, the decrease was less
APELEC Laboratory, Sidi Bel Abbès University, Sidi Bel Abbès,
Algeria important.
e-mail: milouafarid@gmail.com There is also a crossing of the decline curves (Fig. 3).
A. Ouari During the same measurement period, the declination in (%)
e-mail: ouari.a@hotmail.fr of the sample charged at −20 kV is greater than that of −16
A. Alibida and −12 kV.
e-mail: bidaa@live.fr Figure 4 clearly shows the influence of the voltage on the
A. Tilmatine efficiency of the filter. When the filtration device is presented
e-mail: a.tilmatine@gmail.com as a bag filter, the non filtered inferred mass is equal to 2%.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1063

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_306
1064 A. Ouari et al.

Fig. 1 Experiment setup

Fig. 2 Influence of the voltage on the electric charge of the bag filter
Fig. 3 Decay of charge as function of time

As it passed to a hybrid filter, and as the voltage increases,

the percentage of the unfiltered mass decreases. This can be 2
explained, by the increase in the efficiency of the filtration of 1.5
Mass ( %)

the bag filter due to the charge injected by the corona dis- 1.25
charge and, to the capture by additional electric forces. The 0.75
temporal evolution of the charge as a function of the tension 0.5
(Fig. 5) seems at first glance illogical. This is quite normal
since the measured charge has to be higher for a voltage of 0 -12 -24 -30 -36
24 kV compared to a voltage of 12 kV. Voltage (kV)
It was also observed that for a voltage equal to zero, the
evolution of the charge does not follow a constant variation. Fig. 4 The unfiltered mass as function of voltage
Design and Achievement of a New Hybrid Filter System … 1065

the ground; it ensured the production of an electrical dis-

charge by the corona effect.

3.1.1 Variation of Capacitance as a Function

Fig. 5 Influence of the voltage on the particle collection in the hybrid
filter
Several breaks were recorded (DQ), due to the collection of
particles by gravity, the aerodynamic effect of the air inside
the filtration chamber, and the effect of the air pulses gen-
erated by the solenoid valves. With each pulse, the collected
mass was larger which increases the measured charge.
If we switched to a voltage of −30 kV, we wouldsee the
same thing, but with a greater amplitude than DQ. DQ30 is
greater than DQ0, and this difference is due to the additional
charge acquired by the particles under the effect of the dis-
charge, in addition to that acquired by triboelectric effect.
3.1 Monitoring the Hybrid Filter
by the Capacitance Measurement
The objective of this part was to study the feasibility and the
implementation of a new technique of monitoring an air
filtration device based on the measurement of the electrical
capacitance of the electro-bag (Fig. 6). This capacitance
consisted of: an internal cage (1) or mannequin, whose role
was to keep the fabric filter bag in shape (2), despite the
depression due to the aspiration of the polluted air. The
external cage (3), which represents the second electrode of
the capacitor, also has an electrical role, once connected to
of Operating Time
In this case the hybrid filter behaves like a simple bag filter
since the applied voltage is equal to zero. The variation of
the capacitance as a function of the operating time of the
filter for a constant mass flow rate (2.5 kg/h) is represented
by Fig. 7.
The capacitance is measured by a very sensitive LC meter
(0.001 pF–100.00 mF) which allows measurements of
capacitance or inductance up to a frequency of 500 kHz, for
infinitely small values.
From the measurements carried out, it can be seen that the
capacitance varies linearly with the operating time of the
filter. It is worth 56.68 pF before injecting the powder. This
value is due to the presence of the Fabric Filter Bag, because
without it; it is equal to 55.3 pF. This is consistent with the
following relationship (1).
S
C ¼
r
e0
ð1Þ
e
with:
er relative permittivity of the medium (Channel plus
powder);
e0 relative permittivity of the vacuum;
S surface of the filter media (handle) equal to 1460 cm2;
e Inter-electrode interval equal to 350 mm
The change in the capacitance value is mainly due to the
change in the permittivity er of the inter-electrode medium.
The more the bag filter collects the cement particles; the
greater the measured capacitance becomes.
The capacitance of the medium can be expressed by the
following predicted linear relationship (2):
57,6 Measured capacitance
Predicted capacitance
57,4
Capacitance (pF)

57,2

57,0

(3) (2)
(1) 56,8

56,6
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Operating time (s)

Fig. 6 Photograph of the electro-bag Fig. 7 Variation of the capacitance as a function of operating time
1066 A. Ouari et al.

72 compared to the value of the capacitance which varied from

70 57.12 to 70.33 pF at a voltage of 33 kV.
68
This result can be explained, firstly, by the effect of the
Capacitance (pF)

charging of the fabric due to the deposit of electric charges

66
produced by the corona effect, especially on the outer sur-
64 face of the woven Bags. In this case, the electrostatic
62 attraction forces between the powder particles and the bag
60
filter allow a better capture of the particles, especially the
finest ones. Secondly, a part of the cement particles is col-
58
lected by electrostatic precipitation before its landing on the
56 surface of the bag filter. The variation of the capacitance as a
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Voltage (kV)
function of the voltage can be expressed by the relation of
the first order (3):
Fig. 8 Variation of capacitance as a function of voltage for
tOperating = 144 s CHybrid filter ¼ 0:338  U + 57:07 ð3Þ

CBag filter ¼ 0:00284  tOperating + 56:69 ð2Þ

This variation is not infinite, since the adhesion of the
cement particles on the outer surface of the bag filter
depends on the thickness of the pollutant layer, which once
reaching a certain thickness, a fraction falls by gravity into
the recovery hopper of the filter.
Also, the aerodynamic effect also participates in the
phenomenon of re-entrainment of the collected particles.
As a result, monitoring the bag filter can be achieved by
capacitive measurement. After reaching a saturation zone
(no variation in capacitance), the cleaning of the bag tilter by
a jet of air must be carried out in order to avoid any loss of
charge.
3.1.2 Variation of Capacitance as a Function
of Applied Voltage
Now, we studied the influence of the addition of electrical
part on the efficiency of the filter. The latter behaved as a
hybrid filter. In the Fig. 8 it is possible to see the influence of
the applied voltage in negative polarity on the measured
capacitance for a constant operating time equal to 144 s.
It is clearly observed from the results obtained that the
filtering efficiency of the filter was considerably increased
4 Conclusion
The global trend in the field of dust removal is to sub-
stitute electric filtration technology with media filter
technology, but the cost of converting technology is high
and requires massive investment, which has led to the
emergence of several intermediate solutions and tech-
nologies. So in a first economic concern and in order to
exploit the advantages of both technologies, we have
designed a new hybrid technology.
References
Boudaghpour S, Jadidi A. Investigation of the effect of outlet pollutants
of cement Production industries around Tehran and approaches to
control and eliminate pollutants. Int J Phys Sci. 2009;4(9):486–95.
Grigoriu C, Wang W, Martin D, Biswas P. Capture of particles from an
iron and steel smelter with a pulse-energized electrostatic precip-
itator. Aerosol Air Qual Res. 2012;12:673–82.
Mohsen Zadeh F, NaddaFi K, Nouri J, Babbaie A. Optimization of bag
filter in a cement factory in order to increase of dust collection
efficiency. Biotechnology. 2006;5(2):130–3.
 Kinetic Study of Removal of Pollutants
from Aqueous Solutions

Sarra Hamouda, Salima Bouteraa, Abdellah Bahmani,

Nourredine Bettahar, and Djahida Lerari

Keywords
LDH Adsorption Catalysis Pollution

The suspensions were stirred for time periods ranging

1 Introduction
from 5 to 180 min.
At each scheduled time, a sample of 5 ml of dye solution
The effluent discharged by various textile, paper or plastic
was taken, and the residual dye concentration in the super-
industries contains a large number of dyes, increasing the
natant was measured by UV/Visible spectrophotometer.
total chemical oxygen demand (COD) of wastewaters
(Mavros 1994). Adsorption techniques appear as an efficient
way to remove colored contaminants especially when they
3 Results and Discussion
are non-biodegradable.
Among the different adsorbents, the anionic clays (Rives
Plots of removed amounts of yellow Titan per gram of solid
2001), are promising waste carriers (Forano 2004), particu-
(Qm) versus contact time presented in Fig. 1 shows that the
larly for dye molecules (Webb 1996). Owing to both high
sorption equilibrium of Titan Yellow reached after 60 and
anionic exchange capacities and high layer charge densities,
40 min on both LDH and CLDH, respectively (Table 1).
they favor strong interactions with anionic pollutants.
The results show that dye uptake is rapid in the first stage,
and then changes slowly towards saturation, attained after
240 min.
2 Materials and Methods
Two types of phenomena were observed: Rapid adsorp-
tion followed by a slow adsorption: this phenomenon
A kinetic study of the adsorption of a dye solution (Titan
probably due to the resistance to mass transfer within the
Yellow) was performed for both calcined and uncalcined
grains of the clay particles.
samples at room temperature and pH of solution.
It can be observed that the adsorption capacity Qm in the
case of calcined materials is higher than that of carbonated
materials.
The adsorption kinetics study showed that the Pseudo-
second-order kinetic model could be used to describe dye
removal satisfactorily (Fig. 2).

S. Hamouda (&)
S. Bouteraa
A. Bahmani
N. Bettahar

Laboratory of Inorganic Materials Chemistry and Application,
University of Sciences, Technology of Oran—USTO BP,
BP. 1505Oran, Algeria
e-mail: hamouda.sarah@yahoo.fr
S. Hamouda
D. Lerari
Center for Technical and Scientific Research in Physico-Chemical
Analysis(CRAPC), Bou-Smail, Tipaza, Algeria

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1067

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_307
1068 S. Hamouda et al.

Zn-Al-CO3 Zn-Al-500
160
250
140

120 200

Qe (mg/g)
100
Qe (mg/g)

150
80

60 100
40
50
20

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
t (min) t (min)

Fig. 1 Kinetics of aion of Titan Yellow on Zn–Al–CO3 and Zn–Al-500

Table 1 Optimum time of Equilibrium times (min) Qe (mg/g) Removal dye (%)
equilibrium
[Zn–Al–CO3] 60 146.91 40.80
[Zn–Al-500] 30 236.57 98.57

Zn-Al-CO3
Zn-Al-500
1,4

0,8
1,2
t/Qt= 0.0066.t+ 0.0124 0,7 t/Qt=0.0041.t+0.0048
1,0 R2= 0.9999 R2=0.9999
0,6
t/Qt (g.min.mg-1)

t/Qt(g.min.mg-1)

0,8 0,5

0,4
0,6
0,3
0,4
0,2

0,2 0,1

0,0
0,0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
t (min) t (min)

Fig. 2. Regressions of kinetic plots: pseudo second-order model

4 Conclusion
References
From the present study, it can be seen that [Zn–Al] LDH
has been found as a good agent for the sorption of anionic
Forano C. In: Wypych F, Satyanarayana KG, editors, Clay Surfaces,
pollutants. The results show that the sorption of Titan vol. 425. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press; 2004.
Yellow dye on this LDH can remove a considerable Mavros P, Daniilidou AC, Lazaridis NK, Stergiou L. Environ Technol.
amount of this dye from aqueous solutions. It was noted 1994;15:601.
that the removed quantity by the calcined samples was Rives V. New York: Nova Science Publishers; 2001.
Webb M. Special Publication—RSC 1996;182:135.
higher than the carbonated ones, and the adsorption was
influenced by the contact time.
 Spatial Distribution of Methane Emissions
at Bizerte Active Landfill (Northern Tunisia)
Sana Abid and Moncef Zairi



Keywords
Landfill Biogas
1 Introduction
Atmospheric methane has adverse effects on the surrounding
environment and can affect human life. Because of the
current LFG recovery efficiencies are estimated to be about
50–90% (Gonzalez-Valencia et al. 2016), even at LFG col-
lection system sites, an important amount of CH4 emissions
still escapes. This amount should be estimated and mitigated.
The LFG emission field measurements were conducted
using the static chamber technique. The data were processed
by geospatial interpolation to estimate an equivalent site
emission rate. The leading objective of this study was to
describe the spatial variation of CH4 emissions and deter-
mine different influencing factors.
2 Materials and Methods
This study was performed at an active landfill with an area of
64 ha located at Bizerte City in Northern Tunisia. The site is
equipped with an LFG recovery flaring system. Table 1
shows the waste composition which presents a high organic
fraction (58.6 ± 4.2%) (Chantou 2012). It is typical of
developing countries MSW. The annual precipitation in the
region of Bizerte is 600 mm.
The LFG emission quantification and its spatial vari-
ability relied on the calculation of the gas flux achieved
S. Abid (&)
M. Zairi
Laboratoire Eau Energy et Environnement, ENIS, 3038 Sfax,
Tunisia
e-mail: sana.abid.l3e@gmail.com
M. Zairi
e-mail: moncef.zairi@enis.rnu.tn
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_308



Methane Emissions Geospatial analysis
through the measurement of gas concentration in a static
chamber with an airtight base circumference, using a gas
analyzer. The LFG emission rate measurements were per-
formed in August 2013 at 40 locations across an irregular
10–30 m grid. The gas flux F was estimated as given in
Eq. 1 (Chanton et al. 2011):
F ¼ PVMU ðdc=dtÞ=ATR ð1Þ
where P is pressure (1 atm), V is the chamber volume
(80 L), M is the molar mass of the methane (16 g mol−1), U
is the units conversion factor (0.00144 L min µL−1 d−1), A
is the surface area covered by the chamber (0.4 m2), T is
chamber temperature (kelvin), and R is the gas constant
(0.08205 L atm K−1 mol−1). The slope of the line, dC dt−1,
was determined by linear regression between methane con-
centration and elapsed time.
To estimate the methane emission mean two geospatial
interpolation techniques were applied and compared. These
are the kriging with linear model and nugget effect, and
inverse distance weighting (IDW). To develop a contour
map for LFG emissions, the key parameters for the vari-
ogram model (slope, nugget, and anisotropy ratio and angle)
were used with both the kriging and IDW methods.
3 Results and Discussion
The comparison of the cross-validation residual mean
squares obtained applying the two geospatial interpolation
methods show that the IDW method yielded a smaller degree
of error than the kriging one for CH4 and CO2 emissions.
Thus, the IDW method provides a better model for the
emission data than the kriging one. Abushammala et al.
(2014) and Abichou et al. (2006) had reached the same
1069
1070
Table 1 Typical Bizerte waste Waste components
composition (Chantou 2012)
Putrescible
Papers
Cardboard
Textiles
Plastics
Wood
Metal
Inert material
Miscellaneous
Fines
results. Also, it is clearly noticed that the geospatial mean
IDW has the highest estimation. At Bizerte landfill site, the
majority of hot spot fluxes measured were in the geomem-
brane anchorage areas. Hence, it can be attributed to cracks
in the geomembrane of the final cover and to the variations
in the thickness of the soil cover.
In fact, the flux from the thicker cover would be more
patchy and dominated by hotspots, while the flux from the
thinner cover would be higher but more uniform. The spatial
variability of methane emissions was a result of the under-
lying waste composition, the soil cover thickness variation,
vegetation cover density variations, the CH4 oxidation
activity variation and hotspot emission measurements have
shown higher CH4 and emission values.
4 Conclusion
Landfill management to reduce the fugitive methane
emission to the atmosphere is one of the most important
challenges we face. At an active landfill in Bizerte-
Tunisia, with a high organic matter portion, methane
emissions from the landfill surface were measured by
means of flux chamber and gas analyzer. To assess the
LFG mean emissions over the surface area of the site, a
geospatial interpolation was conducted. The IDW method
S. Abid and M. Zairi
Average composition % by wet weight
54.4
0.9
5
12.5
10.2
2
2.7
4.1
3.2
5
is a more exact interpolator than the kriging method. The
results obtained in this study show that soil cover char-
acteristics (thickness, type, moisture, etc.) and climatic
conditions are significant factors of methane emissions.
In fact, the soil cover is a barrier for biogas and limits the
infiltration of atmospheric air.
References
Abichou T, Powelson D, Chanton J, EscoriazaSh Stern J. Characteriza-
tion of methane flux and oxidation at a solid waste landfill.
J Environ Eng. 2006;132:220–8.
Abushammala MFM, Basri NEA, Basri H, Irwan D, Younes MK.
Methane oxidation in landfill cover soils: a review. Asian J Atmos
Environ. 2014;8–1:1–14.
Chanton J, Abichou T, Langford C, Spokas K, Hater G, Green R.
Observation on the methane oxidation capacity of landfill soils.
Waste Manag. 2011;31:914–25.
Chantou T. Identification des indicateurs de stabilisation des déchets
solides urbains et validation sur un site de PTMB français, pour une
application en Tunisie, thèse, Unilim ENIS; 2012. 236 P.
Gonzalez-Valencia R, Magana-Rodriguez F, Cristóbal J, Thalasso F.
Hotspot detection and spatial distribution of methane emissions
from landfills by a surface probe method. Waste Manag.
2016;55:299–305.
 Control of Particles Flow in Pneumatic
Conveying Lines by Capacitive Measurement

Rafik Sayah, Miloua Farid, and Ouari Abbes

Keywords
Capacitive measurement Charge per mass ratio Dielectric constant
Electrostatic separation Electrical tomography

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Today, electrostatic separation is considered a better possi-
bility for the sorting of granular mixtures (insulator-
conductor) because it offers high quality recycled plastic
and better metal recovery (copper, aluminum, bronze, etc.).
However, this separation requires a method of on-line con-
trol of the recovered product in order to guarantee the reli-
ability of the separation process and the purity of the product
to be separated.
Up to now, there is no reliable online technique which
allows mass quantization of the collected products resulting
from any separation process as a function of time. The aim
of this paper is to propose a new technique for the charac-
terization and quantification of the products of a granular
mixture. This new method, which is currently under inves-
tigation (Byars 2001; Huang et al. 1989), consists in using a
plate capacitor in the form of bins in order to collect the
products to be analyzed. A prototype of a planar electrode
capacitor has been developed to perform measurement tests.
The results of the experiments carried out with this prototype
will then be analyzed in detail.
R. Sayah
M. Farid (&)
O. Abbes
APELEC Laboratory, Sidi Bel Abbès University, Sidi Bel Abbès,
Algeria
e-mail: milouafarid@gmail.com
R. Sayah
e-mail: rafik_vrai@hotmail.fr
O. Abbes
e-mail: ouari.a@hotmail.fr
Figure 1 shows a photograph of our device. This prototype
represents a flat electrode capacitor (CEP), it comprises
metal plates covered by a black colored ribbon (1) arranged
in tongues (2) on either side of a rectangular tank (3). Each
pair of plates thus form a capacitor. The inter-electrode
distance of each pair is e = 11 mm and each armature is
connected to the measuring device via a connection terminal
(4). All plates have the same surface area (Length *
Width) = (230 * 140) mm2.
During all the experiments which follow, weighing of the
masses of the pure products or of mixtures are carried out
using a balance (1), 0.1 g of precision. For the acquisition of
data online, we used a LC meter 500 kHz (2) connected to a
computer (3). The Vibro-Transporter (4) is used to transport
our product and deposit it in the CEP (5) (Fig. 2).
The product transported pneumatically from the recovery
box resulting from an electrostatic separation process is
deposited on the vibro-conveyor which in turn pours it into
the CEP in order to quantify it. Two pure materials were
used, one conductor (copper) and the other ABS insulation
(black) to be able to subsequently determine the purity of a
mixture (Cu-ABS). The size of the products is a few mil-
limeters (Fig. 3). The copper particles have a cylindrical and
spherical shape for the ABS particles. The purity of the
recovered product must be high, which requires
continuous control (Reinecke and Mewes 1996). For this
purpose, a new method based on capacitance measurement
is proposed.

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_309
1072 R. Sayah et al.

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 CEP Behavior in the Presence of Pure

Copper and ABS Particles

Table 1 shows the numerical values obtained by the varia-

tion of capacitance as a function of mass. It is quite clear that
capacity in the case of copper is significantly higher than
ABS.
Figure 4 clearly shows that the variation in the capaci-
tance is linear as a function of the mass. The slope of the
equation obtained for copper is six times that of ABS. This
remark on both slopes allows us to say that the variation of
Fig. 1 Photograph of the realized prototype (flat electrode capacitor)
the copper capacity is greater than that of the ABS. In the

Fig. 2 Experiment setup

Fig. 3 Photograph of pure products used in the experiments

Control of Particles Flow in Pneumatic Conveying Lines … 1073

Table 1 Capacitance values for Inter-electrode distance Mass [g] Capacitance of Cu [pF] Capacitance of ABS [pF]
copper and ABS
e = 22 mm 0 26.66 26.66
20 28.81 27.18
40 31.01 27.56
60 33.9 28.05
80 36.42 28.44
100 39.2 28.85
120 41.79 29.35
140 45.46 29.79
160 47.77 30.26
180 50.01 30.67
200 53.66 31.13

Cu ABS Table 2 Capacitance values for a mixture of 200 g

60
C = 0,135.M + 25,94 M ABS [g] M Cu [g] C [pF]
50
C apacitance (pF)

R² = 0,997
40
200 0 31.13

30 180 20 31.2
C = 0,022.M + 26,68
20 160 40 31.35
R² = 0,999
10 140 60 31.65
0 120 80 32
0 50 100 150 200 250
110 90 32.18
Mass (g)
100 100 32.98
Fig. 4 Variation of capacitance as a function of copper mass and ABS 80 120 34.4
60 140 38.46
case of a conductor where the conductor is represented as a 40 160 41.1
counter electrode on either side of the CEP armatures 20 180 47.11
because of the conductivity of the copper and thus forms two 0 200 52.75
capacitors in series. The two new capacitors thus formed
have two high capacitances (C1, C2) since their
inter-electrode distance is thus limited to the thickness of the 3.3 Determination of the Purity of Copper
insulating adhesive strip. by the Calculation of the Capacitive Ratio

This measurement technique consists in calculating the

3.2 Variation of the Capacitance of the CEP
in Case of a Cu-ABS Mixture
In this part of our work, we will mix two different products,
a conductor and an insulator, in order to study and model the
evolution of capacitance according to the different percent-
ages of the two products. First, a total mass of 200 g of pure
ABS was started and each time 20 g was removed and
replaced with the same mass of copper. For each operation,
the value of the corresponding capacity is taken up to the
value (of capacitance) of a total mass of 200 g of pure
copper. According to Table 2, it can be seen that the
capacitance of the mixture varies from 31.13 pF (to 200 g of
pure ABS) to 52.75 pF (to 200 g of pure Cu).
capacitive ratio of the granular mixture of a well-defined
mass with respect to the reference capacitance. The reference
capacitance is the value of C in the case of a pure product,
that is to say that it has a percentage of 100% of the com-
position of the mixture. In this case, various compositions of
a granular mixture (copper and ABS) will be taken for a total
mass of 200 g. To determine the purity of the copper, it is
sufficient to measure the value of the capacitance for each
composition by LC meter and then divide it by the refer-
ence capacitance (for a total mass of 200 g pure copper).
The results of these calculations are represented in the
Table 3.
The purity of copper is calculated by the following
relation:
1074 R. Sayah et al.

Table 3 Values of the purity of Mass of copper in 200 g of Capacitance of Reference Capacitive Purity
copper as a function of the mixture [g] mixture [pF] capacitance [pF] ratio (%) (%)
capacitive ratio
0 31.13 52.75 59.014218 0
20 31.2 59.1469194 10
40 31.35 59.4312796 20
60 31.65 60 30
80 32 60.6635071 40
100 32.98 62.521327 50
120 34.4 65.2132701 60
140 38.46 72.9099526 70
160 41.1 77.9146919 80
180 47.11 89.3080569 90
200 52.75 100 100

120 mixture. The variation in the purity of copper as a function

100 100
of the capacitive ratio is illustrated in Fig. 5.
90 Indeed, this curve makes it possible to determine the
Copper purity (%)

80 80
70
purity of the copper for any composition of the mixture by a
60 60 simple projection on the axis of purity.
50
40 40
30
20 20 4 Conclusion
10
0 0 In this paper, our study focused on the feasibility of
55 65 75 85 95 105 115 determining the composition of any granular mixture by
CapaciƟve raƟo (%) capacitive measurement performed on a planar electrode
Fig. 5 Evolution of the purity of copper as a function of the capacitive
capacitor. Several sets of experiments were conducted to
ratio establish and validate a new practical technique that
enables materials characterization in a conductor insula-
tion mixture or even insulator-insulator.
MCu
PurityCu ð% Þ ¼ ð1Þ
MT
References
Avec:

MCu : Mass of copper in the mixture;
MT : Total mass of the mixture:
From the results, it is found that it is possible to determine
the purity of the copper from the capacitive ratio. It is only
necessary to measure the value of the capacitance of the
Byars M. Developments in electrical capacitance tomography. In:
Proceedings of the 2nd World Congress on Industrial Process
Tomography, Hannover, Germany; 2001. pp. 542–549.
Huang SM, et al. Tomographic imaging of two-component flow using
capacitance sensors. J Phys E Sci Instrum. 1989;22:173–177.
Reinecke N, Mewes D. Recent Developments and industrial/research
applications of capacitance tomography. Meas Sci Technol.
1996;7:233–46.
 Seawater: Affordable, Reliable
and Sustainable Energy for All
Mohammed K. Al Mesfer



Keywords
Seawater Energy potential
1 Introduction
In order to realise the 7th goal of UN Sustainable Devel-
opment for energy, the best way is to analyze the most
abundant and affordable source on the planet. (UN 2016)
The most abundant source available on earth beside air is
water. The earth’s Surface is covered by 70% of water body.
Among these water bodies, 95.5% of water belongs to the
oceans. (Alan 2003) The global coastal length is around
356,000 km from which energy is being harnessed in form
of tidal waves, thermal gradient etc. (Helfer 2013; Andreas
2016; Ben 2012; Khan 2017) These two systems produce
energy on large scale and need special infrastructure and
specific conditions for operation. Recent research has
focused on the property of saltwater to conduct electric
current when connected in a circuit (Safa 2013). This con-
cept has led many to believe that saltwater is a conductor of
electricity rather than a potential source of energy, which
was broken with the development of sodium ion batteries.
Sodium ion batteries are a recent development and are
gaining a great deal of attraction owing to the fact that Na
mineral salts are virtually inexhaustible and are wide spread
around the world (Yabuuchi 2012; Sun 2015; Slater 2013).
The aim of study is to harness the energy potential of seat-
water through simple and cheaper means, bring down the
mass production of energy to individual level, make the
energy viable and feasible for mass.
M. K. Al Mesfer (&)
Department of Chemical Engineering, King Khalid University,
Abha, Saudi Arabia
e-mail: almesfer@kku.edu.sa
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_310



Aerobic Anaerobic Sustainable
2 Materials and Methods
Seawater is not accessible to all, only coastal areas have an
access to seawater, while artificial saltwater can be created
individually using common salt. The energy potential of
seawater was analyzed in terms of voltage (V) and current
(mA) at varying temperature for both seawater and salt
water. The energy potential was determined under two
conditions viz. aerobic and anaerobic. The electrodes of
aluminium and copper wire of 22 gauge were used in con-
nection with multimeter equipped with data logger to obtain
the readings. The energy potential was analyzed for aerobic
and anaerobic condition because the possible off shore uti-
lization of seawater will be subjected to either one of these
conditions even if used at small scale for energy production
or large scale.
3 Results and Discussion
The energy potential was analyzed under aerobic and
anaerobic condition, to determine the durability of seawater
based energy system. Under aerobic condition the energy
potential lasted for 5 days while under anaerobic condition
the duration of energy potential lasted for 3 days. In aerobic
condition the voltage potential decreased for first three days
but on day 5 it increased, while the current potential
increased for first three days followed by decrease on the
fifth day after which the potential was zero in terms of
current. In anaerobic condition the voltage kept on decrease
each day while current increased on the third day before
energy potential was lost. The increase in potential served as
an indicator before the energy potential was zero in terms of
current (Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4).
1075
1076
Fig. 1 Seawater voltage potential under open condition
Fig. 2 Seawater current potential under open condition
4 Conclusion
The ease of availability and affordability of seawater
makes it a viable option as a sustainable source of energy
to reach out to masses which are deprived of basic
amenities due to economic constraint or remoteness of
their habitat. The low energy potential has resulted in
restricted exploration of the source as renewable energy.
To overcome this obstacle and to make it user friendly
source we have to change the energy distribution system.
In current scenario, Energy is produced on mass scale and
then distributed to the individual consumer as a unit or as
a person. The study suggests that the production of
energy shall be at individual level or individual unit. The
seawater/saline water energy system should first be
M. K. Al Mesfer
Fig. 3 Seawater voltage potential under closed condition
Fig. 4 Seawater current potential under closed condition
explored as a replacement of a part of energy demand and
then should be studied to replace a major portion of
demand.
References
Alan Ward. Weighing Earth’s water from space. Earth Observatory;
December 2003. Available Online at: https://www.earthobservatory.
nasa.gov/Features/WeighingWater/.
Andreas Uihlein and Davide Magana, wave and tidal current energy-a
review of the current state of research beyond technology. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev. 2016;58:1070–1081. Available Online at:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1364032115016676.
Ben Gardner. How many miles of coastline are there in the world?
2012. Available Online at: http://www.quora.com/How-many-
miles-of-coastline-are-there-in-the-world.
Seawater: Affordable, Reliable and Sustainable Energy …
Helfer F, Sahin O, Lemcert CJ, Anissimov YG. Salinity gradient
energy: a new source of renewable energy in Australia. Water
Util J. 2013;5:3–13 (E. W. Publications).
Khan N, Kalair A, Abbas N, Haider A. Review of ocean tidal, wave
and thermal energy technologies. Renew Sustain Energy Rev.
2017;72:590–604. Available Online at: http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S1364032117300965.
Safa Anis. Salt Water Battery,” California State Science Fair, Project
Summary; 2013. Available Online at: https://www.usc.edu/CSSF/
History/2013/Projects/J0601.pdf.
Slater MD, Kim D, Lee E, Johnson CS. Sodium-ion batteries. Adv
Funct Mater. 2013;23(23):947–58.
1077
Sun J, Lee H-W, Pasta M, Yuan H, Zheng G, Sun Y, Li Y, Cui Y.
A phosphorene-graphene hybrid material as a high-capacity anode
for sodium ion batteries. Nat Nanotechnol. 2015;10:980–5.
Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform, Sustainable Develop-
ment Goal 7. Ensure Access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and
modern energy for all. Department of Economic and social affairs,
United Nations; 2016. Available Online at: https://www.
sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg7.
Yabuuchi N, Kajiyama M, Iwatate J, Nishikawa H, Hitorni S,
Okuyama R, Usui R, Yamada Y, Komaba S. P2-type Nax
[Fe1/2Mn3/2]O2 made from earth-abudndant elements for
rechargeable Na batteries. Nat Mater. 2012;11:512–17.
 Study of Nusselt Number Evolution in PCM
Shell-and-Tube Configuration
Mohammed Bechiri and Kacem Mansouri
1 Introduction
To study the fluid flow through tubes constructed with phase
change materials, researchers usually use experimental cor-
relations to represent the Nusselt number evolution along the
tube. Rieger et al. (1982) presented a numerical study of
melting around a horizontal cylinder embedded in phase
change material. Lacroix (1993) developed a theoretical
model to predict the transient behavior of a storage unit
made up of cylindrical tubes of phase change material
(PCM), with a heat transfer fluid (HTF) circulating inside the
tubes in laminar and turbulent regimes. Zhang and Faghri
(1996) presented a semi-analytical solution of latent heat
energy storage system consisting of a hollow cylinder of
phase change material (PCM). The PCM melting was
studied using the Approximate Integral Method. The local
Nusselt number correlation used in laminar and turbulent
regimes was given by Kays and Crawford (1993). Ismail and
Abugderah (2000) studied numerically the transient phase
change phenomena in a thermal energy storage system
consisting of vertical tube. Trp (2005) treated a latent ther-
mal energy storage system consisting of tubes enveloped by
a phase change material. El-Qarnia (2009) developed a
theoretical model based on energy equations to predict the
thermal behavior and performance of a solar latent heat
storage unit (LHSU) consisting of a series of identical tubes
embedded in the phase change material PCM. Tao and He
(2011) established a model of two physical and mathemat-
ical dimensions for a tube bundle storage unit enveloped by
a phase change material.
M. Bechiri (&)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and
Applied Sciences, University of Oum-El-Bouaghi, Oum El
Bouaghi, Algeria
e-mail: bechiri_med@yahoo.fr
M. Bechiri
K. Mansouri
Energy and Mechanical Engineering Laboratory, University M.
Bougara, 35000 Boumerdès, Algeria
e-mail: manskac@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_311
Through the literature we find that the correlations used
are mostly valid for the cases of temperature or heat flux
imposed at the wall. Then, our study came to elaborate a
valid correlation for the cylindrical tube with PCM wall.
2 Problem Description
The thermal storage unit consists of cylindrical tubes of
phase change material, traversed by heat transfer fluid cir-
culating in one direction. Figure 1 shows the studied storage
module. The heat transfer fluid (HTF) circulating inside the
tube by laminar forced convection is subjected to a constant
inlet temperature.
With the enthalpy method, the governing energy equation
is written for the entire PCM region, including solid and
liquid phases and interface, assuming that the density in the
liquid and solid phases is the same. In this case, the math-
ematical model is formulated in cylindrical and resolved
using the finite element method.
3 Results and Discussion
Paraffin was used as a latent heat storage material and water
as heat transfer fluid. Paraffin is a chemically stable and
non-toxic material; it has a high latent heat storage capacity
at low melting/solidification temperatures.
In Fig. 2, the transient variation of the Nusselt number
along the tube is presented for different axial positions. We
can see that the Nusselt number keeps the same evolution
whatever the tube thickness R2, except that there is a time
lag. This lag is related to the PCM melting and saturation
times, since the increase in R2 increases the melting time.
The transient evolution of Nusselt number passes through
three distinct phases, at the flow beginning the Nusselt
number increases quickly with time until the PCM begins its
Melting. At this point, the Nusselt number takes a constant
1079
1080 M. Bechiri and K. Mansouri

r 70

60
Numerical calculation
PCM 50
Flow R2 Chah and London (1978)

T0 u(r) HTF R1 40
Nuav
O x
30

PCM 20

10

Fig. 1 Latent heat storage module

0
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
x (m)

Fig. 3 Axial distribution of average Nusselt Number

18

16
4 Conclusion
0.1m In this work we studied numerically the transient and
14
axial evolution of Nusselt number along a cylindrical
12 tube whose wall was constructed by a phase change
10 0.3m material used in a latent heat storage unit. The results led
Nu to establishment of a correlation linking the average
8
x = 1m Nusselt number to Reynolds number, Prandtl number and
6 dimensionless axial position. Using this correlation, we
R2= 2.5 cm
4
can largely simplify the phase change problems in latent
R2= 2.0 cm
heat storage units using cylindrical tubes.
2 R2= 1.5 cm

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
t (min)
References

Fig. 2 Transient variation of Nusselt number
value until the PCM becomes completely liquid. After the
total melting, the Nusselt number begins to increase again to
a limit value which corresponds to the PCM saturation time,
that is to say the maximum latent and sensible heat storage.
Moreover, whatever the tube thickness, the Nusselt number
decreases each time we move away from the entrance of the
pipe.
In Fig. 3, the average Nusselt number along the tube is
compared with the Nusselt number proposed by Chah and
London (1978) for a solid wall (no phase change) imposed at
an arbitrarily temperature distribution. The comparison
shows a difference of DNu = 6, between the mean Nusselt
number of the present study and the Nusselt number of Chah
and London (1978). From the numerical results we con-
structed a correlation giving the variations of Nusselt num-
ber along the cylindrical tube:
Chah RK, London AL. Laminar forced convection in Ducts. New
York: Academic Press; 1978.
El Qarnia H. Numerical analysis of a coupled solar collector latent heat
storage unit using various phase change materials for heating the
water. Energy Convers Manag. 2009;50:247–54.
Ismail KAR, Abugderah MM. Performance of a thermal storage system
of the vertical tube type. Energy Convers Manag. 2000;41:1165–90.
Kays WM, Crawford ME. Convective heat and mass transfer. New
York: Tata McGraw-Hill Education; 1993.
Lacroix M. Numerical simulation of a shell-and-tube latent heat thermal
energy storage unit. Sol Energy. 1993;50(4):357–67.
Rieger H, Projahn U, Beer H. Analysis of the heat transport
mechanisms during melting around a horizontal circular cylinder.
Int J Heat Mass Transf. 1982;25(1):137–47.
Tao YB, He YL. Numerical study on thermal energy storage
performance of phase change material under non-steady-state inlet
boundary. Appl Energy. 2011;88:4172–9.
Trp. An experimental and numerical investigation of heat transfer
during technical grade paraffin melting and solidification in a
shell-and-tube latent thermal energy storage unit. Solar Energy
2005;79:648–60.
Zhang Y, Faghri A. Semi-analytical solution of thermal energy storage
system with conjugate laminar forced convection. Int J Heat Mass
Transf. 1996;39(4):717–24.
 Analysis of Numerical Simulation
of the Hydrodynamics in Swimming Pools,
in Terms of Water Quality

Mostefa Dougha, Mahmoud Hasbaia, and André Girou

Keywords
CFD k-e turbulence models Hydrodynamics RTD Swimming pool

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

The main purpose of the study is security and health of the
bathers in swimming pools. It is based on the respect of
water quality Standards and on the limit of microorganism
development by the disinfection processes (Liu and Ducoste
2006; Stamou 2008). The control of hydrodynamic is defi-
nitely important; it is probably one of the basic problems of
water quality control. In particular, the efficiency of disin-
fection in the water pool is dependent upon the hydraulic
behaviour. These hydrodynamic conditions govern the dis-
infectant transport, in which, the inactive microorganisms
are produced during night-time. The three-dimensional of
the hydraulic behaviour in the swimming pool was linked
with its water circulation system (inlets and outlets disposal)
and geometric characteristics. Most of these hydraulic
behaviours of pools have been controlled by jet flow mixing.
This flow has ensured continuity of the water in the pools.
The method followed for correctly modelling of the
hydraulic behaviour in the water pool passes by the good
modelling of these fundamental flows (inflow, outflow and
near-wall flow). Therefore, the main aim of the study was to
show the disadvantages of the design for three existing
swimming pools, which made it possible to study the
effectiveness of the disinfection process.
M. Dougha (&)
M. Hasbaia
Laboratory of CECSD, Department of Hydraulic, M’sila
University, 28000 M’sila, Algeria
e-mail: m_dougha@yahoo.fr
AndréGirou
LIPE EA 833 Industrial Process Engineering Department, INSA
de Toulouse, 31077 Toulouse, France
Mathematical models: The CFD software package FIDAP
was used to model the hydrodynamic behaviour and predict
residence time distribution (RTD) curves (FIDAP 8.5 2000),
This software is used to solve a k-e turbulence models and
scalar transport equation for each node defined by the
meshing of the study domain in a finite element method.
Mesh generation is one of the most important steps to set
up a numerical model. The mesh criteria require the appli-
cation of the multiblock grids that showed its effectiveness in
several industrial fields (He 1996; Weatherill and Soni
1991). Two fundamental flows are considered for the jet
flow; the outflows and near wall flow. The generation mesh
of water pool was distributed in accordance with local
hydraulic necessity. The mesh has a finer spacing at the
inlet/outlet sections and near wall regions.
Tracer technique: The selected measure is the local
variation of the tracer concentration, in which the
Pulse-injection of a non-transferable tracer (sodium chloride)
at the inlet of the water pool. The Residence Time Distri-
bution (RTD) curve is obtained by recording the
concentration-time of the tracer. The registration of the tracer
concentration can be achieved by conductivity probe
implemented in set-positions above the outlet flow. The
change of salt concentration makes it possible to change the
electrical conductivity of the medium (Zhang et al. 2005;
Werner and Kadlec 1996). The measurement data were
transferred to a personal computer equipped with an acqui-
sition card. The dysfunction of the water pool was consid-
ered with open water circulation.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1081

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_312
1082
3 Results and Discussion
In this study, we were interested in showing and analysing
the hydrodynamic disadvantages of the water pools, to give
non-renewable zones and the weak mixing zones, which can
highlight the problems of the absence of disinfectant. The
weak velocity and weak mixing zones and the parietal
shearing stress fields are the hydrodynamic indicators of the
active zones of microorganisms. The use of parietal shearing
stress is based on the idea that the development of biofilms
on the pool walls can be limited by the dynamic effect.
Figures 1 and 2 show the distribution fields of the mean
velocity in principal planes of three swimming pools and the
low mean velocity zones near the wall (The low velocity is
limited by the critical value of the decanting phenomenon).
The first observations show the positioning of low mean
velocity zones, located at the wall layers (pools: A, B and
C); at the walls corner (pools: C, A and B); far from the
jet-flows (pools: A and B); around the massive objects in the
pool (presence of staircases, pool C).
In general, the experimental/numerical comparison
described by RTD curves validates the numerical simulation
performed on the hydrodynamic fields and the mass trans-
port field. In the RTD curves, the concentration is dimen-
sionless compared to the total injected tracer concentration
distributed uniformly in pool volume (C0 ).
M. Dougha et al.
Figure 3 shows the comparisons between the RTD curves
of the experimental swimming pool in open water circula-
tion. In this validation case, the swimming pool functions
with a water circulation that the four basic catches bring
back water and the other four outlets close to the staircases
receive the water.
The numerical and experimental curves plotted are indi-
cators of the global performance of the hydraulic behaviour.
The comparison is good. In fact these numerical results are
very interesting in the prediction and substitution for the
systematic realisation of a water pool.
4 Conclusion
In this work, we established a control method of the
hydrodynamic behaviour for swimming pools, which was
influenced by geometrical and hydraulic effects. The aim
of the study was to find a strategy to control the numerical
tool for the water quality in a swimming pool. Three
different swimming pool types were treated with different
water circulations. The obtained results show the hydro-
dynamic disadvantages of a water pool, i.e., the existence
of non-renewable zones and the weak mixing zones,
which can highlight some problems of lack of disinfec-
tant and of microorganisms development. The numerical
results of the hydrodynamics and the mass transport were
Analysis of Numerical Simulation of the Hydrodynamics … 1083

Fig. 1 Mean velocity contours

visualised for three swimming
(a)
pools with different water
circulation systems

(b)

(c)
1084 M. Dougha et al.

Fig. 2 Distribution of weak (a)

velocity zones: a Sporting pool,
b Leisure pool, c Experimental
pool

(b)

(c)
Analysis of Numerical Simulation of the Hydrodynamics …
Fig. 3 Experimental and numerical RTD curves above outlets of experimental pool
validated by the experimental data. Generally, the
obtained results from the numerical simulation enable to
distinguish the best quality through the comparison of the
experimental results.
References
FIDAP 8.5. Update manual. USA: Fluent Inc.; 2000.
He L. A multi-block 3-dimensional flow solver, user’s guide version 1.
Durham: University of Durham; 1996.
1085
Liu Y, Ducoste J. Numerical simulation of chloramines formation in
turbulent flow using a multi-fluid micro mixing model. Environ
Model Softw. 2006;21(8):1198–213.
Stamou AI. Improving the hydraulic efficiency of water process tanks
using CFD models. Chem Eng Process. 2008;47(8):1179–89.
Weatherill NP, Soni BK. Grid adaptation and refinement in structured
and unstructured algorithms. In: Proceedings of the third interna-
tional conference on numerical grid generation in Barcelona. North
Holland: Elsevier Science Publishers; 1991. pp. 143–158.
Werner T, Kadlec R. Application of residence time distributions to
storm water treatment systems. Ecol Eng. 1996;7(3):213–34.
Zhang TW, Wang TF, Wang JF. Mathematical modelling of the
residence time distribution in loop reactors. Chem Eng Process.
2005;44(11):1221–7.
 Flow Behaviour Analysis Through a Venturi

Wahiba Mokrane and Ahmed Kettab

Keywords
Flow Pressure Vapour Air bubble Radius Venturi

1 Introduction experimental tests show that the air phase is tightly related to
the arriving flow. Thomas’ number is a decisive parameter in
In this work, a particular attention is paid, for pressure detecting when cavitations start. In addition, the Reynolds’
changes because its decrease makes air bubbles and its number and the air section length are also important to
increase implies their implosion accompanied by a consid- analyze the flow behaviour through a venture. Using the
erable free energy involving damage on materials (Hager Rayleigh Plesset ordinary differential equation allows ana-
and Schleiss 2009). The strength defined as pressure lyzing the pressure field changes considering the air bubble
implosion was linked to the bubbles size distribution (Novak size.
et al. 2010). The development of an air phase in a venture
defined as a cavitation phenomenon has attracted the inten-
tion of several investigators for its occurring in various 2 Materials and Methods
fields. All noises in water are related to air bubbles created
by cavitations (Gogish and Molodykh 1987). A type of This study consists of a mathematical tool for the evolution
prawn uses cavitations as a tool to capture the prey when its of pressure with the dimension of bubbles and an experi-
hypertrophied clamp is closed quickly as a bubble appears mental tool for observing the air phase development. The
and knocks the organism by its bursting. In the medical field, mathematical tool is given by the famous Rayleigh Plesset
air bubbles participate in the improvement of image contrast equation (Franc and Michel 2005; Gogish and Molodykh
used (Leroy 2004) but for hydraulic machinery this phe- 1987):
nomenon is the cause of a great deal of damage. Channels    12
and pipes are exposed to this problem, too, and some dR 2 Pv  p R30
¼ 1 ð1Þ
instructions have to be introduced in their calculus (Hager dt 3 ql R3
and Schleiss 2009). Flows containing gas bubbles are not
always subject to rapid changes and in the case of a venturi And the pressure field is given by:
the two interfaces liquid and vapor have a stable pressure on    
Pðr; tÞ  P0 R R30 R4 R30
one side which is practically equal to the vapor pressure. The ¼  4   1
P0  Pv r R3 r 4 R3

W. Mokrane (&)
A. Kettab Or in a more simplified form (Brinckhrost et al. 2015):

Research Laboratory of Water Sciences-LRS-EAU, National
 2  
Polytechnic School, Algiers, 10 Av. Hacene-badi, BP182, 16200 dR 2 Pv  p
El-Harrach, Algeria ¼
e-mail: mokanewah@yahoo.fr dt 3 ql
W. Mokrane
Department of Urban Hydraulic, National High School of
Hydraulic, BP31 Guerouaou, Blida, Algeria

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1087

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_313
1088 W. Mokrane and A. Kettab

-0.5
r ¼ 0:0063Re  150 and Lc ¼ 0:001r2 þ 0:05r þ 0:55
-0.6

-0.7 Thomas’ number is insignificant for values of ‘Re’ lower

-0.8
than 20,000 which is confirmed by small values for ‘Lc’ the
cavitations length. This means that bubbles density increases
(P-P0)/(P0-Pv)

-0.9 X: 2.099
Y: -1 with turbulence.
-1

-1.1
4 Conclusion
-1.2
The flow through a venturi is characterized by the throat
-1.3 influence, including a pressure decreasing and appearance
-1.4 of an additional air phase. Analyzing this implies fol-
-1.5
lowing the pressure field behaviour and detecting the
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 cavitations zone. Experimental tests carried on the
Q(l/s)
transparent venturi have given a good relationship
Fig. 1 Evolution of the pressure field with flow between the Reynolds, the Cavitations numbers and the
air section length. The bubbles size is taken into account
using Rayleigh Plesset ordinary differential equation. The
where ‘r’ defines the liquid phase, water in this case, ‘R’ the maximum, mean and minimum experimental values of
air phase, ‘R0’ initial bubble size, ‘P’ pressure phase, ‘Pv’ the pressure field show, using the mathematical model
vapour pressure and ‘ql’ specific mass of liquid. that bubbles radius increases from the initial one in the
The experimental set up is an apparatus referenced unstable zone and for a rapport between water and air
EH505, containing a transparent venturi and corresponding phase more than one.
to the British Standards BS1042.

3 Results and Discussion
When the pressure field is plotted depending on the coming
flows. Three zones were distinguished, stable until the flow
takes the value of ‘2.099 l/s’ for a field of “−1” which sig-
nifies that the pressure value is equal to the vapour one ‘Pv’,
it is the second zone, it is called inception point. The third
one is unstable and it is the full developed air section. This is
illustrated by the Fig. 1.
For a minimum value of ‘−0.61’ the flow is 1.5 l/s, for a mean
value ‘−1.08’ it is 2.85 l/s and for a maximum value of ‘−1.38’ it
is 2.15 l/s. Using the Rayleigh Plesset equation solution, the air
bubble radius ‘R’ is greater than the initial one ‘R0’.
Thomas number ‘r’ is related to the Reynolds number
‘Re’ in a linear form and also to the air section length ‘Lc’ as
follows:
References
Brinckhrost S, et al. Numerical investigation of cavitating Herscel
venture-tubes applied to flow metering. Flow Measur Instrum.
2015;43:23–33.
Franc JP, Michel JM. Fundamentals of cavitation. The Netherlands:
Kluwer academic publishers; 2005.
Gogish LV, Molodykh OV. Quasihomogeneous model of cavitation
flows in diffuser channels. Fluid Dyn. 1986;21(5):55–62 (Plenum
Publishing Corporation).
Hager WH, Schleiss AJ. Constructions hydrauliques. In: Presses
polytechniques et universitaires romandes, vol. 15; 2009.
Leroy V. Bules d’air dans l’eau: couplage d’oscillateurs harmoniques et
excitation paramétrique. Doctorat, université Paris 7; 2004.
Novak P, et al. Hydraulic modelling. Milton Park: Taylor & Francis;
2010.
 Investigating the Impacts of Soil and Water
Conservation Measures on Hydrology
and Soil Loss in Humid Ethiopian Highlands
of Upper Blue Nile Basin

Addisu Dagnew, Habtam Mekonnen, Seifu Tilahun,

Nigussie Haregeweyn, and Enyew Adgo

Keywords
Sediment load Experimental plots SWC measures

determination of soil loss and sediment yields is required using

1 Introduction
Soil erosion caused by Water is a serious and continuous
environmental problem in many parts of the world (Kama-
ludin et al. 2013; Shiferaw and Holden 1999). Globally,
about 80% of the current degradation of agricultural land is
due to soil erosion (Angima et al. 2003). Erosion by water, at
a global scale, is the main soil degradation process in agri-
cultural areas (Bewket and Sterk 2002).
In the Ethiopian highlands at the scale of small watersheds,
integrated and sustainable soil and water conservation
(SWC) activities have been implemented since the 1980s,
particularly in the uplands. Numerous studies are not however
available to evaluate the effectiveness of various SWC mea-
sures in achieving their objective. Thus to investigate the
effectiveness of conservation practices on the watershed, the
A. Dagnew (&)
School of Water Technology, Aksum University, Shire, 314
Axum, Ethiopia
e-mail: guaaddisu@yahoo.com
H. Mekonnen
Tana Sub Basin Organization, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
e-mail: habt.ache@yahoo.com
S. Tilahun
Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering, Bahir Dar
University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
e-mail: seifuad@yahoo.co.uk
N. Haregeweyn
International Platform for Dry Land Research and Education,
Tottori University, Tottori, Japan
e-mail: nigussie_haregeweyn@yahoo.com
E. Adgo
College of Agriculture and Environmental Science, Bahir Dar
University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
e-mail: enyewadgo@gmail.com
treated and control plots in the watershed. Thus, representative
plots have been used to compare the effects of management
activities on sediment yield at plot and watershed scale.
2 Materials and Methods
The study was carried out at Kasry catchment of Upper Blue
Nile Basin, Ethiopia. Geographically it is located at latitude and
longitude of 11° 46′ 38″N and 037° 40′ 52″E, respectively.
The area has dominantly clay and clay loam soils. Seven rep-
resentative plot experimental fields (two cultivated field having
5 and 15% slope and five non cultivated fields: grazing land,
degraded bush land eucalyptus plantation, acacia decurrens
plantation with 5 and 25% slope) were selected for monitoring
of runoff and sediment yields during the main rainy-season
(July, 2014–September, 2014). A total of eighteen test plots
differing in land use, slope and conservation practice were set
up in the watershed. The plots have a size of 6 m  30 m and
runoffs were collected in the runoff collecting trench down the
plot. Physical conservation measures (soil bund, fanayaju
bunds, soil bund with biological treatments) were introduced
with growing pea and corn crops on cultivated land, while, on
the non- cultivated lands, field runoff collecting trenches con-
servation measures were used. A total of eight plots on culti-
vated land, and ten plots on non-cultivated were established.
Trapezoidal runoff harvesting trench would be excavated at the
lower end of each plot with a bottom area of 1.5 m * 3.5 m, a
top surface area of 3 m * 5 m and 1 m depth. Data have been
collected from each plot on a daily basis for the period from 1
July, 2014 to 30 September, 2014. On every runoff depth
reading, one liter samples of suspended water were taken. The
sediment samplings were taken with thoroughly mixing of the
collected runoff.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1089

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_314
1090
3 Results and Discussion
Effect of conservation practice, land use and slope on plot
level runoff response and sediment yield
The monthly rainfall for the area during July, August and
September 2014 were 382, 390, and 357 mm, respectively.
The runoff coefficient from plots show that higher runoff
coefficients occurred during the month of August on plots of
untreated cultivated land (15%), untreated grazing land,
untreated accacia decurrens plantation (5%), cultivated land
treated with fanayajju (15%) having a value of 0.56, 0.45,
0.43, and 0.32, respectively and the least runoff coefficient
(0.07) occurred on cultivated land treated with fanayajuu
(5%) during the same month. During July, August and
September, the runoff coefficients were higher from Plots of
control grazing land and control accacia decurrens plantation
(5% slope). This was on the grazing land where the grown
grass was removed for cattle feeds and the decurrens plan-
tation was also dominantly covered with local flowering
grasses that have almost the same effect as the grazing lands.
The studies conducted by Gebeyehu et al. (2013), on
semi-arid Ethiopian highlands also reported that the runoff
coefficients from range lands without conservation measures
were clearly higher than crop lands and their values range
within (0.38 < RCs < 0.5). Depending on the slope type,
cover factor, conservation practice and rainfall intensity, the
runoff coefficients varied across the plots.
Runoff responses were higher for grazing land as com-
pared to cultivated lands because of tillage, crop cover and
other practices. However, due to the continuous removal of
grass and soil compaction by cattle on grazing lands, the
runoffs increased by reducing infiltration. The results of
runoff and sediment yields show that there is a difference in
magnitude on plots of different land use types.
Compared to control plots, the average runoff reduction
due to the introduction of Soil Bund, Fanayajuu and Soil
Bund with Biological measures were 19, 29 and 33% for
Cultivated land with 5% slope and 42, 38 and 42% for
Cultivated land with 15% slope, respectively. The effect of
trench conservation measure on grazing land, degraded bush
land, accacia decurrens plantation (5% slope), accacia
decurrence plantation (25%) and eucalyptus plantation were
75, 30, 74, 61 and 31%, respectively. The reduction is higher
on 15% slope cultivated lands than 5% slope cultivated land.
This result may indicate that runoff generation is higher on
steep slopes than gentle slope cultivated lands. The trench
conservation measure reduces runoff more on Grazing Land,
accacia decureens plantation 5% slope and accacia decurrens
plantation 25% slope, respectively.
The sediment concentration [g/l] is higher from July to half
of August and decreases on September. In the northern part of
Ethiopia, soil loss by water occurs mainly at the beginning of
the main summer rainy season. At this time, agricultural fields
A. Dagnew et al.
have undergone tillage operations that lead to splash and
runoff erosion (Virgo and Munro 1978). With the advance of
the rainy season, Mulugeta (1988) states that soil loss
decreases as it is negatively correlated with crop or land cover.
4 Conclusion
Experimental plots that yield the highest total runoff volume
in the study time period was in the untreated grazing land
482.7 mm and the least was in the untreated cultivated land1
(5% slope) 179.6 mm. Soil bund, fanayaju, and soil bund
with biological measures on plots of cultivated land2 (15%
slope) reduced the sediment load by 41.6, 67.5 and 78.6%,
respectively. Trench conservation practice also had a signif-
icant sediment load reduction from plots of accacia decurrens
plantation (5% slope), accacia decurrens planation (25%
slope), degraded bush land, grazing land, and eucalyptus
plantation. Trench conservation measures have reduced the
sediment load by 60% on eucalyptus community forest, 49%
on sloppy acacia decurrens plantations (25% slope) and 35%
on grazing lands. Soil and water conservation practices as a
whole increase infiltration and reduce surface runoff. They
increase infiltration rate and reduce surface runoff, reduce the
sediment scouring and carrying capacity of runoff. Generally,
all the conservation practices introduced on each plot were
effective for sediment load reduction.
Hence soil loss can be decreased by reducing the slope
length or overland flow length and diverting the direction
of overland flow path of fields. Therefore, constructing soil
bunds, soil bunds with biological treatments, fanayaju and
trench structures can reduce the overland flow and soil
loss. As a result watershed management activities shall be
encouraged to implement such conservation practices to
reduce runoff magnitude and soil erosion rate.
References
Angima S, Stott D, O’neill M, Ong C, Weesies G. Soil erosion
prediction using RUSLE for central Kenyan highland conditions.
Agric Ecosyst Environ 2003;97(1):295–308.
Bewket W, Sterk G. Farmers’ participation in soil and water
conservation activities in the Chemoga watershed, Blue Nile basin,
Ethiopia. Land Degrad Dev. 2002;13(3):189–200.
Kamaludin H, Lihan T, Ali Rahman Z, Mustapha M, Idris W, Rahim S.
Integration of remote sensing, RUSLE and GIS to model potential
soil loss and sediment yield (SY). Hydrol Earth Syst Sci Discuss.
2013;10(4):4567–96.
Mulugeta G. Modelling the geometry of Coulomb thrust wedges.
J Struct Geol. 1988;10(8):847–59.
Shiferaw B, Holden S. Soil erosion and smallholders’ conservation
decisions in the highlands of Ethiopia. World Dev. 1999;27(4):739–52.
Virgo K, Munro R. Soil and erosion features of the Central Plateau
region of Tigrai, Ethiopia. Geoderma. 1978;20(2):131–57.
 Experimental Analysis of the Morphological
Evolution of a Sand Bed Channel
Mohamed Gharbi, Amel Soualmia, and Denis Dartus
1 Introduction
This contribution focused on the study of the channel bottom
morphological evolution relying on an experimental study in
a rectangular channel. Our approach is based on two main
objectives. First, we studied the evolution of the erosion rate
of sand particles in the channel. Second, we determined the
geomorphological evolution of the sandy bottom along the
channel. Furthermore, numerical simulations tests were
performed relying on several models designed for quanti-
fying the bed load transport. Once the bed load rate is
determined we can calculate the amount of changes in the
channel bottom. Finally, a comparative analysis between the
calculated results and the experimental data was performed.
2 Materials and Methods
An experimental study was conducted at the Laboratory of
Water Science and Technology (LSTE) of the National
Agronomic Institute of Tunisia (INAT). The aim was to
visualize the morphological evolution of the channel bottom
consisting of fine sand under the effect of a steady flow. The
experiments were carried out in the rectangular inclinable
flume of L = 5 m length and B = 7.5 cm width. The side
walls are made of glass to allow observation of the flow
(Fig. 1).
A layer of fine sand of diameter D = 250 lm was placed
in the middle of the channel over a length of 2 m. To
maintain the sand layer, two thresholds were installed of
long 12.5 cm and wide 7.5 cm. Once the bed was ready,
M. Gharbi (&)
Laboratory of Water Science and Technology, The National
Agronomic Institute of Tunisia, University of Carthage, Tunis,
Tunisia
e-mail: mohamedgharbi2007@hotmail.fr
A. Soualmia
D. Dartus
Institute of Fluid Mechanics of Toulouse, National Polytechnic
Institute of Toulouse, University of Toulouse, Toulouse, France
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_315
clear water was injected by a pump at the upstream flume
inlet with constant discharge (no injection of sediment)
(Gharbi et al. 2016). In parallel with the experimental study,
a full analysis of several pick-up functions for predicting the
erosion rate (ne) was performed. Four bed load transport
formulas: Einstein (1950), Fernandez-Luque and Van Beek
(1976), Van Rijn (1981) and Lajeunesse et al. (2010) were
tested. A 2D hydro sedimentary modeling was developed via
SISYPHE coupled with TELEMAC 2D. The set-up model
converse the amount of sediment carried into volume of
sediments to determine the evolution of the corresponding
morphological change in the channel bottom, relying on the
resolution of the Exner equation (Recking 2013). The
established model provides a detailed description of the
hydraulics parameters variation on the sediment transport
rates. It also allows determining accurately the variations in
the geometry of the sand layer along the channel.
3 Results and Discussion
Several simulations were performed using the most preva-
lent laws for predicting the erosion rate (Table 1). The aim
was to visualize the effectiveness of these formulas in the
erosion rate prediction. The results of the simulation of the
erosion capacity calculated by the models are summarized in
Fig. 2.
The analysis of the simulation results shows that the
different models correctly reproduce the reality. The erosion
phenomena depend basically on the variation of hydraulics
parameters, especially the bed shear stress.
The erosion rate increases from the upstream to the
downstream channel until a maximum value of 1.2 kg/m2/s.
However, few differences could be noticed between the
values simulated by the models. These differences may be
justified by the fact that these empirical laws are highly
dependent on particle size. Moreover, the presence of two
barriers to maintain the sand layer contributes to the
1091
1092 M. Gharbi et al.

Fig. 1 Experimental set-up and

equipment (INAT)

Table 1 Comparison of eroded t=0 t = 5 min t = 10 min t = 15 min t = 30 min

sand volumes (%) for the different
models Formulas Volume of eroded sediment (%)
Einstein (1950) 0 0.6 2.6 4.8 12.2
Fernandez-Luque and Van Beek 0 6.2 15.4 24.2 43.6
(1976)
Van Rijn (1981) 0 4.2 11 18.2 34
Charru et al. (2004) 0 5 12.2 20.2 40

1.4 of the results shows that both models Lajeunesse et al. and
1.2
Van Rijn give satisfactory results. Yet, over time
Fernandez-Luque’s model overestimated the eroded sand
Erosion rate (kg/m²/s)

1 particles. Moreover, the presence of the two barriers disrupts

0.8 the flow and forced the water level to rise and go over the
barrier and showed the hydraulic jump phenomenon. This
0.6 Einstein causes a significant variation in the water depth in the
0.4 Fernandez-Luque channel. The hydraulic jump is one of the most complex
0.2
Van Rijn
phenomena in an open channel flow which strongly influ-
Charru
ences the model calculations. Below is a comparison
0
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 between measured and simulated results by different models
Length (m) at t = 15 min (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2 Evolution of the erosion rates simulated by different models at

t = 15 min

variation of hydraulic parameters that influence the models

calculations.
The results of the coupled approach TELEMAC 2D and
SISYPHE show that there is a longitudinal evolution on the
channel bottom. From the beginning of the experience, we
note the appearance of erosion and deposition zones. These
two zones grew over time. The measurement of the sand
layer at t = 15 min was obtained by image processing
techniques during the experiments. The comparative analysis
Fig. 3 Evolution of the sand layer morphology along the channel
Experimental Analysis of the Morphological Evolution …
However, the numerical models overcame these con-
straints, and succeeded in representing correctly what hap-
pened. The water level followed the morphological
evolution of the sand layer. Table 1, below, summarizes the
percentage of sediment volumes calculated by the different
models.
The analysis of the results showed some differences in the
models estimations. The most erosive model is
Fernandez-Luque after 30 min about 50% of the sand layer
was eroded. However, the two models of Van Rijn and
Charru gave similar results compared to the sands trans-
ported volumes. We note that for studies related to the
short-run scour the Fernandez-Luque model can give good
results. However, Van Rijn and Charru models are recom-
mended for the study of erosion processes in the long-run
rivers.
4 Conclusion
This current research presents an experimental and the-
oretical work to understand and predict the evolution of
river bed erosion and sediment transport. A numerical
model was build to simulate flow and sand transport in a
rectangular channel containing sand obstacle. An exper-
imental set-up was made to visualize and track the mor-
phological evolution of the sand layer. To this end, a high
speed camera was used. The simulation results show that
1093
the river morphological evolution depends on the
hydrodynamics of the river and sediment properties. Yet,
the experiments conducted in the experimental flume
lacks many precisions and sophisticated measurements
tools to accurately track the flux of sediments transport
and the morphological evolution of the sandy bottom.
Acknowledgements Financial support for this study was provided by
a grant from the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
in Tunisia. The authors wish to thank the members of HydroEco groups
worked under the Institute of Fluid Mechanics of Toulouse, France.
References
Charru F, Mouilleron, H, Eiff O. Erosion and deposition of particles on
a bed sheared by a viscous flow. J Fluid Mech 2004;55–80.
Einstein HA. The bed load function for sediment transportation in open
channel flows. J Hydr Eng. 1950;1026:1–170.
Fernandez-Luque R, Van Beek R. Erosion and transport of bed-load
sediment. J Hydr Res. 1976;14127:1–144.
Gharbi M, Soualmia A, Dartus D, Masbernat L. J Hydro Hydromech.
2016;641:56–66.
Lajeunesse E, Malverti L, Charru F. Bed load transport in turbulent
flow at the grain scale: experiments and modeling. J Geophy Res.
2010;115:1–32.
Recking A. An analysis of nonlinearity effects on bed load transport
prediction. J Geophy Res Earth Surf. 2013;118:1–18.
Van Rijn L. Sediment pick-up functions. J Hydr Eng. 1981;110:1494–
502.
 Magnetic Treatment Effects on Salt Water
and Tomato Plants Growth

Nesrine Fakhri, Hsan Youssef Mehdaoui, Nada Elloumi,

and Monem Kallel

Keywords
Magnetic treatment Magnetized water Salt water Tomatoes Growth parameters
pH

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

The magnetic treatment of irrigation water has been devel-
oped over the past two decades. It is known as an
eco-friendly, non-expansive and easy to use technology.
Many scientists worked on the effect of the magnetized
water on the crops development. It was proven that magnetic
treatment influenced the pH and the electrical conductivity
of both water (Surendran et al. 2016) and soil (Maheshwari
and Grewal 2009). It was also demonstrated that the soil
irrigated by the magnetized water has higher humidity and
organic matter than the control. The tomato growth first
stages were boosted when irrigated by the magnetized water
(Surendran et al. 2016).
In this paper, we tried to investigate the impact of the
irrigation by a magnetized salt water on the soil and the
development of the tomato plants.
N. Fakhri (&)
H. Y. Mehdaoui
M. Kallel
Laboratory of Environment Engineering and Ecotechnology,
National School of Engineers of Sfax, University of Sfax,
B.P.1173, 3038 Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: nesrinefakhri@yahoo.fr
H. Y. Mehdaoui
e-mail: hsanyoussefmahdoui@outlook.fr
M. Kallel
e-mail: monemkallel@gmail.com
N. Elloumi
Laboratory of Environment Engineering and Ecotechnology,
Higher Institute of Biotechnology of Sfax, Sfax University,
B.P. 261, 3000 Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: nadaelloumi@yahoo.fr
A Magnetic Treatment Device ‘Delta Water Technology’
with a capacity range of 13,500 Gauss, was used during this
experiment. The water flow direction was chosen as indi-
cated by the constructor. All the pots were placed in the
greenhouse at the National School of Engineers of Sfax
under controlled parameters. Two different ranges of salinity
were used 2.1 g/L and 4.2 g/L. Both types of water were
brought from local farm wells located in the agriculture zone
of Menzel Chaker in the city of Sfax. Water analyses were
performed in the Environment Engineering and Ecotech-
nology laboratory ‘GEET’. Soil was sieved then analysed
before filling the pots. Since the purpose of this work is to
study the effect of the magnetized irrigational water, we used
a soil characterized by a poor organic matter. Pots were
irrigated each three days with 80% of the soil field capacity.
Electrical Conductivity and pH was measured according to
the NF T 90-008.
In total 32 pots were used, 8 for each treatment. The seeds
were bought from a local supplier recognized by the Tuni-
sian ministry of agriculture.
The germination test was achieved in the laboratory under
controlled humidity (100%) and temperature 25 °C.
100 seeds were used for each treatment. The experiment
consisted in putting 3 filter papers with 10 seeds per petri
dish then irrigated with 5 ml of the studied water. The
experiment was performed in triplicate including control.
Germination ratio and root length were determined after
7 days.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1095

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_316
1096
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Effect of the Magnetic Treatment
on the Water Properties
The analyses of the magnetized water showed an increasing
tendency of the pH which started to stabilize after 24 h. The
attitude of the electrical conductivity was the same but in
the opposite direction. It decreased after passing through the
magnetic device compared to the control.
The physico-chemical analyses of major anions and
cations of both types of water did not show any significant
difference between treated water and control.
We suggest that for the range of magnitude corresponding
to 13,500 gauss, the magnetic treatment has an effect on the
water which persisted for 24 h and could be seen through its
pH and EC values. This effect could be at the molecular level
of the water as suggested by (Toledo et al. 2008) who
explained the absence of effect on the major ions concen-
trations of those types of water (Fig. 1).
3.2 Influence of the Magnetized Water
on Tomato Seeds Germination
The germination rate increased (Ijaz 2012). The growth
parameters such as the seedling lengths and the fresh and dry
weights were also improved in response to the irrigation by a
magnetized water. The test was confirmed with a germina-
tion test run with distilled water.
8.5
8.4
8.3
8.2
pH 8.1
8
7.9
7.8
7.7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
time (hours)
W1_NM W1_Mag W2_NM
Fig. 1 Effect of the magnetic treatment on the water pH
N. Fakhri et al.
3.3 Influence of Magnetic Treatment on Tomato
Growth and Soil Properties
Increased growth rates have been observed. So, the treated
tomato plants grew higher and heavier than the control for
both treatments in all pots. After the harvest, the fresh and
dry weights of the roots were also the most considerable.
On the basis of this experiment, it was found that the
magnetic treatment of irrigation water had a positive influ-
ence on the development of some morphological traits of
tomato plants.
In addition, plants were less stressed than others irrigated
with non-mangnetized water since the values of proline
known as the hormone stress indicator were inhibited in the
first type of plants.
Concerning the soil properties, the pots irrigated with
magnetized water were wetter than the irrigated with normal
water. This was proved by an important humidity for the soil
treated with magnetized water.
These important results were similar to the organic matter
as the untreated soil represented less values of the considered
parameter ( Table 1).
4 Conclusion
The results of this study proved a beneficial effect of the
magnetic treatment on the growth parameters of tomatoes
irrigated with the magnetized water. After passing through
the magnetic treatment device, water pH tends to increase,
whereas its electrical conductivity decreased. After the
W2_Mag
Magnetic Treatment Effects on Salt Water and Tomato Plants Growth 1097

Table 1 Magnetized irrigation water effect on soil and plant

Soil analyses (after the harvest) Plant analyses
pH EC RWC Humidity Organic Root Plant Root fresh Root dry Proline
(ms/cm) matter length height weight (g) weight (g)
(cm) (cm)
W1_normal 6.20 765.5 43.68 1.82 3.95 19.04 27.33 1.65 0.15 0.58
W1_mag 6.04 1149 45.30 1.86 4.15 20.75 29.75 1.6 0.19 0.54
W2_normal 6.12 1643 37.5 2.08 1.11 11.56 36.33 1.61 0.15 0.67
W2_mag 5.92 2200 47.82 2.61 1.49 15.52 49.75 1.45 0.21 0.41
W1_normal: non magnetized salt water corresponding to 2.1 g/l salinity; W1 mag: magnetized salt water corresponding to 2.1 g/l salinity
W2_normal: non magnetized salt water corresponding to 4.2 g/l salinity; W2_mag: magnetized salt water corresponding to 4.2 g/l salinity

harvest, soil moisture, electrical conductivity and organic
matter presented higher values under irrigation with treated
water, while the soil pH decreased. For the different levels
of salinity, seedling lengths, plant height, fresh and dry
heights were higher than the control, contrary to proline,
which decreased in pots irrigated with magnetized water.
These results need to be further investigated with other
plants in both greenhouse and field conditions.
References
Maheshwari BL, Grewal HS. Magnetic treatment of irrigation water: its
effects on vegetable crop yield and water productivity. Agric Water
Manag. 2009;96(8):1229–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2009.
03.016.
Surendran U, Sandeep O, Joseph EJ. The impacts of magnetic treatment
of irrigation water on plant, water and soil characteristics. Agric
Water Manage. 2016;178 (décembre):21–29. doi:https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.agwat.2016.08.016.
Toledo EJL, Ramalho TC, Magriotis ZM. Influence of magnetic
field on physical–chemical properties of the liquid water:
insights from experimental and theoretical models. J Mol
Struct. 2008;888(1–3):409–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.
2008.01.010.

Ijaz B. Changes in germination behavior of wheat seeds exposed to

magnetic field and magnetically structured water. Afr J Biotechnol.
2012;11(15). doi:https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB11.2927.
 CO2 Adsorption on Activated Carbon Based
Olive Stone: A Comparison of Langmuir
and Freundlich Models

Meriem Moussa, Najoua Bader, Nausika Querejeta, Inès Duràn,

Covadonga Pevida, and Abdelmottaleb Ouederni

Keywords
Olive stones Activated carbon Chemical activation CO2 adsorption
Langmuir Freundlich

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Capture and storage of greenhouse gases, such as CO2, are a
major technological and environmental challenge of the
present time. A wide range of natural and synthetic materials
were used as adsorbents for CO2 capture such as zeolite,
polymers and activated carbon. Activated carbons derived
from agriculture waste were used as effective adsorbent
materials on gas for their high specific surface areas,
developed microporosity, selective functional groups and
high adsorption capacity (Knaebel 1995). This work is
aimed at CO2 adsorption on activated carbon at 273 k and
1 bar, obtained from olives stones by chemical activation
with K2CO3 and KOH. Among the existing theoretical
adsorption models, Langmuir and Freundlich models were
selected to fit the experimental data of CO2 adsorption.
M. Moussa (&)
N. Bader
A. Ouederni
Research Laboratory: Process Engineering and Industrials
Systems, National School of Engineers of Gabes, University of
Gabes, St. Omar Ibn Khattab, 6029 Gabes, Tunisia
e-mail: meriouma.moussa@gmail.com
N. Bader
e-mail: najoua.bader@gmail.com
A. Ouederni
e-mail: mottaleb.ouederni@enig.rnu.tn
N. Querejeta
I. Duràn
C. Pevida
Instituto Nacional del Carbón, INCAR-CSIC, Apartado 73,
33080 Oviedo, Spain
e-mail: n.querejeta@incar.csic.es
I. Duràn
e-mail: i.duran@incar.csic.es
C. Pevida
e-mail: cpevida@incar.csic.es
2.1 Preparation of Activated Carbons
The olive stone lignocellulosic by-product materials sup-
plied from oleic industries of southern Tunisia were used in
this study as precursors for the preparation of activated
carbon (Moussa et al. 2017).
K2CO3 activation: The precursor was impregnated on
K2CO3 solution on an impregnation ratio (g K2CO3/g olive
stones) of 1 and the mixture was kept under refluxed and
boiling for 4h. Then the dried mixture was carbonized at
900 °C for 2 h under Nitrogen flow. The resultant products
were repeatedly washed with 0.1 M HCl and hot distilled
water and then dried. The sample is referred as AC-K2CO3.
KOH activation: Firstly, the olive stones were car-
bonized at 300 °C for 1 h under the nitrogen flow. Then the
char was soaked in an aqueous solution of KOH at 85 °C
without evaporation for 3 h with impregnation ratio
(g KOH/g olive stones) about 7. The resultant filtrate was
carbonized under the nitrogen flow at 350 °C for 2 h. The
carbon obtained was denoted AC-KOH.
2.2 Characterization Techniques
The morphology of the two prepared AC was made by
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in a FEI Helios 600
Nanolab equipment. The density of the samples was mea-
sured through helium pycnometry at 308 Kin a Accupyc
1330 from Micromeritics. The textural characterization of
the two activated carbon was carried out by the N2 and CO2
adsorption isotherms in a Tristar 3000 from Micrometrics at

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1099

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_317
1100 M. Moussa et al.

Table 1 Textural properties of Carbons SBET (m2.g−1) VP (cm3.g−1) Smic (m2.g−1) L0 (nm) W0 (cm3.g−1) Helium density
the two activated carbon (g.cm3)
AC-K2CO3 _ _ 989 0.53 0.26 2.064
AC-KOH 1345 0.574 1173 0.69 0.41 2.104

Table 2 Parameters of Activated qmax,exp Langmuir Freundlich

Langmuir and Freundlich models carbon (mmol/g)
for CO2 adsorption qmax KL R2 Kf n R2
(mmol/g) (kPa−1) (kPa−1)
AC-K2 CO3 3.873 4.199 0.058 0.993 0.595 2.486 0.998
AC-KOH 5.668 7.693 0.019 0.996 0.412 1.807 0.997

77 and 273 K respectively. The carbon dioxide adsorption 4 Conclusion

measurements were carried out on a volumetric adsorption
apparatus at 273 K, up to a pressure of 1 bar. In the
adsorption tests, 100 mg of sample was used. Prior to the
adsorption measurements, the samples were outgassed
overnight at 100 °C under vacuum.
3 Results and Discussion
Table 1 summarizes the textural properties of two samples.
As observed, these parameters depend on the activating
agent used. It can be seen that the AC-K2CO3 present higher
micropore surface (Smic) than the surface area (SBET). This is
due to the diffusion restrictions on the adsorption of N2 at
77 K on narrow micropore (Rodriguez-Reinoso et al. 1984).
The fitting parameters to Langmuir and Freundlich are
shown in Table 2. The high values of correlation coefficients
R2 ranging from 0.993 to 0.998, are evidence of the good
agreement between the experimental data and the theoretical
predictions.
The results of carbon dioxide adsorption at 273 K of the
two activated carbon prepared by the impregnation of the
olive stones with K2CO3 and KOH aqueous solutions
show that these materials can be interesting for CO2
capture. The experimental adsorption isotherms were
fitted to Langmuir and Freundlich models, and a better fit
was observed to Freundlich equation with a correlation
coefficient of 0.998 and 0.997. The two activated carbon
can adsorb as much CO2 as 5 mmol/g at 1 bar and 273 K
for the AC-KOH sample.
References
Knaebel KS. For your next separation consider adsorption. Chemi Eng.
New York; 1995;92–102.
Moussa M, Bader N, Querejeta N, Duràn I, Pevida C, Ouederni A.
Toward sustainable hydrogen storage and carbon dioxide capture in
post-combustion condition. Environ Chem Eng 2017;1628–37.
Rodriguez-Reinoso F, Linares-Solano A, Martin –Martinez JM, Lopez
Gonzalez JD. The controlled reaction of active carbons with air at
350 °C-II: evolution of microporosity. Carbon. 1984;123–30.
 Study of Oxidized Stainless Steel Thin Films
Obtained by Reactive Thermal Evaporation
Noureddine Merakeb



Keywords
Stainless steel Thin films
1 Introduction
Previously, we elaborated and studied the structures and
mechanical properties of 304 stainless steel (SS) thin films
fabricated by thermal evaporation (TE) (Eymery et al. 2003;
Merakeb et al. 2004; Goudeau et al. 2003). The study
revealed that these thermally evaporated thin films consist of
two phases (90% a-phase BCC strongly ferromagnetic and
10% c-phase FCC non-magnetic). But, they have a low wear
resistance. Then, in this work, we proposed to elaborate new
304 SS thin films using a reactive thermal evaporation
(RTE) (Maissel and Glang 1970; Soddy 1906; Brinsmaid
et al. 1957). RTE causes the formation of oxides in evapo-
rated 304 SS thin films. So, the existence of the hard oxides
in thin films could enhance their wear resistance. The
experimental RTE procedure and methods used in this work,
were described in the following section. Then, the results
were presented and discussed in details.
2 Materials and Methods
Thermally oxidized 304 SS thin films were formed by RTE
on pure iron substrates which are placed vertically above on
the evaporation source, at a distance of 35 mm. Substrate
surface was polished and cleaned. During the deposition
process, in a first step the initial residual pressure in the
evaporation chamber must be stabilized about 5 ± 1  10−6
Torr, afterwards air was introduced by a nozzle with a
N. Merakeb (&)
Department of Metallurgy, Physical Metallurgy and Materials
Properties Laboratory, Badji Mokhtar University, Annaba, Algeria
e-mail: merakeb_n@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_318



Thermal oxidation Thermal evaporation Wear resistance
pressure controller to adjust in chamber a new residual
pressure stable at about 3 ± 1  10−5 Torr. In a second
step, we started the heating of evaporation source, slowly,
until the evaporation temperature—about 1400 °C, indicated
by the thermocouple fixed near the thermal source. In this
case, the substrate was reheated by thermal radiation from
the evaporation source. The evaporated material is a com-
mercial bulk 304 SS, cut into chips. Deposit thicknesses
were estimated about 1.1 ± 0.2 µm. However, deposit
thicknesses were measured by laser profilometer without
contact, (Rodomstck—RM600). Morphology observation
and composition analysis were carried out by SEM coupled
to the EDX (SEM-5600 2v). Structure analysis was achieved
by DRX with low incident angle (3°–5°), Cu Ka line,
kCu = 1.5406 Å, (D500/501). The chemical surface analysis
was carried out by XPS, Ka line of aluminum (1486.6 eV),
combined with an ionic bombardment by argon, (ESCALAB
220 i—XL). Wear resistance was evaluated by a fretting-test
without lubrication at room temperature and 50% humidity,
using corundum ball under load 0.5–1 N, with 100 µm
amplitude and 5–10 Hz frequency.
3 Results and Discussion
Figure 1 shows RTE 304 SS thin film deposited on pure iron
substrate with a mark of XPS etching. The coating has two
colors: one region is blue, and another region is purple. These
colors are due normally to chromium oxide and iron oxide
respectively. So, the fretting test was applied in both areas.
The results of fretting test exhibit the evolution of the
friction coefficient (FC) in function of cycle number of
friction test (see Fig. 2). So, the blue coating has a low FC
1101
1102
Fig. 1 Macrograph of RTE 304 SS coating
(0.25) which remains stable during all the test cycles: while
the purple coat has a low FC (0.25) until 750 cycles of
friction test, then it increases until up FC = 1. This FC value
is more important that the FC of substrate, because the
separated and deteriorated oxidized film becomes a third
body between substrate and the corundum ball. This low FC
expresses a good wear resistance of oxidized coating. This is
due probably at the formation of hard oxides as iron and
chromium oxides. So, these results prove that RTE 304 SS
thin films were thermally oxidized.
However, SEM-Micrographs, presented in Fig. 3, show
the morphology of RTE 304 SS thin films. Firstly, Fig. 3a
shows that the RTE 304 SS thin films contain the thermal
cracks, because they are thermally affected by heat from the
evaporation source. These cracks prove that the RTE 304 SS
thin films are rigid and hard. Secondly, Fig. 3b, shows in
detail the agglomerated crystals which have a regular and
spherical shape with a good densification. This densification
state of these thin films is characterized by the absence of
pinholes development. Also, in Fig. 3b, the spherical shape
of agglomerated crystals is indicated by the arrow number
one (1) and the pinholes are indicated by the arrow number
two (2).
Therefore, the presence of oxides in RTE 304 SS thin
films was demonstrated by chemical analysis of surface
using the XPS method. So, Fig. 4a presents XPS spectrum
N. Merakeb
Fig. 2 Friction coefficient (FC) of RTE 304 SS coating. 1) Pure iron
substrate no coated, 2) Purple coat, 3) Blue coat
analysis showing a depth profile of distribution of elements
through the thickness of the thin film. This depth profile
indicates that the coat contains a significant amount of
oxygen. While the metallic elements like Fe, Cr and Ni, are
distributed with a normal concentration. Thus, it can be
noted that the C and W are detected as polluting elements.
The identification of XPS spectra peak was carried out on a
database of energy bending (EB) in the reference (Wagner
et al.). Figure 4b shows XPS spectra of Fe2p peak (EB =
711 eV) which is attributed to iron oxide as (Fe2O3). Fig-
ure 4c shows XPS spectra of Cr2p peak (EB = 577 eV)
which is attributed at chromium oxide as (Cr2O3). The XPS
analysis results confirm the formation of iron oxides and
chromium oxides in RTE 304 SS thin films.
Study of Oxidized Stainless Steel Thin Films Obtained … 1103

1 – Crystals
agglomerate.
2 – Pinholes

Fig. 3 SEM-Micrographs of RTE 304 SS thin films. a Overview: The presence of cracks. b Detailed view magnification showing a regular and
spherical shape of crystals agglomerate

Fig. 4 XPS spectrum analysis of RTE 304 SS thin films in middle area between blue coat and purple coat. a Depth profile of elements distribution
in RTE 304 SS thin films following the thick. b XPS spectra of Fe2p (Fe2O3). c XPS spectra of Cr2p (Cr2O3)

4 Conclusion analysis by XPS revealed the formation effect of iron and

In this work we used the RTE method to deposit the
oxidized 304 SS thin films with up 1 µm of thick on pure
iron substrate. The thermally oxidized 304 SS thin films
have a smooth and reflective surface. However, they are
colored by two colors: blue and purple, which are prob-
ably due to oxides formed in coating. Thus, surface
chromium oxides (Fe2O3 and Cr2O3). Also, fretting test
results achieved on the blue and purple coats, respec-
tively, proved that the blue coat has a low friction coef-
ficient (FC) relatively to the purple coat. This low FC is
due to Cr2O3 formed in blue coat with a good cohesion of
1104
deposit. Oppositely, the purple coat poor FC is due to
Fe2O3 formed in deposit with a bad cohesion of deposit.
Then, it was demonstrated that the conditions of RTE
deposition such as one residual pressure of P = 10−5
mbar and one distance between source/substrate of
35 mm, proposed in this work, were necessary and suf-
ficient to produce a good thermally oxidized 304 SS thin
films.
References
Brinsmaid DS, Keenan WJ, Koch GJ, Parsons WF. Method of
obtaining titanium dioxide coatings. USP 2,784,115 (filed 1953
May 4; issued 1957 Mar 5).
N. Merakeb
Eymery JP, Merakeb N, Goudeau P, Fnidiki A, Bouzabata B. J Magn
Magn Mater. 2003;256:227.
Goudeau P, Merakeb N, Eymery JE, Fauri D, Boubeker B, Bouz-
abata B. Mater Sci Forum. 2003;426–432:3451–6.
Maissel LI, Glang R. Vacuum evaporation, Table 13, p. 1–86. In:
Handbook of thin film technology. McGraw-Hill; 1970 (Previous
Page | Contents | Zoom in | Zoom out | Front Cover |).
Merakeb N, Eymery J-P, Fnidiki A, Goudeau P, Bouzabata B. Mater
Lett. 2004;58:711–5.
Soddy F. Means and apparatus for producing high vacuum. USP
859,021 (filed 1906 July 13, issued 1907 July 2).
Wagner CD, Riggs WM, Davis LE, Moulder JF, Muilenberg GE.
Handbookof of x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Physical electro-
nics division. Perkin-Elmer Corp.; Eden Prairie, Minnesota,
1979:74, 80.
 LCA and Cherry Tomato Production
in the South of Tunisia
Meriem Maaoui, Rachid Boukchina, and Noureddine Hajjaji
Keywords
Soilless greenhouse tomato production
1 Introduction
In the last years there has been a growing interest in
assessing the environmental risks presented by agriculture
activities since it has been accused of emitting about 24% of
the greenhouse gases on a global scale (IPCC 2013). The
other environmental impacts of agricultural activities are
mainly Acidification, Eutrophication, Land use, toxicity,
ecotoxicity, ozone layer depletion and non-renewable energy
use. Tunisia is an agricultural country known for its wide
variety of products for the local and international market.
Tomato is one of the country’s key products. The annual
production is estimated to be about 1.2 million tons. The
export was estimated to be about 21,317 tons for the agri-
cultural season 2015/2016 (GIL 2016). Despite the advan-
tages on the economic balance of Tunisia, tomato production
presents an environmental pressure on the natural ecosys-
tem. European countries are focused on determining the
most environmentally sustainable ways to produce foods
(Cooper et al. 2011). In order to promote the export of the
Tunisian tomatoes, it appears critical to establish an overall
analysis of the tomato production. The main objective of this
research was to achieve an environmental life cycle
M. Maaoui (&)
R. Boukchina
Higher Institute of the Sciences and Techniques
of Water of Gabes, Gabes University, Gabes, Tunisia
e-mail: meriem.maaoui@gmail.com
R. Boukchina
e-mail: rachidboukchina@gmail.com
M. Maaoui
N. Hajjaji
Research Unit of Catalysis Materials for the Environment
and Processes RUCMEP (UR11ES85), National Engineering
School of Gabes, Gabes University, Gabes, Tunisia
e-mail: hajjaji.nour@gmail.com
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_319


Impact assessment
assessment (LCA) of a soilless geothermal conventional
multi-tunnel cherry tomato production located in Chenchou
(South-West of Tunisia). The LCA is an ISO 14040-44
methodology used to assess the environmental impacts of
products/processes or a service. The LCA methodology has
been gaining importance in recent years as it is the only
methodology normalized by ISO (2006).
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Study Area and Farming System Description
Desertjoy is located in Chenchou, about 24 km to the
south-west of Gabes. It is a Tunisian-Dutch company spe-
cialized in the production of soilless geothermal cherry
tomatoes. The greenhouse has a width of 12.8 m. and a
maximum height of 9 m. It also has double screened ven-
tilation over the full length of the greenhouse with an
opening capacity of 1.8 m. on each side. Geothermal water
is used for heating and irrigation. Different varieties are
produced in Desertjoy such as Yellow, Angelle, Axiany,
Orange. The production is 100% exportable to the Nether-
lands. The export was estimated to be about 2461 tons for
the agriculture season 2015/2016.
2.2 Life Cycle Assessment
Life cycle assessment is the “compilation and evaluation of
the inputs, outputs and potential environmental impacts of a
product system throughout its life cycle” (ISO 2006). It is a
tool to assess the environmental impacts and resources used
1105
1106
in a product life cycle and consider all impacts on humans,
nature and resources (Korres et al. 2010).
2.2.1 Goal and Scope Definition
This LCA study aimed to achieve an overall analysis of the
life cycle of one ton of conventional soilless geothermal
cherry production in Desertjoy and present its impacts on the
environment for the agricultural seasons 2015–2016 and
2016–2017. The scope definition consists of defining the
functional unit and the system boundaries. The functional
unit is the production of one ton of soilless geothermal
greenhouse cherry tomatoes. This is a cradle-to-gate study
and the system boundaries include (1) nursery production,
(2) greenhouse preparation and plants transplantation,
(3) climate control system (Heating, CO2 injects), (4) irriga-
tion, (5) fertilization, (6) phytosanitary treatments, (7) con-
ditioning, (8) transportation and (9) waste management.
2.2.2 Life Cycle Inventory
The ground data was collected from the employees accord-
ing to the functional unit and the system boundaries previ-
ously defined. The back data was collected using mainly the
Ecoinvent 3.3 database.
2.2.3 Impact Assessment
We used the ILCD (The International Reference Life Cycle
Data System) handbook and SimaPro 8.3 in order to eval-
uate the environmental impacts of one ton of conventional
soilless geothermal cherry production. Nine impact cate-
gories were included in our study: climate change, acidifi-
cation, eutrophication, ozone depletion, non-renewable
energy use, land use, toxicity and ecotoxicity and effects on
human health.
3 Results and Discussion
The present LCA study of one ton of conventional soilless
geothermal cherry production consisted of two
years-monitoring (2016 and 2017) and a third year for data
M. Maaoui et al.
processing (2018). The geothermal water resource is a par-
ticularity and offers originality and uniqueness to our study.
4 Conclusion
The present LCA study of a conventional soilless
geothermal cherry production will enable us to assess the
environmental performance of the exported Tunisian
tomatoes. Afterwards, we will find techniques and give
recommendations on how to lower the most significant
environmental impacts. It is relevant to stress the great
advantage given by this study in order to promote the
export of the Tunisian tomatoes and to participate in the
global effort aiming to limit the global warming to well
below 2 °C (UN 2016).
Acknowledgements This work was possible through the assistance of
Desertjoy team. The authors deeply appreciate the time and effort given
by the employees in providing data the required for the study.
References
Cooper JM, Butler G, Leifert C. Life cycle analysis of greenhouse gas
emissions from organic and conventional food production systems,
with and without bio-energy options. NJAS—wagening. J Life
Sci;2011. 58:185–92.
Groupement interprofessionnel des légumes. 2016. http://www.gil.com.
tn/fr/product?label=tomate_4.
ISO. Environmental management—life cycle assessment—require-
ments and guidelines (ISO 14044). Geneva: International Organi-
zation for Standardization; 2006.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The physical science
basis. In: Stocker TF, Qin D, Plattner G-K, Tignor M, Allen SK,
Boschung J, Nauels A, Xia Y, Bex V, Midgley PM, editors.
Contribution of working group I to the fifth assessment report of the
intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge, New York:
Cambridge University Press; 2013. 1535 pp.
Korres NE, Singh A, Nizami AS, Murphy JD. Is grass biomethane a
sustainable transport biofuel? Biofuels Bioprod Biorefining.
2010;4:310–25.
UN. In: Report of the conference of the parties on its twenty-first
session, held in Paris from 30 November to 13 December 2015.
2016. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/10.pdf.
 Offshore Drilling: Drilling Fluids
and Additives
Samira Baba Hamed



Keywords
Polysaccharide Biopolymer
1 Introduction
In general, offshore oil exploitation requires drilling muds
and starts with seismic studies followed by exploratory
drilling with specific properties. The drilling mud is com-
monly composed of gelling agents and deflocculating Dril-
ling fluids combining several thousand elements and
compounds that can be harmful to nature and humans
(Fernandez 2008).The offshore oil development may have
various impacts on the environment. The exploration and
operating generate significant amounts of waste and
accompanied by a high traffic of oil tankers and platform
installation. The marine ecosystem has to endure other
impacts such land-based activities and fisheries. Pollution
problems caused by drilling muds have a strong impact on
the environment.
2 Materials and Methods
As regards environment, the sea has become a collector of
liquid and solid products from offshore drilling operations
during and after drilling. The formulation used is
water-based mud with starch for increasing viscosity and
carbonate calcium as weighting material. The products used
in drilling muds are included in the OSPAR list with some
reservations for formaldehyde. The generalized composition
of these model fluids is shown in Table 1.
S. Baba Hamed (&)
Laboratory of Rheology, Transport and Treatment of the Complex
Fluids, Department of Hydraulics, Faculty of Architecture and
Civil Engineering, Oran University of Science and Technology—
Mohamed Boudiaf, Oran, Algeria
e-mail: samira_babahamed@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_320



Offshore Pollution Environment
Fresh water is a continuous phase, containing the addi-
tives. WBM are non-toxic or practically non-toxic to marine
animals, unless they contain elevated concentrations of
petroleum hydrocarbons, particularly diesel fuel (Neff 2005).
KCL optimizes pH and alkalinity of mud, controlling mud
properties. Calcium carbonate increase density of mud,
balancing formation pressure and preventing a blowout,
formaldehyde is bactericide; prevent biodegradation of
additives as starch and biopolymer. Starch is a polysaccha-
ride derived from plants. The industrial uses of starch and
starch products are numerous (Rajasimman and Karthikeyan
2009). According to OSPAR’s list (OIC 2003), substances
used in formulations of drilling muds may be released into
an environment as vulnerable as the sea; thus it is assumed
that their impact on the terrestrial environment is admissible
while waiting for other studies.
3 Results and Discussion
Among the most polluting products in drilling fluids, the
bactericide is known as the most harmful to marine fauna
and flora but its use is necessary as it protects starch and
biopolymer against bacterial attacks. Figure 1 shows the
influence of different amounts of bactericide on FW.
Low-toxicity bactericides or green bactericide are used
since they are ideal for the control of the bacterial growth
without bactericide; this aspect was detailed by sanders
(2003). Clay, KCL, CaCO3 and starch are added in small
amounts to change mud properties to solve specific
down-hole problems, in some cases, the loss of fluid in the
porous formations can destabilize the walls of the drilling
mud, however overly “heavy” is not recommended
1107
1108 S. Baba Hamed

Table 1 Generalized Designation Components Role

composition of WBM
FW Fresh water Continuous phase water
KCL Potassium chloride Alcanity control
CaCO3 Calcium carbonate Weighting material
FMD Linear polymer of Protect the starch and biopolymer against bacterial
formaldehyde attacks
Starch Polysaccharide Viscosifier
Biopolymer Scleroglucan Viscosifier
Clay Kaolinite Increase density

8.6 harmful. For other products, future research trends may

8.4 provide responses on bactericide, or by developing bac-
8.2 tericides which have a short lifetime or weak environ-
8 mental impact.
7.8
7.6
7.4
References
7.2
7
Fernandez LC, Zegarra H, Baca G, Torres LG. Characterization and
surfactant- enhanced washing treatability of drilling fluids stored for
more than 20 years. J Surfact Deterg. 2008;11:307–14.
Neff JM. Composition, environmental fates, and biological effects of
water based drilling muds and cuttings discharged to the marine
Fig. 1 Influence of bactericide formaldehyde polymer on water environment. In: A synthesis and annotated bibliography prepared
formulation for OSPAR commission (2004); 2005.
OIC. Revision of OSPAR list of substances/preparations used and
4 Conclusion discharged offshore which are considered to pose little or no risk to
the environment (PLONOR) (Reference number: 2004-10). In:
Pollution prevention refers to the use of biodegradable OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment
materials and includes the experimentation of new of the North-East Atlantic; 2008.
biopolymers based on algae for better synergy with the Rajasimman M, Karthikeyan C. Optimization studies in an inverse
marine environment. Clays are not polluting but their fluidized bed bioreactor for starch wastewater treatment. 2009.
Sanders PF. Novel methods for controlling microbial problems without
accumulative properties make them environmentally using bactericides. Saudi Aramco J Technol Summer. 2003.
 Response Surface Methodology
Optimization of Heterogeneous Catalyst
Fe2O3-Zeolite Synthesis for the Discoloration
of Indigo Carmine Dye by Photo-Fenton
Process

Chamirane Moumni, Nadim Fakhfakh, Haithem Bel Hadjltaief,

and Mourad Benzina

Keywords
Photo-Fenton Zeolite Fe2O3 Discoloration Indigo carmine

indigo carmine. This material was synthesized by incorpo-

1 Introduction
Indigo carmine (IC) was very used in the textile industry,
this organic compound has a high toxicity and mostly
non-biodegradable (Kakavandia et al. 2016). Heterogeneous
photo-Fenton, among the advanced oxidation processes, is
one of the most effective technique for degrading and min-
eralizing of IC in wastewater (Hadjltaief et al. 2014). The
use of iron-supported activated carbon, zeolite or clay, is an
effective approach to resolve the major drawbacks of the
homogeneous system. Zeolites containing iron oxide are
known as promising heterogeneous Fenton catalysts (Arimi
2017). To the best of our knowledge, the synthesized of
zeolite from clay as the raw material have not been previ-
ously reported. For this reason, the aim of this work was to
improve the synthesis of Fe2O3 supported- zeolite (Fe2O3-
zeolite) as a heterogeneous catalyst for the degradation of
rating nanoparticles Fe2O3 by the fusion method. Fe2O3-zeo
was then characterized by scanning electronic microscopy
(SEM), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy
(HRTEM), N2 adsorption, X-ray diffraction (XRD) meth-
ods. Calcination temperature and clay/Fe2O3 were also
studied to determine the optimal conditions using NEMROD
(New Efficient Methodology for Research using Optimal
Design).
2 Materials and Methods
See Fig. 1 and Table 1
Y ¼ b0 + b1:A þ b2:B þ b3:C þ b11:A2 þ b22:B2 þ b33:C2
þ b12:A:B þ b13:A:B + b23:B:C

C. Moumni (&)
N. Fakhfakh
H. B. Hadjltaief
M. Benzina

Laboratoire Eau, Energie et Environnement (LR3E), Code:
AD-10-02, Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sfax, Université de
Sfax, B.P 1173, W. 3038 Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: moumnichamirane92@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1109

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_321
1110 C. Moumni et al.

Fig. 1 Synthesis of Fe2O3-

zeolite and mechanism of
photo-Fenton process

Table 1 Ranges and levels of Independent factors Symbols Ranges and levels
actual independent input factors
to optimize by NEMROD −1 0 1
Fe2O3/clay ratio A 0.05 0.1 0.15
Calcination temperature (°C) B 250 500 750
Reaction time (min) C 6 8 10

Fig. 2 a The effect of parameters

A, B and C on photo-Fenton
process (2D), b The effect of
parameters A, B and C on
photo-Fenton process (2D)
Response Surface Methodology Optimization … 1111

Table 2 Optimum parameters Factor Data

Fe2O3/clay ratio (%) 5
Calcination temperature (°C) 450
Reaction time (min) 10

3 Results and Discussion References

See Fig. 2 and Table 2 Kakavandia B, Takdastana A, Jaafarzadeha N, Azizib M, Mirzaeib A,

4 Conclusion
Fe2O3-zeo sample was successfully prepared by the
fusion method. The activity of this Fe2O3-zeo was
assayed in the photo-Fenton discoloration of indigo car-
mine as a probe molecule from water treatment. The
results show almost discoloration IC dye after 10 min of
irradiation time.
Azaric A. Application of Fe3O4@C catalyzing heterogeneous
UV-Fenton system for tetracycline removal with a focus on
optimization by a response surface method. J Photochem Photo-
biol A Chem 2016.
Hadjltaief HB, Da Costa P, Beaunier P, Gálvez ME, Zina MB.
Fe-clay-plate as a heterogeneous catalyst in photo-Fenton oxidation
of phenol as probe molecule for water treatment Appl Clay Sci.
2014;91–92:46–54.
Arimi MM. Modified natural zeolite as heterogeneous Fenton catalyst
in treatment of recalcitrants in industrial effluent. Prog Nat Sci
Mater Int. 2017.
 Green Collaborative Vehicle Routing
Problem with Environmental Concerns
Akram Rekik, Amel Jaoua, Safa Bhar Layeb, and Jouhaina Chaouachi
Keywords
Horizontal collaborative logistics
integer linear programming
1 Introduction
In today’s economy, the logistics, of transport and storage,
account for more than 10% of the cost of a finished product
(Psaraftis 2015). For social environmental concern, efficient
management of transportation should consider the reduction
of energy consumption and emitted pollution. This leads to
the increasingly popular concept of horizontal collaboration
in green logistics. In this collaboration scheme, several
companies usually called partners can contribute with their
resources, such as trucks/vehicles, depots, customers, etc.,
but without any dependence to other partners. To reduce
transport costs, partner’s vehicles should route from the best
depot location among all possible sites on the map to the
customers. Under the collaborative scenario, the opportunity
of finding a good depot location is enhanced, since one or
more partners may have more than one depot. Besides, with
better management and scheduling of the vehicles routing,
reduction of CO2-equivalent (CO2e) emissions may be
enhanced. Actually, strategies of many companies and
environmental regulatory frameworks already imposes on
industries worldwide to take control of CO2e emissions and
related costs generated in supply, production and distribution
(Felici et al. 2015). The consideration of such several con-
straints and the wider objectives related to GHG emissions
leads to more complex optimization models. Advanced
A. Rekik
A. Jaoua
S.B. Layeb (&)
UR-OASIS, National Engineering School of Tunis, University of
Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: Safa.Layeb@enit.utm.tn
J. Chaouachi
IHEC Carthage, Carthage University, Carthage, Tunisia
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_322




CO2–equivalent emissions Optimization Mixed
variants of the well-known Vehicle Routing Problem are
emerging (e.g., Psaraftis 2015).
2 Materials and Methods
This paper addresses a Green Selective Vehicle Routing
Problem in a collaborative environment. We consider a
variant in which a set of suppliers, where each supplier has
his own depot, truck and customers to serve. By forming a
coalition, the companies choose to share a unique depot and
put in common their trucks to serve their customers. (Defryn
et al. 2016) recently addressed this variant. They propose a
budget allocation method based on the contribution of each
partner to encourage the partners to work together for the
common good and to satisfy the maximum number of cus-
tomers. Thus, customers could not be served if a compen-
sation for non-delivery (a kind of penalty) was disbursed in
form of discount. Aware of the need for environmentally
friendly solutions, we proposed to also take into considera-
tion carbon dioxide CO2-equivalent emissions released by
each engine; via its corresponding CO2e emissions cost
(Demir et al. 2014). More precisely, the herein addressed
problem requires finding the subset of customers to serve as
well as their corresponding delivery truck routes in such a
way that the total direct transportation, unserved customer
compensation, and CO2e emissions-related costs are
minimized.
Such NP-hard problem is generally solved by heuristic
methods (e.g. Defryn et al. 2016). In our work, we proposed
two polynomial-sized Mixed Integer Linear Programming
formulations. First, we tailored a basic compact formulation
proposed by (Vansteenwegen et al. 2011). Then, we derived
1113
1114
a new lifted formulation with MTZ-based subtour elimina-
tion constraints inspired from the work of (Desrochers and
Laporte 1991). To tighten the proposed formulations, a
pre-processing procedure was proposed to speed up the
resolution and improve the formulations performance.
We applied our approach on the instances of (Defryn
et al. 2016), also on a real life case study from Tunisia
presented in Fig. 1. In (Defryn et al. 2016), the proposed
instances consisted of 3 partners each of them contributed
with a truck and a list of 15 customers with their locations.
The distance limit for each vehicle is 142 km and all the
customers are located in a 100 km wide square. The location
coordinates of each customer is randomly generated and the
main depot is located at the middle of the plan.
In the Tunisian real case study proposed in Fig. 1, we
considered the collaboration between two companies that
each one had 8 customers, 2 depots and 3 types of vehicles.
The traffic impact was also considered for instances gener-
ation. All customers were located in an urban area within a
radius of 16 km. To work under real circumstances, we
relaxed the constraint limiting the distance for the vehicles
circulation; only customers who were located at a distance of
less than 50 km from their replenishment company were
Fig. 1 Overview of the case study locations
A. Rekik et al.
selected for resolution. The complete data details were
available under request.
3 Results and Discussion
An essential improvement provided by our model lies on the
new formulation of the objective function. We introduced a
new multi-objective function, taking into consideration the
vehicles categories, by establishing a balance between the
transport costs and the CO2e emissions. Another achieve-
ment was achieved with the integration of the lifted
MTZ-based constraints in the proposed models.
The preliminary Computational results were conducted
on benchmark instances (Defryn et al. 2016). We added
direct transportation and CO2e emissions-related costs to
these instances. The general-purpose Mixed Integer Pro-
gramming solver CPLEX 12.6 was used to solve the pro-
posed models, and optimal solutions were reached in an
average CPU time of less than 30 min. The computational
study provides evidence that collaboration allows companies
to considerably decrease their direct transportation costs as
well as the corresponding CO2e emissions costs.
Green Collaborative Vehicle Routing Problem … 1115

(a) . Optimal solution before collaboration

(b). Optimal Solution after Collaboration

Fig. 2 a optimal solution before collaboration, b optimal solution after collaboration

1116
In a second step, we applied our model to the defined real
life case study. Figure 2 displays an illustration of optimal
solutions for two suppliers case without (Fig. 2a) and with
(Fig. 2b) collaboration. More precisely, the total cost and
CO2e emission costs were reduced by respectively 27.6%
and 60.1%. These significant reductions are due to collab-
oration that allows using the least polluting truck (the green
one) more appropriately. The reduction in costs is less
important in the Tunisian case than in the instances of
(Defryn et al. 2016), this is due to the fact that road traffic is
taken into account; the most taken roads are the less con-
gested ones, but also the longest trajectory. The number of
kilometers traveled by vehicles and hours worked was
reduced by 42 and 29.1%, respectively.
4 Conclusion
To cope with the increasing competitive markets, com-
panies are looking for alternative transportation options
that allow them to improve the economic and environ-
mental performance of their distribution systems, while
minimizing the negative impacts of road truck trans-
portation. Using the new Mixed Integer Programming
A. Rekik et al.
based approach, this work highlighted the need for col-
laboration as an appropriate answer to economic actors
expectation. Our ongoing work aims to assess the
robustness of collaboration to face the inherent stochas-
ticity in traffic and transportation processes.
References
Defryn C, Sörensen K, Cornelissens T. The selective vehicle routing
problem in a collaborative environment. Eur J Oper Res. 2016;250
(2):400–11.
Demir E, Bektaş T, Laporte G. A review of recent research on green
road freight transportation. Eur J Oper Res. 2014;237(3):775–93.
Desrochers M, Laporte G. Improvements and extensions to the
Miller-Tucker-Zemlin subtour elimination constraints. Oper Res
Lett. 1991;10(1):27–36.
Felici G, Kaihara T, Liotta G, Stecca G. Robust optimization theory
for CO2 emission control in collaborative supply chains.
Working conference on virtual enterprises. Cham: Springer;
2015. p. 547–56.
Psaraftis HN editor. Green transportation logistics: the quest for
win-win solutions. vol. 226. Springer; 2015.
Vansteenwegen P, Souffriau W, Van Oudheusden D. The orienteering
problem: a survey. Eur J Oper Res. 2011;209(1):1–10.
 Effect of Temperature, Humidity and Gas
Flow on PEM Fuel Cell Performances
for Environmental Applications

Mohamed Barbouche, Zakarya Ahmed, Khaled Charradi,

Radhouane Chtourou, and Gaetano Squadrito

Keywords
Test station Fuel cell Instrumentation Polarization curves Hydrogen
Data acquisition

1 Introduction PC based automation was installed. The PEMFC perfor-

Fuel cells are a potential future technology that has started
today, providing a change in the way heat and power are
supplied to end users (Elmer 2014). PEMFCs represent an
energy conversion alternative for stationary and automotive
applications. When used, hydrogen reacts with oxygen to
form water only. This is favorable in terms of environmental
challenges. To date, the potential and feasibility of fuel cell
systems have been clearly demonstrated throughout the
world and in many fields. However, the development and
deployment of fuel cell technology depends on the progress
that can be achieved to improve their reliability and dura-
bility. To deepen the understanding of the PEMFCs behavior
and optimize their performance, PEMFC tests were per-
formed using home-made fuel cell test station.
2 Materials and Methods
Fuel cell test station (Fig. 1) was designed and fabricated.
Safety and security measures were taken into account when
designing and manufacturing the test station.
mances were measured using the test station. A test protocol
was prepared for the purpose. Leakage tests were achieved
before and during tests. Humidity and temperature of
hydrogen and oxygen were controlled. The effects of
humidity, temperature and gas flow on PEMFC perfor-
mances were investigated.
3 Results and Discussion
Figure 2 shows the effect of gases ratio on the polarization
curve of commercial PEMFC.
The same shape of the polarization curve was observed
for different hydrogen and oxygen flows. The fuel cell
resistance and initial open circuit voltage (OCV) were
measured and calculated for different ratios of flow gases.
Repeated measurements showed no modification of polar-
ization curves. The cell resistance was calculated using
ohmic losses relation. The obtained results show that
PEMFC performances increase with gas humidity. The
maximum power was deduced from the curve P = f (I).

M. Barbouche (&)
Z. Ahmed
K. Charradi
R. Chtourou

Laboratory of Nanomaterials and Systems for Renewable Energy,
LANSER, Research and Technologies Centre of Energy CRTEn,
HammamLif 2050, Ben Arous, Tunisia
e-mail: barbouchemed@gmail.com
G. Squadrito
Advanced Technologies for Energy Institute CNR-ITAE, Via
Salita S. Lucia Sopra Contesse, 5, 98126 Messina, Italy

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1117

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_323
1118 M. Barbouche et al.

1400

1200

1000

Voltage (mV)
800

600

400

200

0
-0,5 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0 4,5 5,0
Current (A)

Fig. 2 Effect of gases ratio on the polarization curve

• The electrical characteristics of the cell;

• The resistance of the MEA;
• The membrane permeability to hydrogen.

References
Fig. 1 Home-made fuel cell test station (Barbouche et al. 2016)
Barbouche M, et al. Tunisian European cooperation project: PEM fuel
cells technology. Energy Procedia. 2016;93:89–95.
Elmer T, Worall M, Wu S, Riffat SB. Fuel cell technology for domestic
4 Conclusion built environment applications: state of-the-art review. Renew
Polarization curves of PEMFC were obtained using a Sustain Energy Rev; 2014.
home-made fuel cell test station. The characteristics of
the stack were determined from the polarization curve
and power depending on the current density. These tests
allowed us to determine:
 Thermal Stability Evaluation Through the
Comparison of Potassium Chloride to
Potassium/Sodium Formate Fluids

Afshin Davarpanah and M. Mehdi Nassabeh

Keywords
Formate drilling fluid Environmental pollution Potassium formate salts
Thermal stability

1 Introduction becomes lower. Through indoor study, the following

Formate drilling fluid is a new type of clean brine drilling
fluid system which has been developed from inorganic salt
brine drilling fluid system. Currently there are mainly three
kinds of formate: sodium formate, potassium formate and
cesium formate. Compared with conventional drilling fluid,
formate drilling fluid is characterized by no bentonite slurry
(Downs et al. 1994; Chenevert 1998; Gao and Yin 2006;
Chaudhary et al. 2011). It is the theoretical foundation that
formate drilling fluid can achieve strong inhibitory, and it is
also the key to being better than conventional water base
drilling fluid. Wang Yong sheng has studied the application
effect of the formate drilling fluid in Yingtai gas field in
2012. And this drilling fluid system has helped to protect the
reservoir and save the exploration cost. Based on the pre-
vious research, this paper is studied for some new findings
and application (Hands et al. 1998; Flavio et al. 2008;
Miskimins 2008; Martin et al. 2011). Format has the char-
acteristics of high solubility, high density, high pH value,
low crystallization point. With the increase of alkali metal
atomic weight, saturation concentration, saturation density
and pH value become higher, and crystallization point
features of for- mate have been found (Mullen 2010; Passey
et al. 2010).
2 Material and Methods
2.1 Laboratory Procedure
In this test, rheological properties and potassium/sodium
formate fluid reduction before and after the applying the
temperature to the potassium chloride (KCL) are being
compared. These two fluid formulations regarding to the
used polymers and other component are the same and the
only difference is in the type of using salt. Figures 1, 2 and 3
shows the rheological properties of formate fluid and
potassium chloride samples before and after applying tem-
perature up to 250 F during the time period of 16 h. The salt
mud was then displaced with the FBM with a density of
80 pcf per the mud program. After the FBM was circulated
and conditioned for 5 h as bypass.
3 Results and Discussion

A. Davarpanah (&) 1. The use of a formate based drill fluid instead of salt based
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Science and Research fluid allowed for beneficial modifications to the drilling
Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran practice with positive results:
e-mail: Afshindpe@gmail.com
M. Mehdi Nassabeh • It exhibited superior hole-cleaning qualities throughout
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and
the interval and no significant drag was observed during
Technology, Omidiyeh Branch, Islamic Azad University,
Omidiyeh, Iran drilling. It decreased the need for pills to assist with hole
e-mail: Mehdi.nassabeh1@gmail.com cleaning.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1119

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_324
1120 A. Davarpanah and M. Mehdi Nassabeh

Fig. 1 Comparison of apparent

viscosity between formate fluid
and potassium chloride before
and after applying temperature

Fig. 2 Comparison of apparent

viscosity between formate fluid
and potassium chloride before
and after applying temperature

Fig. 3 Comparison of apparent

viscosity between formate fluid
and potassium chloride before
and after applying temperature
Thermal Stability Evaluation Through the Comparison …
• Flow rates could be increased from typical 350–400
gal/min to 450 gal/min because of the reduced frictional
pressure losses of the formate system.
• It reduced the need for back reaming out of the hole for
hole cleaning.
• It achieved faster than expected penetration rates in total
formation drilling time was achieved.
2. It can be concluded that formate salts caused to increase
the polymers and starch thermal stability and rose its
efficiency in the high temperatures.
3. Environmental pollution of formate salts is dramatically
less than recent salts like potassium chloride and sodium
chloride. It can be appropriate replacement for these
environmental polluted salts.
References
Chaudhary AS, Ehlig-Economides C, Wattenbarger R. Shale oil
production performance from a stimulated reservoir volume. SPE.
2011;147596:1–21.
Chenevert ME. Drilling fluid optimization in shales. swelling pressure
and compressive strength of shale, topical Report. Prepared for Gas
Research Institute, Contract No. 5093–210-2898; Dec 1998.
Downs JD, Killie S, Whale GF. Development of environmentally
benign format-based drilling and completion fluids. SPE 27143,
1121
SPE 2nd International conference on health, safety and environment
in oil & gas exploration and production, Jakarta; 25–27 Jan 1994.
Flavio M et al. Productivity and drainage area of fractured horizontal
wells in tight gas reservoirs. In: SPE rocky mountain oil and gas
technology symposium. Denver, CO; 2008 Paper No. SPE.
Gao P, Yin D. Simulation study on the conditions of converting
injection wells to production wells in low permeability reservoirs.
J Daqing Petrol Inst. 2006;6:12–22.
Hands N, Francis P, Whittle A, Rajasingam D. Optimizing inflow
performance of a long multi-lateral offshore well in low perme-
ability, gas bearing sandstone: K14-FB 102 case study. SPE 50394,
SPE International conference on horizontal well technology,
Calgary; 1–4 Nov 1998.
Martin R, Baihly J, Malpani R, Lindsay G, Atwood KW, Schlum-
berger. Understanding production from Eagle Ford-Austin chalk
system. SPE 145117; 2011. pp. 1–28.
Medeiros F, Ozkan E, Kazemi H. Productivity and drainage area of
fractured horizontal wells in tight gas reservoirs. SPE.
2008;108110:1–10.
Miskimins JL. Design and life cycle considerations for unconventional
reservoir wells. Paper SPE 114170 presented at the SPE uncon-
ventional reservoirs conference, keystone, Colorado, USA; 10–12
Feb 2008.
Mullen J. Petrophysical characterization of the Eagle Ford Shale in
south Texas. In: Canadian unconventional resources and interna-
tional petroleum conference, society of petroleum engineers; 2010.
Passey Q, Bohacs K, Esch W, Klimentidi R, Sinha S. From oil-prone
source rock to gas-producing shale reservoir—geologic and petro-
physical characterization of unconventional shale gas reservoirs.
SPE 131350; 2010. pp. 1–29.
Sondhi N. Petrophysical characterization of the Eagle Ford Shale.
Norman, Oklahoma: Mewbourne School Of Petroleum and Geo-
logical Engineering; 2011.
 Optical Annealing Effect on Zinc Oxide Thin
Films Synthesized via Sol Gel Method
as Used in Water Treatment Field

Soumia Haya, Ouarda Brahmia, Ouahiba Halimi, Miloud Sebais,

and Boubaker Boudine

Keywords
Photocatalytic process Methylene blue ZnO thin films Sol-gel UV irradiation
Solar irradiation

1 Introduction substrate, the drying, time and temperature of annealing. In

Over the past few years, the advanced oxidation technology
process has drawn growing concern for the decomposition of
organic dyes. Photocatalysis stands as part of the oxidation
technique (Kansal et al. 2007). It is based on the
light-enhanced generation of highly reactive hydroxyl radi-
cals, which oxidize organic matter in solution and convert it
completely into water and inorganic compounds. the choice
of catalyst is an important factor for the success of photo-
catalysis. One of the most important transition metal oxides
useful for the removal of many organic compounds is zinc
oxide, thanks to the low cost and good catalytic properties it
displays (Dindar and Icli 2001). ZnO is a semiconducting
material with band gap energy of 3.37 eV and a large
exciton binding energy of 60 meV (Pearton et al. 2003).
Several fabrication methods have been applied to obtain
ZnO nanoparticles, including chemical co-precipitation,
hydrothermal, Sol-gel, etc. The Sol–gel dip coating tech-
nique has the advantage of synthesizing nanostructures with
larger surface to volume ratio, higher crystalline phase purity
and tunable morphologies like nanofibers, nanowires,
nanoflowers and nanorods. For these properties to be
reached, it is necessary to play on various factors such as the
S. Haya (&)
O. Halimi
M. Sebais
B. Boudine
Crystallography Laboratory, Department of Physics, Mentouri
Brothers University, Constantine, Algeria
e-mail: hayasoumia13@gmail.com
O. Brahmia
Laboratoire des Techniques Innovantes de Preservation de
l’Environnement, Department of Chemistry, Mentouri Brothers
University, Constantine, Algeria
the present study’s cotext, ZnO is prepared through imple-
mentation of the sol gel dip coating technique, which
undergoes optical annealing using UV irradiation at different
time intervals. These nanoparticles’ catalytic activity appli-
cable for the degradation of methylene blue under solar and
UV light has also been investigated.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Materials
The reagents, zinc acetate dehydrate (Zn(CH3COO)2,
2H2O), 2-methoxyethanol and the mono-ethanolamine
(MEA) would act as stabilizers. The reaction was carried
out via a simple chemical method.
2.2 Synthesis of ZnO Nanoparticles
The pure ZnO solution was prepared by dissolving 1.5 g of
zinc acetate dehydrate [Zn(CH3COO)2, 2H2O] in 40 ml
(2-methoxyethanol, Merck) with continuous stirring at
ambient temperature, when the solution turned milky, an
equimolar amount of MEA was added, drop by drop, till
obtaining a clear solution after stirring at 60 °C for 2 h. The
final solution was transparent, clear and homogeneous. The
sol was deposed onto cleaned ordinary glass substrates,
using the Dip-Coating technique. The layers were dipped in
the sol for one minute and then drawn at a speed of
6 cm/min. The obtained nanoparticles on the substrates were
then kept at room temperature to dry for 10 min. Finally, the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1123

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_325
1124 S. Haya et al.

nanoparticles were heated via optical annealing with UV
lamp 24 W) at different time intervals of UV irradiation 2, 4,
6, 8 h.
2.3 Characterization of Nanoparticles
The ZnO nanoparticles’ Characterization process was carried
out through an X-ray diffraction (XRD) method using
PhillipsX’Pert PRO diffractometer with Cu Ka radiation of a
wavelength of 1.5418 Å. UV–vis absorption spectra of
synthesized ZnO nanoparticles were computed on UV-1800
SHIMADZU.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis
To investigate the crystalline structure of the ZnO
nanoparticles, XRD pattern were scanned in the 2h ranged
from 20°–50°. Figure 1 shows the XRD pattern of a ZnO
nanoparticle as a function of optical annealing, using a UV
lamp (24 W) irradiated for 2, 4, 6, 8 h. It clearly appears that
the film has a preferential orientation of crystallites corre-
sponding to (002) plan of the Wurtzite structure, in
accordance with the (JCPDS Data Card no 36-1451). This
intense diffraction peak suggests that ZnO thin films grow
along the (002) direction which is perpendicular to the glass
substrate. We readily observed that the intensity of the
(002) diffraction peak proves to increase with increasing
optical annealing time, resulting in the enhanced crystal-
lization of ZnO thin films. Similar results have also been
observed and reported with other ZnO films, but using
thermal annealing, whereby crystallinity was generally
improved with temperature increase. The crystallite size
(D) of the ZnO thin films was estimated using the
Debye-Scherer’s formula (1) (Babbad et al. 2013).
0:9k
D¼ ð1Þ
b cos h
Where D stands for the crystallites size, b denotes the
full-width at half maximum (FWHM) of the diffraction
peaks, h represents the diffraction angle. Table 1, depicts the
crystallites’ average sizes corresponding to (002) plan. On
comparing calculated crystal sizes of optically annealed
samples at different time intervals, it has been noted that the
samples’ crystal size registered an increase with increasing
optical annealing time interval from 2 to 8 h, which, could
be attributed to ZnO thin films growth throughout the
annealing process.

3.2 X-UV-Visible Analysis

30 (002)
--- ZnO:2H For the purpose of investigating the influence of optical
--- ZnO:4H annealing on the transmittance of the ZnO thin films
--- ZnO:6H deposited on glass substrates in the wavelength range 300–
Intensity(a.u)

20
--- ZnO:8H 400 nm, the Absorbance spectra of samples are illustrated in
Fig. 2a. The optical band gap can be reached through ana-
lyzing the absorption edge and applying the Tauc’s Eq. (4)
10 (Babbad et al. 2013):

n
ahv ¼ A hv  Eg ð4Þ
Where n is a constant that depends on the transition
0
30 40 50
probability; it takes the values 1/2, 1/3, 2 and 3 for direct
allowed, direct forbidden, indirect allowed and indirect for-
2theta degree
bidden transition respectively. Figure 2b shows the variation
Fig. 1 XRD patterns of ZnO thin films as irradiated for: 2, 4, 6, 8 h of (ahm)2 in terms of hm, which is the straight line in the
with UV lamp higher energies domain, indicating a direct optical transition.

Table 1 Crystallites size, full Irradiation time (hour) 2h (deg) FWHM (deg) Lattice constants D (nm)
width half maximum and lattice
parameters as calculated via XRD a (A°) c (A°)
2H 34.00 1.447 3.035 5.258 5.890
4H 34.107 1.351 3.031 5.251 6.309
6H 34.296 1.023 3.015 5.223 8.337
8H 34.201 0.783 3.023 5.237 10.891
Optical Annealing Effect on Zinc Oxide … 1125

(a) 3 MB+ZnO/UV
2H ZnO ---2H ZnO 1,0
4H ZnO MB+ZnO/SL
6H ZnO ---4H ZnO
8H ZnO ---6H ZnO 0,8
Absorbance (a.u)

2 ---8H ZnO
0,6

C/C0
0,4
1

0,2

0 0,0
300 320 340 360 380 400 0 25 50 75 100 125
wavelength(nm) Time (minutes)

(b) 0,5 Fig. 3 MB absorption spectra after different UV and solar irradiation
time using ZnO thin films irradiated for 2 h by the UV lamp

0,4 ---2H ZnO

---4H ZnO Table 2 Energy band gap calculated from absorbance spectra
( h ) (a.u)

---6H ZnO Irradiation time (hour) with UV lamp of ZnO Energy gap, Eg
0,3 ---8H ZnO thin films (eV)
2

2H 3.20

0,2
0,1
3,0 3,2
hv(eV)
Fig. 2 a. XRD patterns of ZnO thin films irradiated for: 2, 4, 8, 12 h
with UV lamp. b. Optical band gap ZnO films irradiated for 2:4:6:8 h
with UV lamp
The band gap energy Eg is obtained by extrapolating the
linear portion of the graph to energy axis at a = 0.
In Fig. 2a we observed the blue-shift in absorption edge
when the irradiation time increases. So that, the wavelength
of absorption edge is observed irradiated at 394, 392,
390, 387 nm of 2, 4, 6, 8 h respectively. The Eg values of
ZnO thin films are reported in Table 2. The band gap of ZnO
thin films increase from 3.19 to 3.23 eV for films irradiated
2–8 h. This increases in band gap can be attributed to the
quantum confinement effect. Hence it is confirmed that the
optical band gap of the ZnO thin films strongly depends on
the optical annealing time.
3.3 Evaluation of Photocatalytic Activity
of Synthesized ZnO Nanoparticles
A Photocatalytic activity of the synthesized ZnO product
was evaluated by monitoring the change in optical
4H 3.21
6H 3.25
8H 3.30
3,4
absorption of the MB dye solution during its photocatalytic
decomposition process. The catalytic activity of the Photo-
catalyst is maximum with catalyst having a greater surface
area. Higher surface area of ZnO nanocatalyst facilitates the
diffusion of the reactant molecules to their active sites, fol-
lowing in a better loading of the dye molecules which result
in an excellent photodegradation. The synthesized ZnO
nanoparticles holding
Smaller size the sample 1 of ZnO nanoparticles undergo
optical annealing using UV irradiation during 2 h has a
greater surface area as compared to that other samples of
ZnO nanoparticles undergo optical annealing using UV
irradiation during 4, 6 and 8 h. Therefore, Sample 1 is
selected as a photocatalyst in the degradation of dye. The
Fig. 3 represents the evolution of the concentration ratio
C/C0 of MB dye, where C0 is the initial concentration and C
the concentration at t time, versus irradiation time with the
two samples (MB + ZnO/UV) and (MB + ZnO/Solar light).
Firstly, (MB + ZnO/UV) direct photolysis was found neg-
ligible; almost 99% of degradation was obtained after
125 min. Secondly (MB + ZnO/Solar light) was much fas-
ter; almost 99% of degradation after 50 min in the presence
of Solar light.
The photocatalytic efficiency increased in the following
order: ZnO/UV < ZnO/Solar light. We confirmed the
1126
important role played by the Solar light to enhance the
photocatalytic activity of ZnO nanoparticles than UV
irradiation.
4 Conclusion
In conclusion, ZnO thin films were successfully synthe-
sized by sol-gel method. The photocatalytic behavior of
the synthesized nanoparticles was investigated using
Methylene Blue as an organic pollutant model. The
Structural properties of ZnO thin films revealed an
increase in the degree of crystallinity, so increase in the
particle size. The UV-Vis absorption study showed the
presence of blue shifts and the gap energy increase from
3.19 to 3.23 eV for films irradiated 2–8 h by the UV
lamp. The decomposition of the MB dye was excellent in
S. Haya et al.
the solar irradiation then UV irradiation in particular in
the case of 2 h of irradiation by the UV lamp.
References
Babbad MM, Kadhum AAH, Mohamad AB, Takriff MS, Sopian K.
The effect of process parameters on the size of ZnO nanoparticles
synthesized via the sol–gel technique, J Alloy. Compd. 2013;
550:63–70.
Dindar B, Icli S. Unusual photoreactivity of zinc oxide irradiated by
concentrated sunlight. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A. 2001; 140:263–268.
Kansal SK, Singh M, Sud D. Studies on photodegradation of two
commercial dyes in aqueous phase using different photocatalysts.
J. Hazard. Mater. 2007; 141:581–590.
Pearton S, Norton D, Ipa K, Heo Y, Steiner T. Superlattices
Microstruct. 2003; 34(3–32).
 Combined Process for Olive Oil Mill
Wastewater Treatment Based
in Flocculation, Photolysis, Microfiltration
and Microalgae Culture

Gassan Hodaifa, Ana Malvis Romero, Mansour Halioui,

and Sebastián Sánchez

Keywords

Olive oil mill wastewater Flocculation Photolysis Biomass growth Cholrella
pyrenoidosa Treatment

1 Introduction
Microalgae are among the most important biological
resources, currently receiving great attention due to multiple
reasons such as ease of cultivation, rapid growth and its
enormous potential for the production of a great variety of
high added value products such as pigments, chemicals for
pharmaceutical and cosmetic uses, and biofuels. In addition,
it is also used in the environmental field especially in
wastewater treatment (Mata et al. 2010; Rawat et al. 2011;
Hodaifa et al. 2013). These multiple applications of
microalgae make them an option with great interest from the
industrial view of point.
The olive oil industry is an important sector within the
agro-food industries in the Mediterranean countries (Hodaifa
et al. 2012). However, olive oil extraction process generates
high amounts of both solid and liquid wastes. The treatment
of olive oil mill wastewater (OMW) is one of the main
environmental problems facing the Mediterranean countries,
where Spain and Italy are the main producers (Paredes et al.
1999).
G. Hodaifa (&)
A. Malvis Romero
Molecular Biology and Biochemical Engineering Department,
University of Pablo de Olavide, 41013 Seville, Spain
e-mail: ghodaifa@upo.es
G. Hodaifa
M. Halioui
S. Sánchez
Chemical, Environmental and Materials Department, Center of
Advanced Studies in Olives and Olive Oil, University of Jaén,
23071 Jaén, Spain
The extraction of the olive oil can be carried out by dif-
ferent extraction systems. Press and continuos processes.
The most extended process in Spain is the continuous cen-
trifugation process using a ‘decánter’ with two exits (Tsa-
garaki et al. 2007).
The chemical composition of OMW is characterized by
slightly acid or basic pH, high electrical conductivity and a
high organic content, which varies depending on the
extraction method used. In addition, the organic matter has a
high content of phenolic compounds, sugars, mineral nutri-
ents and high levels of suspended solids. Also, it is known
that the OMW contains tannins, pectins, lignins, long chain
fatty acids and proteins, among other compounds. These
physico-chemical characteristics, together with the large
volume generated, make wastewater the most problematic
waste produced in mills.
This work tried to present a new combined process for
OMW treatment. The process consists of: (i) Floccula-
tion-sidemtation unit with the aim to separate the solid phase
of OMW, (ii) Photolysis unit to reduce the OMW organic load
and photodegradation of some compounds as phenolic con-
sidered as microbial growth inhibitors, (iii) Microfiltration unit
with membrane pore size = 0.2 lm for OMW sterilization and
organic load reduction, (iv) Microalgal bioreactor with the aim
of using the OMW components for microalgae growth, espe-
cially the inorganic ions and sugars. In all the process opera-
tions, the reduction of the organic matter was determined. The
microalgae growth was evaluated for culture media with dif-
ferent OMW percentages and the maximum specific growth
rate and biomass productivity were determined.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1127

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_326
1128
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Procedure
The used OMW was obtained from an olive oil extraction
plant in the province of Seville (Spain). The
flocculation-sedimentation was carried out in Imhoff funnel
using a commercial flocculante Flocudex CS-51. The pho-
tolysis was performed in a batch stirred photoreactor with a
total capacity equal to 750 cm3 (work volume = 600 cm3).
A commercial medium pressure UV immersion lamp, model
TQ 150 Brand HNG Germany G4, 150 No 5600 1725
(Standard) was used. For microalgae cultures the freshwater
microalgae used was Chlorella pyrenoidosa, Chich 8H
Emerson. The experiments were performed on a laboratory
scale in stirred batch tank photoreactors (capacity = 1 L), in
uncontaminated conditions.
2.2 Analytical Methods
In the characterization of crude and treated wastewaters the
following parameters were determined: pH value, electric
conductivity, turbidity, total phenolic compounds (TPCs),
chemical oxygen demand (COD), total carbon (TC), total
organic carbon (TOC), inorganic carbon (IC), total nitrogen
(TN), total iron, chloride and sulphates (Hodaifa et al. 2015).
Sodium and ammonium were determined by Crison selec-
tive electrode, mod. GLP 22. Orthophosphate by
Macherey-Nagel test (0.2–5 mg/L).
0.08
Maximum specific velocity, 1/h
0.06
0.04
0.02
0 0.0000
0 20 40 60
%OMW, v/v
Fig. 1 Maximum specific growth rates (●) and biomass productivities (o) variation with initial OMW concentration in the culture medium
G. Hodaifa et al.
3 Results and Discussion
The determination of the maximum specific growth rate and
biomass productivity of C. pyrenoidosa were determined
during exponential and linear growth phases, respectively.
Figure 1 shows the variation on the maximum specific
growth rates (lm) and biomass productivities (Pb) when
initial OMW concentrations were varied in the culture
media. The lm and PB have increased with the increase of
the OMW in the culture medium until 50% of OMW (v/v)
after this concentration these parameters were decreased
rapidly indicating an inhibition or toxic effect in the cultures
media. The highest values of lm (0.07, 1/h) and PB (1.25,
mg/(L h)) were determined in the culture medium with 50%
of OMW (v/v).
Table 1 shows the OMW composition variation during
the proposed treatment process. From the environmental
view of point, the organic load (represented as COD and
TOC) is the main parámeter. In this sense, it can be observed
that the removal percentages in COD (57.5, 88.8, 20.5 and
37.5%) and TOC (18.0, 71.9, 14.6 and 53.8%) were deter-
mined for flocculation, photolysis, microfiltration and
microalgae growth, respectively. The highest organic load
elimination was achieved during the OMW photolysis. In
general, all parameters were decreased throughout the pro-
cess proposed for the OMW treatment. Only turbidity was
increased after C. pyrenoidosa culture due to the presence of
cell debris in the final water.
On the other hand, the total phenolic compounds (TPCs)
was reduced throughout the process. Only TFCs increased
0.0014
0.0012
Biomass producƟvity, g/(L h)
0.0010
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
%OMW, v/v
Combined Process for Olive Oil Mill Wastewater Treatment … 1129

Table 1 Characterization of raw Parameters 100% olive oil mill wastewater treatment sequence
and OMW treated after each
operation of the proposed process Raw Flocculated UV Microfiltration C.
pyrenoidosa
pH 8.25 – – – 8.9
Conductivity, mS/cm 1.9 1.34 1.35 1.28 1.26
Turbidity, FTU 714.0 53.5 21.9 2.37 14.1
COD, mg O2/L 5,839.0 2‚483.5 278.5 221.5 138.5
Total phenolic compounds, 3.22 7.09 3.85 3.46 2.89
mg/L
TOC, mg/L 646 529.6 149.1 127.4 58.8
TC, mg/L 1‚400 560.9 236.6 199.3 87.6
IC, mg/L 318 31.3 87.5 71.9 28.8
TN, mg/L 58.9 27.8 – 17.3 5.98
Iron, mg/L 1.19 1.03 0.857 0.508 0.494
Sulphate, mg/L 320.3 84.8 79.75 52.25 51.8
Sodium, mg/L 0.943 0.782 0.168 0.208 0.124
Ortho-phosphate, mg/L 43.1 21.7 21.3 – –
Ammonium, mg/L 4.44 4.09 1.32 – 0.309

after flocculation due to the flocculant composition (phenols References

presence) indicating a possible residue of flocculant in the
clarified water obtained after flocculation.
4 Conclusion
Considering the OMW inhibitor effects (as phenolic
compounds) in the microorganisms growth, the applica-
tion of a pretreatment based on flocculation, photolysis
and microfiltration is essential for the reduction or elim-
ination of these inhibitors from OMW. The improvement
in the OMW composition has been proven by improving
the algal growth. In this sense, the highest maximum
specific growth rates (0.07, 1/h) and biomass productivity
(1.25, mg/(L h)) were recorded. The final treated OMW
can be used for irrigation or in the olive oil extraction
process itself. If an operating unit is incorporated at the
end of the proposed process as a filtration-adsorption unit.
Acknowledgements The Junta of Andalusia and Ministry of Econ-
omy and Competitiveness (Spain) are acknowledged for financial
support through Project Ref.: AGR-7092 “Application of advanced
oxidation technologies for treating of washing wastewaters of olive oil
and olives”.
Hodaifa G, Martínez ME, Órpez R, Sánchez S. Inhibitory effects of
industrial olive-oil mill wastewater on biomass production of
Scenedesmus obliquus. Ecol Eng. 2012;(42):30–4.
Hodaifa G, Sánchez S, Martínez ME, Órpez R. Biomass production of
Scenedesmus obliquus from mixtures of urban and olive-oil mill
wastewaters used as culture medium. Appl Energy. 2013;104:345–
52.
Hodaifa G, Agabo C, Moya AJ, Pacheco R, Mateo S. Treatment of
olive oil mil wastewater by UV-light and UV/H2O2 system. Inter J
Green Technol. 2015;1:46–53.
Mata TM, Martins AA, Caetano NS. Microalgae for biodiesel
production and other applications: a review. Renew Sust Energy
Rev. 2010;14(1):217–32.
Paredes C, Cegarra J, Roig A, Sánchez-Monedero MA, Ber-
nal MP. Characterization of olive mill wastewater (alpechin) and
its sludge for agricultural purposes. Bioresour Technol. 1999;67
(2):111–5.
Rawat I, Kumar RR, Mutanda T, Bux F. Dual role of microalgae:
phycoremediation of domestic wastewater and biomass production
for sustainable biofuels production. Appl Energy. 2011;88
(10):3411–24.
Tsagaraki E, Lazarides H, Petrotos K. Olive mill wastewater treatment.
In: Oreopoulou V, Russ W, editors. Utilization of by-products and
treatment of waste in the food industry. Springer: US; 2007. p. 133–
57.
 Rapid Analysis of Antibiotic Residues
in Urban Wastewater of South Sfax
WWTP by Ultra-High-Performance
Liquid Chromatography Coupled
to Quadrupole-Linear Ion Trap
Tandem Mass Spectrometry
Malek Harrabi, Fatma Aloulou, Sara Rodriguez-Mozaz, Saulo Verela,
and Boubaker Elluech



Keywords
Antibiotics LC–MS
1 Introduction
Antibiotics are an important group of pharmaceuticals which
has been widely used in both human and veterinary medi-
cine. After administration, and depending on the compound
chemical properties, 5–90% of the antibiotic dose may be
excreted as metabolites or parent compounds. Therefore,
large amounts of antibiotics are susceptible to enter in
aquatic systems directly via wastewater treatment plants
(WWTPs) effluent discharge. However, the application of
treated waste water and to agricultural fields to irrigate plants
may contaminate agricultural soils, and lead to indirect input
of antibiotics into trees.
The most notorious and significant negative effects
attributed to the occurrence of antibiotics is the development
of antibiotic resistance. While antibiotic-resistant bacteria
are found in the natural environment, significantly higher
numbers of these bacteria are present in wastewater or even
in treated wastewater. Some studies indicated that WWTP
can serve as potential reservoirs of antibiotic resistance
genes which can be transferred to human-associated bacteria
through water and food webs, and thus contribute to
antibiotic resistance proliferation.
M. Harrabi (&)
F. Aloulou
B. Elluech
National School of Engineer of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: malek-harrabi@hotmail.fr
S. Rodriguez-Mozaz
S. Verela
Catalan Institute of Water Research, Girona, Spain
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_327


Environment pollution WWTP
Our objective in this study was:
– Measure and quantify the concentrations of antibiotics
found in effluent treatment plants. Follow the removal
and degradation of antibiotics as soon as they entered the
station (affluent) to output (effluent).
– Reveal the efficiency of purifying system on the Elimi-
nation of antibiotics.
– Specify the rate of elimination for each antibiotic
detected.
2 Materials and Methods
All pharmaceutical standards were of high purity grade
(>90%). Compounds were purchased from SigmaeAldrich,
from the US (USP), from the European (EP) Pharmacopeia
and from Toronto Research Chemicals (TRC). Some sub-
stances were purchased as hydrochloride salts, sodium salts,
calcium salt, hydrobromide salt, tartrate, besylate, potassium
salt, hydrogen sulphate and as hemisulfate. Both individual
stock standard and isotopically labelled internal standard and
surrogate solutions were prepared on a weight basis in
methanol (at a concentration of 1000 mg L1), except for
ofloxacin and ciprofloxacin, which were dissolved in
methanol adding 100 mL of NaOH 1 M, as described by
Ibanez et al. (2009) and cefalexin, which was solved in
HPLC grade water, as indicated by Kantiani et al. (2009)
since these substances are slightly soluble or insoluble in
pure methanol. After preparation, standards were stored at
20 °C. Special precautions had to be taken into account for
1131
1132
Fig. 1 Antibiotics average concentration (ng/L) in WWTP effluentduring the three sampling campaigns
tetracycline, which has to be stored in the dark in order to
avoid its exposure to the light, since it has been demon-
strated that tetracycline antibiotics are liable to photodegra-
dation (Eichhorn and Aga 2004). Fresh stock antibiotic
solutions were prepared every three months while fluoro-
quinolone antibiotics were prepared monthly due to their
limited stability. Stock solutions for the rest of substances
were renewed every six months. Working standard solu-
tions, containing all pharmaceuticals, were also prepared in
methanol/water (10:90, v/v) and were renewed before each
analytical run by mixing appropriate amounts of the inter-
mediate solutions. Separate mixtures of isotopically labelled
internal standards, used for internal standard calibration, and
surrogates, were prepared in methanol and further dilutions
were also prepared in a methanol/water (10:90, v/v) mixture.
The cartridges used for the solid phase extraction were
Oasis HLB (60 mg, 3 mL), Oasis HLB(200 mg, 6 mL),
from Waters Corporation (Milford, MA, USA). Glassfibre-
filters (1 mm) and nylonmembrane filters (0.45 mm) were
purchased from Whatman (U.K.). HPLC grade methanol,
acetonitrile, water (Lichrosolv) and formic acid 98% were
supplied by Merck (Darm-stadt, Germany).
Hydrochloric acid and ethylene diaminetetra acetic acid
disodium salt solution (Na2EDTA) at 0.1 mol L1 were from
Panreac. Nitrogen of 99.9990% purity for drying was obtained
from AbellóLinde S.A. (Spain). A Milli-Q-Advantage system
from Millipore Ibérica S.A. (Spain) was used to obtain
HPLC-grade water. The cartridges used for solid phase
extraction were Oasis HLB (200 mg, 6 mL), from Waters
Corporation (Milford, MA, USA).
M. Harrabi et al.
Chromatographic separations were carried out with a
Waters Acquity Ultra Performance TM liquid chromatog-
raphy system, equipped with two binary pumps system
(Milford, MA, USA) using an Acquity HSS T3 column
(50 mm  2.1 mm).
3 Results and Discussion
Our study evaluated the presence of a large number of
antibiotic in an integrated urban wastewater system includ-
ing the contribution of hospital effluent such as Azi-
thromycin, ciprofloxacin, Ampicillin and ofloxacin.
Figure 1 shows the daily variations (3 days) of average
antibiotics concentrations detected in the effluent of south Sfax
treatment plant. These results vary between 14 and 270 ppb.
4 Conclusion
Antibiotic pollution may pose a serious risk for human
and animal health through the spread of
antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Further research is needed to
unequivocally demonstrate that WWTP discharges pro-
mote horizontal gene transfer among aquatic bacterial
populations.
Acknowledgements This study has been supported by the Ministry of
Higher Education and Scientific Research-Tunisia.This work has been
supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Com-
petitiveness (through project StARE, JPIW2013-089-C02-02), and
supported by the Generalitat de Catalunya (Consolidated Research
Rapid Analysis of Antibiotic Residues in Urban Wastewater …
Groups: Catalan Institute for water Research 2014 SGR 291). Dr. SRM
acknowledges her Ramón y Cajal fellowship (RyC-2014-16707) from
the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness.Best
acknowledgments for the operators and staff at the southern
Sfax WWTP (Tunisia) for their assistance. We wish to thank
Mr. Jamil JAOUA, Founder and Head of the English Teaching Unit at
the Sfax Faculty of Science for having proofed our paper.
References
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removal of steroidal estrogens in Centre Eastern Tunisia municipal
sewage treatment plant. Desalination Water Treat. 2014;52:2330–9.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2013.804448.
Collado N, Rodriguez-Mozaz S, Gros M, Rubirola A, Barceló D,
Comas J, Rodriguez-Roda I, Buttiglieri G. Pharmaceuticals occur-
rence in a WWTP with significant industrial contribution and its
input into the river system. Environ Pollut. 2014;185:202–12.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.040.
Eichhorn P, Aga DS. Identification of a photooxygenation product of
chlortetracycline in hog lagoons using LC/ESI-Ion Trap-MS and
1133
LC/ESI-Time-of-Flight-MS. Anal. Chem. 2004; 76:6002–6011.
doi:10.1021/ac0494127.
Gros M, Rodríguez-Mozaz S, Barceló D. Rapid analysis of multiclass
antibiotic residues and some of their metabolites in hospital, urban
wastewater and river water by ultra-high-performance liquid
chromatography coupled to quadrupole-linear ion trap tandem mass
spectrometry. J Chromatogr A. 2013;1292:173–88. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.chroma.2012.12.072.
Ibanez M, Guerrero c, Sancho JV, Hernández F. Screening of antibiotics
in surface and wastewater samples by ultra-high-pressure liquid
chromatography coupled to hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass
spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A. 2009;1216:2529–2539. doi:10.
1016/j.chroma.2009.01.073.
Kantiani L, Farré M, Barceló D, Barceló D. Analytical methodologies
for the detection of b-lactam antibiotics in milk and feed samples.
TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 2009;28:729–744. doi:10.1016/j.trac.
2009.04.005.
Rodriguez-Mozaz S, Chamorro S, Marti E, Huerta B, Gros M,
Sànchez-Melsió A, Borrego CM, Barceló D, Balcázar JL. Occur-
rence of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes in hospital and
urban wastewaters and their impact on the receiving river. Water
Res. 2015;69:234–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.11.021.
 Separation of Pb (II) and Cu (II) Ions
by the Cloud Point Technique: Statistical
Study by the Taguchi Design

Meriem Mesli and Nasr-Eddine Belkhouche

Keywords

Cloud point technique Separation of lead from copper Taguchi design
Copper Lead Extraction

1 Introduction and selects the best combination of factors that will reach
optimal conditions (Razmovski and Šćiban 2008).
Statistical concepts for processing experimental data offer a Our work consists in evaluating the experimental results
simpler and more efficient approach to optimize several of the study on the separation of Pb (II) and Cu (II) ions by
operational variables influencing the chemical process the technique of cloud point using a polyethoxylated
involved. Modeling often involves the methodology of the alcohol-type surfactant (C13E10). The results showed that
response surfaces using different plans and matrices such as extraction yields of 85 and 75% respectively can be achieved
Box-Behnken, Central composite plane, … etc. (Murugesan for Pb (II) and Cu (II), for a first plateau. Thus, three factors,
et al. 2006). namely the alcohol concentration (A), the initial metal
These matrices sweep a precise experimental space and concentration (B) and the pH of the aqueous phase (C),
their plans rely much more on the study of the interactions appear to be the most influential on the process and have
between the different experimental parameters. The opti- been taken into consideration by l’statistic study.
mization technique of Taguchi is a powerful statistical phi-
losophy which allows an optimization with a minimum of
experiments. It reduces costs, improves quality and provides 2 Materials and Methods
robust design solutions. Currently, it has been widely used
on an industrial scale since it was developed in 1950 by
Gen’ichi Taguchi, a Japanese engineer and statistician.
This factor plan technique presents a good alternative to 1. Study of optimization with ANOM approach
that of the response surfaces as many factors can be simul-
taneously optimized and more quantitative information can An orthogonal matrix will be designed by Taguchi to
be extracted from fewer experimental trials. It can test the determine the optimal experimental conditions for extraction
effects of many different parameters by modifying them of our metals, so experimental tests will be carried out
simultaneously rather than changing one factor at a time. thereafter.
Indeed, the Taguchi technique allows a rapid and precise
estimation of the individual factors having the main effects 1:1. Signal to Noise Ratio

In the present experimental investigation, three control-

M. Mesli (&)
N.-E. Belkhouche
lable factors were considered with each factor at three levels
Laboratory of Technologies of Separation and Purification LTSP
Tlemcen, University of Tlemcen, Tlemcen, Algeria as shown in Table 1. An L-4 orthogonal array designed by
e-mail: ines25210@yahoo.fr Taguchi has been used to determine the optimum experi-
N.-E. Belkhouche mental conditions for maximum removal of heavy metal and
e-mail: n.belkhouche@yahoo.fr the designed experimental runs are given in Table 2. To

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1135

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_328
1136 M. Mesli and N.-E. Belkhouche

Table 1 Factors and their level Factors Description Level 1 (L1) Level 2 (L2)
corresponding
A Concentration of alcohol polyethoxylé, %w/w 0,25 12,5
B Concentration of metallique solution, %w/w 20 500
C pH 0,57 5,28

Table 2 Tests runs Tests A B C

1 1 1 1
2 1 2 2
3 2 1 2
4 2 2 1

achieve a statistical measure of the process performance, 3 Results and Discussion

Signal-to-Noise (S/N) ratio was evaluated. In every statisti-
cal approach, depending on the desired output quality 1. Optimization study by ANOM approach
characteristics, three types of Signal-to-Noise(S/N) ratios are
available: (1) smaller is better (2) nominal is best, and In the present experimental investigation, four control
(3) bigger is better (Açıkel and Alp 2009; Dursun et al. lable factors were considered with each factor at three levels
2003). Since the present study involves maximizing the as shown in Table 1. An L-4 orthogonal array designed by
removal of heavy metal, the S/N ratio for the case of bigger Taguchi has been used to determine the optimum experi-
is better was evaluated as per the formula given below: mental conditions for maximum removal of heavy metal and
!
S 1X n
1 the designed experimental runs are given in Table 2. To
¼ 10 log ð1Þ
N n i¼1 R2i achieve a statistical measure of the process performance,
Signal-to-Noise (S/N) ratio was evaluated. In every statistical
approach, depending on the desired output quality charac-
where ‘n’ represents the total number of replications of
teristics, three types of Signal-to-Noise(S/N) ratios are
each test run and Yi represents the percentage removal of the
available: (1) smaller is better, (2) nominal is the best, and
heavy metal realized in replication experiment ‘i’ carried out
(3) bigger is better (Tsivkovskii et al. 2003; Dönmez and
under the same experimental conditions of each test run.
Aksu 2001). Since the present study involves maximizing the
removal of heavy metal, the S/N ratio for the case of bigger is
2. Analysis of mean (ANOM) statistical approach
better was evaluated as per the formula given below:
Analysis of mean (ANOM) statistical approach was
Analysis of mean (ANOM) statistical approach was
adopted to optimize the process parameters. In this approach,
adopted to optimize the process parameters. In this approach,
the average value of S/N ratio of each parameter at a certain
the average value of S/N ratio of each parameter at a certain
level is evaluated and is mathematically represented as given
level is evaluated and is mathematically represented as given
below.
below: (Aksu et al. 2000; Tsivkovskii et al. 2003)
"  # 2. Signal to Noise Ratio
Factor¼F 1 X nFi
S Factor¼F
ðM ÞLevel¼i ¼ ð2Þ
nFi j¼1 N Level¼i
j The average yield of the metal (Ri) was determined by
  taking the average of the yields of the metal (Ri) carried out,
where ðM ÞFactor¼F
Level¼i represents the mean of the S/N ratio the experimental tests being repeated three times under the
h  i
Factor¼F
with factor F at level i, NS Level¼i represents the value of same experimental conditions (see Table 3). The results of
j
the larger signal-to-noise ratio found in the case of the model
S/N ratio with factor F at level ‘i’ in its jth appearance in
(Eq. 1) adopted for the extraction of copper and lead ions are
Table 2 and is the jth value in Table 4 (where j = 1, 2, 3…
given in Table.
nFi) and nFi represents the number of appearances of factor
F in level i.
Separation of Pb (II) and Cu (II) Ions by the Cloud Point … 1137

Table 3 Percentage of lead and R1 R2 R3 R S

¼ 10 log Y
N
copper extraction corresponding
to reports S/N Pb Cu Pb Cu Pb Cu Pb Cu Pb Cu
83,3 68,42 82,62 68,17 82,39 68,31 82,77 68,30 38,36 36,69
74,22 59,76 74,61 59,9 74,33 59,88 74,39 59,85 3,43 35,54
52,89 64,84 48,16 64,61 49,7 66,91 50,25 65,45 34,00 36,32
69,02 50 68,69 51,38 68,06 51,47 68,59 50,95 36,72 34,14

To estimate the percentage extraction of each factor to the removal of heavy metal (Garcia and Saceda 1994). The
metal ion yield, RT was calculated using equation. The percentage contribution of each factor, qF is given by:
values of Rk and RT were substituted in Eq. (3).
SSF  ðDOFF VEr Þ
The factor sum of the squares, SSF, was obtained for each qF ¼  100
factor and these values are listed in Table 3 for copper and SST
lead.
"  #
Factor¼F 1 X nFi
S Factor¼F 3.1 Moyenne Cumulative Du Pourcentage
ðM ÞLevel¼i ¼ ð3Þ
nFi j¼1 N Level¼i D’élimination Du Métal
j

fac¼F
where, Mniv¼i M Level i Factor F represents the mean of the RkF is the cumulative average of percentage removal of
h  i
fac heavy metal with a certain factor F at kth level and is
S/N ratio with factor F at level i, NS niv Leve li Factor F j
j mathematically represented as:
represents the value of S/N ratio with factor F at level ‘i’ in
nFk h
its jth appearance in Table 3 and is the jth value in Table 4  F 1 X  Factor¼F i
R k¼ A Level¼k ð4Þ
(where j = 1, 2, 3… nFi) and nFi represents the number of nFk j¼1 j
appearances of factor F in level i.
h  i
Factor
A Level represents the average percentage removal of
3. Percentage contribution of various factors by j

ANOVA approach heavy metal (− A) with a factor F at level k in its jth

appearance sequence in Table 3 and is the jth value in the
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) statistical method has percentage heavy metal removal response table shown in
been used in the present study to determine the percentage Table 5 (where j = 1, 2, 3… nFk). nFk represents number of
contribution of each controllable factor on percentage appearances of factor F at level k. In Eq. (4), DOFF

Table 4 Reena Pundri, G.H.V.C  fac  F

Fac/Lev A niv R K
Chary, M.G Dastidar. Application
of Taguchi method for optimizing J=1 J=2
the process parameters for the
Pb Cu Pb Cu Pb Cu
removal of copper and nickel by
growing Aspergillus sp. Water A1 82,77 68,30 74,39 59,85 78,58 64,07
Resources and Industry A2 50,25 65,45 68,59 50,95 59,42 58,20
B1 82,77 68,30 50,25 65,45 66,51 66,87
B2 74,39 59,85 68,59 50,95 71,49 55,4
C1 82,77 68,30 68,59 50,95 75,68 59,62
C2 74,39 59,85 50,25 65,45 62,32 62,65

Table 5 The results of Meriem Factor qF (%)

Mimi work
Pb Cu
A 63,80 19,39
B 4,22 74,32
C 30,97 5,06
1138
represents the degrees of freedom for each factor, which is
obtained by subtracting one from the number of levels of
each factor(L). VEr used in Eq. (4) is the variance of error.
3.2 Total Sum of Squares
The calculation of the total sum of squares (SST) will give a
value 1723, 72314 for lead. Then for copper, it is
530.747625.
3.3 Variance of Error (Ver)
On the other hand, the variance found for lead was 1.57 and
that for copper was 0.59.
3.4 The Percentage Contribution of Each Factor
The percentage contribution of each factor (qF) in the
response, in the case of extraction of the two metals, is given
by the table.
4 Conclusion
The experimental design of Taguchi with an orthogonal
lattice L4 was used to optimize the process parameters for
a maximum percentage of extraction of heavy metals (Cu
and Pb). The experimental parameters were optimized.
The percentage of the heavy metal extraction achieved
in the confirmatory experiment is higher than all the tests.
Thus, the accuracy of the optimization of the process
M. Mesli and N.-E. Belkhouche
parameters performed to maximize the percentage
removal of heavy metals (Cu & Pb) is determined.
However, a more complete “experiment design” tech-
nique with more experimental runs and more parameters
would better understand the process of extraction. In
addition to the above, optimization using a different set of
parameters Process can contribute more to the efficiency
of the process.
References
Açıkel U, Alp T. A study on the inhibition kinetics of bioaccumulation
of Cu (II) and Ni (II) ions using Rhizopus delemar. J Hazard Mater.
2009;168:1449–58.
Aksu Z, Dönmez G. The use of molasses in copper (II) containing
wastewaters: effects on growth and copper (II) bioaccumulation
properties of Kluyveromyces marxianus. Process Biochem.
2000;36:451–8.
Dönmez G, Aksu Z. Bioaccumulation of copper(II) and nickel(II) by
the non-adapted and adapted growing Candida sp. Water Resour.
2001;35:1425–34.
Dursun AY, Uslu G, Cuci Y, Aksu Z. Bioaccumulation of copper (II),
lead (II) and chromium (VI) by growing Aspergillus niger. Process
Biochem. 2003;38:1647–51.
Garcia MP, Saceda M. Effect of cadmium on estrogen receptor levels
and estrogen induced responses in human breast cancer cells. J Biol
Chem. 1994;269:16896–901.
Murugesan GS, Sathishkumar M, Swaminathan K. Arsenic from
groundwater by pretreated waste tea fungal biomass. Bioresour
Technol. 2006;97:483–7.
Razmovski R, Šćiban M. Biosorption of Cr (VI) and Cu (II) by waste
tea fungal biomass. Ecol Eng. 2008;34:179–86.
Tsivkovskii R, Efremov RG, Lutsenko S. The role of the invariant
His-1069 in folding and function of the Wilson’s disease protein,
the human copper—transporting ATPase ATP7B. J Biol Chem.
2003;278:13302–8.
 Atmospheric Emission Inventory
and Modeling of VOCs in a Petroleum Site
in Sfax Region

Sahar Masmoudi, Mohamed Jamel Rouis, and Dalila Taieb

Keywords
Air pollution ARIA impact Emission inventory Pollutant VOC Petroleum
industries

1 Introduction The goals of the present study were to elaborate the

The urban expansion and the growth of industrial, transport
and agricultural activities of Sfax agglomeration led to the
change of air composition. These activities cause the emis-
sion of various pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOX),
sulfur oxides (SOX), carbon oxides (COX), volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) (AZRI et al. 2007).
Sfax Region is characterized by petroleum activities
which can lead to “air pollution”. In fact, fugitive emission
from oil activities results from different sources: process
venting and flaring, evaporation losses and fugitives equip-
ment leak. Consequently, it is an obligation to establish
strategies for atmospheric pollution prevention and energy
management for Sfax region.
Bellasioa affirms that emission inventory is one of the
most important tools to analyze air quality and to set up
remediation plans. In fact, atmospheric emission inventory
includes datasets such as: Chemical identity, the emission
factor, quantification of emission activity, the location vari-
ation of the emissions (Bellasioa 2006).
S. Masmoudi (&)
M. J. Rouis
Unit of Research in Environmental Geotechnics and Civil
Materials, Sfax National School of Engineering, Sfax University,
Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: masmoudisahar90@gmail.com
M. J. Rouis
e-mail: jamel.rouis@gmail.com
D. Taieb
National Agency for Environment Protection, ANPE, Tunis,
Tunisia
e-mail: taieb_dalila@yahoo.fr
inventory of emissions including carbon dioxide (CO2), NOx
and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs),
and to estimate the downwind ambient concentration of air
pollutants emitted from the petroleum site in Sfax region,
Tunisia.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Inventory Emission in Oil Treatment Site
2.1.1 Emission in Storage Tank
Evaporation in storage tanks generate greenhouse gas
emissions, air pollution and the loss of a saleable product. In
fact, the following equation estimates total losses from fixed
roof tanks which are equal to the sum of the working loss
and standing storage loss (US EPA 2006).
LT ¼ LS þ LW ð1Þ
Where LT is total losses from fixed roof tanks (t/yr); LS is
standing/Breathing storage losses (t/yr) and LW is the
working losses, (t/yr).
Breathing losses: issue from the thermal contraction and
expansion of the tank and vapor mixture from the daily
heating cycle. Equation (2) represents the standing Storage:
LS ¼ 365 VV WV KE KS ð2Þ
Where Vv express vapor space volume (ft3); WV is stock
vapor density (t/ft3), KE is vapor space expansion factor and
KS is vented vapor saturation factor.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1139

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_329
1140
Working losses issue from the modification in liquid level
in the tank. In fact, the increase of liquid level leads to the
increases of pressure in the tank. Fixed roof tank working
losses can be estimated from Eq. 3:
LW ¼ 0:0010 M V PVA Q K N K P
Where MV expresses the vapor molecular weight
(t/t-mole); PVA is vapor pressure at daily average liquid
surface temperature (psia); Q is annual net throughput
(bbl/yr); KN is working loss turnover factor; N is number of
turnovers per year and KP is working loss product factor.
In this paper, we opted for the use of the software
TANKS version 4.09D to estimate air emission in storage
tanks (US EPA 1999). The choice of TANKS has been made
taking into account the lesser complexity input requirements
of the software. TANKS is published by the United States
(U.S.) Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA).
2.1.2 Emission From Flaring
Flaring emissions of associated petroleum gas are NOX and
non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC), but
also SOX, CO, particulate matter (PM) and heavy metals
(HM). Equation (4) presents the specific emissions for each
pollutant (Trozzi et al. 2013).
Epollutant ¼ ARproduction  EFtechnology pollutant
Where Epollutant is the specific emissions for each pollu-
tant; ARproduction is the activity rate within this source cate-
gory and EFtechnology pollutant is the emission factor for
pollutant as per CONCAWE 2009.
2.1.3 Emission From Equipment Leak
In oil treatment field, process fugitive sources include:
Pumps, connectors, valves, compressors. Equation 3 esti-
mates VOCs emissions.
EVOC ¼ FA  N
Where N is the number of pieces of equipment of the
applicable equipment type in the stream and FA is the factor
of NMVOCs for the equipment type (kg/hr/source).
Table 1 Inventory of atmospheric emissions
Pollutant Causes
CO2 Gas flaring/processing leaks
NOx Gas flaring/processing leaks
VOC’s Gas flaring/processing leaks/storage
S. Masmoudi et al.
2.2 Simulation Model
The ARIA impact model is a gaussian model provided by
ARIA technologies. ARIA impact was used to elaborate
statistical assessments of long-run impact of traffic and
ð3Þ industrial emissions, to compare concentration levels with
regulatory norms and develop an analysis of meteorological
data (ARIA technologies 2006).
3 Results and Discussion
The emission inventory is an important method for elabo-
rating strategies to improve air quality. In fact, the annual
gas emissions from annual gas flaring, processing leaks and
storage for CO2, NOx and VOCs are given in Table 1.
Owing to the comparison between the outcomes of the
emission inventory, we observed a significant amount of
COV emission that exceeds the flux limit of 2 kg/h as rec-
ommended by the Tunisian regulations (JORT 2010).
The results of the VOCs emission inventory were inte-
grated into an air quality modelling system “ARIA impact”.
In the second step, High resolution ARIA impact models
were made in an oil field in Sfax region where different types
of atmospheric simulation studies were conducted.
Figure 1 illustrates the map of annual average concen-
tration of VOCs. The transport and diffusion of pollutants
ð4Þ
are determined by the action of the meteorological condi-
tions. As can be seen from the obtained results, the disper-
sion of the VOCs depends on atmospheric conditions
especially the NNW wind direction. Consequently, a toxic
plume is lying parallel to the wind direction.
The simulation results show that the dark red zone cor-
responds to higher concentration of VOCs, which reached
99 µg/m3 (Concentration close to the annual limit value). As
a deduction, the agricultural zones and the residential areas
close to study site were affected by the VOCs toxic effects.
The implication of these findings can be summarised as
reducing COV emission by the application of two methods:
ð5Þ
• The installation of floating screens for fixed roof tanks:
Infact, floating roof avoids the presence of a gaseous sky
and limits VOC emissions.
• Thermal incineration.
Total emission (Tonne/year)
106.811
14.65
123.91
Atmospheric Emission Inventory and Modeling …
Fig. 1 Modelled annual mean COV air pollution, based on atmospheric conditions during 2017
4 Conclusion
The inventory of atmospheric emissions from study sites
and the map developed by the commercialized ARIA
impact software shows an important amount of the
emitted VOCs. The simulation suggests that the resi-
dential and agricultural areas may be affected by the
effects of VOCs. Consequently, different techniques of
cleanup technology can be used, such as: the installation
of floating screens for fixed roof tanks, the installation of
Steam Recovery Units, etc. heo reduction of VOCs
emission amount.
References
ARIA Technologies. Catalogues logiciels et systèmes; 2006.
1141
Azri C, Maalej A, Medhioub K, Rosset R. Evolution of atmospheric
pollutants in the city of Sfax (Tunisia) (October 1996–June 1997).
Atmósfera. Jul 2007;20(3). México.
Bellasioa R, Bianconia R, Cordab G, Cuccab P. Emission inventory for
the road transport sector in Sardinia (Italy); 2006.
CONCAWE (2009). Air pollutant emission estimation methods for
E-PRTR reporting by refineries. Prepared by the concawe air quality
management group’s special task force on emission reporting
methodologies (STF-69), P. Roberts (technical coordinator). Report
No 1/09, Brussels, Jan 2009.
JORT (Journal Officiel de la République Tunisienne): Décret n ° 2010–
2519 du 28 septembre 2010, fixant les valeurs limites à la source
des polluants atmosphériques de sources fixes; 5 octobre 2010.
Trozzi C, Plejdrup M, Deslauriers M, Kuenen J, Rypdal K, Wood-
field M. EMEP/EEA emission inventory guidebook; 2013.
U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). User’s guide to tanks:
storage tank emissions calculation software version 4.0; 1999.
U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). Emission factor docu-
mentation for AP-42 Section 7.1: organic liquid storage tanks (Final
Report); 2006.
 Part VI
Natural Resources: Characterization, Assessment,
Management and Valorization
 Valorisation of Berry Pomace:
From Waste to Bioactive Compounds
Maris Klavins, Agnese Kukela, Jorens Kviesis, and Linards Klavins



Keywords
Berry pomace Biorefining
1 Introduction
Fruits and berries are amongst the essential food components
and their processing is a major direction of food industry. At
the same time processing of fruits and berries produces a
huge amount of wastes—one of the major waste streams
globally. Significant amounts of berries are processed into
juices as a by-product leaving large quantities of berry press
residues—pomace. Considering its low calorific value, in
some cases high acidity, the berry pomace is considered as a
waste product or used inefficiently mainly due to a lack of
valorisation of their processing methods. However, the berry
pomace contains high amounts of valuable phytochemicals
—polyphenolics, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins and others,
and the development of new waste valorisation methods can
help to convert the berry pomace into high value products
using environmentally friendly approaches.
The aim of the present study was to develop possibilities
of converting the berry pomace into high value ingredients
using different environmentally friendly extraction and
fractionation methods and to test properties of the obtained
products as well as evaluate their application potential.
2 Materials and Methods
As a study object, wild and industrially cultivated berries
were used: blackcurrant, bilberry, raspberry, highbush
blueberry, lingonberry, cranberry and American cranberry.
Dried berry press residues obtained after juice extraction
were used for the experiments. For the extraction of
M. Klavins (&)
A. Kukela
J. Kviesis
L. Klavins
University of Latvia, Raina Blvd 19, Riga, LV 1586, Latvia
e-mail: maris.klavins@lu.lv
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_330



Polyphenolics Antioxidants Lipids
biologically active compounds different extraction methods
were tested (treatment with ultrasound, conventional
extraction, Soxlet extraction, treatment with microwaves,
and extraction with supercritical CO2). During extraction,
the extrahents polarity influence, extraction procedure and
kinetics, solid-liquid ratio and other parameters were stud-
ied. The total yield of extracted substances, their radical
scavenging activity as well as a group of parameters (total
carbohydrates, total lipids and other) were determined. The
composition of the obtained extracts was characterised using
GC-MS, UPLC as well as HPLC-MS/MS. For the opti-
mization of the polyphenolic extraction efficiency response
surface methodology (RSM) was used.
3 Results and Discussion
Studied berries contain a high number of different groups of
substances, however taking into account the application
potential in functional food, cosmetics and biopharmacy as
well as market value, polyphenolics and lipids were con-
sidered as substances of priority interest. Thus the berry
pomace processing strategy was developed based on the
extraction of corresponding groups of substances starting
with polyphenolics or lipids.
For the lipids extraction, conventional solvent extraction
can be applied but we preferred to use the supercritical
carbon dioxide extraction as a “green” extraction method. At
optimal conditions the yields of berry waxes/oils are from 12
to 18%. In total, 111 different substances were identified by
comparing their mass spectra and retention index with the
reference mass spectra and reference retention index. The
highest numbers of substances were found in the cloudberry
(86), lingonberry (79) and crowberry (78) extracts. The lipid
1145
1146
Fig. 1 Response surface plots
for total polyphenolics in function
of solvent composition and acid
concentration
fraction contained compound classes like triacylglycerols,
fatty acids, sterols, triterpenoids, alkanes, phenolic and car-
boxylic acids and carotenoids. All berry pomace extracts
contained high amounts of C18 unsaturated fatty acids (for
example, up to 102 µg/g of blueberries) and phytosterols
(86 µg/g of b-sitosterol of blueberries), and high amounts of
benzoic acid were found in lingonberries (164 µg/g).
After the removal of lipids the berry pomaces might be
subjected for extraction of more polar groups of substances.
Amongst these interesting groups we may cite the
polyphenolics which are strong antioxidants but some of
them, for example anthocyanines are berry pigments and
might be valorised as food colorants. To select the best
polyphenolic, specifically, anthocyanin, extraction method
different approaches were tested (treatment with ultrasound,
conventional extraction, Soxlet extraction, treatment with
microwaves) and it was found that the highest yields were
provided by the treatment with ultrasound-depending on its
power. The study of the extraction kinetics shows that the
process is fast (<30 min). The optimisation of the solvent
composition from berry press residues of American cran-
berry was achieved using the RSM approach. Total
polyphenols were extracted with different solvent mixtures
according to the RSM experimental design and different
surface response profiles, with plateau surface (Fig. 1)
indicating optimal extraction conditions and optimal extra-
hent composition—aqueous ethanol (40–70%) in presence
of an acidifying agent (formic acid).
M. Klavins et al.
Moreover, to validate the optimal
polyphenol/anthocyanin extraction solvent mixtures,
extraction from two different types of samples, berry press
residues and whole, dried berries were carried out. Com-
paring whole berry extracts with berry press residue extracts,
it is possible to conclude which type of sample contains
more polyphenols and anthocyanins, thus pointing out the
potential sources of the berry materials for further processing
of berry pomace. To show and compare the composition of
anthocyanins from whole berries and their pomace the
extraction conditions found as optimal for American cran-
berries were tested on of 5 different berries and anthocyanin
and polyphenolic analysis using UPLC and HPLC-MS/MS
were carried out. The lowest market value and potential
biological activity have carbohydrates and to obtain stable
polyphenolic concentrates in solid form, carbohydrates were
removed using column chromatography.
Consequently, the concept of biorefining may be suc-
cessfully applied to berry pomaces for the development of
high added value functional ingredients and this aim might
be achieved using “green” technologies.
Acknowledgements This work has been supported by the European
Regional Development Fund within the project No. 1.1.1.1/16/A/047
“Genus Vaccinium berry processing using “green” technologies and
innovative, pharmacologically characterized biopharmaceutical
products”.
 Lemonene Recovery from Waste Lemon
Peels with Supercritical Extraction
Catia Giovanna Lopresto, Alessandra Meluso, Giuseppe Di Sanzo,
and Vincenza Calabrò



Keywords
SFE supercritical estraction
1 Introduction
Essential oils of plants and herbs are important natural
sources of bioactive substances. In the Mediterranean basin
there are numerous and varied species of great interest from
such a point of view. Lemon is a cultivar that contains many
of these active ingredients, widely used in its components.
Recovery of the bioactive components, like essential oil, in
the waste peels obtained after squeezing for the production
of juices and other derivatives, is one of the goals of the
citrus industry. In order to recover such active components
from the exhausted peels, we proposed, in this work, the use
of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) technique.
Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is the most widely
studied application for the extraction of essential oils from
plants and herbs with several hundred of published scientific
papers. Even though supercritical extraction is more expen-
sive than traditional technologies, it represent an
environmental-friendly solutions that minimize the use of
hazardous solvents by using green technologies (Chemat et al.
2012); furthermore it leads to higher quality extracts (Glišić
et al. 2007) and does not require any extra unit operations and
downstream treatments such as distillation of toxic solvents.
The supercritical extraction and fractionation of essential oil
from plant matrices to produce bioactive substances has been
reviewed in several works during the last two decades
C.G. Lopresto
V. Calabrò (&)
Department of Informatics, Modeling, Electronics and System
Engineering, University of Calabria, 87036 Rende, CS, Italy
e-mail: vincenza.calabro@unical.it
A. Meluso
G. Di Sanzo
Laboratory of Biotechnologies (UTTRI-BIOTEC), ENEA (Italian
Research Center for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable
Economic Development), Trisaia, 75026 Rotondella, MT, Italy
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_331


Lemonene Waste lemon peels Essential oils
(Reverchon and De Marco 2006; Pereira and Meireles 2010).
The major component of Citrus essential oils is D-limonene or
(R)-(+)-4-isoproprenil-1-methylcyclohexene, a monocyclic
terpene used in food, cosmetics, aromatherapy massage with
no reported clinical toxicity (Edris 2007) and medicine for its
chemotherapeutic activity and anti-cancer effects in preclini-
cal mammary and liver cancer models, its antioxidant poten-
tial, anti-diabetic effect and other clinical applications
(Thoppil and Bishayee 2011). D-limonene is generally
unstable, owing to many factors, such as light, heat, oxidation
and hydration, but SFE avoids problems related to its ther-
molability since it can be operated at low temperatures using a
non-oxidant medium.
This work aimed to finding the optimal operating con-
ditions for the supercritical CO2 extraction of D-limonene
from lemon peels. The effect of different variables on yield
of D-limonene was considered: ripening stage of fruits,
particle size of dried peels, amount of dried peels loaded,
CO2 flux, pressure and temperature.
2 Materials and Methods
The Lemon fruits [Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f] used in this
study belong to a spontaneous mutation of the cultivar
“Femminello comune”, produced in Rocca Imperiale (Cal-
abria, South of Italy), a PGI Italian lemon. After the peels
characterization, limonene was extracted by both traditional
hydrodistillation and SFE. Fresh lemon peels were prelimi-
narily submitted to hydrodistillation using a Clevenger-type
apparatus and extracted with ultrapure water at 100 °C for
3 h (until no more essential oil was obtained). Waste peels
were dried, ground and sifted by sieves in order to obtain
1147
1148 C.G. Lopresto et al.

different particle size. Activity of fresh and dried peels was

measured by the instrument AQUALAB CX3. Supercritical
CO2 extraction of D-limonene from lemon peels was per-
formed in the commercially available supercritical fluid
extractor SPE-ED SFE 2 (Applied Separations), modified at
the Laboratory UTRI-BIOTEC (ENEA, Rotondella, Italy) to
better control temperature and pressure during the extraction.
The content of D-limonene in essential oil—extracted from
lemon peels and diluted in hexane (dilution ratio 1:15)—was
determined by gas chromatography (GC).
The effect of operating conditions on total extract and
d-limonene yield was analysed in a series of experiments at
35–50 °C and 12.5–20 MPa. The effects of ripening stage
(different collection time), particle size distributions for dried
Fig. 1 Effect of particle size on yield of D-limonene
peels and CO2 flow rate in optimal temperature and pressure
conditions were also investigated.

3 Results and Discussion

Ripening stage influenced the fruits features and the highest

content of juice, citric acid, essential oil and D-limonene in
essential oil was reached in December, Table 1. This is in
agreement with literature, since the influence of climatic
conditions and harvesting time on the composition and
quality of the essential oil was reported (Hussain et al.
2008).
The best supercritical fluid extraction conditions were
found to be 40 °C and 15 MPa, where density of super-
critical CO2 was 0.77 g/cm3. Yield of D-limonene decreased
as particle size increased, Fig. 1, due to the fact that the Fig. 2 Effect CO2 flow rate on yield of D-limonene
superficial area of adsorption decreased considerably. Such
results were observed in optimal temperature and pressure The slower yield of D-limonene in SFE respect to
operating conditions (T = 40 °C, P = 15 MPa), at CO2 flow hydrodistillation can be due to the loss of volatile com-
rate of 8 L/min and extraction time of 40 min. The same pounds during pre-treatments, but also by the loss of these
trend was observed in each sampling period. compounds in the depressurization step after SFET. To
The effect of CO2 flow rate was analyzed on dehydrated evaluate if drying is really significant, hydrodistillation was
peels of fruits collected in January, Fig. 2, with smallest also performed on drying peels (from fruits collected in
particle size distribution of 0.125—1 mm, in optimal December) with or without grinding. The results confirmed
temperature and pressure operating conditions too. Yield of that the pre-treatment drying reduced significatively the
D-limonene increased as flow rate increased from 5 to extraction yield from 6.77 to 2.59.
8 L/min and decreased as flow rate increased from The obtained results with SFE were analysed in order to
8 to 10 L/min; in all the three experiments the extraction time evaluate the extraction curves, where extraction yield e, (in
was equal to 40 min. terms of mass of extract/mass of insoluble solid [kg/kg]) is

Table 1 D-limonene and total extract yield reached by hydrodistillation on fresh peels
Yield % [mass/mass of dry peels] November December January
Total extract D-Lemonene Total extract D-Lemonene Total extract D-Lemonene
Hydrodistillation on fresh peels (in 3 h) 4.00 3.28 6.77 5.95 6.73 5.40
Lemonene Recovery from Waste Lemon Peels …
usually reported as function of solvent ratio q, (in terms of
mass of CO2/mass of matrix [kg/kg]) (Sovová 1994). This
analysis was carried out at different CO2 flow rates and
different particle sizes, showing the extraction profiles that
have been described following the Sovovà model (Sovová
2005).
4 Conclusion
Supercritical CO2 extraction of essential oil from Italian
lemon peels was carried out under different conditions of
temperature, pressure, particle size, ripening stage and
CO2 flow rate in order to evaluate their influence on the
yield and composition of essential oil. Although higher
pressures increase the rate of extraction and yield, sig-
nificant amounts of waxes were co-extracted and, con-
sequently, the essential oil content in the extract
decreased. Decreasing particle size improves SFE rate
and yield. The amount of extract increased as CO2 flow
rate increased, at the expense of selectivity.
Acknowledgements We are very grateful to Gaetano Di Leo, Rocca
Imperiale Lemon and Valorisation Union, Italy, for providing the fruit
samples. We tank also the Department UTRI-BIOTEC of the Research
Centre ENEA-Trisaia in Rotondella (Italy), where characterization and
pre-treatments of fruits, and SFE were carried out. Finally, we are
grateful to the Research Project SILA (PONa3_00341—CUP
H21D11000020007) for the financial support.
1149
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Chemat F, Vian MA, Cravotto G. Green extraction of natural products:
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Thoppil RJ, Bishayee A. Terpenoids as potential chemopreventive and
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 Integrating Science and Knowledge
to Boost Mediterranean Traditional
Products: The REALMed Pilot Study

Manuela Giovanetti, Jose L. Araus Ortega, Naziha Atti, Angela Augusti,

Federica Camin, Casparus J. Crous, Marco Lauteri, Nives Ogrinc,
Maja Podgornik, Pedro Reis, Fouad Taous, and Cristina Máguas

Keywords

Mediterranean biodiversity Truffle Iberian black pig Argan oil Mountain lamb and
kid REALMed

1 Introduction and sustainable production. The application of standardiza-

REALMed is a multilateral scientific project (Fig. 1), which
involves the North–South Mediterranean countries, with the
aim of “Pursuing authenticity and valorization of Mediter-
ranean traditional products”. REALMed is designed to
help value the Mediterranean originating food products by
ensuring authenticity and quality, while focusing on tradi-
tional practices, national identities and intrinsic environ-
mental quality. Worldwide, consumer concern regarding
food related issues is intensified, concerning mainly such
aspects as authenticity, geographic origin, health, nutrition
tion and certification may well imply local environmental
conservation issues likely to enhance measures relevant to
protecting the natural areas providing such valuable
resources, on the long term. Indeed, food products have to
respond to environmental and socially sustainable claims.
This is particularly critical in the Mediterranean region,
where several unique and traditional food products of
exceptional quality play a fundamental role in maintaining
the local socio-economic activities, as well as safeguarding
the cultural and natural heritage. The latter is, in fact, under
threat from the cumulative impacts of land use and climate

M. Lauteri
M. Giovanetti
C. J. Crous
C. Máguas
e-mail: marco.lauteri@ibaf.cnr.it
Fundação da Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa
(FFCUL), Lisbon, Portugal F. Camin
e-mail: manuela.giovanetti@gmail.com Fondazione Edmund Mach (FEM), San Michele All’Adige, Italy
e-mail: federica.camin@fmach.it
C. J. Crous
e-mail: cjcrous@gmail.com N. Ogrinc (&)
Jožef Stefan Institute (JSI), Ljubljana, Slovenia
C. Máguas
e-mail: nives.ogrinc@ijs.si
e-mail: cmhanson@fc.ul.pt
M. Podgornik
J. L. Araus Ortega
Science and Research Centre Koper, Institute for Oliveculture,
Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
Koper, Slovenia
e-mail: jaraus@ub.edu
e-mail: Maja.Podgornik@zrs-kp.si
N. Atti
P. Reis
Institut National de Recherche Agronomique de Tunisie (INRAT),
Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária e Veterinária (INIAV),
Tunis, Tunisie
Lisbon, Portugal
e-mail: naziha.atti@gmail.com
e-mail: pedro.reis@iniav.pt
A. Augusti
M. Lauteri
F. Taous
Istituto di Biologia Agroambientale e Forestale (IBAF),
Centre National de L’énergie, Des Sciences et Techniques
Porano, Italy
Nucleaires (CNESTEN), Rabat, Morocco
e-mail: angela.augusti@ibaf.cnr.it
e-mail: taous@cnesten.org.ma

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1151

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_332
1152
Fig. 1 REALMed logo
change affecting the Mediterranean Basin. As the Mediter-
ranean stands as a sensitive and vulnerable cultural and
environmental hotspot, it is necessary to count on a pro-
ductive, sustainable and resilient agriculture to consolidate
its position. It is in this respect that REALMed could be of
great help, through combining the often neglected important
factor of associating the product to its origin and the prac-
tices required to produce it. Hence, the major objectives are
axed on the creation of a Mediterranean Identity Label,
whereby to valorize the products sharing it, along with a
long-term Cooperation Platform of Experts, to ensure con-
stant monitoring and implementation of the adopted
techniques.
2 Materials and Methods
Eight research institutes from six Mediterranean countries
(Fig. 2) will concert protocols, analyses and activities to be
performed. Analytical techniques highlighting a great
potential for determining geographic origin (stable isotope
ratios and elemental profiles) and authenticity (molecular
characterization) will be jointly combined. The generated
data will be applied to establish a database, spatial-temporal
models and ‘authenticity’ maps. Actually, the REALMed
action plan foresees two horizontal phases, the first of which
related to the organization of partners with different back-
grounds (cultural, administrative, financial management
strategies), applying the most recent advancements wit-
nessed in communication and dissemination issues. As for
the second phase, it sounds rather technical: common data-
bases concerning the selected commodities will be estab-
lished, likely to be further used for data processing by
statistical methods; GIS applications and modelling,
M. Giovanetti et al.
Fig. 2 Products addressed around the Mediterranean area by
REALMed project. Image modified from: http://www.d-maps.com/
m/mediterranean/meditmax/meditmax01.gif
including isoscapes, will be developed; a general screening
of available data and identification of missing data on ele-
mental, isotope and molecular parameters in selected com-
modities will be performed.
3 Results and Discussion
REALMed’s objective is to promote a multidisciplinary
approach integrating information concerning the geographic
location, climate, soil, chemical and molecular characteri-
zation of each product, along with an economical value
chain analysis. Trough such a holistic perspective, stake-
holders and decision makers will have a scientific basis for a
Mediterranean Identity Label, likely to help improve the
market competitiveness on a global scale. The selected
products, on which REALMed will focus, are the following:
IBERIAN PIGs, a traditional breed of Sus scrofa domesti-
cus L., native to the Iberian Peninsula. It is currently found
in herds clustered in central and southern Portugal and Spain
(Lopez-Bote 1998). The Iberian pig is a rare example in the
context of swine production, adapted to a pastoral setting. In
traditional management, animals range freely in sparse oak
forests (“montado” or “dehesa”). This agro-forestry system
is a diverse habitat with different oaks (holm, gall and cork
oak) that produce acorn, which is the main feeding and
which will result in prime-quality Iberian pig products (e.g.
“jamon iberico”). ARGAN OIL is produced from the ker-
nels of the argan tree (Argania spinosa L.), a species
endemic to Morocco. Berber women have historically used it
for cosmetic and cooking, and lately, it has been investigated
for cardio- and skin-protective properties. Argan oil pro-
duction plays a key role in the environmental and
social-economic Moroccan context. A. spinosa provides
Integrating Science and Knowledge to Boost Mediterranean …
food, shelter and protection from desertification (Charrouf
and Guillailme 2008; Mossouris and Pierce 2000); argan oil
production supports about 2.2 million people, among them
sensitive groups, such as women. The value of this product
relies on Mediterranean biodiversity, traditional knowledge
and heritage, but also on social organization and promotion
of territorial products. TRUFFLES are fruit bodies of
hypogeous ascomycetous fungi, that grow underground
through a symbiotic relationship with the roots of specific
host trees (e.g. oak, poplar, willow, hazel and some shrubs).
Of the world’s export market, 85% comes from Mediter-
ranean Europe. The underground networks that truffles build
up are key role in plant communities. They may facilitate
and influence seedling establishment, by altering plant–plant
interactions and by supplying and recycling nutrients (Van
Der Heijden and Horton 2009). The fruiting body is one of
the most prized delicacies and the value of their retail price
has reached hundreds to thousands of euros per kg,
depending upon truffle species and dimension. MOUN-
TAIN LAMB AND KID meat is not only appreciated as a
food resource, but is also important in social and religious
ceremonies of South Mediterranean countries. The farming
system, production factors and site characteristics, as well as
animal breed and category, play a crucial role in the outcome
of specific lamb types. Consumers prefer meat produced in
natural grasslands, which are believed to have a superior
quality (Ådnøy et al. 2005; Smeti et al. 2014). The forest
pasture is one of the most common sheep and goat pro-
duction systems in the Mediterranean area. Sheep and goat
have a particularly broad farming system, reflecting their
adaptation capacity to a wide range of ecological conditions.
The interdisciplinary view, as undertaken by REALMed,
will apply a range of innovative approaches and methods
pertaining to the areas of food traceability, authenticity and
safety. The latter will be tested in the Mediterranean region
in a bid to retrieve the most appropriate means useful for
strategy implementation, while ensuring both of the vul-
nerable populations’ economic growth as well as the
improvement of the existing environmental protection rele-
vant measures.
4 Conclusion
The Mediterranean food products are nowadays
re-evaluated, owing mainly to the beneficial health effects
they offer, which go beyond the basic nutritional needs.
As a matter of fact, the Mediterranean is endowed with
the uniquely unequalled gift, characterized with peculiar
landscapes, sites, knowledge, know-how technologies
1153
and products. Jointly combined, these specific features
contribute in establishing the Mediterranean legacy,
recently integrated in the List of Intangible Cultural
Heritage of Humanity by the UNESCO (2015). Actually,
coordinating the individual countries’ efforts to recog-
nize, certify and defend local products would help greatly
in maintaining the local economies’ competitiveness and
sustainability. Similarly, the environmental issues could
no longer be separated from being integrated into the
local communities’ aspirations for growth and welfare.
The idea lying behind the REALMed undertaking con-
sists mainly in enhancing the conservation of Mediter-
ranean biodiversity and sustainable farming practices,
which will constitute the basis for developing new market
products based on local resources. The identification of
constrains, innovation issues and recommendations is a
key approach for a better valuation of local products and
boosting rural economies, while preserving the Mediter-
ranean environment as the real origin of the added value.
Project advancements can be monitored at the website:
http://realmedproject.weebly.com. Questions, comments,
participation requests can be made at:
realmed.1720@gmail.com.
Acknowledgements REALMed, “Pursuing authenticity and val-
orization of Mediterranean traditional products”, is a project funded by
ARIMNet2 (2017–2020), an ERA-NET coordinated by INRA (France)
and funded under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Pro-
gramme for research, technological development and demonstration
under grant agreement no. 618127.
References
Ådnøy T, Haug A, Sørheim O, Thomassen MS, Varszegi Z, Eik LO.
Grazing on mountain pastures—does it affect meat quality in
lambs? Livest Prod Sci. 2005;94:25–31.
Charrouf Z, Guillaume D. Argan oil: occurrence, composition and
impact on human health. Eur J Lipid Sci Tech. 2008;110:632–6.
Lopez-Bote CJ. Sustained utilization of the Iberian pig breed. Meat Sci.
1998;49:Sl7–27.
Mossouris Y, Pierce A. Biodiversity links to cultural identity in
southwest Morocco: the situation, the problems and proposed
solutions. Arid Lands Newsletter. 2000;48:1–10.
Smeti S, Mahouachi M. Effects of finishing lambs in rich aromatic plant
pasture or in feedlot on growth and meat quality. J Appl Anim Res.
2014;42:297–303.
UNESCO. Convention for the safeguarding of intangible cultural
heritage 2003. 2015. Retrieved 12 Dec 2015.
Van Der Heijden MG, Horton TR. Socialism in soil? The importance of
mycorrhizal fungal networks for facilitation in natural ecosystems.
J Ecol. 2009;97(6):1139–50.
 Improving Cellulose Structure
for Bioconversion: Sugarcane Bagasse
Pretreatment Accompanied by Lignin
Recovery and Ionic Liquid Recycle

Koel Saha, Jaya Sikder, Paulomi Diwedi, Ankita Ghosh,

Sudip Chakraborty, Debolina Mukherjee, Stefano Curcio,
and Vincenza Calabro

Keywords
Sugarcane bagasse Pretreatment Ionic liquid recycle Lignin recovery Enzymatic
hydrolysis

1 Introduction aided pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse to recover lignin

Bioethanol, derived from biomass has established itself as
one of the leading biofuels in the global market (Sarkar et al.
2012). Lignocellulosic biomass has proved to be one of the
most abundant and cost effective renewable resource which
is non-polluting agricultural residue and potential to be
converted into biofuel. The main components of lignocel-
luloses are lignin, and cross linked polysaccharides i.e. cel-
lulose and hemicellulose. Cellulosic component which
occurs in the highest percentage is used to synthesize bio-
fuels such as ethanol. One of the most available lignocel-
luloses in tropical countries like India and Brazil is
sugarcane bagasse as sugarcane is the most cultivated crops
in these countries. Southern mediterranean countries mostly
in Northern Africa are the center of origin and also a major
producer of several cereals like sorghum, pearl millet, finger
millet, rice etc. which contain lot of cellulosic materials as
well. Hence, this part of the region has the potentiality for
agriculture practiced by small farmers with higher yield but
poor soils, amongst other constraints adding to the difficul-
ties for sustainable farming and incomes But conversion of
lignocelluloses waste or agro industrial waste can add some
value if new materials can also be produced from the waste
(FAOSTAT 2014). Current study explored [EMIM]oAc
K. Saha
J. Sikder
P. Diwedi
A. Ghosh
Department of Chemical Engineering, National Institute of
Technology, Durgapur, West Bengal 713209, India
S. Chakraborty (&)
D. Mukherjee
S. Curcio
V. Calabro
Department of Informatics, Modeling, Electronics and Systems
Engineering (DIMES), University of Calabria, Via P. Bucci, Cubo
—42a, 87036 Rende, CS, Italy
e-mail: sudip.chakraborty@unical.it; zsudip.c@gmail.com
and observe structural modification of bagasse and subse-
quently enzymatic hydrolysis of pretreated biomass.
[EMIM]oAc was chosen as a solvent for bagasse pretreat-
ment as the chemical structure of lignin is not altered during
this [EMIM]oAc mediated pretreatment. Raw and pretreated
bagasses were characterized by X-ray diffraction and Scan-
ning electron microscopy to observe the effect of ionic liquid
on bagasse. The lignin so regenerated is further characterized
using Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis. [EMIM]oAc
was recycled to check the reusability.
2 Materials and Methods
Sugarcane bagasse (SCB) was supplied by local juice mill of
Durgapur, West Bengal, India. SCB was cleaned with water,
sieved to a size of 1–3 cm, dried, grinded and screened to a size
of 250–500 µm and stored in a sealed container at room
temperature. Chemical composition of SCB was determined
as: 30% cellulose, 24% hemicelluloses and 22.4% lignin as per
the analytical procedure adopted from National Renewable
Energy Laboratory (NREL) (Sluiter et al. 2012). Bagasse was
pretreated at 140 °C, 120 min and 1:20 ionic liquid to bagasse
ratio. Surface morphology of untreated and pretreated sugar-
cane bagasse was investigated by Scanning Electron Micro-
scope (JEOL JSM-6360, JAPAN) and crystallinity was
detected by X-ray diffractometer (X’pert PRO, PANalytical
B.V., P.W 3040/60, Netherland). To assess the impact of
pretreatment on enzymatic hydrolysis of bagasse, both
untreated and pretreated bagasse was subjected to saccharifi-
cation using commercial cellulase from Trichoderma reesei

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_333
1156
(ATCC 26921) (Sigma Aldrich (USA). Both 1D (13C and 1H)
and 2D (Heteronuclear single-quantum correlation (HSQC))
NMR spectra of lignin were obtained by Bruker ADVANCE
600 spectrometer (Bruker, Germany).
3 Results and Discussion
SEM analysis of raw sugarcane bagasse showed lameller and
smooth surface where cellulose is linked to lignin and
hemicellulose. Ionic liquid aided pretreatment disrupted the
cellular bond, cracked the surface layer and removed outer
amorphus lignin and hemicellulose through depolymeriza-
tion, thus formed conglomerate and irregular texture. The
strong crystalline structure of cellulose as revealed by XRD
analysis is formed due to the presence of van der Waals
force and intermolecular hydrogen bonding between along-
side cellulose molecule (Chirayil et al. 2014). In this study a
less crystalline structure and larger amorphous region of
pretreated sample was established from XRD pattern as it
exhibits substantial reduction in peaks intensity as compared
to untreated sample. The reason behind this phenomenon is
the partial solubilization and distension of cellulose crystal
with [EMIM]oAc due to complexity in cell wall component
and structural diversity at moderate pretreatment temperature
(Zhang et al. 2014). Crystallinity index (CrI) of untreated
bagasse is 51.44 which decreased after pretreatment and the
calculated value of CrI of pretreated bagasse is 36.74.
Reduction of the CrI by 14.7% in pretreated biomass implies
a rapid decline of crystalline structure and increase of
amorphous region after pretreatment. After enzymatic
hydrolysis, reducing sugar released from pretreated bagasse
is much higher as compared to untreated bagasse. 1H NMR
spectrum of lignin shows the peak at 7.38 ppm which cor-
responds to p-coumaric and p-ferulic acid of lignin. The
peak at 5.7 ppm signifies ether linkage (Cox and Ekerdt
2013). C NMR spectra detected peaks at 100–155 ppm, 60–
86 ppm and 55–57 ppm which corresponds to the presence
of aromatic carbon, aliphatic side chain and methoxy carbon
respectively (Kim et al. 2011). No peak was observed in the
region of 102–90 ppm. This signifies negligible presence of
residual sugar in ionic liquid extracted lignin sample. Due to
signal overlapping in C NMR, 2D HSQC NMR was per-
formed to resolve resonance overlap and explore detailed
structure. 2D NMR spectra can be divided in two regions.
Side chain region: dC/dH 50.0-90.0/2.50-6.00 and aromatic
region: dC/dH 100.0-135.0/5.50-8.50 (Moghaddam et al.
2014). Cross signals of side chain region correspond to
details regarding inter unit linkage of lignin (Moghaddam
et al. 2014) whereas aromatic region provides information
K. Saha et al.
regarding guaiacyl (g), Syringyl (S) and p-hydroxyphenyl
(H) unit and also substructures like spirodienone,
p-hydroxycinnamyl alcohol and p-hydroxybenzoate
substructure.
4 Conclusion
A preliminary study was executed on the impact of imi-
dazolium ionic liquid pretreatment on sugarcane bagasse.
Characterization of raw and pretreated bagasse revealed
the physical and chemical changes in terms of lignin
separation and lowering the crystallinity of cellulose.
Further enzymatic saccharification corroborated an
increase in reducing sugar yield after pretreatment pro-
cess. The extracted low molecular weight lignin exhibited
the presence of elemental functional group thus corrob-
orated the recovery of lignin in almost pure form. Further
investigation is necessary to study the fermentation of
hydrolyzate to ethanol which determines overall effi-
ciency of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate in pro-
cessing of sugarcane bagasse to bioethanol.
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge Department of
Biotechnology, Government of India for the grant provided to carry
out this research work under the bilateral collaboration between
India and Brazil (DBT- India and MCTI-CNPq-Brazil) vide no.
DBT/In-Bz/2013-16/06 and CNPq process no: 401361/2013-6.
References
Chirayil CJ, Joy J, Mathew L, Mozetic M, Koetz J, Thomas S. Isolation
and characterization of cellulose nanofibrils from Helicteres isora
plant. Ind Crop Prod. 2014;59:27–34.
Cox BJ, Ekerdt JG. Pretreatment of yellow pine in an acidic ionic
liquid: extraction of hemicellulose and lignin to facilitate enzymatic
digestion. Bioresour Technol. 2013;134:59–65.
Kim J-Y, Shin E-J, Eom I-Y, Won K, Kim YH, Choi D, Choi I-G, Choi
J-W. Structural features of lignin macromolecules extracted with
ionic liquid from poplar wood. Bioresour Technol. 2011;102:9020–5.
Moghaddam L, Zhang Z, Wellard RM, Bartley JP, O’Hara IM,
Doherty WOS. Characterisation of lignins isolated from sugarcane
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Biomass Bioenerg. 2014;70:498–512.
FAOSTAT. http://Faostat.fao.org;2014.
Sarkar N, Ghosh SK, Banarjee S, Aikat K. Bioethanol production from
agricultural wastes: an overview. Renew Energ. 2012;19:19–27.
Sluiter A, Hames B, Ruiz R, Scarlata C, Sluiter J, Templeton D,
Crocker, D. Laboratory analytical procedure (LAP): determination
of structural carbohydrates and lignin in biomass. Technical Report
NREL/TP-510-42618. National Renewable Energy Laboratory,
Golden, CO, USA; 2008, 2012. P. 18 (Revised in August 2012).
Zhang J, Wang Y, Zhang L, Zhang R, Liu G, Cheng G. Understanding
changes in cellulose crystalline structure of lignocellulosic biomass
during ionic liquid pretreatment by XRD. Bioresour Technol.
2014;151:402–5.
 Interactions Between Cationic Porphyrins
and Standards Clays: Spectroscopic and 3D
Confocal Investigations

Amira Lajmi, Emmanuel Joussein, Stéphanie Leroy-Lhez,

Marilyne Soubrand, Claire Carrion, Matthias Monneron-Guyrits,
Catherine Riou, and Mounir Medhioub

Keywords
Porphyrin Clays Adsorption Spectroscopy 3D confocal image reconstruction

1 Introduction present a large p-electron delocalization which are respon-

Clay minerals represent natural and interesting host and
guest organic chromophores components inducing the for-
mation of dye molecular assemblies. The interactions
between guest species and host structures (with or without
intercalated in layered) may induce interesting photofunc-
tional properties which are one of the most promising
properties of dye molecular systems. The porphyrins and
related compounds have a large number and extremely
versatile applications (e.g. in chemical, agronomical, cat-
alytic, ceramics, electronic, and optical properties) of both
guest and host species due to the unique spectral and lumi-
nescence photoactive properties of these compounds.
Moreover, porphyrins (namely also geoporphyrins) have
also been detected in a variety of geological environments
probably due to their extensive roles in both plant and ani-
mal biochemistry and their relative stability (Kosiur 1977).
Porphyrins are a group of heterocyclic macrocycle organic
compounds, composed of four pyrroles ring. Then they
sible for their spectral properties are generally not soluble in
water. A large type of porphyrins is effective depending on
the type of substituents, anionic or cationic one and can
change their properties. Since clay minerals are low cost
materials and present unique and interesting properties for
example toward their capacity to adsorb compounds, it is
quite interesting to develop novel functional
organic/inorganic hybrid materials with clay mineral.
This paper proposed to understand the interactions of
standard clay minerals (nontronite, palygorskite, kaolinite,
halloysite and smectite) with cationic porphyrins, the tetra
(N-methylpyridyl) porphyrin one. To this end, samples were
studied by XRD, IRTF, UV-Visible and fluorescence spec-
troscopy in such a way to follow the interactions, as well as
their orientations in relation to the properties of each clay.
Finally, a 3D reconstruction from confocal Z-stack images
was achieved in order to localize the porphyrin onto clay
particles.

A. Lajmi
E. Joussein (&)
M. Soubrand
M. Monneron-Guyrits

GRESE (Groupement de Recherche Eau Sol Environnement),
Université de Limoges, EA 4330, 123 Avenue Albert Thomas,
87060 Limoges cedex, France
e-mail: emmanuel.joussein@unilim.fr
A. Lajmi
M. Medhioub
Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université de Sfax, Sfax,
Tunisia
S. Leroy-Lhez
C. Riou
LCSN (Laboratoire de Chimie des Substances Naturelles),
Université de Limoges, UPRES EA 1069, 123 Avenue Albert
Thomas, 87060 Limoges cedex, France
C. Carrion
Plateforme Cytométrie Imagerie et Mathématique, Université de
Limoges, 2 rue du Dr Marcland, 87025 Limoges cedex, France
2 Materials and Methods
The clay minerals samples were obtained from (i) the Clay
Mineral Society source clays collection (nontronite Nau-1;
kaolinite KGa-2; palygorskite PFl-1; Ca-rich montmorillonite
STx-1b), (ii) Imerys (halloysite Matauri Bay) and (iii) Applied
Minerals (halloysite Dragonite). The cationic porphyrin used
is a tetra (N-methylpyridyl) porphyrin with or without Zn2+
cation. Several physical-chemical properties have been
determined like CEC, pH, SSA, zeta-potential and chemical
composition. The interaction between porphyrins and clay
were studied by XRD, FTIR, UV-visible, and fluorescence

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1157

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_334
1158
spectroscopy. A 3D reconstruction from confocal Z-stack
images was also achieved after excitation at 420 nm.
3 Results and Discussion
The physical chemical properties of each clay sample were
determined and compared with the reference data. Briefly,
the nontronite and the montmorillonite present the higher
CEC whereas kaolin polymorphs (kaolinite and halloysites)
the lower one. The SSA follows the same trends. Samples
differ also in term of morphology, i.e. flakes for smectites,
long tubes for Dragonite and short tubes for the Matauri Bay
one, pseudo-hexagonal for the kaolinite. According to this
and to the density of charges, it seems that smectite (non-
tronite and montmorillonite) may be more reactive than
others. Before studying the complex formation, the stability
of porphyrins was previously evaluated for different pH
values by UV-visible spectroscopy. The complex formation
behavior of porphyrins with clay was then examined by
absorption spectra. The results evidenced the presence of a
Soret band shift translating the intercation of porphyrins with
clay surface whatever the samples. This point was also
confirmed by the fluorescence spectroscopy since the emis-
sion bands are slightly shifted to lower energies. So it seems
that the adsorption structure of porphyrin is mostly governed
by the charge density and arrangement in the clay structure.
A. Lajmi et al.
Finally, a shift of the Si–O–M band was observed in the case
each sample (but higher for the 2:1 type clay) to the lower
wavenumber after interaction with porphyrins. It was prob-
ably due to the presence of molecules onto clay surface
inducing distorsion of the tetrahedral layer.
3D confocal image reconstruction from Z-stacks clearly
evidenced the localisation of porphyrins onto clays. For
example, in the case of the kaolinite, porphyrins are essen-
tially located on the edge of clay particles whereas both
surface and edge for the palygorskite.
4 Conclusion
The Clay—porphyrins complex was studied from various
sources of clay. From the previous results, according to a
panel of spectroscopic investigations, the interaction of
porphyrins is quite effective but seems to be dependant of
the charge densities of clay and probably of their mor-
phology. The use of 3D confocal image reconstruction
from Z-stacks is a good enough technique to image the
localisation of porphyrins onto the host clay.
Reference
Kosiur DR. Porphyrin adsorption by clay minerals. Clays Clay Miner.
1977;25:365–71.
 Emerging Use of Plant-Based Flocculants
for Industrial Wastewater Treatment: Case
Study from Phosphate Clay of Metlaoui
(Gafsa-Tunisia)

Raouen Rachdi, Feyda Srarfi, Karim Khela, and Najet Slim Shimi

Keywords
Phosphate mud Flocculation Optimum pH Chemical flocculant Natural flocculant
Optimal dose

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

The use of conventional chemical based coagulants increa-
ses residual levels of chemical products. That is why they
are considered harmful to the environment and toxic to
human’s fauna and flora (Farooq et al. 2010). In addition,
they have a relatively high procurement costs. The cost and
the environmental side effects of these compounds led many
researchers to investigate the possibility of using plant-
based coagulants in water and wastewater treatment
(Joseane et al. 2013). Naturally occurring products are
biodegradable and are presumed safe for human health
(Muralimohan et al. 2014).
1. Phosphate clay preparation
The tests were carried out on clay prepared at the labo-
ratories. The preparation consisted of the following steps:
mechanical preparation, sampling by quarters, settling, high
and low cuts.
2. Preparation of a stock solution of bioflocculant
A stock solution of cactus was prepared as needed and the
mixture was subjected to stirring 100 rpm/min. A working
stock solution was prepared fresh for each experiment.

3. Experimental protocol

Coagulation-flocculation tests were carried out to deter-

mine the optimum dose of the natural flocculant, we carried
R. Rachdi (&)
F. Srarfi
N. Slim Shimi out a series of tests while varying each time the added
Palaeo-Environment Geomaterials and Geological Threats,
Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, 2092
volumes of this bioproduct in a liter of phosphate sludge.
Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: raouenrachdi@hotmail.fr
F. Srarfi 3 Results and Discussion
e-mail: feydasrarfi@gmail.com
N. Slim Shimi The best performance of the bioflocculant appeared at basic
e-mail: najetshimi@yahoo.fr pH and the worst effect appeared at neutral and acidic pH. So
F. Srarfi
N. Slim Shimi the flocculation process depends on pH value of the crude
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science of Tunis, University preparation of this biomaterial. This product proved the need
of Tunis El Manar, 2092 Tunis, Tunisia for the correction of the pH to work efficiently. Similar
K. Khela results were obtained by of Zhang et al. in (2006) who
Laboratory of Process and Valorisation Division, Gafsa Phosphate demonstrated that the performance of the bioflocculant at
Company Research Center, Gafsa, Tunisia
e-mail: karim.kehila@cpg.com.tn
basic pH. In general, the natural polymers were proved to

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_335
1160
need pH correction of the water to work efficiently (Joseane
et al. 2013).
The choice of the most efficient dose of NFC was made
according to the volume of clear water recovered after
15 min of settling. The highest volume of clear supernatant
obtained was 730 mL. It should be noted that the natural
sedimentation was very slow. However, when we used the
optimal dose of chemical flocculant, the volume of clear
supernatant values measured 660 mL/L. The cactus OFI
shows high capabilities to act as a flocculant. In general, the
natural flocculant has efficiency in the volume of recovered
water, superior to that achieved by metal flocculants. The
high settling rate obtained by the use of bioflocculant based
cactus is mainly related to the size of the flocs formed.
The use of conventional chemical based flocculants
increases residual levels of chemical products. That is why they
are considered harmful to the environment and toxic to human’s
fauna and flora (Farooq et al. 2010). The use of this product
plant-based instead of chemical flocculant can decrease residual
level of chemical products. Naturally occurring products are
biodegradable and are presumed safe for human health (Vija-
yaraghavan et al. 2011, Muralimohan et al. 2014).
R. Rachdi et al.
4 Conclusion
The exploitation of cactus powder as a flocculant could
be a very effective alternative. It has competitive char-
acteristics such as its cost effectiveness, easy availability
and the strength of the formed flocs, etc. thus making
their uses more reasonable.
References
Farooq U, Kozinski JA, Khan MA, Athar M. Biosorption of heavy
metal ions using wheat based biosorbents—a review of the recent
literature. Bioresour Technol. 2010;101:5043–53.
Joseane DPT, Lenz GF, Zara RF, Bergamasco R. Coagulants and
natural polymers: perspectives for the treatment of water. Plast
Polym Technol 2013;2(3):55–62.
Muralimohan N, Palanisamy T, Vimaladevi MN. Experimental study
on removal efficiency of blended coagulants in textile wastewater
treatment. Int J Res Eng Technol. 2014;2(2):15–20.
Vijayaraghavan G, Sivakumar T, Vimal Kumar A. Application of plant
based coagulants for waste water treatment. Int J Adv Eng Res Stud.
2011;I(I):88–92.
Zhang J, Zhang F, Luo Y, Yang H. A preliminary study on cactus as
coagulant in water treatment. ProcessBiochem. 2006;41:730–3.
 A New Stratigraphic Correlation
for the Upper Campanian Phosphorites
and Associated Rocks in Egypt and Jordan

Fayez Ahmad, Sherif Farouk, and Mohamed W. Abdel Moghny

Keywords
Egypt Jordan Phosphorites Late campanian Glauconite Black shale

1 Introduction Duwi sections (26º06′2″N and 34º05′10″E) in Egypt, and the

The Campanian Duwi and Amman phosphate-rich forma-
tions, deposited within shallow marine environments in
Egypt and Jordan, have been intensely studied due to their
economic interest. These deposits belonged to the giant
Tethyan phosphorite belt extending from the Caribbean in
the west, through North Africa to the Middle East in the east
(Notholt 1980). This province accounts for the greatest
known accumulation of marine phosphorites, possibly in
excess of 70 billion metric tons of phosphate rocks (Glenn
and Arthur 1990).
The aim of this paper was to present results of investi-
gation on age assignment, lithofacies, biofacies, and the
depositional environments to determine the relative sea-level
curve of the Campanian deposits in Egypt and Jordan.
2 Materials and Methods
Three exposed sections were measured and sampled bed by
bed and investigated sedimentologically in detail. These are
the Abu Tartur (25º25′34″N and 30º05′08″E) and Gebel
F. Ahmad (&)
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The Hashemite
University, 13115 Zarqa, Jordan
e-mail: fayeza@hu.edu.jofayezahmad3@hotmail.com
S. Farouk
Exploration Department, Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute,
Nasr City, 11727, Egypt
e-mail: geo.sherif@hotmail.com
M. W. Abdel Moghny
Geology Department, Al-Azahr University, Nasr City, Egypt
e-mail: mwageeh1@gmail.com
Umm Qais section (32º38′50″N and 35º41′13″E) in Jordan.
Carbonate and siliciclastic rocks were analyzed in the field
using a hand lens and classified according to their deposi-
tional fabrics as well as grain-size and composition.
3 Results and Discussion
The petrographical studies revealed that biogenic phosphatic
debris (e.g., faecal pellets, fish teeth and bones) are the main
source of phosphate minerals in Egypt. Thin sections of the
pellets show two types: reworked granular and in situ
phosphatic grains (pristine). The alternation of intervals of
pristine phosphate and granular phosphorite is also recog-
nized in correlative deposits in south-central Jordan (Abed
and Sadaqah 1998; Pufahl et al. 2003), Iraq (Al-Bassam
et al. 1983), Negev (Nathan et al. 1979; Soudry and
Champetier 1983), and Egypt (El-Kammar et al. 1979;
Glenn and Arthur 1990).
Reworked granular phosphatic pellets have been recor-
ded in all the samples of the studied localities and reflect
locally mechanical accretion and rearrangement of peloids
in a relatively high-energy environment. They are struc-
tureless, rounded to subangular, spherical to ovular and
nearly homogeneous in their internal structure. In all stud-
ied phosphatic lithofacies, peloidal grain-size decreases
upwards. In the studied phosphate rocks the size of the
pellets is larger in both Umm Quais (Jordan) and Abu
Tartur (Egypt) than those along the Red Sea coast. In
general, the grain size of phosphatic rocks ranges from fine
sand grade to coarse gravel with an average of medium
sand-grade.

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_336
1162
Authigenicphosphatic grains (pristine) are very common
in the Jordanian phosphorites and have undifferentiated form
(FT1; Fig. 2F). The majority are made up of intensive
micropellets that accumulated into larger phosphatic pellets.
In general, the phosphatic pellets are more common in the
Jordanian phosphorites than in the Egyptian examples.
In contrast to phosphatic pellets, the phosphatic litho-
clasts are much more abundant in the Egyptian phosphorites
than in the phosphatic rocks of Jordan. The phosphatic
lithoclasts are formed by multiple event concentration and
associated with sediment transportation. These grains con-
tain detrital and carbonate grains, showing that they are
reworked of pre-existing accumulations.
Bone and teeth fragments are dominant in the different
investigated phosphorites. Their abundance and size increase
in the Abu Tartur phosphate rocks and the majority of these
grains are fractured, reflecting a high degree of load-
compaction on these sediments. The replacement of apatite
minerals in vertebrate skeletal grains is well developed in all
the studied phosphorites. The main difference is that the
phosphatic minerals in the phosphorites of Abu Tartur are
mostly transformed into silica minerals (chalcedony), while in
other phosphorites they are often replaced by calcite.
Based on the relative abundance of REE in the Egyptian
phosphorites, Hassan and El Kammar (1975) concluded that
the phosphorite in both the Red Sea and the Nile Valley are
enriched in U content more than the phosphate rocks on the
Abu Tartur plateau. On the other hand, the phosphate rocks
in Abu Tartur are characterized by a relative abundance of
Y, Yb and La more than phosphorite in other localities. It
can be concluded that the relatively deeper-water phosphate
beds in the Red Sea and the Nile Valley are characterized by
their low REE content due to their precipitation from sea
water. The high content of Y, Yb and La reflects the rela-
tively shallower phosphate deposits of Abu Tartur Plateau
than those in the other areas.
4 Conclusion
A detailed facies analysis of the Late Campanian suc-
cession of Egypt and Jordan, including litho-, bio- and
microfacies analyses, resulted in the recognition of 15
characteristic lithofacies types grouped into phosphate
(FT1-5), carbonate (FT6-11) and siliciclastic
(FT12-15a-c) associations that have been used to char-
acterize the depositional environments.
The phosphate province in Egypt (Duwi Formation)
and Jordan (Al-Hisa Phosphorite Formation) is repre-
sented by five lithofacies types. The basal phosphate beds
in Egypt and Jordan show that major transgressive facies
development occurred during the Late Campanian above
strong facies changes from the non-marine Qusseir Var-
F. Ahmad et al.
iegated Shale in Egypt, or, equivalent carbonate facies of
the Amman Silicified Limestone Formation. The upper
phosphate beds represent another transgressive facies
characterized by coarse-grained phosphate with silici-
clastic gravel and Thalassinoides burrows at the base.
Phosphatic pellets are represented by reworked gran-
ular and in situ phosphatic grains (pristine). Granular
phosphatic pellets have been recorded from all studied
localities. Authigenic phosphatic grains (pristine) are
more common in the Jordanian phosphorites. Phosphatic
lithoclasts are much more common in the Egyptian
phosphorites than in phosphatic rocks in Jordan. Bones
and teeth fragments are dominant in the different inves-
tigated phosphorites. Their abundance and size increase
in the Abu Tartur phosphate rocks.
Bioactive is well developed in the phosphatic grains
(pellets and bones) of the Egyptian phosphorites. These
phosphatic grains are microbially tunneled (by bacteria),
commonly with a micritic carbonate fluorapatite (fran-
colite) and phase filling the tunnels and gradually
replacing the bone matrix. The redeposition of francolite
in the bored bone fragments is associated by dissolving
hydroxyapatite mineral (dahlite).
The main phosphatic beds of the Campanian succes-
sions in Jordan lie in the Al-Hisa Phosphorite Formation.
Along the Red Sea coast of Egypt as well as in Nile
Valley, the thickest phosphatic beds may be in the upper
part of the formation or in the middle part and sometimes
in the lower part of the formation, that may indicate that
some depositional basins were more suitable and/or
affected by rapid accumulation of phosphates more than
other localities. The Campanian rock units in Jordan, Red
Sea and Nile Valley are approximately similar to each
other and suggest similar lithofacies development in
response to global/regional relative sea-level changes
across the Nubo-Arabian Shield on the southern margin
of the Neo-Tethys Ocean.
These facies accumulated under protected inner shelf
environments where the phosphorite beds were deposited
during slight storm include events. On the Abu Tartur
plateau, the main phosphorite bed occurs in the lower part
of the formation followed by black shales and glauconitic
sandstones. The presence of quartz grains in the lower
part of the phosphatic bed in Abu Tartur reflects fluvial
sediment-supply and shallower depositional environment
in these basins than in those along the Red Sea coast and
in north Jordan. The large amounts of pyrite and glau-
conite in the Abu Tartur phosphorites suggest an
increasingly abundant source of iron-bound phosphate
associated with terrigenous sediment input to the conti-
nental margin.
A New Stratigraphic Correlation for the Upper Phosphorites …
References
Abed AM, Amireh BS. Sedimentology, geochemistry, economic
potential and paleogeography of an Upper Cretaceous phosphorite
belt in the southeastern desert of Jordan. Cretaceous Res.
1999;20:119–33.
Abed AM, Arouri K, Boreham C. Source rock potential of the
phosphorite-bituminous chalk-marl sequence in Jordan. Mar Petrol
Geol. 2005;22:413–25.
Abed AM, Sadaqah R. Role of upper Cretaceous oyster bioherms in the
deposition and accumulation of high-grade phosphortites in Central
Jordan. J Sed Res. 1998;68:1009–20.
Abed AM, Sadaqah R, Al-Jazi M. Sequence stratigraphy and evolution
of Eshidiyya phosphorite platform, southern Jordan. Sed Geol.
2007;198:209–19.
Al-Bassam KS, Al-Dahan AA, Jamil AK. Campanian–Maastrichtian
phosphorite of Iraq—petrology, geochemistry, and genesis. Miner
Deposita. 1983;18:215–33.
El-Kammar AM, Zayed MA, Amer SA. Rare earths of the Nile Valley
phosphorites, Upper Egypt. Chem Geol. 1979;24:69–81.
1163
Glenn CR, Arthur MA. Anatomy and origin of a Cretaceous
phosphorite-green sand giant. Egypt Sed. 1990;37:123–48.
Hassan F, El Kammar AM. Environmental conditions affecting the
distribution of uranium and rare earth elements in Egyptian
phosphorites. Egyptian J Geol. 1995;2:169–78.
Kolodny Y, Garrison R. Sedimentation and diagenesis in paleo-
upwelling zones of epeiric sea and basinal settings: A comparison of
the Cretaceous Mishash formation of Israel and the Miocene
monterey formation of California. In: Iijima A, Abed AM,
Garrison R, editors. Siliceous, phosphatic and glauconitic sediments
in the tertiary and mesozoic. In: Proceedings of 29th International
Geological Congress Part C VSP, The Netherlands; 1994. 133–158.
Notholt AJ. Economic phosphatic deposits, mode of occurrence and
stratigraphical distribution. J Geol Soc London. 1980;137:805–93.
Powell JH, Moh’d BK. Evolution of Cretaceous to Eocene alluvial and
carbonate platform sequences in central and South Jordan. Geo
Arabia. 2011;16(4):29–82.
Pufahl PK, Grimm KG, Abed AM, Sadaqah RMY. Upper Cretaceous
(Campanian) phosphorites in Jordan: implications for the formation
of a south Tethyan phosphorite giant. Sediment Geol. 2003;161:
175–205.
 Analytical Characterization of Eocene
Deposits for the Identification
of Dolomitic-Palygorskite in Jebel Rheouis,
Central Tunisia

Imen Saadaoui and Mabrouk Eloussaief

Keywords
Eocene deposits Central Tunisia Characterization Dolomitic Palygorskite
Identification

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Palygorskite is a kind of naturally occurring nanorod-like
silicate mineral with a diameter of about 20–40 nm and
length of 0.5–5 lm. It has received increasing attention in
various fields such as polymer composites, drug delivery
carrier, catalyst supporter, adsorbent (Jamoussi et al.
2003). In Tunisia, Eocene sediments present important
facies variations from South to North, changing from
continental to deep marine deposits (Xu et al. 2014). The
mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of Eocene
continental sediments in central Tunisia, which contain
considerable amounts of palygorskite, were studied. The
clay fraction of the sediments also comprises illite,
kaolinite, Mg smectite and Al smectite, together with
carbonates (dolomite), quartz, gypsum and feldspars, all of
which are present in extremely variable proportions
(Knidiri et al. 2014). In this paper we studied the miner-
alogy, geochemistry and microtexture identification of
dolomitic palygorskite-rich Eocene samples in central
Tunisia (Jebel Rheouis).
The mineral phases were determined by X-ray diffraction. In
order to visualize the internal structure of the studied clay,
we made an observation using the scanning electron
microscope (SEM) of the brand “Philips XL30”.
3 Results and Discussion
Chemical analyzes show that the proportions of the chemical
elements are variable. There are two groups of chemical
elements: major chemical elements: SiO2, MgO, CaO; minor
chemical elements: Al2O3, Fe2O3, K2O, Na2O (Table 1).
The powder diffractogramm rays (hkl) reveal the presence
of palygorskite (d (001) = 10.52A°, d(040) = 4.48A°), the
dolomite (d (hkl) = 2.90A°) (Fig. 1).
The micro-morphological observations in the SEM of
Khanguet Rheouis samples show lengthened fibers of
palygorskites and Illites plaques, tracks of rhombohedral
crystals of dolomite are clearly observed (Fig. 2).

I. Saadaoui (&)
M. Eloussaief

Laboratoire de Recherche “Eau Environnement et Energie”, Ecole
Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sfax, Université de Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: imen.saadaoui91@yahoo.fr
M. Eloussaief
e-mail: eloussaiefmabrouk@yahoo.fr

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_337
1166 I. Saadaoui and M. Eloussaief

Table 1 Different samples Oxides % SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO K2O Na2O CaO
chemical compostions
CR1 10 0.23 0.001 39.3 0.33 0.21 35.63
CR2 17.3 0.65 0.39 24.8 0.26 0.16 32.07
CR3 17.6 0.89 0.54 13.17 0.32 0.27 13.8
CR4 9.80 0.56 0.37 12.48 0.25 0.11 34.36

Fig. 1 Diffractogramme of
powder of clay materials P:
Palygorskite, D: Dolomite,
Q: Quartz

Fig. 2 Electronic microwritten

form of the clay materials of Jebel
Rheouis region I: Illite, D:
Dolomite, P: Palygorskite
Analytical Characterization of Eocene Deposits for the …
4 Conclusion
The physicochemical results of the material studied are
strongly magnesian; hence the dominance of dolomitized
palygorskite. These analyses are in agreement with the
mineralogical analyses, showing that the low aluminum
contents, for all the studied samples, can be interpreted by
the partial substitution of aluminum by a strong quantity
of magnesium in the crystal lattice of palygorskite.
Variable levels of Fe2O3 and K2O and high CaO contents
are due to the presence of calcareous chipping. Con-
squently, the material collected from continental Eocene
deposits identify a dolomitic palygorskite.
1167
References
Jamoussi F, Ben Aboud A, Lòpez-Galindo A. Palygorskite genesis
through silicate transformation in Tunisian continental Eocene
deposits. Clay Miner. 2003;38:187–99.
Knidiri A, Daoudi L, El Ouahabi M, Rhouta B, Rocha F, Fagel N.
Palaeogeographic controls on palygorskite occurrence in
Maastrichtian-Palaeogene sediments of the Western High Atlas
and Meseta Basins (Morocco). Clay Miner. 2014;49:595–608.
Xu J, Wang W, Wang A. Enhanced microscopic structure and
properties of palygorskite by associated extrusion and
high-pressure homogenization process. Appl Clay Sci. 2014;
95:365–70.
 Characterization and Valuation of Clays
in the North Eastern Region
Hanane Ait Hmeid, Mustapha Akodad, Mourad Baghour,
Mohamed El Gattafi, Abdelmajid Moumen, Asmae Aknaf,
Lahcen Daoudi, and Mimoun Aalaoul



Keywords
Diffractograms DRX
1 Introduction
This study focuses on the characterization of clay materials
of the Oriental of Morocco, which is characterized by a
richness of very diverse useful substances, in particular clay
deposits, knowing that the clays exhibit a great diversity of
composition and properties Which are the origin of their
many applications such as: construction, industrial and
artisanal ceramics, pottery, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and
chemical industries, oil purification, etc. With a view to their
valorization in the ceramic sector. It has the advantage of
contributing to the promotion of local building materials
while improving the quality of artisanal ceramics produced.
2 Material and Methods
The study was carried out in one of the deposits of de Nador
(Trebia) which is part of the north-eastern region of Morocco
(Lahrach and Malecha 1982). Geographically The Trebia
deposit is located at the foot of the volcanoes of Tidiennit
H. Ait Hmeid (&)
M. Akodad
M. Baghour
M. El Gattafi

A. Moumen
A. Aknaf
Laboratoire Observatoire de la Lagune Marchica de Nador et
Régions Limitrophes (OLMAN-RL), Faculté Pluridisciplinaire de
Nador, Université Mohammed Premier Oujda-Maroc, Oujda,
Maroc
e-mail: hanane.aithmeid@gmail.com
L. Daoudi
Laboratoire des Géosciences Géoressources et Environnement,
Département de géologie, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques,
Université Cadi Ayyad, Marrakech, Maroc
M. Aalaoul
Laboratoire des Géosciences Appliquées, Faculté des Sciences,
Université Mohammed I, Oujda, Maroc
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_338




Bentonite Trebia Gorougou Clay
and Gourougou (Azdimousa et al. 2011) about fifteen kilo-
meters west of Nador, from a regional geological point of
view, the field of study, situated in the The Rifain domain
defined by Choubert and Marcais (1952), encompasses all
the mountains of the Rifaine chain (which extend in an arc of
circle), the hills that border them outwards and the associated
geological units (Maurer 1968). This domain is also pre-
sented under the name of “Mediterranean Morocco”
(Michard 1976). And locally, the Trebia deposit is located in
the Neogene de Kert basin, which consists of a complete
sedimentary cycle that reflects an open and normal salinity
environment showing lateral intercalations of Volcanic
proximal Products between marine and marine facies
(Guillemin and Houzay 1982).
3 Results and Discussion
– Microstructural characterization
The grain size distribution was determined using a par-
ticle size distribution of Laser-based laser scattering particle
size distribution LA-300 Analyzer Within laboratoir des
Géosciences Géoressources et Environnement, département
de géologie, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques Université
Cadi Ayyad, Marrakech, Maroc.
The volumetric percentages of the particle size fractions
of the samples of the one profiles at the study sites are
presented in Table 1.
The granulometry results were analyzed using the
GRADISTAT.8 program which allowed a detailed statistical
study (Fig. 1).
The distribution of the analyzed grains in one of the
samples shows a large variation in particle size (Table 1)
1169
1170 H. Ait Hmeid et al.

Table 1 Particle size fractions of Echantillons Sables très Sables Sables Sables fins Silts Argiles
the natural materials of profile grossiers grossiers moyens (sablons) (limons)
Trebia 1
BCP1 0.00 0.93 12.947 29.237 52.381 4.504
BPT1 1.824 15.993 27.258 18.842 32.126 3.957
BCR1 0.00 6.813 18.533 19.677 46.353 5.073

Fig. 1 The granulometric curve GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION

at the level of the BCP1 sample
Particle Diameter (φ)
13,0 8,0 3,0 -2,0 -7,0
5,0

4,5

4,0

3,5
Class Weight (%)

3,0

2,5

2,0

1,5

1,0

0,5

0,0
0,1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Particle Diameter (µm)

With the clay fraction (b2 lm) is between 1.665 and analysis Samples studied can be plotted in the ternary
9.094%, the silt fraction of 20.817 at 92.794%, and a sig- scheme of McManus (1988), following the relationship
nificant fraction of sand. The results of the particle size between sand, silt and clay components (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Ternary diagram of the

BCP1 sample
Characterization and Valuation of Clays in the … 1171

Fig. 3 The variation of the Profil T1

CaCO3 contents at the level of the
profile 1
RyT

BCR1

BPT1

%CaCO3 moy
BCP1

PT(roche mère )

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
PT(roch
BCP1 BPT1 BCR1 RyT
e mère )
%CaCO3 moy 8 11 11 7 7

– The determination of the calcium carbonate
The determination of the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) level
was determined using the calcimetric method using the
Bernard calcimeter protocol according to the French standard
NF P 94-048. CaCO3 levels were very low (0–17%) (Fig. 3).
And on the other hand the determination of the natural
water content .Trebia materials have fairly considerable
natural water contents ranging from 10.20 to 38.78%. These
variations in natural water contents may be related to the
quantity of fine or clayey elements contained in the samples
analyzed (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 The variation of the water

contents at the Trebia deposit
1172
4 Conclusion
Most Moroccan bentonite deposits are located in north-
eastern Morocco, in the Nador region. This natural
resource is linked to the volcanic activities of Gorougou
and its satellites. This work focuses on the study of the
Trebia bentonite deposit located 18 km west of the city of
Nador on the western slope of the volcanic massif of
Tidiennit. Tight sampling was carried out. The raw
samples were subjected to several analytical tests such as
geotechnical identification tests, namely water content,
organic matter, calcimetry and sand equivalent. The
granular repair was carried out using the laser particle
size. The extracted clay fraction was prepared as a
powder and oriented aggregate and then analyzed with
DRX.
H. Ait Hmeid et al.
References
Azdimousa A, Jabaloy A, Asebryi L, Booth-Rea G, Bourgois J,
Rezqui H, et al. Notes et Mém. Serv. Géol. Maroc. 2011;91:560.
Guillemin M, Houzay JP. Notes et Mémoires du Service Géologique du
Maroc. 1982;314.
Lahrach MN, Malecha A. Rapport inédit du BRPM. 1982;461.
McManus J. Grain size distribution and interpretation. In: Tucker ME,
editor. Techniques in Sedimentology. Oxford: Blackwell; 1988.
p. 63–85.
Maurer G. Les montagnes du Rif central, études géomorphologiques.
Tanger: Marocaines et Internationales; 1968. p. 499.
Michard A. Elément de géologie marociane. Notes Mém. Serv. Géol.
Maroc. 1976;252:408.
Morel J-L. Geodinamica Acta. 1989;3/4:283.
 Technological Characterization
of Organo-beidellite for a New Insecticidal
Formulation

Sana Ghrab, Samir Bouaziz, and Mourad Benzina

Keywords
Beidellite Insectesidal formulation Terpenics compounds Adsorption

1 Introduction determined by gas chromatography (GC-FID) (Shimadzy

It is approved that the essential oil of Eucalyptus globulus
has an important insecticidal activity against pests grain
stock. This study is interested in ensuring the terpenic
compounds with the insecticidal activity on a Tunisian clay
support. The aim of this study has developed an insecticide
formulation without any negative impact on the
environment.
2 Materials and Methods
The synthesis of insecticidal clay was performed by
adsorption mechanism. The adsorption studies of terpenic
compounds from essential oil of Eucalyptus globulus were
type).
3 Results and Discussion
Compared to modified peaks of beidellite, there are new
adsorption peaks at 2910–2946 cm−1 for Bei-HDTMA and
2836–850 cm−1 for Bei-DDDMA, which can be attributed to
anti-symmetric and symmetric C–H stretching of the terminal
CH3 groups from alkyl chain of surfactants molecules (Yui
et al. 2002; Han et al. 2015). The frequency and intensity of
the symmetric and anti-symmetric vibration bands of the CH
bands depends on the surfactant type (Li and Gallus 2005).
These results confirm that HDTMA and DDDMA have been
successfully introduced onto Bei (Fig. 1).

S. Ghrab (&)
S. Bouaziz
M. Benzina

Laboratoire Eau Energie Environnement (LR3E; Code:
LR99ES35), Ecole Nationale D’Ingénieurs de Sfax, Université de
Sfax, W3038Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: ghrab.sana@yahoo.fr

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1173

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_339
1174 S. Ghrab et al.

Fig. 1 FTIR Spectra of raw Bei

beidellite (Bei) and modified Bei-HDTMA
beidellite (Bei-HDTMA and Bei-DDDMA
Bei-DDDMA)

2836
2850

2910
2946
4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
-1
Waveneumbers (cm )

4 Conclusion
Their structural properties of insectesidal formulation
Bei synthetised from raw and organo beidellite were studied.
Bei-HDTMA Bei-HDTMA is mentioned with a maximum capacity of
Bei-DDDMA adsorption of essential oil. Moreover, the attachment of
terpenics compounds in the beidellite was confirmed
(Fig. 2).

References

Han J, Liang X, Xu Y, Xu Y. Removal of Cu2+ from aqueous solution

Fig. 2 Diagrams TGA of insecticidals formulations synthesized from
raw beidellite (Bei) and modified beidellite (Bei-HDTMA ans
Bei-DDDMA)
by adsorption onto mercapto functionalized palygorskite. J Ind Eng
Chem. 2015;23:307–15.
Li Z, Gallus L. Surface configuration of sorbed hexadecyltrimethyl
ammoniumon kaolinite as indicated by surfactant and counterion,
sorption cation desorption, and FTIR. Colloids Surf A Physicochem
Eng Asp. 2005;264:61–7.
Yui T, Yoshida H, Tachibana H, Tryk DA, Inoue H. Intercalation of
poly fluorinated surfactants into clay minerals and the characteri-
zation of the hybrid compounds. Langmuir. 2002;18(3):891–6.
 Synthesis and Characterization
of Nanocomposite Prepared from Tunisian
Bentonite Clay
Wiem Hamza and Mourad Benzina



Keywords
Clay Nanoparticles
BET
1 Introduction
Clay minerals of the smectite group are layered silicate
extensively used as nanoparticle supported materials that
have been efficiently tested for the removal of dyes organic
pollutants resulting from industrial applications (Chen et al.
2012). Among the clay mineral family, the layered silicates
belonging to the smectite group are the most common sup-
ports applied to perform as this class of materials. However,
the access to the internal surface (intracrystalline region) of
these solids is hindered except when the nanoparticles act as
pillars (pillared clays), which was a topic investigated during
the last two decades (Manova and Aranda 2010) and
included titania-pillared clays. Recently, other alternatives
imply that clay delamination leads to delaminated clays
incorporating silica or titania (Aranda and Kun 2008).
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Materials
The smectite clays were sampled from jebel chrahile, located
in west-central Tunisia. Hexadecyltrimethylammonium
bromide (HDTMA) with a purity of 98% (purum by Sigma,
Aldrich), was used in the preparation of smectite
organobentonite. Titanium (IV) isopropoxide was used as
W. Hamza (&)
M. Benzina
Laboratory of Water-Energy-Environment (LR3E; Code:
AD-10-02), National School of Engineers of Sfax, University of
Sfax, 3062 Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: hamzawiem@gmail.com
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_340




Pillaring CTAB Iso-propide titanium Bentonite
Titania. The pillaring solution of Titanium was prepared by
adding drop by drop 5 M HCl solution into 0.01 mol L−1
Titanium isopropoxyde solution under vigorous stirring,
until the H/Ti ratio reached the value 2, the solution was kept
for 1 day at room temperature (Wiem et al. 2014).
2.2 Method
The surfactant-treated Titanium-intercalated smectite was
prepared by adding known quantity of surfactant (HDTMA)
to Titanium pillaring solution. The surfactant/clay ratio was
fixed at 0.8 mmol of surfactant per gram of smectite. The
surfactant-pillaring solution was slowly added under vigor-
ous stirring to a 2 g of smectite solution to a ratio of
40 mmol of Ti/g of smectite. The mixture was left to rest for
4 h at room temperature. The resulting suspension was
centrifuged at 300 r min−1 for 20 min. The solid phase was
collected and washed with deionised water for several times
until chloride-free as indicated by the AgNO3 test (Jesús and
Fernández 2013). This obtained material denoted
P-HDTMA-Ti-B.
3 Results and Discussion
Figure 1 presents the modified clay with a surfactant
(HDTMA-S) which shows the appearance of a remarkable
peak with an intensity of 23.53 A°. The increase in
d-spacing, as it was expected since the pillaring, caused an
expansion in the interlayer spacing. Such behavior is char-
acteristic of the 2:1 layer of smectite clays.
1175
1176 W. Hamza and M. Benzina

Fig. 1 XRD of raw and mixed pillared bentonite

Figure 2 shows an example of how those TiO2 texture of the purified smectite. This texture, showing a
nanoparticles are homogeneously distributed on the smectite homogeneous distribution of the TiO2 nanoparticles, is truly
modified by mixed pillared clay compared to the initial corroborated from the BET.

Fig. 2 SEM images of purified clay (a) and mixed pillared bentonite clay (b)
Synthesis and Characterization of Nanocomposite Prepared …
4 Conclusion
The application of mixed pillared clay to obtain inor-
ganic–organic nanocomposites based on clays has been
here successfully used to prepare new porous
heterostructures containing in TiO2 nanoparticles. The
optimization of the experimental conditions and, particu-
larly, the thermal treatment allows the preparation of
nanocomposites that show maximum specific surface area
and porosity, incorporating 8–12 nm TiO2 anatase
nanoparticles on the external surface of the smectite.
References
Chen Daimei, Zhu Qian, Zhou Fengsan, Deng Xutao, Li Fatang.
Synthesis and photocatalytic performances of the TiO2 pillared
montmorillonite. J Hazard Mater. 2012;235–236:186–93.
1177
Manova Elina, Aranda Pilar, Martín-Luengo MA, Letaïef S, Dékány I,
Ruiz-Hitzky E. New titania-clay nanostructured porous materials.
Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2010;131:252–60.
Aranda Pilar, Kun Robert, Martín-Luengo MA, Letaïef S, Dékány I,
Ruiz-Hitzky E. Titania-sepiolite nanocomposites prepared by a
surfactant templating colloidal route. Chem Mater. 2008;20(1):
84–91.
Wiem H, Chaker C, Mourad B. Characterization and application of Fe
and iso-Ti-pillared bentonite on retention of organic matter
contained in wet industrial phosphoric acid (54%): kinetic study.
Res Chem Intermed. 2014;41:6117–40.
Jesús M, Fernández M, Fernández D, Aranburu I. Effect of clay surface
modification and organoclay purity on microstructure and thermal
properties of poly (L-lactic acid)/vermiculite) nanocomposites. Appl
Clay Sci. 2013;80–81:372–81.
 Assessment of Seed Propagation Ability
of Almond Genotypes (Prunus dulcis (Mill.)
D.A. Webb.) for a Mediterranean Environment

Saloua Msalmi Taoueb, Mehdi Trad, Imène Ouergui, Hana Jemai,

and Messaoud Mars

Keywords
Almond Germination Mediterranean Rootstock Seed Shell

1 Introduction genotypes and investigate the effect of hardness and shell

Almond (Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb) culture in
Mediterranean countries is facing severe problems such as
water scarcity, high salinity levels of irrigation water and
biotic stress. Selection of appropriate rootstocks as almond
seedlings remains necessary. Easy propagation ability by
seeds is one of the important characteristics required to select
an almond seedling rootstock (Felipe 1989). Some almond
varieties such as ‘Garrigues’ were selected and substituted
by bitter almond mixture of unknown origin, the main tra-
ditional rootstock used for rainfed almond orchard (Gras-
selly and Duval 1997). Since 2011, morphological features
of foreign, local and hybrid almond genotypes, maintained in
a collection at the National Institute of Agronomic Research
of Tunisia, have been recorded in order to select good seed
producers and evaluate their seedlings as almond rootstocks.
The present study was undertaken to assess seed propagation
ability of twelve local, two foreign and six hybrid almond
S. Msalmi Taoueb (&)
M. Trad
I. Ouergui
H. Jemai
National Institute of Agronomic Research of Tunisia, Rue Hédi
Karray, 2049 Ariana, Tunisia
e-mail: t.saloua@yahoo.fr
M. Trad
e-mail: mh.trad@yahoo.com
I. Ouergui
e-mail: a.oimen@hotmail.com
H. Jemai
e-mail: hana.jemai136@gmail.com
M. Mars
Regional Research Center of Horticulture and Organic
Agriculture, High Institute of Agronomy of Chott-Mariem,
P. Box 47, 4042 Chott Mariem, Sousse, Tunisia
e-mail: mb.mars@yahoo.fr
porosity on radicle emergence and germination rate.
2 Materials and Methods
Almond nuts obtained following open pollination were
harvested at maturity in 2014 from twelve local genotypes
(Bouaziz3, Hlaisia6, Bhiri3, G23-15, G12-2, G24-7,
G24-12, G25-8, G25-11, G25-5, G11-14, G14-7), six
hybrids (F1-37, F3-34, F2-36, F3-19, F3-38 and F4-8-2) and
two foreign almond varieties (Fasciuneddu and Garrigues).
For each genotype, three replications of 22 nuts were first
soaked in water for 78 h before stratification in plastic bags
in humid sawdust and kept at 4 °C. The emergence of the
radicle was observed every 10 days and a final germination
percentage was recorded. Then the diameter of the radicle
was measured before sowing in nursery and the emergence
rate of seedlings was evaluated one month after. Visual
assessment of the marking of outer shell based on almond
descriptors (IBPGR 1981) was conducted on a sample of 30
nuts and the resistance to cracking of the shell was evaluated
by the kernel ratio of 50 nuts. SPSS software (Version 10)
was run to analyze the data. Means were compared with
Duncan multiple range test (P < 0.05).
3 Results and Discussion
The first emergence of the radicle was observed 25 days after
stratification on Hlaisia6. Similar radicle emergence time (27
days) was reported for seeds of wild Amygdalus species
P. elaegnifolia (Rahemi et al. 2011). It started between 39
and 55 days for 12 genotypes (G24-7, G25-8, G25-11,

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1179

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_341
1180
F3-34, G25-5, G14-7, G23-15, G24-12, G12-2, Fasci-
uneddu, F3-38, and Bouaziz3) and Garrigues. Our results
agree with those cited by Garcia-Gusano et al. (2005) who
noted a rapid seed germination (35 days and 42 days after
stratification at 7 °C), of two hard shell varieties. The other
genotypes were probably characterized by a high chilling
requirement. Their radicle appeared after 61 to 75 days of
stratification at 4 °C. A significant large difference in resis-
tance to cracking was noted. The kernel ratio ranged from
22.3% (very hard shell) for F1-37 to 53% (soft shell) for
G11-14. The hardness of the shell does not seem to affect
significantly the time of emergence of the radicle (low
negative correlation: −0.23) and the final germination rate
(low positive correlation: 0.25) which varied between 47 and
100%. The level of germination was significantly different at
P < 0.05 allowing the distinction of three genotype cate-
gories. A High germination rate was recorded in a short
period (53 days) for G25-8, G24-7, G25-11 and Hlaisia6.
Other genotypes showed good germination ability but
required longer stratification: 68 days for G24-12 (91%),
Fasciuneddu (94%) and F3-34 (100%), 73 days for G12-2
(81.6%), G11-14 (83.3%), and F3-38 (91%), 75 days for
G14-7 (71.2%), 90 days for F2-36 (100%), 95 days for
F3-19 (72.7%), 98 days for Garrigues (68%), F1-37 (83.3%)
and F4-8-2 (80.3%) and 111 days for G23-15 (72.7%). Egea
and Burgos (1992) and Simard et al. (1997) noted a similar
high germination rate (68%) for Garrigues seeds. In this
study, Bouaziz3, a less hard shell than the Garrigues variety,
had the lowest germination seed percentage (47%) after 81
days of stratification. Garcia-Gusano et al. (2005) reported a
maximum time for stratification (105 days at 7 °C) on hard
shell almond varieties, but they had high germination rate.
The Chi-square test did not reveal any correlation between
porosity of the endocarp of nuts and the final germination
rate. The marking of outer shell of nuts of the studied
almond genotypes was sparsely pored for 35% of the
genotypes, moderately pored for 50% of the genotypes and
densely pored for 15% of the genotypes. Other qualitative
traits such as thickness, presence of double layer, mineral
S. Msalmi Taoueb et al.
and oil content, gibberellic acid level, temperature and
medium of stratification may be involved in the germination
process and should be investigated. A large variability in
radicle diameter was observed. The highest values were
noted for seeds of G14-7 (4.68 mm), G25-5 (4.35 mm) and
G23-15 (4.32 mm). The lowest ones were recorded for
F3-19 and F3-38 seeds (2.26 and 2.46 mm, respectively).
One month after sowing, a high level of seedling emergence
ranging from 56.7 to 100% was noted.
4 Conclusion
Some of the studied almond genotypes showed good
propagation ability using open pollination seeds. Germi-
nation capacity seems not to be affected by either the
porosity or hardness of the shell. However this high
germination and emergence rate led us to continue
studying nursery behaviour of these progenies as almond
seedling rootstocks for almond harsh growing conditions.
References
Egea J, Burgos L. Etude comparative de quelques porte-greffes
d’amandier. 8èmeColloque sur l’Amélioration génétique de deux
espèces de fruits secs méditerranéens, l’amandier et le pistachier.
Nîmes, 26–27 juin 1990; 1992. p. 237–241.
Felipe AJ. Rootstocks for almond. Present situation. Options Méditerr
Sér A. 1989;16:53–72.
Garcia-Gusano M, Martinez-Gomez P, Dicenta F. Influence of
stratification, heat and removal of teguments on breaking of seed
dormancy in almond. Options Méditerr Sér A. 2005;63:373–7.
Grasselly Ch, Duval, H. L’amandier. Ed. CTIFL; 1997. 166p.
IBPGR. International Board for Plant Genetic Resources. Almond
descriptors. Rome, Italy; 1981. 30p.
Rahemi A, Hassani D, Fatahi R, Ebadi A, Chaparro JX. The study of
seed stratification and germination in Amygdalus species of Iran.
Acta Hort. 2011;912:275–9.
Simard MH, Olivier G, Vargas FJ, Romero MA, Gomes Pereira J, Maia
de Souza R, Isaakidis A. Sélection de semis de Prunus amygdalus
comme porte-greffe de l’amandier. Options Méditerr Sér B.
1997;16:53–72.
 Methods to Estimate Water Use Efficiency
(WUE) of Two Olive Tree Cultivars (Olea
europaea L. cv Koroneiki and Chemlali)
Under Water Restriction Conditions

Mortadha Ben Hassine, Olfa Boussadia, Ines Moula, Mariem El Hafi,

and Mohamed Braham

Keywords

Olea europaea L. Water use efficiency Carbon isotope discrimination Mediterranean
basin Photosynthesis Stomatal conductance

1 Introduction
The Mediterranean Basin has been considered as one of the
regions of the world to be more affected by climate change
in the course of the 21st century (Giorgi 2006). Water is
becoming increasingly scarce around the world, being the
sustainable use of water resources a major water policy
challenge. In water-scarce areas, such as the Mediterranean
region where most of the water resources available are
allocated to agriculture, the challenge is even greater as
limited water resources must be allocated to the various
productive uses of water while preserving the environment
and ecosystems (Falkenmark 2000). The olive (Olea euro-
paea L.) is the most prominent crop in the Mediterranean
Basin having an enormous ecological and economic
importance in this region. It is well adapted to the
Mediterranean climate characterized by hot and dry sum-
mers and mild winters with little rainfall (Rallo and Cuevas
2008). In most olive orchards, irrigation is necessary to
achieve acceptable profitability (Gucci et al. 2012). When
the goal of water supply is not only to increase yield but also
to increase water productivity, identifying best practices for
irrigation management is crucial to maintaining and
improving the sustainable development of Agriculture
(Provenzano et al. 2013). The objective of this work was to
estimate the water use efficiency of two olive tree cultivars
(Olea europaea L. cv Koroneiki and Chemlali) under two
water treatments by four methods.
2 Materials and Methods
An experiment was applied under green house conditions
(two water treatments, 100 and 50% Available Water Con-
tent (AWC) on one-year Koroneiki and Chemlali olive
cultivars during 35 days). Water use efficiency estimation
methods were (i) intrinsic (photosynthesis (A)/stomatal
conductance (gs) ratio), (ii) extrinsic (photosynthesis
(A)/transpiration (E) ratio), (iii) carbon isotopic discrimina-
tion and (iv) real water use efficiency (biomass
accumulated/water consumed ratio).

M. Ben Hassine (&)
O. Boussadia
I. Moula
M. El Hafi

M. Braham
Olive Tree Institute, Unit of Sousse, BP n°14, Ibn Khaldoun,
3 Results and Discussion
4061 Sousse, Tunisia
e-mail: benhassinemortadha@yahoo.fr The results of intrinsic WUE of Koroneiki plants, expressed
O. Boussadia as the ratio A/gs, shows no significant difference between
e-mail: boussadio@yahoo.fr T100% and T50% plants throughout the experiment. How-
I. Moula ever, for Chemlali plants, T50% presents a better intrinsic
e-mail: moula.ines@gmail.com WUE than T100% plants and a significant difference was
M. El Hafi maintained between T100% and T50% plants during the
e-mail: mariomahafi@yahoo.fr experiment period. Koroneiki WUE ranged between 83 and
M. Braham 94 lmol CO2 m−2 s−1 compared to Chemlali WUE that
e-mail: braham2015@yahoo.fr ranged between 80 and 135 lmol CO2 m−2 s−1 for T50%

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1181

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_342
1182
water treatment. This result indicates that Chemlali plants
valorize better low quantities of water (T50%) rather than
high quantities (T100%). A significant difference between
Koroneiki and Chemlali plants for the two water treatments
was shown, 35 days after applying water treatments. Under
water-stress conditions, related to water depletion and/or
high atmospheric vapour pressure deficit (VPD), photosyn-
thesis decreases through several mechanisms including
stomata closure, reduced mesophyll conductance to CO2
(gm), and feedback regulation by end-product accumulation
(Nikinmaa et al. 2013).
The extrinsic WUE of Koroneiki plants, expressed as the
ratio A/E, shows that T50% plants presented a better WUE
than T100% plants with an average value of 5.66 lmol
CO2 m−2 s−1. No significant difference between the two
water treatments was observed starting from the 21st day
after applying water treatments. For Chemlali cultivar, plants
irrigated at T50% were more efficient than T100% plants,
and no significant difference was observed between the two
water treatments throughout the experiment, except the last
day. It should be noted that at T50% Chemlali WUE average
value was 6.36 lmol CO2 m−2 s−1. Ben-Gal et al. (2010)
found that transpiration and photosynthesis continued for
olives, albeit at reduced rates and with diurnal patterns
shifting to the morning hours, at stem water potential as low
as −3.5 MPa. Others have suggested that this is true at
potentials as low as −6 MPa (Sofo et al. 2008) or even
−10 MPa (Guerfel et al. 2009). The diurnal measurements
confirm that around midday water stress is most obvious,
showing largest differences between stressed and
non-stressed trees. Under severe stress levels diurnal patterns
of transpiration, stomatal conductance, and photosynthesis
related measurements shift, with the highest values occurring
during the early hours of the day.
The carbon isotopic discrimination results show that, for
Koroneiki cultivar, T50% plants were the most efficient
(−27.57‰) compared to T100% plants, on the 35th day of
water treatments application. However, for the Chemlali
cultivar, no significant difference was reported between the
two water treatments.
The plant WUE, calculated as the biomass
accumulated/water consumed ratio, of Koroneiki plants
irrigated at 50% decreased significantly by 42%, 35 days
after applying water treatments in comparison to T100%
M. Ben Hassine et al.
plants. However, an increase by 20% in plant WUE of
Chemlali T50% plants was detected comparatively with
T100% plants.
4 Conclusion
In general, our results demonstrated that both olive tree
cultivars use their own tree-specific mechanisms to deal
with water level treatments. It became clear that Chem-
lali, the native olive tree cultivar of Tunisia, had a better
capability to cope with low quantity of water and the
combination Chemlali-T50% AWC water treatment was
the most efficient. It will allow to save 50% of AWC
applied and enhance water management in a sustainable
way.
References
Ben-Gal A, Kool D, Agam N, van Halsema GE, Yermiyahu U, Yafe A,
Presnov E, Erel R, Majdop A, Zipori I, Segal E, Rüger S,
Zimmermann U, Cohen Y, Alchanatis V, Dag A. Whole-tree water
balance and indicators for short-term drought stress in non-bearing
‘Barnea’ olives. Agric Water Manag. 2010;98:124–33.
Falkenmark M. Competing freshwater and ecological services in the
river basin perspective: an expanded conceptual framework. Water
Int. 2000;25:172–7.
Giorgi F. Climate change hot-spots. Geophys Res Lett. 2006;33:
L08707.
Gucci R, Caruso G, Bertolla C, Urbani S, Taticchi A, Esposto S, et al.
Changes of soil properties and tree performance induced by soil
management in a high-density olive orchard. Eur J Agron.
2012;41:18–27.
Guerfel M, Baccouri O, Boujnah D, Chaïbi W, Zarrouk M. Impacts of
water stress on gas exchange, water relations, chlorophyll content
and leaf structure in the two main Tunisian olive (Olea europaea L.)
cultivars. Sci Hortic. 2009;119:257–63.
Nikinmaa E, Hölttä T, Hari P, Kolari P, Mäkelä A, Sevanto S,
Vesala T. Assimilate transport in phloem sets conditions for leaf gas
exchange. Plant Cell Environ. 2013;36:655–69.
Provenzano G, Tarquis AM, Rodriguez-Sinobas L. Soil and irrigation
sustainability practices. Agric Water Manag. 2013;120:1–4.
Rallo L, Cuevas J. Fructificacion y produccion. In: Barranco D,
Fernandez-Escobar R, Rallo L, editors. El cultivo del olivo. Madrid:
Mundi-Prensa; 2008.
Sofo A, Manfreda S, Fiorentino M, Dichio B, Xiloyannis C. The olive
tree: a paradigm for drought tolerance in Mediterranean climates.
Hydrol Earth Syst Sci. 2008;12:293–301.
 Carotenoids-Rich Fatty Fractions Extraction
from Tomato Industrial By-Products, Peels
and Seeds, Using Supercritical CO2 Green
Technology

Mouna Kehili, Ayachi Zammel, Carsten Zetzl, Irina Smirnova,

Noureddine Allouche, and Sami Sayadi

Keywords
Tomato industrial by-products Lycopene b-carotene Oil fractions
Supercritical CO2 extraction

1 Introduction important correlation between carotenoids consumption and

Nowadays, with the expanding awareness about environ-
mental safety, energy security and potential biomass recy-
cling, much effort has been extended towards adding value
to biowastes of agri-food industries. In this context, Tunisia
was ranked among the first 10 countries in the world for the
industrial transformation of tomatoes which resulted in large
quantities of by-products, ranging between 20,000 and
30,000 tons per year. Tomato by-products consisting of 56%
of tomato peels (TP) and 44% of tomato seeds (TS) are
currently disposed of in the nature or used as animal feed
(Kehili et al. 2016). However, the abundance of carotenoids,
mainly lycopene and b-carotene, in the peels fraction and of
oil in the seeds fraction suggests the possibility of utilizing
these by-products as a cheap source of highly valuable fatty
fractions. Interestingly, lycopene and b-carotene are well
known carotenoids for their significant role in human health
by acting as biological antioxidants, reducing the oxidative
damage to lipids, proteins, and deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA). Indeed, there are several reports that highlighted the
the reduction of diseases such as cancer, bone calcification
deficiencies, macular degeneration, neuron damage, and
heart problems (Egydio et al. 2010). Besides, tomatoes and
tomato products were reported to be the major natural source
of dietary lycopene (Alshatwi et al. 2010) that was the major
carotenoid in tomatoes, corresponding up to 90% of the total
carotenoids (Egydio et al. 2010). Therefore, after the pre-
treatment and characterization of tomato by-products col-
lected from a Tunisian tomato industry, the main target of
this study was to extract the lycopene and b-carotene
rich-oleoresin and oil which are the fatty fractions from TP
and TS, referred to by TPO and TSO, respectively. A green
and safe technology consisting of supercritical CO2
(SC-CO2) extraction was suggested and optimized for the
recovery of carotenoids-rich TPO and TSO. Therewith,
another potential approach consisting of the simultaneous
extraction of carotenoids-rich TPO and TSO, from a mixture
of TP and TS, was investigated using the co-SC-CO2
extraction technique.

M. Kehili
C. Zetzl
I. Smirnova

Hamburg University of Technology, Institute of Thermal
M. Kehili (&)
S. Sayadi Separation Processes, Eißendorfer Straße 38, 21073 Hamburg,
Laboratory of Environmental Bioprocesses, Centre of Germany
Biotechnology of Sfax, University of Sfax, PO Box 11773018 e-mail: zetzl@tuhh.de
Sfax, Tunisia
I. Smirnova
e-mail: kehili.mouna@yahoo.fr
e-mail: irina.smirnova@tuhh.de
S. Sayadi
N. Allouche
e-mail: sami.sayadi@cbs.rnrt.tn
Laboratory of Organic Chemistry LR17ES08 (Natural Substances
M. Kehili
A. Zammel Team), Faculty of Sciences of Sfax, University of Sfax, PO
Ayachi Group Industry, El Mansoura, 6131 Siliana, Tunisia Box 11713000 Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: direction@ayachi-group.com e-mail: noureddineallouche@yahoo.fr

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1183

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_343
1184
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Tomato by-Products Pretreatment
Tomato by-products consisting of peels and seeds were
immediately recovered at the outlet of a Tunisian tomato
industry and dried under sunlight. TP were separated from
TS using manual sieves, then ground to a particle size of
300 µm and kept at −20 °C until further use (Kehili et al.
2017).
2.2 Supercritical CO2 Extraction (SC-CO2)
An analytical and research Speed SFE-2/4 unit (Applied
Separations, Allentown, PA, USA) was used. The apparatus
was equipped with a stainless steel extraction column (50 ml
of capacity). For SC-CO2 process optimization, experiments
were run under pressures of 300, 400 and 500 bar, temper-
atures of 50, 70 and 80 °C and CO2 flow rates of 3, 4 and
6 g/min. In each experiment, approximately 10 g of ground
tomato by-products were loaded into the extraction vessel.
Approximately, 10 extract aliquots were periodically col-
lected in each run, for a total extraction time of 120 min, and
the recovered extract was weighed afterwards.
2.3 Carotenoids Quantification Within the Fatty
Fractions Extracts
The obtained tomato by-products extracts were analyzed
using HPLC for the identification and quantification of
lycopene and b-carotene. The chromatographic separation of
samples was performed at a constant flow rate of
1.5 mL/min, a wavelength of 470 nm, and an isocratic elu-
tion mode using Acetonitrile/Dichloromethane mixture
(75/25; v/v) (Kehili et al. 2017).
2.4 In Vitro Antioxidant Activity of TPO and TSO
The TPO and TSO antioxidant activity was assessed using
the in vitro DPPH and ABTS tests as compared to the
synthetic antioxidant, trolox.
3 Results and Discussion
At the outlet of the Tunisian tomato industry, tomato
by-products were composed of 35% of seeds (TS) and 65%
of peels (TP), on dry basis. SC-CO2 extraction was applied
on TP and TS, separately, and also on a mixture of TP and
TS at different ratios. After 120 min of the SC-CO2
M. Kehili et al.
extraction, about 95.07 and 98.61% of the initial oleoresin
and oil contents in TP and TS were recovered, respectively,
relating to the extraction of 6.31 ± 0.13% of oleoresin from
dry TP and 18.63 ± 3.30% of oil from dry TS. Since
carotenoids are lipophilic compounds contained mainly in
the peels fractions, SC-CO2 extraction allowed us to
recover 60% of the initial contents of lycopene and
b-carotene within the oleoresin extract, corresponding to the
extraction of 728.98 ± 31.17 mg/kg of lycopene and
16.43 ± 0.84 mg/kg of b-carotene both quantified using
HPLC, on dry TP basis. Importantly, despite being
extracted from TS separately, TSO contained considerable
amounts of carotenoids being of 105.89 ± 13.43 mg of
lycopene and 19.97 ± 1.80 mg of b-carotene per kg of
TSO, respectively. Furthermore, the co-SC-CO2 extraction
of carotenoids from a mixture of tomato by-products with a
ratio of TS/TP of 35/65 (w/w) showed a lycopene extrac-
tion yield that was 1.5 folds higher than that from TP only,
based on the HPLC results. Hence, it is deducible that the
separation step of TP from TS can be removed if we intend
to valorize the carotenoids fraction within the TSO extract.
Interestingly, significant correlation models were deduced
from the practical results to predict the target extracts yields
from TP and TS as function of the SC-CO2 extraction
conditions. Therewith, in vitro antioxidant activity of TPO
and TSO showed an interesting capacity of tomato
by-products extracts to scavenge the harmful DPPH and
ABTS free radicals (Kehili et al. 2017).
4 Conclusion
To sum up, in the present study, an interesting approach
consisting of SC-CO2 extraction was suggested and
optimized for the recovery of carotenoids-rich TPO and
TSO. The results demonstrated that the Tunisian indus-
trial tomato by-products are a potential source of high
antioxidative and solvent-free oil fractions that could be
good candidates in the nutraceutical, cosmetic and phar-
maceutical fields. It is noteworthy, that besides focusing
on the oil fractions recovery, the Tunisian tomato
by-products have gained great insight into the analysis
and recovery of other valuable fractions including the
protein fraction and the lignocellulosic material, through
a biorefinery concept that was previously detailed in our
published paper by Kehili et al. (2016).
References
Alshatwi AA, Al Obaaid MA, Al Sedairy SA, Al-Assaf AH, Zhang JJ,
Lei KY. Tomato powder is more protective than lycopene
supplement against lipid peroxidation in rats. Nutr Res.
2010;30:66–73.
Carotenoids-Rich Fatty Fractions Extraction from Tomato …
Egydio JA, Moraes ÂM, Rosa PTV. Supercritical fluid extraction of
lycopene from tomato juice and characterization of its antioxidation
activity. J Supercrit Fluids. 2010;54:159–64.
Kehili M, Schmidt LM, Reynolds W, Zammel A, Zetzl C, Smirnova I,
Allouche N, Sayadi S. Biorefinery cascade processing for creating
added value on tomato industrial by-products from Tunisia.
Biotechnol Biofuels. 2016;261:1–12.
1185
Kehili M, Kammlott M, Choura S, Zammel A, Zetzl C, Smirnova I,
Allouche N, Sayadi S. Supercritical CO2 extraction and antioxidant
activity of lycopene and b-carotene-enriched oleoresin from tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum L.) peels by-product of a Tunisian
industry. Food Bioprod Process. 2017;2:340–9.
 Tunisian Extra Virgin Olive Oil: Richness
in Antioxidants and Aroma Compounds

Hedia Manai-Djebali, Imen Oueslati, Zeineb M’zah,

Sonia Ben Temime, Mokhtar Zarrouk, and Guido Flamini

Keywords
Extra virgin olive oil Aroma Volatile compounds Antioxidant capacities

1 Introduction Oueslati grown in the region of Kesra governorate of Siliana

Several studies were achieved on Tunisian olive oil, many
works proved the richness of our olive oil in bioactive
compounds. The study of Isoda et al. (2007) demonstrated
that two flavonoids present, with high amounts, in Tunisian
olive oil were significant agent for prevention or treatment of
Leukemia. These phenols were found to be potent antipro-
liferation and anticancer agents. The works of Yamada et al.
(2008) confirmed that Tunisian olive oils showed a signifi-
cant anti-allergic effect. All these beneficial actions were
found in minor Tunisian olive oil varieties. Today, the
introduction of different virgin olive oil types with different
sensory and chemical characteristics into the market is of big
interest. Significant potentialities of valorization of the
Tunisian olive oils are still unexploited therefore; many
efforts are ongoing for the creation of the Protected Desig-
nation of Origin (PDO) in Tunisia. Several minor varieties
are maintained in restricted areas. The number is probably
underestimated because of the scarce information on minor
local varieties widespread in the different Tunisian olive
growing areas. Thus, there is an urgent need to study and to
inventory these traditional varieties before their loss. Thus
the present study evaluated the headspace profiles and
antioxidants parameters of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO)
from two minor Tunisian cultivars named Chladmi and
H. Manai-Djebali (&)
I. Oueslati
Z. M’zah
S. Ben Temime

M. Zarrouk
Laboratory of Olive Tree Biotechnology, Centre of Biotechnology
of Borj-Cédria, B.P. 901, 2050 Hammam-Lif, Tunisia
e-mail: hedia_manai@yahoo.fr
G. Flamini
Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche, Sede di Chimica
Bioorganica e Biofarmacia, via Bonanno 33, 56126 Pisa, Italy
(Center of Tunisia), in order to identify cultivars with high
sensory and quality characteristics and to find out the most
valuable oil for disease preventing and the most aromatic
oils highly appreciated by consumers.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Sampling and Oil Extraction
Healthy olive fruits from two Tunisian olive cultivars
(Chladmi and Oueslati) grown in the region of Siliana
(Central Tunisia), under the same pedoclimatic conditions
were handpicked at the optimum stage of maturity at the
crop season of 2015/2016. After harvest, the oil was
extracted within 24 h using an Abencor analyzer (MC2
Ingenieriay Sistemas, Sevilla, Spain). Olives were crushed
with a hammer mill and slowly mixed for 30 min at 25 °C,
centrifuged without the addition of warm water, and then
transferred into dark glass bottles and stored at 4 °C until
analysis.
2.2 Analytical Methods
The Radical scavenging activity (RSA) toward DPPH was
expressed as the % reduction in DPPH radical concentration
[DPPH∙] by the constituents of the oils. The oil samples were
analyzed for their capacity to scavenge the stable DPPH∙
according to the method of Kalantzakis et al. (2006).
RSADPPH was determined spectrophotometrically by mea-
suring the disappearance of DPPH∙ at 515 nm. Total phenol
contents were estimated according to the Folin–Ciocalteu

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1187

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_344
1188 H. Manai-Djebali et al.

spectrophotometric method according to the procedure
described by Oueslati et al. (2008). Oxidative stability was
evaluated by the Rancimat apparatus (Model 743, Metrohm
Co., Basel, Switzerland). Stability was expressed as the
oxidation induction time (in hour) using 3.5 g of oil. The
temperature was set at 100 °C, and the air flow rate was
10 L h−1.
The volatile compounds emitted by the studied olive oil
were characterized and quantified by HS-SPME-GC-EIMS.
Solid-phase micro extraction (SPME) was used as a tech-
nique for headspace (HS) sampling of virgin olive oils.
SPME sampling was performed using the same new fibre,
preconditioned according to the manufacturer instructions,
for all the analyses. Once sampling was finished, the fibre
was withdrawn into the needle and transferred to the injec-
tion port of the Gas Chromatography with Electron Impact
Mass Spectrometry (GC–EIMS) system. GC-EIMS analyses
were performed with a Varian CP 3800 gas-chromatograph
equipped with a DB-5 capillary column (30 m  0.25 mm i.
d., 0.25 lm film thickness) and a Varian Saturn 2000 ion
trap mass detector.
3 Results and Discussion
The analysis of volatile fractions showed that the aroma of
EVOO samples was consisted of a complex mixture of 18
compounds, representing around 99% of the total aroma
(Table 1). In the headspace of the studied samples. The
identified compounds were mainly non-terpene derivatives
(ranged from 64.47 to 92.17%), followed by aldehydes
(53.90–70.3%) and sesquiterpenes (4.90–34.53%).
The analysis of volatile profiles obtained from the head-
space oil samples led to the identification of 15 components
for Chladmi and 13 constituents for Oueslati oils. The major
volatile compounds identified were (E)-2-Hexenal (44.90–
64.57%), a-copaene (2.80–23.23%), Hexanal (2.10–6.27%)
and 3,7-decadiene (2.40–6.27%) which were linked to sev-
eral pleasant notes (Table 1).
The examined varieties exhibited different aroma com-
position. Chladmi EVOO samples were very rich in alde-
hydes mainly (E)-2-Hexenal (64.57%), while Oueslati olive
oils contain high levels of Hexanal (6.27%) and sesquiter-
penes especially the a-copaene (23.23%) which were linked
to the green apple, grass and wood, spice, honey notes,
respectively (Table 1).
Vichi et al. (2010) evidenced, for the first time, the pos-
sibility to use sesquiterpenes for olive authenticity and
traceability. The analysis of studied headspace samples gives
rise to the wide variety of volatile compounds that constitute
the profile of high quality virgin olive oils characterized by
appreciable sensory notes. Thus the two considered cultivars
can be used for the creation of PDO virgin olive oils.
The phenolic compounds present in olive oil are one of
the bases of the nutritional importance and shelf life of this
oil. EVOO can be classified according their concentration in
phenolic compounds. As reported by Montedoro et al.
(1992), olive oils were found to be “highly” rich in total
phenols when they contain between 500 and 1000 mg kg−1
of total phenols. The Oueslati oil samples were found to be
“high” rich in total phenols (808.08 mg kg−1) while
Chladmi cultivar was “very high” rich in phenols with an
amount that exceed 1000 mg kg−1.
As a result of high total phenol contents all considered
samples showed very high oxidative stability (70  OS
100 h). The Chladmi oils are characterized by the highest
mean value of oxidative stability (81.25 h) while Oueslati
showed the lowest one (71.02 h).
Regarding DPPH, all the analyzed oils samples exhib-
ited strong anti-radical activity, but some differences exis-
ted; Chladmi oils showing more potent anti-radical activity
(the highest RSADPPH mean value with 96.32%) whereas
those of Oueslati are characterized by lower activity
(87.17%).

Table 1 Volatile compounds and antioxidants parameters of studied olive oils

Analytical parameters LRI* Chladmi Oueslati Sensory note
Volatile compounds
(E)-2-Penten-1-ol 767 1.10b** nda Banana
a
Hexanal 802 2.10 6.27b Green apple, grass
b a
(E)-2-Hexenal 856 64.57 44.90 Bitter almonds, green-fruity, sharp, bitter, astringent
3-Ethyl-1,5-Octadiene 942 4.08b nda –
3,7-Decadiene 950 6.27b
2.40 a
–
(Z)-3-Hexenyl acetate 999 1.63b 0.90a Green banana, green leaves, fruity
b a
(E)-b-Ocimene 1008 2.13 nd Floral, sweet herbal
Nonanal 1052 3.37b 0.80a Fatty, waxy, painty, citrus
b a
4,8-dimethyl-1,3,7-nonatriene 1104 3.77 nd Sweet, apple
(continued)
Tunisian Extra Virgin Olive Oil: Richness in Antioxidants … 1189

Table 1 (continued)
Analytical parameters LRI* Chladmi Oueslati Sensory note
n-dodecane 1112 2.93a 3.67b Powerful, fatty, citrus
n-tridecane 1200 0.19 b
nd a
–
(E,E)-2,4-decadienal 1300 0.19a 1.97b –
Cyclosativene 1316 nda
2.73 b
–
a-ylangene 1369 nda 1.93b –
a-copaene 1371 2.80 a
23.23 b
Wood, spice, honey
n-tetradecane 1377 1.97a 3.57b –
a-muurolene 1400 nda***
3.47 b
Wood
(E,E)-a-farnesene 1499 2.10a 3.17b Wood, sweet
Monoterpene hydrocarbons – 2.13 b
nd a
–
Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons – 4.90a 34.53b –
Non-terpene derivatives – 92.17 b
64.47 a
–
Total identified – 99.20a 99.00a –
Antioxidants parameters
Total phenols (mg kg−1) – 1062.54b 808.08a –
RSADPPH (%) – 96.32 b
87.17 a
–
Oxidative stability (h) – 81.25b 71.02a –
Results expressed in % of Total aroma
*
linear retention indices
**
Mean (n = 3)
a,b
Significant differences in a same row are showed by different letters (P < 0.05)

Significant differences (p < 0.05) were found between the
two types of oils as regards both antioxidant parameters and
volatile fraction. All collected data obtained of
HS-SPME-GC-EIMS analysis were submitted to hierarchi-
cal cluster analysis (HCA). The dendrogram obtained from
HCA analysis (Fig. 1) showed a clear discrimination
between cultivars according to aroma composition. The
tested oil samples are distributed into two major clusters: one
cluster groups Chladmi samples while the second cluster is
constituted by Oueslati olive oils.
It is clear that the examined oil samples showed different
volatile profiles for some commonly presented compounds
in all samples were in varied proportions. While other
compounds seem to occur exclusively in a specific oil
samples and, consequently, its presence might be initially
used to establish compositional differences. Many volatile
compounds, represents an effective tool to differentiate
monovarietal oils from different cultivars (Kosma et al.
2016).

4 Conclusion
According to all used methods, a highest antioxidant
Chladmi 1
potential was observed in studied EVOO samples.
Chladmi 2 Cluster 1 Chladmi and Oueslati were very rich in phenolic com-
Chladmi 3
pounds, very stable to induced oxidation and had a strong
anti-radical capacity. All this was accompanied with a
OueslaƟ 1
large number of volatile compounds linked to pleasant
OueslaƟ 2 Cluster 2 notes. These two studied cultivars produced high quality
OueslaƟ 3 EVOO that can prevent many diseases and can also be
used to improve other Tunisian varieties.
0 50 100 150 200
Dissimilarity

Fig. 1 Dendrogram obtained from HCA analysis of headspace data

1190
References
Isoda H, Terence TPN, Parida Y, Abaza L, Zarrouk M. Agent for
Prevention or treatment of Leukemia. Patent Number
WO2007/119754A1; 2007.
Kalantzakis G, Blekas G, Pegklidou K, Boskou D. Stability and
radical-scavenging activity of heated olive oil and other vegetable
oils. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol. 2006;108:329–35.
Kosma I, Badek A, Vatavali K, Kontakos S, Kontominas M. Differ-
entiation of Greek extra virgin olive oils according to cultivar based
on volatile compound analysis and fatty acid composition. Eur J
Lipid Sci Technol. 2016;118:849–61.
Montedoro GF, Servili M, Baldioli M, Miniati E. Simple and
Hydrolyzable phenolic compounds in virgin olive oil. 1. Their
H. Manai-Djebali et al.
extraction, separation, and quantitative and semiquantitative eval-
uation by HPLC. J Agric Food Chem. 1992;40:1571–6.
Oueslati I, Mahjoub-Haddada F, Manai H, Zarrouk W, Taamalli W,
Fernandez X, Lizzani-Cuvelier L, Zarrouk M. Characterization of
Volatiles in Virgin Olive Oil Produced in the Tunisian Area of
Tataouine. J Agric Food Chem. 2008;56:7992–8.
Vichi S, Lazzez A, Kamoun NG, López-Tamames E, Buxaderas S.
Evolution of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons in virgin olive oil during
fruit ripening. J Sci Food Agric. 2010;58:6972–6.
Yamada P, Zarrouk M, Kawasaki K, Isoda H. Inhibitory effect of
various Tunisian olive oils on chemical mediator release and
cytokine production by basophilic cells. J Ethnopharmacol.
2008;116:279–87.
 Effect of Temperature and Density on Diet
Training of the Largemouth Bass
(Micropterus Salmoides, Lacepede, 1802)

Anouar Ouizgane, Fatima Zahra Majdoubi, Bahija Harzani,

Sara Elghizi, Aziz Elmoujtahid, Mohammed Droussi,
and Mustapha Hasnaoui

Keywords
Largemouth bass Diet training Temperature Density

1 Introduction
Knowing the Fish feeding diet in its natural environment is an
important step to understand its biology and ecology. It
summarizes, not only the predatory activity of these species,
but can also explain growth variations, feeding and food
research behavior, migration, and even some aspects of
reproduction (Rosecchi and Nouaze 1987). On the other hand,
food composition data are used to estimate trophic levels that
are essential in fisheries management and to evaluate the
impact of fisheries on the ecosystem (Stergiou and Karpouzi
2002). So, knowing the position of fish in the food chains is
useful to understand the functioning of aquatic ecosystems.
The aim of our study was to assess the adaptation of the
largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) to the granulated
food and to evaluate the effect of temperature and density on
its growth performances.
2 Materials and Methods
This study was carried out on a homogeneous population of
1-month-old largemouth bass fry, ranging in size from 2 to
3 cm and weighing between 0.85 and 1.5 g. They were
obtained from a natural reproduction of the broodstocks in
the Deroua fish farm. Two experiments were carried out in
aquariums with a volume of 0.225 m3. The first one was
conducted at a temperature of 20 °C. We adopted three
densities with two repetitions for each: D1 (5 individuals/L),
D2 (10 individuals/L) and D3 (15 individuals/L). For the
second experiment, the water temperature was 24 °C and we
adopted two densities with two repetitions for each: D1 (5
individuals/L), D2 (10 individuals/L).
During the period of this study, Frys were feed every two
hours during the day and twice during the night. The weight
and size were measured every 15 days for a sample of 50
individuals per aquarium. The follow up of mortality was
achieved on a daily basis.
3 Results and Discussion
The results show that the largemouth bass is well adapted to
the artificial food. The diet training rate varies from 66 to
76.5% at a temperature of 24 °C and from 86.5 to 96% at a
temperature of 20 °C. Therefore, temperature has a
remarkable effect on the rate of feed trained individuals.
More precisely, the success rate of the largemouth bass
training is very important at low temperature. It was even
more important than the one found by Jacquemond et al.

A. Ouizgane (&)
F. Z. Majdoubi
B. Harzani
S. Elghizi

M. Hasnaoui
Laboratory of Management and Valorisation of Naturals
Resources, Department of Iology, Faculty of Science and
Techniques, University Sultan Moulay Slimane, Beni Mellal,
Morocco
e-mail: anouarouizgane@hotmail.fr
A. Ouizgane
F. Z. Majdoubi
A. Elmoujtahid
M. Droussi
Deroua Fish Farming Station, Beni Mellal, Morocco

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1191

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_345
1192 A. Ouizgane et al.

(2016) for weaning of pike-perch with a weaning rate of studies on the breeding of this highly demanded carniv-
46.7%. orous fish.
The mortality rate observed at 24 °C is higher than that
observed at 20 °C. It ranges from 23.5 to 34% at 24 °C and
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from 5.25 to 13.5% at 20 °C. Moreover, there was no effect
of the fry density on the success of the weaning. The dif-
Jacquemond F, Francesconi C, Joussemet V. Production d’alevins de
ference between the used densities did not exceed 5% at
sandre sevrés destinés à un élevage raisonnablement intensifié en
20 °C and 2.5% at 24 °C. milieu contrôlé. Rapport technique final de ISETA. Action n° 2013–
2015; 2016. 79p.
Shawket N, Youssir S, El Halouani H, Elmadhi Y, El Kharrim K,
4 Conclusion Belghyti D. Description des habitudes alimentaires du chinchard
Basically, The preliminary results show that the diet trachurus trachurus de l’atlantique nord marocain. Eur Sci J. April
2015 ed. 2015;11(12):294–304.
training of the largemouth bass can become, in the future,
Stergiou KI, Karpouzi VS. Feeding habitat and trophic level of
an alternative to the production of this species. The diet Mediterranean. Fish Biol Fish. 2002;11:217–54.
training rate obtained is very encouraging to continue the
 The Effect of Environmental Factors
on the Development of Pine Root Systems
Slobodan B. Mickovski



Keywords
Pinus peuce Pinus sylvestris
Axial growth Lateral growth
1 Introduction
It is well known that two of the principal soil physical fac-
tors that affect root growth are its mechanical strength and
temperature. Soil compaction, which results in mechanical
impedance that might restrict root growth, arises from
mainly externally applied forces such as trampling by ani-
mals or farm and tillage equipment and even a small increase
in compaction can result in large decrease in root growth and
major changes in root morphology. The type of soil strength
characteristics that are favourable to plant growth are closely
connected with the nature of the plant (Gonzalez-Ollauri and
Mickovski 2017a) and the temperature at which it grows.
Root systems grown in low temperatures are often smaller
and less branched which means they exploit a smaller soil
volume for plant nutrients and water, and are expected to
require a higher uptake rate of nutrients and water per unit
length to keep up with the demand.
Despite the wide coverage of the effects of mechanical
impedance on root growth and development in the literature
(Stokes et al. 2014), almost all studies have concentrated on
crops or other fast growing plants. Similarly, only a few
investigations have been focused on the influence of tem-
perature on root extension or lateral root proliferation in
trees. This study is an attempt to investigate the root
development of two Pinus species common to the Mediter-
ranean region, grown in different soil consistencies and
temperatures and to explore the influence of temperature and
soil compaction on the axial and lateral root development.
S. B. Mickovski (&)
Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
e-mail: slobodan.mickovski@gcu.ac.uk
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_346




Roots Soil compaction Temperature
The results of this study might deepen the knowledge on the
most important factors influencing root development in the
early stages of growth, and will surely add to the number of
new tree species investigated. Additionally, the results of
this study will enable the foresters and eco-engineers in the
Mediterranean region to assess the potential of these pine
species for remediation of natural disasters such as forest
fires, erosion and landsides.
2 Materials and Methods
Ninety 2-year-old Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and 90
Macedonian pine (Pinus peuce) seedlings were planted in
containers containing brown humus soil (clayey sand with
organic matter of 20% by weight) sieved through 2 mm
sieve and with dry weight of 1.9 kg m−3. Three containers
with 10 seedlings each were packed using 300 J m−3 com-
paction energy per pot (compact soil), another three using
150 J m−3 compaction energy per pot (semi-compact soil)
and the last three without compaction (loose soil). The plants
were grown in three separate glasshouse cublicles with 12 h
daylight growing conditions and at a constant temperature
(15, 20, and 25 °C respectively). Containers were arranged
so that there were ten seedlings of each species in compact,
semi-compact and loose soil at each of the three different
temperatures.
The resistance of the soil to static penetration was tested
using a pocket penetrometer at four different depths: 2.5, 5,
7.5, and 10 cm. The root system architecture and distribution
were recorded before planting and after 3 months growth,
together with the maximum axial length of the root system,
number of ‘major’ laterals (defined as lateral roots longer
1193
1194
Fig. 1 Soil penetration resistance with depth in the three differently compacted soils
(a) 0.3 Loose soil
Semi-compact soil
0.2
Compact soil
mm/day
0.1
0 0
15°C 20°C 25°C
Temperature
Fig. 2 Average axial root growth rate of a Pinus sylvestris and b Pinus peuce seedlings grown at three different temperatures (15, 20, and 25 °C)
and in three different soil consistencies (loose, semi-compact, compact). Error bars indicate + SD
than 20 mm) per seedling, and the root diameter 5 cm below
the root apex of every seedling. Analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was then used to calculate the significance of
different factors (species, temperature, soil consistence) on
the axial root growth of the seedlings, as well as on the
increase of the number of major laterals over time.
3 Results and Discussion
Penetrometer readings showed an increase in penetration
resistance (soil compaction) with depth ranging from
0.981 kPa for loose soil at 2.5 cm depth, to 25.01 kPa for
compact soil at 10 cm depth. The greatest differences in soil
density were found in the uppermost layers of the soil where
the majority of roots were located (Fig. 1).
The growth rate for both pine species (Fig. 2) was
affected by three factors: the species, degree of soil com-
paction, and temperature.
The average rate of axial growth for P. sylvestris was
higher than the average axial increase slope for P. peuce.
Loose soil enabled a greater mean increase in axial root
length for the seedlings of both species. This was always
followed by the increase of the root length of the seedlings
S. B. Mickovski
(b) 0.3
Loose soil
Semi-compact soil
Compact soil
0.2
mm/day
0.1
15°C 20°C 25°C
Temperature
grown in semi-compacted and compacted soil. The seedlings
grown at 15 °C had greatest mean increase in the axial
length of their roots for both species, followed by the ones
grown at 20 °C and at 25 °C which had elongated least of
all. The two-way ANOVA also showed that there was no
significant interaction (p > 0.05) between temperature and
soil consistency in either species. The average increase in the
number of new major laterals for P. peuce seedlings was
significantly lower than the average increase in the number
of major laterals for P. sylvestris. The rates of increase of
radial root diameter showed a tendency to increase with
increase in the soil compactness and temperature.
4 Conclusion
This study showed both similarities and differences in
the root growth in two Pinus species subjected to dif-
ferent soil consistencies and temperatures. The similari-
ties lay in the fact that the rate of axial development of
the root systems of both species decreased with an
increase in soil compaction (though this was not statis-
tically significant in P. sylvestris), even though the levels
of compaction were well below the maximum roots are
capable of withstanding which is consistent with
The Effect of Environmental Factors on the Development …
previous studies (Mickovski and Ennos 2003). Both
species also had the largest increase in axial length of
their root systems at 15 °C, which might be due to the
optimal temperature for root elongation rate. Further-
more, in both species, soil consistency had no significant
effect on lateral root proliferation; they overcome even
the strongly compacted soil. The differences between the
species lay in the extent of lateral root proliferation.
While P. sylvestris proliferated fewer laterals as the
temperature increased, the temperature seemed to be a
non-significant factor in the lateral root development of
P. peuce seedlings.
This study showed that the root elongation rate is
negatively correlated with mechanical impedance of the
soil since the elongation was lowest in the compacted
media and increased as the soil compaction level
decreased. The decrease of the elongation rate with the
compaction might result from the reduction in the rate of
cell elongation and possibly from a decrease in cell
production rate. It might also be a result of a smaller
difference between the cell pressure and the resistance
offered by the soil matrix. Bearing in mind that the roots
penetrate soil by an alternating series of radial and axial
enlargements, it is clear that they have to overcome soil
mechanical resistance in both the axial and radial direc-
tion, and/or adapt and change physiologically to the
stresses encountered as argued by Mickovski and Ennos
(2003). Root growth is thus expected to be very slow
during early growth, since the plant will still be suffering
from a plant check or time lag in production of adventi-
tious roots.
The variation in elongation rates for various plants
reflect the genetic difference among species as well as the
effects of other factors such as root system architecture
1195
(Tardio et al. 2016). This is important for competition
between species and for allowing one genotype to grow
better than the other at a specific location. This is also
important because both pine species investigated are
common to the Mediterranean region (Savill and Mason
2015) where they can be used for prevention and miti-
gation of natural disasters such as forest fires, erosion and
landslides. The results of this study could be applied for
other tree species that encounter particularly dense soil
conditions in some Mediterranean soils or to allow for-
esters and landcape managers to select appropriate spe-
cies for specific climate and soil condition in order to
achieve the environmental and engineering effects such as
stability, sustainability and resilience (Mickovski and
Thomson 2016; Gonzalez-Ollauri and Mickovski 2017b).
References
Gonzalez-Ollauri A, Mickovski SB. Hydrological effect of vegetation
against rainfall-induced landslides. J Hydrol. 2017a;549:374–387.
Gonzalez-Ollauri A, Mickovski SB. Shallow landslides as drivers for
slope ecosystems evolution and biophysical diversity. Landslides;
2017b. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-017-0822-y.
Mickovski SB, Ennos RA. Anchorage and asymmetry in the root
system of Pinus peuce. Silva Fennica. 2003;37(2):161–73.
Mickovski SB, Thomson CS. Innovative approach in the stabilisation
and erosion protection of coastal slopes in Scotland. Coastal
Management 2016;587–96.
Savill P, Mason B. Pinus peuce Griseb., Macedonian or Balkan pine.
Q J For. 2015;109(4):245–52.
Stokes A, et al. Ecological mitigation of hillslope instability: ten key
issues facing researchers and practitioners. Plant Soil. 2014;377
(1–2):1–23.
Tardio G, González-Ollauri A, Mickovski SB. A non-invasive prefer-
ential root distribution analysis methodology from a slope stability
approach. Ecol Eng. 2016;97:46–57.
 Phylogenetic Insights into the History
of Tunisian and Iberian Cattle Using
the Illumina BovineSNP50 BeadChip

Slim Ben Jemaa, Elena Ciani, and Mekki Boussaha

Keywords
Cattle Single nucleotide polymorphism Phylogenetics Admixture

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Iberian cattle are presumed to originate from the Near East
following two main paths: the Danubian route and the
Mediterranean route (Cymbron et al. 2005). It is also widely
agreed that Iberian cattle have undergone multiple influences
over time from North Africa. However, few studies have
investigated the phylogenetics of Iberian cattle and its rela-
tionships with North African populations based on molecu-
lar evidence. A recent study found low levels of genetic
differentiation between local Tunisian and creole cattle from
Guadeloupe (CGU) which was introduced in the Caribbean
islands by Spanish and Portuguese conquerors (Ben Jemaa
et al. 2015). Based on this finding, it has been posited that
Tunisian populations are closely related to local breeds from
the Iberian Peninsula. In this study, we used medium density
SNP chips and comparisons with worldwide cattle to test
this hypothesis and to provide information on the genetic
history of three Tunisian cattle populations: the Blonde du
Cap Bon (BLCAP), the Brune de l’ Atlas Fauve (BRATF),
the Brune de l’ Atlas Grise (BRATG) and some local
Spanish populations representative of Iberian cattle.
S. Ben Jemaa (&)
Laboratoire des Productions Animales et Fourragères, Institut
National de la Recherche Agronomique de Tunisie, Université de
Carthage, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: benjemaaslim@yahoo.fr
E. Ciani
Dipartimento di Bioscienze, Biotecnologie, Biofarmaceutica,
Università degli Studi di Bari “Aldo Moro”, Bari, Italy
e-mail: elena.ciani@uniba.it
M. Boussaha
GABI, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris Saclay,
78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
e-mail: Mekki.Boussaha@inra.fr
2.1 Genotyping Data
In this study, we used genotyping data from 87 samples
corresponding to the three major local Tunisian cattle pop-
ulations (15 BLCAP, 53 BRATF and 19 BRATG). We also
used publicly available data corresponding to 26 other
populations representative of European (EUT) taurines (19
breeds, including 12 Spanish breeds), African (AFT) tauri-
nes (4 breeds), indicine (IND) (1 breed), and two hybrids
(EUT*AFT and EUT*AFT*IND) breeds (Decker et al.
2014). Moreover, 20 Bali cattle from Indonesia were used as
outgroup population (Decker et al. 2014). Overall, our
dataset consisted of 495 samples genotyped with the Illu-
mina BovineSNP50 beadChip. Genotyping data were suc-
cessfully obtained for 36 744 SNPs covering all autosomal
chromosomes.
2.2 Population Structure and Phylogenetic
Relationships Between Breeds
The population structure of the Tunisian and Iberian breeds
was assessed using the unsupervised hierarchical clustering
implemented in the ADMIXTURE 1.23 software (Alexander
et al. 2009). We further inferred patterns of splits and mix-
tures of a subset of 13 populations representative of the three
bovine types (EUT, AFT, IND) using Treemix (Pickrell and
Pritchard 2012) and by setting BALI cattle as a rooting
outgroup. We built a phylogenetic tree of these populations
and began to add migration events (modelled as edges) to the
phylogenetic model. Migration edges were added until
99.99% of the variance in ancestry between populations was

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1197

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_347
1198
(a)
k=3
k=5
k=7
Fig. 1 a Unsupervised hierarchical clustering of the 495 individuals
from the 30 populations. Results for k (number of clusters) = 3, k = 5,
k = 7 are shown. Individuals are grouped by population. Each
individual is represented by a vertical bar. The proportion of the bar
in each of k colors corresponds to the average posterior likelihood that
the individual is assigned to the cluster indicated by that color.
Populations are separated by black lines. b Maximum likelihood tree
inferred from 13 cattle populations when 13 migration events (modelled
as arrows) were allowed. Migration arrows are coloured according to
their weight. The scale bar shows 10 times the average standard error of
explained by the model. Finally, we used the THREEPOP
program implemented in TreeMix to provide further support
for a past admixture between populations.
3 Results and Discussion
Three models involving three different K numbers (K = 3, 5,
and 7) of predefined clusters were used in the unsupervised
hierarchical analysis. In the K = 3 model, Tunisian popula-
tions were admixed between European (blue color), African
(chocolate color) and indicine (yellow color) cattle. The
ancestry of Iberian cattle derived mainly from Europe with
low proportions of African ancestry (Fig. 1a) reflecting an
African taurine influence on the Iberian cattle following a
transcontinental human migration process between South
Europe and North Africa. The presence of indicine intro-
gression within the three Tunisian populations, but the
absence of indicine genome in the Iberian cattle suggests that
the Tunisian cattle has a different origin from that of Iberian
breeds. When K was set to 5, the Moroccan breed Oulmes
Zaer (OUL) was clearly separated from the other popula-
tions. Tunisian and Iberian breeds shared ancestry with the
Moroccan breed at levels varying, on average, between 8%
S. Ben Jemaa et al.
(b)
the estimated entries in the sample covariance matrix. Population codes
—Aubrac: AUB, BALI: BALI, Baoule: BAO, Berrenda en Colorado:
BC, BLCAP: Blonde du Cap Bon, Berrenda en Negro: BN, BRATF:
Brune de l’Atlas Fauve, BRATG: Brune de l’Atlas Grise, Brown Swiss:
BRU, Cardena Andaluza: CAR, Creole: CGU, Charolais: CHA,
Gascon: GAS, Lagune: LAG, Limousin: LMS, Maraichine: MAR,
Menorquina: MEN, Morucha: MOR, Mostrenca: MOST, Negra
Andaluza: NA, Ndama: ND1, Oulmes Zaer: OUL, Pirenaica: PIR,
Retinta: RET, Somba: SOM, Tarine: TAR, Terrana: TER, Toro de
Lidia: TL, Toro de Lidia2: TL2, Zebu fulani: ZFU
for the Menorquina breed and 18% for the BLCAP. This
finding, also observed at K = 7, suggests a past hybridiza-
tion event between the OUL breed and both the Tunisian and
the Iberian populations. In addition, in the K = 7 model, all
Tunisian populations (in particular BRATG) and Iberian
breeds shared substantial levels of ancestry with Brown
Swiss (Fig. 1a). In the TreeMix analysis, the proportion of
the variance in ancestry between populations explained by
the model began to asymptote at 0.999 when 13 migration
edges were fit. In agreement with ADMIXTURE results, we
found that the Tunisian BRATF and the Iberian Berrenda en
Negro (BN) breeds possess introgression from African tau-
rine (46 and 8%, respectively) and that the Tunisian BRATG
possesses a Brown Swiss introgression (12%) (Fig. 1b).
Interestingly, we also found support for the hypothesis of
gene flow between BLCAP and the Iberian Berrenda en
Negro breed (8%). Furthermore, a migration edge originat-
ing more basally in the phylogenetic network (near BALI
cattle) was directed toward BRATF (Fig. 1b) suggesting a
remote hybridization with a more diverged (likely ancestral)
population which could be likely identified in the wild
African auroch. The twelve most significant f3 statistics
confirmed the evidence for African and South European
taurine admixture into BRATF. Among these, six tests
Phylogenetic Insights into the History of Tunisian and Iberian … 1199

Table 1 The most significant Triplet f3 statistic Standard error Z-score

twelve f3 statistics for the subset
of 13 populations used in BRATF;SOM,BRU −0.01046 0.00019 −55.97
TreeMix analysis BRATF;AUB,SOM −0.00951 0.00017 −55.43
BRATF;BRU,ND1 −0.01011 0.00019 −53.01
BRATF;AUB,ND1 −0.00916 0.00018 −51.78
BRATF;BN,SOM −0.00822 0.00018 −45.29
BRATF;SOM,PIR −0.00803 0.00018 −44.6
BRATF;AUB,LAG −0.00955 0.00022 −43.26
BRATF;BRU,LAG −0.01031 0.00024 −42.89
BRATF;BN,ND1 −0.00799 0.00019 −42.49
BRATF;ND1,PIR −0.00769 0.00018 −41.65
BRATF;LAG,PIR −0.00837 0.00023 −36.39
BRATF;BN,LAG −0.00821 0.00024 −34.86

involved an Iberian breed as a source population with a environmental conditions. Such analyses are important
highly negative Z-score (ranging between −34.86 and especially in the context of global climate change.
−45.29) (Table 1).

4 Conclusion
Our results suggest different histories for Iberian and
Tunisian cattle, with the former originating from local
European populations which were introduced from the
first domestication center (i.e. the Middle East) following
two main paths: the Danubian and the Mediterranean
routes (Cymbron et al. 2005). Tunisian populations, for
their part, would more likely be the result of ancient
hybridization between wild African auroch and cattle that
migrated from the middle east to the African continent
following the eastern and North-Eastern sides of the
continent. Our study also provides genetic support for a
past admixture between Tunisian and Iberian cattle. The
present comparative study between Tunisian and Iberian
cattle will provide an opportunity to identify specific
alleles (mostly of African origin) that have contributed to
the adaptation of the Tunisian cattle to their harsh
References
Alexander DH, Novembre J, Lange K. Fast model-based estimation of
ancestry in unrelated individuals. Genome Res. 2009;19:1655–64.
Ben Jemaa S, Boussaha M, Ben Mehdi M, Lee JH, Lee SH.
Genome-wide insights into population structure and genetic history
of tunisian local cattle using the illumina bovinesnp50 bead-
chip. BMC Genom. 2015;16:677.
Cymbron T, Freeman AR, Isabel Malheiro M, Vigne JD, Bradley DG.
Microsatellite diversity suggests different histories for Mediter-
ranean and Northern European cattle populations. Proc Biol Sci.
2005;272:1837–43.
Decker JE, McKay SD, Rolf MM, Kim J, Molina Alcalá A,
Sonstegard TS, Hanotte O, Götherström A, Seabury CM, Praharani L,
Babar ME, de Almeida Correia, Regitano L, Yildiz MA, Heaton MP,
Liu WS, Lei CZ, Reecy JM, Saif-Ur-Rehman M, Schnabel RD,
Taylor JF. Worldwide patterns of ancestry, divergence, and admix-
ture in domesticated cattle. PLoS Genet. 2014;10:e1004254.
Pickrell JK, Pritchard JK. Inference of population splits and mixtures
from genome-wide allele frequency data. PLoS Genet. 2012;8:
e1002967.
 A Hydrodynamic Approach to Hydrocarbon
Migration Analysis in the Onshore
Niger Delta

G. Ezekwesili Ene, Chidubem Emedo, and Basil Okwuolisa

Keywords
Geomatic Hydrodynamics Migration Hydrocarbon Niger delta
Modelling Reservoir

1 Introduction impact hydrocarbon migration is poorly known. In this

paper, sub-regional variations in hydraulic and hydrochem-
Different basin modelling approaches are often adopted to ical gradients were employed to examine the hydrodynamic
understand hydrocarbon migration processes which usually, regimes of the hydrocarbon bearing formations. The
would require complicated computer models and a large observed trends of the flow regimes were interpreted with
amount of uncertain input data (Heum 1996). This limitation reference to the distribution of pressure regimes and to the
is even more exacerbating in fault controlled plays due to the typing and distribution pattern of known accumulations.
complex hydraulic behavior of faults (Muggeridge and
Mahmode 2012). In view of these handicaps, hydrogeologic
2 Materials and Methods
techniques are to be resorted to, especially for mature to
semi-mature basins. The Tertiary Niger Delta Basin is an
The data set for the analysis of the hydrodynamic processes
important hydrocarbon province that extends from land to
in the study area consists of 3D time slices, biofacies,
offshore in the continental margin of the Gulf of Guinea as
composite geophysical well log suites, petrophysical logs,
the youngest sub-basin of the West African Rift System. The
and fluid properties (formation pressures, formation water
tectonic and lithostratigraphic setting of the basin dictates
chemistry and fluid densities from the SPDC BHP, ARPR
three major groupings of lithofacies which are well exposed
and EPX well pressure Data base). The seismic data, bio-
onland at the northern border and grade into the formations
facies and welllogs were used to identify, delineate, and
of the underlying rifts, the Anambra Basin. The occurrence
correlate the lithofacies and structures and to interpret the
of different hydrocarbon grades and the outcropping of
sequence stratigraphic framework for the studied interval
lithofacies in the basin predicate the investigation of the
between 5000ft and 15000ft TVDSS. The flow units were
prevalent hydrogeologic flow of groundwater in distribution
calibrated and validated with formation pressure data that
of mass and energy in the sedimentary wedge. At present
were converted to hydraulic head and formation water
there is paucity of research on the hydrogeology of the Niger
chemistry data. The stratigraphic analysis of the permitted
Delta petroleum systems despite reports on the presence of
data after quality checks was carried out in RockDoc inter-
somewhat surprising, strong, radial to semi-radial aquifers in
face and their spatial distribution was studied by modelling
the heavily faulted fields in the Niger Delta (Watts et al.
with Petrel interface.
1991; Jev et al. 1993) and how such strong fluxing aquifers

3 Results and Discussion

G. E. Ene (&)
C. Emedo
B. Okwuolisa
Engineering and Applied Geology Unit, Department of Geology,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
e-mail: Ezekwesiliene@unn.ed.ng; ecogrante@yahoo.com
Five hydrostratigraphic systems were delineated by regional
aquitards/seals that correspond to shale units mapped as
12.8, 11.5, 10.4, 9.5 and 8.5 MFSs. The productive zone is

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1201

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_348
1202
tied to the deltaic shallow marine sands bounded between
shales marked by 10.4 and 9.5 m.y MFS. The head distri-
butions within the sequences indicate a general consistent
and continuous increase in hydraulic head gradient with
increasing depth (Fig. 1a) which implies the existence of an
upward directed vertical flow from region of high hydraulic
head at deeper depths to zones of low hydraulic heads at
shallower depths. It also suggests that the reservoirs/aquifers
are communicating despite the presence of the intervening
low permeability regional seals, possibly, through
cross-cutting growth faults. The vertically upward flow
emanate from the lower overpressured sequences towards
the shallow hydropressured regions and thus, overpressure
from formation deeper than the studied sections seems to be
the main driving force that support fluid (up sequence flow)
upwelling. The stratigraphic distributions of the hydro-
chemical facies of salinity, Na + K and Cl corroborate and
support the upward directed flow predicted from the
hydraulic gradient distribution pattern. First, there is an
overall decrease in the concentration values of the hydro-
chemical parameters of salinity, and ionic concentrations of
Na + K and Cl with an increasing depth which implies that
vertically upward directed fluid flow transport and focus
more solutes (hydrochemical ions) from deeper buried sec-
tions towards the shallow horizons which is in agreement
with the prevalent upwelling vertical hydraulic character
inferred from head analysis. Spatial distributions of the
heads were studied by modeling their variation for data set
from reservoirs/aquifers delimited by regional shales map-
ped as events of 11.5 to 10.4, and 10.4 to 9.5 MFSs. The
lateral distribution of hydraulic heads in the
reservoirs/aquifers indicates a general but marginal decrease
(sparsely distributed hydraulic head contour lines) in head
gradient in the north-west to south-east direction. The
decrease implies that subsurface fluid and hydrocarbon will
be compelled to flow in respect to a decreasing fluid
potential gradient. It points to the existence of some slow
cross formational flow probably in response to mild aquifer
slope or topographic drive from the elevated northern part of
the delta. Spatially, the distribution of the chemical facies
mimic that of hydraulic heads showing weak lateral gradi-
ents in roughly north-west to south-east direction. The dis-
tribution of hydraulic head and hydrochemical gradients that
show strong vertical upwelling and mild horizontal flow
affirm that the underlying over-pressured system as the main
source of energy for fluid flow, including hydrocarbon
migration. It follows, therefore, that the hydrodynamic flow
pattern may offer plausible explanation for overpressure
occurrence and development. The presence of these growth
faults and the juxtaposed lithofacies across the fault plane,
existence of regional seals in addition to the presence of
vertical fluid flow gradient constrains the lateral hydrocarbon
migration. The stratigraphic, tectonic and hydraulic scenario
G.E. Ene et al.
may have led to complex vertical migration mechanisms of
recurrent fill and spill/leak driven by buoyancy and ambient
hydraulic drive of upwelling formation water. Corroborating
evidence that the fault zones and fluid migration pathways
are the accumulations of hydrocarbon on one side of the
fault planes in a staked reservoir. The stratigraphic, tectonic
and hydraulic scenario may have led to complex migration
mechanisms of recurrent fill and spill/leak. The convoluted
migration mechanisms are perhaps responsible for the
observed distribution of hydrocarbon in a staked reservoir,
skewed oil/gas ratio (Jev et al. 1993) and variable hydro-
carbon properties (Matava et al. 2003). Despite the role of
these faults in up-sequence migration of hydrocarbon, the
horizontal hydraulic gradients interfere at some horizons
particularly with juxtaposed permeable facies, in which case
reservoir filling and leaking will concentrate oil at the bas-
inward block while filling and spilling will tend to concen-
trate gas towards the leeward block. Depending on the fault
hydraulics and the juxtaposed lithology, the trap may start to
fill and further migration is not permitted. Again depending
the prevailing hydrodynamic environment and buoyancy
increase due to increasing hydrocarbon column, hydrocar-
bon may either spill or leak from the fault trap in which case
fill and leak tends to concentrate oil against the fault or
alternative fill and spill will concentrate gas relative to oil.
Corroborating evidence on hydrodynamic modification on
migration may be seen from changes in fluid contact across
fields (Weber and Mandl 1978) and tilted fluid contacts in
faulted reservoirs (Jev et al. 1993). These changes in
oil-water or gas-water contact depth across reservoirs can
equally be attributed to either reservoir discontinuity where
barriers to flow within the reservoir exist (e.g., Weber 1987)
and/or thermal convection. The existence of spatially vary-
ing hydraulic gradient and hydrochemical facies anomalies
tends to suggest that a mild hydrodynamic aquifer is
responsible for changes in fluid contact depth and tilting of
hydrocarbon contacts in faulted reservoirs, in the same
direction consistent with the northeast-southwest flow
direction predicted from the spatial variation in hydraulic
heads and hydrochemical facies (Watts and Mandl 1991).
Weber and Mandl (1978) suggested that the changes in
hydrocarbon contact may have resulted from the presence of
baffles based on observation of changes in oil pressures from
different wells. Such inference appears to be ambiguous and
may require further investigation. The main reason is that,
since the Niger Delta is recognized as an active delta, the
pressure differential may as well have been the result if the
entire system has not yet attained equilibrium state. This
may as well generate pressure difference across the reservoir
on production scale which may then equilibrate over geo-
logic time (Muggeridge and Mahmode 2012). The identifi-
cation and distinction on the major causes of changes in fluid
contact and fluid contact tilting by either hydrodynamic
A Hydrodynamic Approach to Hydrocarbon Migration Analysis …
Fig. 1 Typical modelling outputs showing a Rockdoc model of the
sequence stratigraphic distribution of hydraulic head and b Petrel
output model showing the spatial distribution of Facie-Potential Index
aquifer and reservoir compartmentalization is important as
this can impact not only the estimation of hydrocarbon in
place but also recovery. Based on the hydrodynamic model
of hydrocarbon migration, the predictive homogenization
method can be applied to understand the link between the
fluid potential and rock properties (porosity and permeabil-
ity) and known accumulations. The relative and cumulative
effect of both the hydraulic potential and petrophysical facies
on hydrocarbon migration and accumulation is measured
with facie-potential index (FPI) (Yu Yixing et al 2011).
Statistical analysis and modeling of integrated reservoir
parameters including porosity, permeability and fluid energy
as FPI (Fig. 1b) indicate that discovered accumulations in
the project area and studied interval show strong correlation
to facie-potential index (significant proportion of the pools
occur at locations where the FPI value is generally above
0.4). It follows, therefore, that un-swept or bypassed
hydrocarbon could be predicted at areas where FPI is equal
to or above 0.4.
4 Conclusion
The statistical analysis and numerical modelling of inte-
grated reservoir parameters including sequence stratigra-
phy, porosity, permeability and fluid energy as
facie-potential index (FPI) indicate strong relation
1203
(FPI) concentration values for the aquifer confined by shales marked by
events of 11.5 and 10.4 MFS for the studied fields
between entrapped hydrocarbon and sub-regional flow
since the discovered accumulations in the project area and
studied interval show strong correlation to facie-potential
index.
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Heum OR. A fluid dynamic classification of hydrocarbon entrapment.
Pet Geosci. 1996;2(1996):145–58.
Jev BI, Kaars-Sijpesteijn CH, Peters MPAM, Watts NL, Wilkie JT.
Akaso field, Nigeria: use of integrated 3-D seismic, fault slicing,
clay smearing, and RFT pressure data on fault trapping and dynamic
leakage. AAPG Bull. 1993;23:1389–404.
Matava T, Rooney MA, Chung HM, Nwankwo BC, Unomah GI.
Migration effects on the composition of hydrocarbon accumulations
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Muggeridge A, Mahmode H. Hydrodynamic aquifer or reservoir
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Watts NL. Theoretical aspects of cap-rock and fault seals for single-
and two-phase columns. Mar Pet Geol. 1987;4:274–307.
Weber KJ, Mandl J. The role of faults in hydrocarbon migration and
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10. 1978;2643–2653 (paper OTC 3356).
Yixing Yu, Dongxia Chen, Hong Pang, Xiuping Shi, XiongqiU Pang.
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Tarim Basin. China Petrol Sci. 2011;8:24–33.
 Geo-historical Review
of the Mediterranean Rivers from
Kitab-ı Bahriye (Book of Navigation)
Mustafa Yilmaz, Ibrahim Yilmaz, Bayram Turgut, and Mevlut Gullu



Keywords
Mediterranean Kitab-ı bahriye (Book of navigation)
Flowing river Dried river
1 Introduction
Rivers have played a vital role in the development of human
societies on every inhabited continent, but for the purposes
of this discussion the focus shall be on the Mediterranean
region. Recent environmental changes in the Mediterranean
region urge the scientific community to re-examine the
relationship between the environment and the humans. In
spite of their vital importance, there is no comprehensive
study of the natural characteristics and diversity of the
Mediterranean basin rivers. Only in recent years, historians
have begun to pay attention to rivers themselves in order to
address the topic of environmental change in waterways and
the human impact on rivers over time (Woodward 2009).
Historical data are valuable sources for the studies of river
ecology to define reference conditions of climatological
systems. Most studies based on data from the 19th century,
thus missing pre-instrumental period. The historical river
ecology should be analysed bearing in mind the basic
hydrological and topographical characteristics of the rivers.
Using historical data to reconstruct the development of past
river ecological conditions can support future river man-
agement by going beyond the usual approach of static his-
torical reference conditions. The objective of this paper is to
M. Yilmaz (&)
I. Yilmaz
B. Turgut
M. Gullu
Geomatics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Afyon Kocatepe
University, 03200 Afyonkarahisar, Turkey
e-mail: mylz1907@gmail.com
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_349


Geo-historical
In generosity and helping others… Be like the river.
Rumi (1207–1273).
collect comparable historical information on the Mediter-
ranean rivers from Kitab-ı Bahriye (Book of Navigation) of
Piri Reis (1465–1554). The geographical information about
the Mediterranean rivers obtained from Kitab-ı Bahriye are
evaluated through the present situation to capture the per-
manent or dialectical interactions between the river ecology
and human intervention in the Mediterranean basin, from a
historical perspective.
2 Mediterranean Rivers in Kitab-ı Bahriye
Water is remarked as one of the essentials for wealthy tex-
tual information in the introduction section of Kitab-ı Bah-
riye. In Kitab-ı Bahriye, the information about drinking
water sources, notable wells, natural fountains, (navigable)
rivers, and ground waters, dedicated to the coast or the island
of the Mediterranean Sea in the subject, are given exten-
sively. It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss even all
water sources or water bodies in full detail, though the
exemplificative information about the Mediterranean rivers
from Kitab-ı Bahriye are provided within this paper. To
illustrate the wealth of the substantial information about the
Mediterranean rivers provided within Kitab-ı Bahriye, the
geographical information about the exemplary rivers are
summarized. The representative rivers are evaluated in a
clockwise rotation manner such as: the Rhône River, the Po
River, the Asi River, the Nile River, and the Oued el Kebir
River.
1205
1206
In the chapter about the coastlines of the Gulf of Lion
between Marseille (France) and Cap de Creus
(Catalonia-Spain); the Rhône River is described: “But
Akvamort (Rhône) is two miles from aforementioned Kavu
de Magalonya (Cap de Maguelone) and Kavu de Yakalonya
(Cap de Yaguelone). The meaning of Akvamort (Rhône) is
“Dead River” and this river discharges through four mouths.
It is quite a big river that vessels may enter. This river rises
in a big mountain called Sembir Tezdin (the Alps) in the
country of Fıransa (France). Three great rivers emerge from
this mountain. One is the Tuna (Danube) which comes down
and discharges into the Karadeniz (Black Sea). The second
river is called Fiyumin (Rhine) and it discharges into the sea
near Fılandıra (Flanders). There is a big river mouth that
vessels may enter. The third is this river Akvmort (Rhône)
which discharges into the Akdeniz (Mediterranean Sea).”
In the chapter about the coasts of Ferrara (Italy); the Po
River is described: “A big river flows alongside the city of
Mantuvan (Mantua). The aforementioned river flows down
and reaches the city of Firara (Ferrara) whence it divides into
five branches and coming down discharges into the sea at
five places. Another tributary separates beyond Firara (Fer-
rara) and discharges into the sea at the Venedik (Venetian)
border. They call the mouth where it reaches the sea
Akvalon (Po). It is a river that a vessel can enter.”
In the chapter about the coastlines between the city of
Latakia (Syria) and the Akinci promontory (Turkey); the Asi
(ancient Orontes) River is described: “The aforementioned
Suveyde (Samandag) bay is shallow at its inner end. Inland
from these shallows, a river they call Nehr-i Asi (Asi) comes
down and flows into the sea. The boats can enter this river.”
Kitab-ı Bahriye provides remarkable information
regarding the Nile River and the source of it. The main
geographical information pertaining to the Nile River in
Kitab-ı Bahriye is contained within a poetic section on the
discovery voyages of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean
region. The first important geographical information
regarding the source of the Nile River is described: “Kavu
Bono Ispiransa (Cape of Good Hope) is part of the southern
region and it lies beyond the equator. That cape lies thirty
four degrees below the equator… Starting from the source of
the Re’s-i Nil (Nile), the cape lies fully fifteen degrees
beyond.” Kitab-ı Bahriye provides further
physical-geographical information related to the source of
the Nile River as follows: “They said there was a great desert
there and beyond that a lofty mountain. The Nil (Nile) starts
out as a trickle from that mountain, becomes a lake, and then
arrives at the desert.” In the subsequent poetic sections, the
physical location of the source of the Nile River and the
M. Yilmaz et al.
flood regime are provided: “The source of the Re’s-i Nil
(Nile) is beyond the equator and it lies in the nineteenth
parallel… When it is winter here, it is summer there; and
when it is summer here, it is winter there…This is the reason
for the flooding of the Nil (Nile): that is, you should not be
surprised that it floods in the summer.” In the chapter about
the banks of the Nile River between the mouth of Rosetta
(Egypt) and the city of Cairo (Egypt), a detailed geograph-
ical explanation regarding the journey on the Nile River
from the delta on the Mediterranean coast at Rashid
(Rosetta) Strait is provided (Yilmaz 2015, 2016). In the
detailed charts, physical-geographical information required
for safe sailing on the Nile River, including depth informa-
tion, locations of the harbours and directions of the winds
and the nature of the communities inhabiting the area are
described: “It becomes necessary to record here the places
we have observed along the Nil (Nile) river as far as Mısr
(Cairo). On the way up the Nil (Nile) river to Mısr (Cairo), I
took compass readings and wrote them stage by stage, the
maps you see here are eventuated. The aforementioned
places stretch five hundred miles from the sea coast to Mısr
(Cairo).”
In the chapter about the Maghreb (Northwest Africa)
coastlines between the seaport of Bejaia (Algeria) and the
castle of Jijel (Algeria); the Oued el Kebir River is descri-
bed: “Along the way from aforementioned Becaye (Bejaia)
to the castle of Cicil (Jijel), there is a big river that they call
Vadil-Kebir (Oued el Kebir). Caiques can enter this river. It
is a big river.”
3 Numerical Review of the Mediterranean
Rivers Within Kitab-ı Bahriye
The rivers discharging into the Mediterranean Sea consti-
tuted a significant part of the geo-information provided in
Kitab-ı Bahriye. The number of the Mediterranean rivers
indicated on the charts and mentioned in the textual section
are given according to their current water regimes, in
Table 1. The current water regimes of the Mediterranean
rivers are determined through Google Earth® satellite ima-
ges (by using water bodies layer—part of the layer folder
called geographic features). The Mediterranean is the only
region on Earth where three continents meet and interact. In
Table 1, the classification of the rivers is made by consid-
ering this geographical fact. The flowing and dried rivers are
sampled with associated charts and Google Earth® satellite
images in Fig. 1, in collaboration with the textual informa-
tion from Kitab-ı Bahriye.
Geo-historical Review of the Mediterranean Rivers … 1207

Table 1 The Mediterranean Location Water Regime

rivers from Kitab-ı Bahriye
Flowing Dried
Europe 123 71
Asia 77 36
Africa 34 7
Islands 37 45
TOTAL 271 159

Fig. 1 The charts and Google Earth® images: a Moulouya River (as flowing river), b Palizzi River (as dried river)

4 Discussion and Conclusions Historical cartographic heritage should be considered

In Kitab-ı Bahriye, totally 430 Mediterranean river indi-
cated on the charts and mentioned in the text, are iden-
tified. The identification of these rivers supports the
geo-historical review of the rivers in the Mediterranean
sea. The overview presented in Table 1 is based upon the
geo-information provided within Kitab-ı Bahriye that is
surveyed for the Mediterranean rivers. The classified
appraisal in Table 1 is carried out according to the current
water regimes of the Mediterranean rivers. When the
geo-historical review reported in Table 1 is evaluated,
37% of the Mediterranean rivers remarked within Kitab-ı
Bahriye, is assessed as dried rivers. This geo-historical
review of the Mediterranean rivers is intended to quantify
the geo-information about rivers contained within Kitab-ı
Bahriye. The Mediterranean rivers are assessed as flow-
ing and dried rivers due to their current water regimes.
The reasons for the drying up of the rivers are beyond the
scope of this paper. Furthermore, the utilisable textual
and numerical results that are obtained from effective
integration of text and chart of Kitab-ı Bahriye encourage
the extensive and specialized environmental-geographical
studies, in Ottoman-Turkish archives.
as the light to the past for historical documentation. Piri
Reis offered Kitab-ı Bahriye for the benefit of the users’
substantial information concerning the Mediterranean
Sea. The entire study of Kitab-ı Bahriye would be a
valuable objective for the future environmental and
geographical research.
Acknowledgements This study was supported by Afyon Kocatepe
University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Department.
References
Woodward J. Preface, in The physical geography of the mediterranean.
New York: Oxford University Press; 2009.
Yilmaz I. A historical review of the geographical information on the
source of the Nile contained within the ‘Book of Navigation’
(Kitab-ı Bahriye). Area. 2015;47(3):272–81.
Yilmaz I. Geo-information heritage contained within Kitab-ı Bahriye
(Book of Navigation): The Sicily Island. J Cult Heritage.
2016;19:502–10.
 Phytosociometry, a Tool for Managing
Resources and Maintaining
the Sustainability of Livestock
Systems in Arid Zones

Bouyahia Hadj, Benabdeli Kheloufi, and Nouri Tayeb

Keywords
Phytosociometry Bio-reference

1 Introduction Because of its classification in evolution according to (Le

The majority of the studies on the degradation of the steppe
trails evoke the most visible factors, considered to be the
cause (drought, overgrazing, demographic evolution …),
reduction of vegetation cover in a singular or interactive
way. The steppe tracts of the high plains of Algeria have
been marked by an intense degradation affecting vegetation
cover, biodiversity and soil. At the beginning of this
degradation, the most likely changes are those that affect
certain dominant perennial plants that ensure the physiog-
nomy of these pathways (Aidoud 1994).
The arid steppes are structured and denominated by
perennial plants in individualized tufts in a matrix of bare
soil or occupied by plants of ephemeral existence. This
typical structure is a response to aridity (Montana 1992).
Depending on the presence and dominance of perennial
species, the steppe finds a classification (steppe at Stipa
tenacissima, steppe at Lygeum spartum …), in most works.
The sparte (Lygeum spartum) presents a great ecological
plasticity (Aidoud 1989), its germinative power, it assures an
extension of spaces in semi-arid and arid zone. Unlike Alfa,
sparte has been the subject of little work in relation to its
ecological characteristics and the role played by this plant in
maintaining the equilibrium of the steppe ecosystem.
B. Hadj (&)
N. Tayeb
Centre Universitaire Salhi Ahmed Naama, Naâma, Algeria
e-mail: h.bouy@yahoo.fr
N. Tayeb
e-mail: nouritayeb@yahoo.fr
B. Kheloufi
Université Mustapha Stambouli de Mascara, Mascara, Algeria
e-mail: benabdeli_k@yahoo.fr
Houérou 1995): the steppes in Sparta (Lvgeum spartum)
sometimes occupy a dynamic intermediate stage between the
alpine steppes and the shrubby steppes.
The assessment carried out on the whole steppe of the
national territory has shown that nearly 70% of the total
potentially productive arid lands are affected by natural
degradation (Hadeid 2008).
2 Materials and Methods
The wilaya of Naama, which forms part of the southern high
plains of the oranais, occupies an area of about 3 m ha, the
esparto is about 5%.
1. The OUM ELDJEM station, located in the north-west of
Naama (Méchéria commune), is the subject of this study,
on a protected area of 500 Ha with an original vegetation
at Lvgeum spartum.
2. 30 units “tufts” taken at random, geo referenced.
3. A phytosociometric survey based on measurements of
distance and counting of the ancillary species by con-
centric circles with radii of 20, 40, 60 and 80 cm around
the bio-reference species “sparte”.
4. Taking the height and diameter of the bio-marker as
additional indices.
3 Results and Discussion
The closest and furthest species in diameter of the espart.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1209

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_350
1210 B. Hadj et al.

Vernacular Average of P Average of L Mean (p + 1/2) Vernacular Average of P Average of L Mean (p + 1/2)
name (cm) (cm) (cm) name (cm) (cm) (cm)
Souifia 5.30 56.70 31.00 Messwak 18.00 30.00 24.00
Nefl 6.93 57.40 32.17 Râyene

Khafour 6.48 55.93 31.20 Sir Lemâaza 25.00 50.00 37.50

Karata 11.33 54.11 32.72 Cherira 70.00 70.00 70.00

Mekharssa 15.24 56.31 35.78 Guiz 76.00 76.00 76.00

Zentit 21.71 50.75 36.23 Serr 10.00 10.00 10.00

lekhrouf Zaâzaâ 30.00 30.00 30.00
Fatet lehdjar 15.50 50.50 33.00 Average 19.21 48.98 34.09
Tmar leghrab 28.00 48.44 38.22
Ghodame 20.83 48.04 34.44
Guessis 13.00 56.40 34.70
Raguem 16.91 44.36 30.64
Cheham 15.95 41.45 28.70
Lâaoud
Tif mâalam 22.35 41.85 32.10
Larbiane 13.43 56.29 34.86
Moulbina 23.82 42.91 33.36
Jerjir 18.27 36.07 27.17
Kherchouf 31.00 56.00 43.50
Redjel Hadjla 28.88 48.63 38.75
Sir Leghzal 25.00 54.71 39.86
Lalma Zaouai 35.40 47.60 41.50
29.58 40.33 34.96
Adjram 22.25 46.33 34.29
Mechawka 27.67 41.42 34.54
Djayaf 13.00 79.00 46.00
Lebegri Photo 1 Distribution of species around the bio-repere
Nâamia 34.00 43.50 38.75
Sengha 33.08 42.42 37.75
espart is Karkaz “Diplotaxis virgata”, The furthest (79 cm)
Reguig 36.50 53.00 44.75 Is Djayaf Lebegri “Cutandia divaricata”. (Photo 1)
Guetfa 33.55 39.82 36.68
Methnan 28.43 40.86 34.64
4 Conclusion
Rik leghzal 9.00 24.00 16.50
The distribution of the species in a steppe to espart is not
Odid 18.33 43.00 30.67
random, the taking of the dominant perennial species as
Zafzaf 41.00 56.00 48.50
bio-reference can give an approach on the link that exists
Karkaz 2.00 52.00 27.00 between this one and the other species that make up the
Harmal 37.50 64.50 51.00 grouping “symbiosis”, Competition or protection, the
Ziouane 30.00 56.00 43.00 height of the benchmark also affects this distribution.
(continued)

References
One of the results shows that the classification of the
species according to the distance with respect to the Aidoud. The art of writing a scientific article. J Sci Commun.
BIO-REPERE, the closest species (2 cm) in diameter of the 1994;163:51–9.
Phytosociometry, a Tool for Managing Resources and Maintaining …
Aidoud. The elements of style. 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan; 1989.
Le Houérou H-N. How to prepare an electronic version of your article.
In: Jones BS, Smith RZ, editors. Introduction to the electronic age.
New York: E-Publishing Inc; 1995. p. 281–304.
Hadeid M. Approche anthropique du phenomene de desertification
dans un espace steppique : le cas des hautes plaines occidentales
1211
algeriennes VertigO - la revue electronique en sciences de l,
environnement. 2008; Volume 8 Numero1.
Montana C. The colonization of bare areas in two-phase mosaics of an
arid ecosystem. J. Ecol. 1992; 80:315–327.
 Effect of Polyethylene Glycol on in Vitro Gas
Production of Three Leguminous Shrubs
in Algerian Arid Areas
Samir Medjekal, Mouloud Ghadbane, Laid Benderradji, Raoul BODAS,
Hacène Bousseboua, and Secundino Lopez



Keywords
Forage Gas production
1 Introduction
Ruminant production in the dry areas of Algeria faced
problems of low availability of forages with poor nutritional
quality of grasses and/or crop residues especially in dry
seasons. Therefore, the farming system in such regions had
to survive on such feed resources for most periods of the
year (Boufennara et al. 2012). Leguminous shrubs may be
considered as important feed resources to provide forage for
grazing ruminants, particularly when traditional feed sources
are scarce. However, in spite of their abundance in the
rangelands and their evergreen foliage throughout the year,
many other wild browse species have been, generally,
undervalued mainly because of insufficient knowledge about
their potential feeding value and the impact of tannins
compounds (Bouazza et al. 2013). Tannins bind and pre-
cipitate proteins and can have both negative and positive
effects to livestock consuming shrubs containing a certain
concentration of condensed tannins. Due to its property to
bind with condensed tannins (CT), polyethylene glycol
S. Medjekal (&)
M. Ghadbane
L. Benderradji
Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry, University
Mohamed Boudiaf of M’sila, M’sila, Algeria
e-mail: sammedj2008@gmail.com
R. BODAS
Instituto Tecnológico Agrario de Castilla Y León, Subdirección de
Investigación Y Tecnología, Valladolid, Spain
H. Bousseboua
Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Biotechnologie, Ville universitaire
Ali Mendjeli, BP 66E, RP 25100 Ali Mendjeli/Constantine,
Algeria
S. Lopez
Departamento de Producción Animal, Instituto de Ganadería de
Montaña (IGM) CSIC-Universidad de León, Universidad de León,
León, Spain
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_351


Methane Methanogenesis
(PEG) has been used to measure and reduce the adverse
effects of CT in ruminant diets (Medjekal et al. 2015). The
in vitro gas production method, have been used to evaluate
the nutritional value of feedstuffs. Increased interest in the
use of non-conventional feed resources has led to an increase
in the use of this technique, since gas production can provide
useful data on digestion kinetics of both the soluble and
insoluble fractions of feedstuffs (Arhab et al. 2009). The
objective of the present work was to study the biological
activity of tannins of three Leguminous shrubs collected
from an arid zone in Algeria on in vitro gas production when
plant material was incubated with and without polyethylene
glycol (PEG) using the in vitro gas production technique.
2 Materials and Methods
Three leguminous shrubs were used in this study: A. gombo,
C. saharea (Coss.&Durieu) Boatwr. & B.-E.van Wyk and
O. natrix. The species selection was based on the available
information on their consumption by grazing small rumi-
nants, and their relative abundance in the study area. Crude
protein (CP) of shrubs was analyzed, and the neutral deter-
gent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF), total phe-
nols (TPH g kg-1/DM) (Folin Ciocalteu) and condensed
tannins (CT g kg-1 DM) (butanol-HCl) were determined
(AOAC 1990) (Table 1). Gas production was measured
using an adaptation of the technique described by Theodorou
et al. (1994). Ground samples (500 mg) with and without
addition of polyethylene glycol (500 mg) were incubated in
50 ml of diluted rumen fluid (10 mL mixed rumen fluid +
40 mL medium prepared under a CO2 atmosphere) in
120 mL serum bottles. Six mature Merino sheep (body
weight 49.04 ± 4.23 kg) fitted with a permanent ruminal
1213
1214 S. Medjekal et al.

Table 1 Chemical composition (g kg-1 DM) and In vitro gas production of three leguminous shrubs, without (–) PEG or with (+) PEG
Species CP OM NDF ADF TPH CT Incubation time
PEG 6h 12 h 24 h 48 h
A. 221.38 a
860.14 c
413.07 b
297.8 b
11.64 b
25.43 b
− 24.37 a
20.57 a
29.77 a
26.24a
gombo + 26.02 a
22.04 a
29.43 a
25.15a
C. 113.85b 959.57a 553.97a 430.5a 7.05c 19.46c − 24.37a 18.30a 24.13b 20.60b
saharae + 22.34 ab
18.36 a
24.99 b
20.71b
O. natrix 98.86c 922.17b 563.23a 429.5a 13.89a 31.21a − 16.00b 12.13b 18.10c 14.55c
ab ab c
+ 20.29 16.30 17.13 12.85c
SEM 19.34 14.50 24.19 22.06 1.012 1.714 0.8985 0.8782 1.212 1.222
P value <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.0001 <0.0033 <0.0017 <0.0001 <0.0001
CP Crude protein, OM organic matter, NDF neutral detergent fiber, ADF acid detergent fiber, TPH total Phenols, CT condensed tannins.
Different superscripts following means in the same column indicate differences at P  0.05
abc

cannula fed lucerne hay ad libitum (CP 167 g, NDF 502 g,
ADF 355 g and ADL 71 g/kg DM) and had free access to
water and a mineral/vitamin block. were used as donors of
rumen fluid. A sample of rumen contents was withdrawn
prior to morning feeding, transferred into thermos flasks and
taken immediately to the laboratory. Rumen fluid from the
four sheep was mixed, strained through various layers of
cheesecloth and kept at 39 °C under a CO2 atmosphere
(Ammar et al. 2004).
3 Results and Discussion
Regarding to chemical composition of the analyzed species,
the content of CP was higher (P < 0.0001) for A. gombo
(221.38 g Kg−1 DM) and lower O.natrix (98.86 g Kg−1
DM); however, NDF and ADF were higher (P < 0.0001)
with C. saharae and O.natrix than A. gombo. O.natrix had
the highest TPH and CT (P < 0.0001) with 13.89 g Kg−1
DM and 31.21 g Kg−1 DM respectively (Table 1).
The nutritional composition of assessed species was with
the evaluated range for leguminous species in semi-arid
regions Boufennara et al. (2012). Natural grasslands asso-
ciated with trees and/or shrubs have a considerable role in
ruminant feeding in extensive Mediterranean production
systems, such as the one in the semi-arid region in Algeria.
Legume trees or shrubs, studied herein can be used to sup-
plement the available feedstuff during the periods of food
scarcity that are common in Mediterranean areas (Chassany
and Flamant 1996). The contents of TPH and CT in the
species are similar to those reported by the same authors.
High CT contents could impact the digestion processes in
the rumen, affecting the growth of rumen bacteria and
enzyme activity, even depress consumption or reduce foliage
digestibility (Salem et al. (2007). The CT Biological activity
depends on two factors: their concentration and structure.
However, Medjekal et al. (2015) conclude that moderate
levels 1–4% of condensed tannins produce positive effects,
when coupled with dietary protein forms complexes, pre-
venting their degradation in the rumen. The inclusion of
PEG in fermentation of leguminous species (Table 1) results
in a significant increase (P < 0.0033) of gaz production at 6
and 12 h in O.natrix but no effect was observed with the
other species. The addition of PEG overcomes the tannins
effects over nutrients availability, as indicative of the accu-
mulated GP, when forming the PEG-tannins complex (Elahi
et al. 2014). The PEG inactivation of tannins increases
voluntary feed intake, availability of nutrients and decreases
microbial inhibition by degrading the tanniniferous feeds,
which in turn increases the performance of animals (Bhat
et al. 2013). The increased GP when samples were incubated
with PEG were also reported for different forages by other
authors (Arhab et al. 2009) evaluated the influence of tannins
present in arid zone forages from Algeria. Foliage with high
content of CT do not always respond similarly when incu-
bated with PEG; it is possible that this difference is due to
the chemical composition and structure of tannins of each
species (Salem et al. 2007). Therefore, tannins which
strongly bind with dietary and endogenous protein would
need to be counteracted with a competitive agent such as
PEG. The addition of the relatively low cost PEG improves
the nutritional value of the studied samples testified by an
increased level of GP.
4 Conclusion
Leguminous shrubs can be used as animal food resources
in semi-arid areas all over the world, where low avail-
ability of conventional animal feeds. Chemical compo-
sition and in vitro GP of the tested leguminous shrubs
showed different nutritive values. PEG is considered to
specifically bind tannins, and its use in the in vitro rumen
assay is a better representation of tannin activity under
rumen conditions.
Effect of Polyethylene Glycol on in Vitro …
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Ammar H, Lopez S, Gonzalez JS, Ranilla MJ. Seasonal variations in the
chemical composition and in vitro digestibility of some Spanish
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AOAC. Official methods of analysis, 15th edn. Washington, DC.
(1990);p. 2044.
Arhab R, Macheboeuf D, Aggoun M, Bousseboua H, Viala D,
Besle JM. Effect of polyethylene glycol on in vitro gas production
and digestibility of tannin containing feedstuffs from North African
arid zone. Trop Subtrop Agroecosyst. 2009;10:475–86.
Bhat KT, Kannan A, Sharma PO. Value addition of feed and fodder by
alleviating the antinutritional effects of tannins. Agric Res. 2013;2:189–206.
Bouazza L, Boufennara S, López S, Bousseboua H, Bodas R. Nutritive
evaluation of some browse plant species collected from Algerian
arid rangelands by chemical analyses and in vitro gas production.
Options Méditerranéennes, A. 2013;108:305–10.
Boufennara S, López S, Bousseboua H, Bodas R, Bouazza L. Chemical
composition and digestibility of some browse plants species collected
from Algerian arid rangelands. Span J Agri Res. 2012;10(1):88–98.
1215
Chassany JP, Flamant JC. Contexte économique, social et institutionnel
de la question pastorale et des systèmes d’élevage extensif en
régions méditerranéennes. The optimal exploitation of marginal
Mediterranean areas by extensive ruminant production systems.
EAAP-Publ. 1996;83:15–32.
Elahi MY, Nia MM, Salem AZM, Mansouri H, Olivares-Perez J,
Cerrillo-Soto MA, Kholif AE. Effect of polyethylene glycol on
in vitro gas production kinetics of Prosopis cineraria leaves at
different growth stages. Ital J Anim Sci. 2014;13:363–8.
Medjekal S, Ghadbane M, Bousseboua H (2015) Impact Of Season of
Harvest on Potential Nutritive Value, Methane Production and
Condensed Tannins Content of Calobota Saharae In M´Sila,
North-Central Algeria, EJPAU., 18(2), #03.
Salem AZM, Robinson PH, El- Adawy MM, Hassan AA. In vitro
fermentation and microbial protein synthesis of some browse tree
leaves with or without addition of polyethylene glycol. Anim Feed
Sci Technol. 2007;138:318–30.
Theodorou MK, Williams BA, Dhanoa MS, McAllan AB,
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Anim Feed Sci Technol. 1994;48:185–97.
 Essential Oil of Mentha Spicata Leaves
from Algeria: Chemical Composition
and Antibacterial Activity

Mohammed Khiari, Zine Kechrid, A. Halbaoui, and M. Halbaoui

Keywords
Mentha spicata Essential oil Chemical composition Antibacterial activity
Carvone

1 Introduction 3 Results

Ethnopharmacological relevance: The extract of M. spicata
has several biological uses such as antioxidants,
anti-inflammations, antispasmodics and antimicrobials.
Aim of the study: This work was focused to investigate
chemical composition and antibacterial activity of essential
oil (E.O) from a Mediterranean plant M. spicata.
2 Materials and Methods
M. spicata E.O was extracted from the leaves using cle-
venger apparatus then carried out by GC/MS technique.
Furthermore, the antibacterial activity of E.O was valuated
with three bacterial strains: Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus
mirabilis and Klibesiella. Commercial antibiotics were used
as positive control.
The phytochemical analysis indicated that the M. spicata
leaf comprising anthocyanins, leucoanthocyanins, flavo-
noids, tanins and terpenoids (Table 1). The obtained results
also showed that M. spicata E.O is rich in Carvone (71.02%)
and Limonene (17.43%); and exhibited a potent antibacterial
effect compared to controls.
The plant extractions provide essential oil of pale-yellow
color with a very strong and persistent aromatic-spicy odor.
The yield of M. spicata E.O extraction was 2.16% con-
taining two major compounds, Carvone (71.02%) and
Limonene (17.43%).
The M. spicata E.O antibacterial activity was evaluated
against three bacterial strains to establish authenticity, using
also three commercial antibiotics as positive controls (GM,
CAZ and PIP). According to the obtained results, the tested
samples were able to inhibit bacteria growing with best
action in ½ dilution with ethanol. Furthermore, Klibesiella
was the most sensible strain to the essential oil and very
resistant to the commercial antibiotics used in this study
(Table 2).

Z. Kechrid
Laboratory of Applied Biochemistry and Microbiology,
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of
Annaba, Annaba, Algeria
M. Khiari
A. Halbaoui
M. Halbaoui
Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Djelfa,
Djelfa, Algeria

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1217

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_352
1218 M. Khiari et al.

Table 1. Preliminary screening Chemical groups M. spicata

of M. spicata leaves
Anthocyanins +
Leuco-Anthocyanins +
Alkaloids –
Flavonoids +
Tannins +
Terpenoids +
Steroids –

Table 2. Antibacterial activity Antibiotics E.O dilutions (D) of Positif control

of M. spicata essential oil Mentha spicata (Ethanol)
Gentamicin Ceftazidim Piperacillin D1 D2 D3
GM CAZ PIP (1/2) (1/5) (1/10)
Staphylococcs +++ − +++ +++ ++ ++ −
aureus Gram+)
Proteus mirabitis ++ +++ ++ +++ ++ ++ +
(Gram−)
Klibesiella ++ − − +++ +++ ++ +
(Gram−)

4 Conclusion
The present research demonstrated the M. spicata
essential oil antibacterial activities against three strains of
bacteria. It was suggested that M. spicata E.O could be
used as a strong antibacterial agent.
 Biodiversity, Traditional Medicine
and Diabetes in North-Eastern Algeria
Amel Bouzabata



Keywords
Algeria Health Biodiversity
1 Introduction
Traditional medicine continues to play an essential role in
human health, especially in primary health care. Worldwide,
medicinal plant preparations are the most common medica-
tion in traditional and complementary medicine.
Ethnopharmacological knowledge is a holistic system
approach that can serve as an innovative and powerful dis-
covery platform for new, safe, and more accessible and
sustainable medicines (Cordell 2011, 2015).
Diabetes is one of the largest global health emergencies
of the 21st century. In addition to the 415 million adults who
are estimated to currently have diabetes, there are 318 mil-
lion adults with impaired glucose tolerance which puts them
at hight risk of developing the disease in the future. By 2040,
this will rise to 642 million diabetics (IDF 2015). In Algeria,
more than three million people are affected by diabetes,
corresponding to 10% of the population; a number which is
steadily increasing. The resolution WHOAFR/RC50/R3
from August 31, 2000, encouraged African countries to
elaborate regional strategies for traditional medicine and
improve their use in health care systems (Bouzabata 2013).
Despite the local diversity and the importance of the
growing emergence of diabetes, only a few reports have
been published concerning the traditional use of medicinal
plants for diabetes in Algeria. Previous studies have exam-
ined the ethnopharmacology and phytochemical reports of
the local flora (Bouzabata et al. 2013, 2015). Now, a new
inventory of medicinal plants used for the treatment of dia-
betes in five stations in the North-Eastern part of Algeria has
been created through in-field surveillance.
A. Bouzabata (&)
Faculty of Medicine, Badji-Mokhtar University, Annaba, Algeria
e-mail: amelbouz2009@gmail.com
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_353




Diabetes Valorization Ethnobotanical
2 Materials and Methods
The research survey was conducted in five districts situated
in the North-Eastern part of Algeria: Annaba (A), El Tarf
(T), Skikda (S), Souk Ahras (SK), and Guelma (G). The
Annaba region (36°53′59′′ North, 7°46′00′′ East) is located
533 km from Algiers (area = 1439 km2). The El-Tarf region
(36°75′58′′ North, 8°22′12′′) borders the Annaba district and
is located 589 km from Algiers (area = 3339 km2). The area
of Skikda (36°52′34′′ North, 6°54′33′′ East, area = 4026
km2) is located 471 km from Algiers. The Souk Ahras dis-
trict on the Tunisian-Algerian borders (area = 4541 Km2,
36°14′00′′ North, 8°10′00′′ East). Guelma covers an area of
3686.84 km2. The climate of the five study areas is warm
and temperate, and is considered to be Csa according to the
Köppen and Geiger climate classification, with average
temperature values (A: 18.4 °C, T: 18.3 °C, S: 17.2 °C, SK:
14.5 °C, and G: 17.2 °C), and average annual rainfall values
(A: 712 mm, T: 694 mm, S: 767 mm, SK: 735 mm, and G:
557 mm).
Ethnobotanical data were collected through field obser-
vations and semi-structured interviews. The ethnobotanical
survey was performed in two steps. In the first step, 300
diabetic patients were interviewed regarding their use of
traditional medicines in diabetes. In the second step, 20
herbalist practitioners were queried regarding the use and
administered form of the medicinal plants used for diabetic
treatment. The resulting knowledge was quantified and
recorded using descriptive statistical univariate methods with
the assistance of SPSS 21.0 software (Statistical Package for
Social Sciences Inc., Chicago IL, USA). A quantitative
index represented by the relative frequency of citation per-
centage (RFC%) was calculated and showed the local
importance of each plant species, based on the number of
1219
1220
informants (Vitalini et al. 2013). This index was calculated
applying some modifications to the used formula in the
literature:
RFC ¼ FC  N  100, where FC expresses the Fre-
quency of Citations given by the number of total informants
indicating the use of each species and N indicates the total
number of informants interviewed in the study.
3 Results and Discussion
The study revealed that 39 medicinal plants belonging to 22
plant families were being used to treat type 2 diabetes. The
most frequently used families were the Lamiaceae, followed
by the Asteraceae and the Fabaceae. The highest relative
frequency citation percentages were given for Trigonella
foenum-graecum L. (RFC = 8.7%), Boswellia sacra Flueck.
(RFC = 8.1%), Artemisia alba L., Olea europea L., and
Ajuga iva (L.) Schreb. (for which the RFC % value is sim-
ilarly estimated as 7.5%), Lupinus albus L. (RFC = 6.8%),
Nigella sativa L. (RFC = 6.2%). Other species that have
been administered to diabetics by herbalists include Mar-
rubium vulgare L., Salvia officinalis L. Cinnamomum zey-
lanicum Blume., Myrtus communis L., Rosmarinus
officinalis L., and Zingiber officinalis L.
Extensive investigation in recent years suggest the ther-
apeutic potential of these species. For instance, Cinnamon is
amongst the world’s oldest and most frequently consumed
spices, and is used as an herbal remedy (Barceloux 2009).
The medicinal use of this plant has been documented in
Ayurveda (the Indian system of medicine), for over
6000 years. In 1990, Khan et al. isolated an unidentified
factor from cinnamon and termed it as insulin potentiating
factor (IPF). Recently, scientific reports have described
cinnamon as an antidiabetic agent. The potential role of
cinnamon has been shown in several in vitro, animal and
human studies (Sangal 2011).
The most used plant part in these medicinal preparations
is the leaves, with a percentage of observation PO =
34.29%; followed by the aerial parts (PO = 25.71%), seeds
(PO = 15.24%), and bark (PO = 9.52%). The mainly cited
preparation is an infusion, with a percentage of observation
of 58.10%, followed by a decoction (27.62%). Oral
administration was the dominant route (95%), followed by
transdermal administration (5%). According to the survey,
traditional treatments were used by diabetic patients in
association with modern medicine (96%), as a form of
polypharmacy. These results are in agreement with a pre-
vious study concerning the traditional treatments in Souk
Ahras district, which described that the leaves are the most
frequently used plant part, due to their accessibility (Bouz-
abata 2013). Importantly, the leaves constitute a sustainable
source of traditional medicine (Cordell 2015). In addition,
A. Bouzabata
some herbal preparations have been prescribed. However,
according to herbalists these preparations should be admin-
istered without allopathic drug treatment to avoid possible
adverse interactions.
In Algeria, the traditional medicine system is subject to
both religious and cultural influences. Indeed, some medic-
inal plants are described in religious manuscripts. For
instance, Nigella sativa L. is known in Prophetic medicine as
habba saouda, and is considered a panacea. In addition, food
practices and nutritional factors play an important role in the
treatment of diabetes by traditional medicine. Cultural
mixing and similar floral characteristics in the Mediterranean
area support the accumulation and exchange of traditional
medicine knowledge (Eddouks et al. 2007)
4 Conclusions
The acquisition and preservation of ethnobotanical
knowledge through database documentation is an essen-
tial aspect of the conservation of ancient and contempo-
rary medical practices. This study recorded the traditional
knowledge of medicinal plants used by herbalists as
antidiabetic treatments in North-Eastern Algeria. It is
necessary to incorporate this local knowledge into efforts
to conserve and effectively utilize the local biodiversity.
To achieve this goal, collaboration between ecologists,
ethnobiologists, and local practitioners is a necessaty. The
use of natural resources within an ecosystem requires an
understanding of the impact of biodiversity on the prac-
tice of traditional medicine, and the need for conscious
efforts to maintain those health care resources through
sustainable practices. It is recommended that further
studies be conducted on the differences between the tra-
ditional medicine practices in the southern and a northern
parts of Algeria, considering their different climatic and
ecological conditions.
Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Pr Emer Geoffrey A.
Cordell for his precious advice in the writing of this paper.
References
Barceloux DG. Cinnamon (Cinnamomum species). Dis Mon.
2009;55:327–35.
Bouzabata A. Traditional treatment of high blood pressure and diabetes
in Souk Ahras District. J Pharmacog Phytother. 2013;5:12–20.
Bouzabata A, Bazzali O, Cabral C, Gonçalves MJ, Cruz MT, Bighelli A,
Cavaleiro C, Casanova J, Salgueiro L, Tomi F. New compounds,
chemical composition, antifungal activity and cytotoxicity of the
essential oil from Myrtus nivellei Batt. & Trab., an endemic species
of Central Sahara. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;149:613–20.
Bouzabata A, Cabral C, Gonçalves MJ, Cruz MT, Bighelli A,
Cavaleiro C, Casanova J, Salgueiro L, Tomi F. Myrtus communis
L. as source of a bioactive and safe essential oil. Food Chem
Toxicol. 2015;75:166–72.
Biodiversity, Traditional Medicine and Diabetes …
Cordell GA. Sustainable medicines and global health care. Planta Med.
2011;77:1129–38.
Cordell GA. Ecopharmacognosy—the responsibilities of natural pro-
duct research to sustainability. Phytochem Lett. 2015;11:332–46.
Eddouks M, Ouahidi ML, Farid O, Moufid A, Khalidi A, Lemhadri A.
The use of medicinal plants in the treatment of diabetes in Morocco.
Phytotherapy. 2007;5:194–203.
International Diabetes Federation. Diabetes Atlas 7th ed. Belgium;
2015. p. 12.
1221
Khan A, Bryden NA, Polansky MM, Anderon RA. Insulin potentiating
factor and chromium content of selected foods and spices. Biol
Trace Elem Res. 1990;24:183–8.
Sangal A. Role of cinnamon as beneficial antidiabetic food adjunct: A
review. Adv Appl Sci Res. 2011;2:440–50.
Vitalini S, Iriti M, Purice Falli C, Ciuchi D, Segale A, Fico G.
Traditional knowledge on medicinal and food plants used in Val
San Giacomo (Sandrio, Italy)—an alpine ethnobotanical study.
J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;145:517–9.
 Urban and Industrial Wastes Induced Water
Pollution Diagnosis and Risk Assessment
of the Kherraza Plain Aquifer (N-E Algeria)

Saadane Djorfi, Samir Djorfi, and Laroussi Beloulou

Keywords
Pollution Chemical fertilizers BOD5 Numerical modeling Plain of kherraza
Algeria

1 Introduction
The study area is located in the plain of Kherraza (NE
Algeria), in the Wadi Boudjemaa basin. The latter has a
longitudinal lenticular form. It is limited to the South by the
Belilieta and Bouhamra metamorphic mountains and the
Edough massif to the North. The eastern edge of the region
is drained by the Boudjemaa wadi.
To evaluate groundwater pollution in the Kherraza Plain
(agriculture, urban and industrial discharges), water chemi-
cal analyses were carried out on nearly 34 points.
2 Materials and Methods
The aquifer system of the kherraza plain consists essentially
of two types of aquifer (Hani 2003): a surface aquifer con-
tained in sand formations (with average permeability
between 10−3 and 10−4 ms−1) and a deep aquifer consisting
of conglomeratic and gravelly formation surmounted by a
clay layer whose thickness varies from 15 to 25 m. Most of
the wells that capture this aquifer are artesian (Fig. 1).
For the hydrochemical study, we use chemical analyzes
results of 34 samples taken at different points covering the
study area. Physical and chemical parameters pH, T °C, CE,
S. Djorfi (&)
S. Djorfi
L. Beloulou
Laboratoire Des Ressources Naturelles et Aménagement,
Université Badji Mokhtar, BP 12, 23000 Annaba, Algeria
e-mail: Djorfi2001@yahoo.fr
S. Djorfi
e-mail: samirdjorfi@gmail.com
L. Beloulou
e-mail: lbeloulou@gmail.com
Eh, MES, TDS were measured in site using a WTW mul-
tiparameter (P3 PH/LF-SET multiline). The analysis of the
chemical elements was carried out using two methods: flame
atomic absorption (Perkin-Elmer 1100) for the determination
of major cations concentrations and the Photolab Spektral
spectrophotometer of the WTW brand to evaluate the anions
and trace element contents.
To evaluate the health risk assessment (HRA), the lead
(Pb) contents observed in groundwater are used. The daily
dose of exposure (DDE) is the dose of substance received by
the body in relation to the weight of the individual and the
number of days of exposure. Expressed in mg/kg/day, it
aims to define the amount of pollutants administered.
The EDD for different exposure scenarii is calculated by
the same equations that are adapted for each of the exposure
pathways (ASTM 1998, US EPA 1989):
C  Q  Fsp  De  Fe
EDD ¼
Pt
where:
C = the concentration in the exposure medium (mg/kg)
Q = the ingested quantity (kg)
Fsp = the absorption factor
De = exposure time (years)
Fe = the exposure frequency (day/year)
P = the weight of the individual (Kg)
t = the time period over which the exposure is averaged
(days)
The Acceptable Daily Dose (ADD) is the daily amount of
chemicals that can be ingested by a person during his life-
time without any noticeable health risk.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1223

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_354
1224 S. Djorfi et al.

Fig. 1 Location, sketch and geological sections of the study area: 1: Undifferentiated quaternary, 2: Ancient alluvium, 3: clays, 4: Conglomerates
and gravels, 5: Metamorphic formations, 6: Fault, 7: Wells, 8: Geological section, 9: piezometric level. («Modified after Messaoudi et al. (2006)»)

Table 1 Total Risk Index N° Water point Child Adult N° Water point Child Adult
(IR) Scenario: Use of −1
Groundwater in the Kherraza 1 1.9 1.7 21 2.1. e 1.9. e−1
Plain 2 1.8 1.5 22 2.4. e−1 1.2
3 2.5 2.2 23 1.4 1.2
4 7.3 6.4 24 6.9. e−1 6.0. e−1
5 4.0 3.5 25 1.1 9.6. e−1
6 6.7 5.9 26 1.0 9.1. e−1
7 8.3 7.2 27 2.1 1.0
11 3.7 3.2 28 4.1 3.6
14 3.8 3.3 29 3.1 2.7
−1
16 5.4 4.7 31 3.0. e 2.6. e−1
−1 −1 −1
18 2. e 1.8. e 34 6.1. e 5.3. e−1
19 1.7 1.5
20 1.2 1.0

The risk assessment depends on the substance that may areas, the following values are observed: Electrical con-
be carcinogenic or not. The estimation of the ductivity (EC) greater than 3 mScm−1, PO−3 4 = 20 mg.l
−1
−1
non-carcinogenic risk is expressed as the ratio of the daily and total Fe = 6.4 mg.l . These concentrations largely
dose of exposure to the acceptable daily dose. The ratio is exceed the standard value for drinking water.
called the risk index (RI). In the calculation of total RI, all transfer routes (ingestion,
dermal contact, inhalation, vegetables consumption, etc.) were
EDD
RI ¼ taken into consideration. The results are reported on Table 1
ADD which shows that the risk is unacceptable (greater than 1) for the
If RI is less than 1, then the toxic risk is considered majority of water points in the study area. This situation
acceptable. threatens nearby, and even distant, populations and wildlife.

3 Results and Discussion
The results obtained show a large pollutant load carried by
the Boudjemaa Wadi water (chlorides: 900 mg.l−1,
BOD5 = 34 mg.l−1, nitrites = 2 mg.l−1). They also show a
significant qualitative degradation of groundwater, particu-
larly in downstream areas of the wadi. In these polluted
4 Conclusion
The present work refers to a case study of groundwater
pollution by urban and industrial effluents and storage of
solid industrial waste on the ground. Contaminant levels
gradually increase from upstream to downstream, creat-
ing a potential risk to the Boudjemaa wadi ecosystem and
the Mediterranean Sea. The detailed risk assessment to
human health shows that it is mainly the ingestion of
Urban and Industrial Wastes Induced Water Pollution Diagnosis …
waters that present the highest risk for the population of
the Kherraza plain.
References
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials). Standard
Provisional Guide for Risk-Based Corrective Action, PS 104–98.
ASTM, Philadelphia. (1998).
1225
Hani A. Analyse méthodologique de la structure et des processus
anthropiques : application aux ressources en eau d’un bassin
côtier méditerranéen. Th. Doct. Es-Sciences, Univ. Annaba.
(2003);p.214.
Messaoudi IS, Toumi N. Impact des rejets urbains sur l’environnement
dans la plaine ouest de Annaba. Mémoire d’ingenieur: Université
Badji Mokhtar Annaba; 2006. p. 60.
US EPA. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Vol. 1, Human
Health Evaluation Manual (EPA/1–89/002). US EPA, Washington,
DC. (1989).
 Plants Extracts as Coagulants-Flocculants
for Wastewater Treatment: A Short Review

Bouthaina Othmani and Moncef Khadhraoui

Keywords
Plants Coagulants Flocculants Wastewater treatment Coagulation-flocculation

coagulants-flocculants, massive use of chemical products in

1 Introduction
The intensive use of chemicals reagents in wastewater
coagulation-flocculation process is believed to cause serious
environmental and health problems to nowadays societies.
This conventional treatment technique has to be either sub-
stituted or improved in terms of coagulants and flocculants
nature. Indeed, in spite of their potent coagulation-
flocculation activities, synthetic chemicals are accused of
having adverse effects on ecosystems and on humans
(Martyn et al. 1989; Mallevialle et al. 1984). For instance, it
has been demonstrated that the Al, Fe salts and organic
polymers generate in general a secondary pollution with low
biodegradability tendency and which also have to be care-
fully watched (Mallevialle et al. 1984). Further, it was
reported that the Alzheimer disease is ascribed to the Al
traces remaining in the treated wastewater threatening the
water table (Martyn et al. 1989). Consequently, these syn-
thetic coagulants-flocculants substitution by effective and
safe natural products is required. In this framework, bio-
materials derived from seeds, leaves, fruits or peels of plants,
have been receiving a great attention as a promising alter-
native to chemical reagents owing to their harmless, natural
abundance and cost effectiveness (Nharingo and Moyo
2016; Oladoja 2015). However, despite the extensive
investigation and recommendation of natural based
B. Othmani (&)
M. Khadhraoui
Laboratory for Environmental Engineering and Ecotechnology,
ENIS, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: bouthainaothmani91@gmail.com
M. Khadhraoui
e-mail: montunisia@yahoo.fr
the practical field of industrial wastewater processing is still
predominant. Lots of efforts have therefore to be made to
emphasize the utilization of natural coagulants with the aim
of inducing a paradigm shift towards their wide exploitation.
Within this context, numerous papers provide a compre-
hensive summary of bio-products recognized by their
effective coagulation-flocculation properties (Choy et al.
2014; Yin 2010) and to gain a more contextual under-
standing, this work focuses on 4 main plants models (mor-
inga, cactus, okra and mango) belonging to different family
plants and thoroughly exploited to remediate wastewater.
Their related effectiveness in treating wastewaters and
extracts formulations are highlighted.
2 Main Model of Plants Based
Coagulants-Flocculants
Plants based coagulants-flocculants are so extensively
investigated at the laboratory scale aiming to exploit them in
wastewater treatment. It is worth noting that over the recent
years a great number of researchers have been studying the
coagulants-flocculants activities of various plants parts and
extracts (seeds, leaves, stems, fruits’ shells and kernels
waste) (Oladoja 2015; Choy et al. 2014). It was demon-
strated that their high reactivity to remove colloids from
wastewater is attributed to the presence of some active
components. The plants that are commonly used are moringa
oleifera (MO), cactus (Opuntia Ficus Indica), okra (Abel-
moschus esculentus) and mango seeds (Mangifera Indica).
Each of them belongs to a family classified either according
to the type of the extract to be used as a reagent or to their
active agents therein. The coagulant compound extracted
from the seeds of MO is a water soluble cationic protein

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_355
1228 B. Othmani and M. Khadhraoui

(Gassenschmidt et al. 1995). Likewise, the active compo-
nents of mango seeds are proteins with a rate of 58% of the
seed extract (Qureshi 2011). On the other hand, the coagu-
lant efficacy using cactus juice is ascribed to be related to the
pads mucilage which consists of various carbohydrates such
as L-arabinose, D-galactose, L-rhamnose, D-xylose and
Galacturonic acid (Nobel et al. 1992). Further, according to
Miller et al. 2008, it was reported that galacturonic acid is
the main active compound which contributes to a high
coagulant activity (50%). Besides, the coagulation ability of
the unused fruit from okra is attributed to the anionic gum
made up of D-galactose, L-rhamnose and L-galacturonic
acid (Anastasakis et al. 2009). The efficacy of these plants
extracts (mucilage, powder), toward suspended matter (SM),
chemical oxygen demand (COD) and turbidity (TN) removal
from different types of wastewater, was investigated in
exhaustive studies. The following is a brief description of
some fruitful experiments using MO, cactus, okra and
Mango as coagulants-flocculants to treat various wastewater
types.
The results obtained in Table 1 are intriguing and could
be usefully explored in further research. As mentioned in the
table, Kazi and Virupakshi (2013) obtained in a comparative
study of three natural coagulants (Cicer arietinum, MO-seeds
and cactus juice) that MO allowed the highest turbidity
reduction of 82% while cactus leads to a turbidity removal
rate of 78.54% for a tannery effluent. In treating a synthetic
turbid water, Thakur and Choubey (2014) showed that the
maximum turbidity reduction was achieved using 0.2 g/L of
MO (80.7%). However, they found a turbidity removal rate
of 87.7% using okra. Furthermore, Qureshi (2011) reported
that the coagulation power (98%) of mango toward turbidity
removal was higher than that of MO (86%). Interestingly,
the encouarging results of these studies were comparable to
those achieved using chemicals (Al, Fe salts). In addition,
Al-Gheethi et al. (2017) found that 0.12 g/L of MO allowed
a high turbidity removal efficiency (83.63%) exceeding by
far the rate of (59.02%) obtained in case of FeSO4. Conse-
quently, plants were found to be viable alternative coagu-
lants for chemicals owing to their active components. As the
active agents in case of MO and mango are a cationic pro-
teins with long polymeric chains, the mechanism of
coagulation-flocculation is believed to be adsorption and
charge neutralization (Bolto and Gregory 2007). Whilst, for
cactus and okra, the active compounds are found to be
polysaccharides formed by long chains including carboxyl
(-COOH), hydroxyl (-OH) and amine groups (-NH2), the
mechanism of coagulation-flocculation is assumed to be
mainly adsorption and bridging (Vijayaraghavan et al.
2011).
3 Standpoints on Plant Based
Coagulants-Flocculants
Valorization of natural plants in the treatment of wastewater
is a new gateway for the application of green chemistry
regarded as a clean technology, safe and eco-friendly.
Plant-based coagulants-flocculants are, therefore, an effec-
tive alternative to chemical coagulants. Unlike synthetic
chemicals, natural coagulants-flocculants are freely avail-
able, safe, and result into a more compacted and highly

Table 1 Plants extracts based coagulants-flocculants for effluents treatment

Plants extracts Effluents Optimum conditions Removal (%) References
Moringa oleifera seeds Laundry wastewater 0.12 g/L of MO at pH 5.7 Turbidity: Al-Gheethi et al. (2017)
83.63
Tannery effluent 0.6 g/L of MO at pH 4.5 Turbidity: Kazi and Virupakshi (2013)
82.02
COD: 83.33
Cactus pads’ mucilage Jeans laundry effluent 2.6 mg/L of cactus juice at pH 5 Turbidity: Souza et al. (2014)
91.25
COD: 64.8
Tannery effluent 0.4 g/L of cactus juice at pH 5.5 Turbidity: Kazi and Virupakshi (2013)
78.54
COD: 80.65
Okra gum Synthetic wastewater 5 mg/L of okra’s extract at pH 6 Turbidity: 97.3 Anastasakis et al. (2009)
Textile effluent 0.8 mg/L of okra at pH 4 SM: 98 Srinivasan and Mishra (2008)
Color: 53.47
Mango seeds Palm oil mill effluent 1.2 mL/L of mango seeds at pH 4 COD: 89 Asadullah (2015)
SM: 96
Synthetic turbid water 0.5 mL/L of mango seeds at pH 13 Color: 97 Qureshi (2011)
Turbidity: 98
Plants Extracts as Coagulants-Flocculants …
biodegradable sludge. Recently, various plants extracts have
been examined as coagulants-flocculants for their removal of
diverse pollutants from wastewater. Their notable coagula-
tion properties are assumed to be related to their large car-
bohydrates and proteins content, characterized by high
molecular weights and longer polymeric chains. The mech-
anisms of coagulation-flocculation pollutants uptake are
supposed to be mainly adsorption and charge neutralization
for cationic polyelectrolyte in case of MO and adsorption
and bridging for anionic polyelectrolyte when it comes to
cactus (Theodoro et al. 2013). In addition, it is found that
extracts from natural plants may increase the microbial
activity once used before a biological treatment process. On
the other hand, the use of fruit waste for wastewater treat-
ment is economically and environmentally feasible espe-
cially in the case of perishable fruit. In contrast, it is limited
by the availability of these fruits which are generally sea-
sonal. Since the coagulation activity of bio-resources is
attributed to their active agents, the purification and char-
acterization of these agents is an issue of debate. Further-
more, the production and commercialization of a stable
extract from these plants should be vividly addressed.
4 Conclusion
So far, plant-based coagulants-flocculants have been
widely investigated for their effectiveness in removing
various water pollutants. These plants are commonly
known for their environmental and healthy behaviors,
unlike synthetic chemicals which have been questioned
for their detrimental effects on the environment and
human health. Supplementing if not totally substituting
the chemical coagulants by natural ones is an urgent
need. Surprisingly, plant-based coagulants-flocculants
showed a potential coagulation activities compared to
synthetic chemicals. In this context, the use of natural
plants presents a great challenge to give up water pollu-
tion and boost a sustainable environmental technology.
References
Al-Gheethi AA, RMSR Mohamed AA. Wurochekke NR. Nuru-
lainee J. Rahayu M, Amir Hashim MK. Efficiency of Moringa
Oleifera Seeds for Treatment of Laundry Wastewater. (2017).
Anastasakis Konstantinos, Kalderis Dimitrios, Diamadopoulos Evan.
Flocculation Behavior of Mallow and Okra Mucilage in Treating
Wastewater. Desalination. 2009;249(2):786–91.
1229
Asadullah PG. Optimization of adsorption-coagulation process for
treatment of palm oil mill effluent (pome) using alternative
coagulant. (2015).
Bolto Brian, Gregory John. Organic Polyelectrolytes in Water Treat-
ment. Water Res. 2007;41(11):2301–24.
Choy Sook Yan, Prasad Krishna Murthy Nagendra, Ta Yeong Wu,
Raghunandan Mavinakere Eshwaraiah, Ramanan Ramakrishnan
Nagasundara. Utilization of Plant-Based Natural Coagulants as
Future Alternatives towards Sustainable Water Clarification. J Envi-
ron Sci. 2014;26(11):2178–89.
de Souza MTF, Ambrosio E, de Almeida CA, de Souza Freitas TKF,
Santos LB, de Cinque Almeida V, Garcia JC. The Use of a Natural
Coagulant (Opuntia Ficus-Indica) in the Removal for Organic
Materials of Textile Effluents. Environ Monit Assess. 2014;186
(8):5261–71.
Gassenschmidt U, Jany KD, Bernhard T, Niebergall H. Isolation and
Characterization of a Flocculating Protein from Moringa Oleifera
Lam. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)—General Subjects.
1995;1243(3):477–81.
Kazi T, Virupakshi A. Treatment of Tannery Wastewater Using Natural
Coagulants. (2013).
Mallevialle Joel, Bruchet Auguste, Fiessinger François. How Safe Are
Organic Polymers in Water Treatment? J (Am Water Works Assoc).
1984;76(6):87–93.
Martyn CN, Osmond C, Edwardson JA, Barker DJP, Harris EC,
Lacey RF. Geographical Relation between Alzheimer’s Disease and
Aluminium in Drinking Water. Lancet. 1989;333(8629):61–2.
Miller Sarah M, Fugate Ezekiel J, Craver Vinka Oyanedel, Smith
James A, Zimmerman Julie B. Toward Understanding the Efficacy
and Mechanism of Opuntia Spp. as a Natural Coagulant for
Potential Application in Water Treatment. Environ Sci Technol.
2008;42(12):4274–9.
Nharingo Tichaona, Moyo Mambo. Application of Opuntia
Ficus-Indica in Bioremediation of Wastewaters. A Critical Review.
J Environ Manage. 2016;166(January):55–72.
Nobel Park S, Cavelier Jaime, Andrade Jose Luis. Mucilage in Cacti:
Its Apoplastic Capacitance, Associated Solutes, and Influence on
Tissue 5. J Exp Bot. 1992;43(5):641–8.
Oladoja Nurudeen Abiola. Headway on Natural Polymeric Coagulants
in Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations. J Water Process
Eng. 2015;6(June):174–92.
Qureshi K, Development of bio-coagulant from mango pit for the
purification of turbid water. (2011).
Srinivasan Rajani, Mishra Anuradha. Okra (hibiscus Esculentus) and
Fenugreek (trigonella Foenum Graceum) Mucilage: Characteriza-
tion and Application as Flocculants for Textile Effluent Treatments.
Chin J Polym Sci. 2008;26(06):679–87.
Thakur SS, Choubey Sonal. Assessment of Coagulation Efficiency of
Moringa Oleifera and Okra for Treatment of Turbid Water. Arch
Appl Sci Res. 2014;6(2):24–30.
Theodoro JDP, Lenz GF, Zara RF, Bergamasco R. Coagulants and
natural polymers: perspectives for the treatment of water. Plastic
Polym Technol. 2013;2(3):55–62.
Vijayaraghavan G, Sivakumar T, Vimal Kumar A. Application of Plant
Based Coagulants for Waste Water Treatment. Int J Adv Eng Res
Stud. 2011;1(1):88–92.
Yin Chun-Yang. Emerging Usage of Plant-Based Coagulants for Water
and Wastewater Treatment. Process Biochem. 2010;45(9):1437–44.
 Grapevine Prediction of End
of Flowering Date
Matteo Gentilucci



Keywords
Flowering Gis Grapevine
1 Introduction
The prediction of the end of flowering represent a novelty for
agroclimatology because the grapevine varieties Maceratino,
Montepulciano and Sangiovese have never been analyzed for
the territory sorrounding Macerata (Marche Region, central
part of Italy). The aim of this research was to detect the
phenological parameters of each grapevine variety, in order
to determine threshold temperatures related to the plant
growth. Furthermore the end of flowering represents a pivot
point for grapevine where the growth switches gradually
form the plant to the grapes. There are many important
models in literature to predict bud burst, such as the “Utah”
model (Richardson et al. 1974) which relates chill tempera-
tures to the break of dormancy, or the “sequentials” models
that take into account first the chill accumulation and then the
forcing temperatures in order to determine the day of
bud-bust (Sarvas 1974; Hanninen 1990; Cesaraccio et al.
2004), or even the “parallel” models which calculate each
day as forcing temperatures and chill accumulation,
depending on daily temperatures (Cannell and Smith 1983).
Instead of the phenological models which try to predict the
date of other phenological stages are several but much less
common than bud burst ones. In fact there are few studies that
calculate the heat amount needed to change phenological
phase or the cardinal temperatures of grapevine with a good
precision. The cardinal temperatures are limits of growth and
development for the plant and its response, so it is essential to
know its pheological parameters (Weikai and Hunt 1999).
The knowledge of the cardinal temperatures for a cultivar can
M. Gentilucci (&)
Geophysical Observatory of Macerata, Macerata, Italy
e-mail: matteo.gentilucci@unicam.it
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_356




Agroclimatology Phenology GDD
determine better production of grapes and reduction of cul-
tivation errors. Some researches demonstrated good confi-
dence for the date of comparison of different phenological
stages, for some cultivars of grapevine (Parker et al. 2011;
Zapata et al. 2017; Parker et al. 2013), also in Italy (Cola et al.
2010); however It’s indispensable to have regional models
because the cultivar can adapt itself to local climate and
environmental conditions. Thus this can lead to little changes
in its pheological parameters (Duchêne et al. 2010). In this
context meteorological conditions and above all temperatures
regulate the reaching of the subsequently phenological
stages, in fact this concept of thermal summation has been
known since 1735 when the French scientist René-Antoine
Ferchault de- Réaumur summed the temperatures in order to
predict the ripening of grapevine. Nowadays there are some
different methods to calculate the growing degree days in
agroclimatology, in fact the traditional formula is represented
by Eq. (1) (McMaster et al. 1997):
GDD = ½ðTmax  TminÞ=2  Tbase ð1Þ
Where Tmax is the daily maximum temperature, Tmin the
minimum one and Tbase is a reference temperature that varies
between species, cultivar and stages of growth. Another kind
of calculation of growing degree days is represented by the
“Allen” method (Allen 1976), based on the calculation of the
daily thermal cycle through a sinusoidal function and taking
into account maximum and minimum temperatures.
2 Materials and Methods
It has been necessary to collect the phenological data of three
different wine farms: “Bocca di Gabbia” placed in Macerata
(13°28′29″E; 43°17′29″N) 20 km from the sea, “Fratelli
1231
1232
Capinera” Morrovalle (13°36′36″E; 43°19′1″N) 9 km from
the sea and “Santa Cassella” Potenza Picena (13°38′29″
E;43°22′13″N) 4 km from the sea. For these three locations
have been considered all the neighboring weather stations, in
order to obtain the best possible interpolation for tempera-
ture. It has been analyzed only for eight years from 2006 to
2013, a range in which the phenological data are available
for each variety in all farms. In order to have a detailed and
spatialized information about temperature in the vine
growing season it has been essential to set an interpolation of
the weather stations surroundingthe three farms investigated.
The interpolation was performed with a cokriging based on
altitude as independent variable and temperature as depen-
dent one for each single day of the vine growing period. The
cokriging based on altitude has led to an improvement of the
ordinary kriging, with good result as the root mean square
error (RMSE) was between 1 and 2, or root mean square
error standardized (RMSSE) near 1. These statistical analy-
ses have been obtained through the use of the software ESRI
ArcGis and the creation of many maps, one per day. How-
ever, from the point of view of annual average temperature,
there aren’t relevant differences between the farms (between
14.9 and 15.2 °C), and also in the other months the interval
for the three locations ranges between 0.1 and 0.6 °C of
difference, thus the climatological situation can be consid-
ered homogeneous. In order to assess the optimal conditions
of the grapevine growth, the interval between the pheno-
logical stage BBCH01 and BBCH69 (the end of flowering),
has been evaluated. It is within this intervam that there is the
optimum of the growth of the plant that subsequently
decreases and becomes centered on the grapes. Calculating
the GDD has been taken into account the daily temperature,
thus a new model composed by 32 cases has become nec-
essary, corresponding to as many equations, depending on
Table 1 Amount of growing degree days (GDD) until BBCH69, related development temperatures (Tcmin, Tlopt Tuopt, Tcmax), root mean
square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE) and coefficient of variation (CV)
Cultivar GDD Tcmin Tlopt
Maceratino 37.2 7.5 15.5
Montepulciano 35.5 8 16
Sangiovese 36.6 7.5 15.5
M. Gentilucci
the position of temperatures compared with the thresholds,
in order to calculate the amount of growing degree units
(GDU) for each day. Several iterative tests (about 1000 for
each cultivar) have been performed, changing the values of
temperature thresholds and GDU in order to find the best
possible combination which minimizes the error between
observed and predicted days from budburst to end of flow-
ering. The error minimization for the predicted dates has
been assessed and compared with real ones, calculating
some statistical indexes as root mean square error, mean
absolute error and coefficient of variation. The procedure led
to the identification of four cardinal temperatures and the
amount of GDU for each cultivar between BBCH01 (bud-
burst) and BBCH69 (end of flowering). The growing degree
days accumulated by each cultivar are put in relation with
their phenological phases and after more than one thousand
attempts the right parameters for the varieties have been
chosen (cardinal temperatures) that minimize the error
through some statistical tool like (Fila et al. 2014; Cesaraccio
et al. 2004): RMSE (Root mean square error), MAE (Mean
absolute error), CV (Coefficient of variation).
3 Results and Discussion
The method is created and calibrated for three cultivar
Maceratino, Montepulciano and Sangiovese. For these
varieties a good result has been obtained compared to other
models. In fact, Table 1 shows the reliability of the analysis.
The predicted values obtained from cardinal tempera-
tures, compared to the real ones, evidenced for Maceratino
cultivar an average difference of 2.75 days between mea-
sured and expected day, for Montepulciano of 2.375 and 3.5
days for Sangiovese (Fig. 1).
Tuopt Tcmax RMSE MAE CV
19 34 1.7 4.0 2.5
20.5 34.5 1.3 2.7 2.0
19 34 1.5 3.1 1.4
Grapevine Prediction of End of Flowering Date
Fig. 1 Comparison between measured (black circle) and expected day (red triangle) for the Maceratino end of flowering
4 Conclusion
This research has identified 2 varieties similar to each
other as phenological parameters, Maceratino and San-
giovese; while the Montepulciano cultivar has optimal
temperatures higher than the other varieties and it usually
reaches the end of flowering with delay. This study can be
very important because it highlights the cardinal tem-
peratures of three grapevine varieties, in particular for
Maceratino in which there were no previous studies about
cardinal temperatures. Furthermore it would be possible
to export this method to many other cultivars, in other
territories because the procedure takes into account the
real climatic conditions and can be adapted through the
described iterative process. In the future, it would be
interesting to investigate other phenological phases for
the studied grapevine varieties in order to have a com-
prehensive view of the plant development.
References
Allen JC. A modified sine wave method for calculating degree days.
Environ Entomol. 1976;5:388–96.
Cannell MGR, Smith RI. Thermal time, chill days and prediction of
budburst in Piceasitchensis. J Appl Ecol. 1983;20:951–63.
Cesaraccio C, Spano D, Snyder RL, Ducea P. Chilling and forcing
model to predict bud-burst of crop and forest species. Agr Forest
Meteorol. 2004;126:1–13.
Cola G, Mariani L, Parisi S, Failla O. Tempo termico e fenologia della
vite. Actaitalushortus. (2010);3:31–34, Trento.
Duchêne E, Huard F, Dumas V, Schneider C, Merdinoglu D. The
challenge of adapting grapevine varieties to climate change. Climate
Res. 2010;41:193–204.
1233
Fila G, Di Lena B, Gardiman M, Storchi P, Tomasi D, Silvestroni O,
Pitacco A. Calibration and validation of grapevine budburst models
using growth-room experiments as data source. Agr Forest Mete-
orol. 2014;160:69–79.
Hänninen H. Modelling bud dormancy release in trees from cool and
temperate regions. Acta For Fenn. 1990;213:1–47.
McMaster, Gregory S, and Wilhelm W. W. Growing degree-days: one
equation, two interpretations. Agr For Meteorol; (1997)87:291–
300.
Parker AK, De Cortázar-Atauri IG, Van Leeuwen C, Chuine I. General
phenological model to characterise the timing of flowering and
veraison of Vitisvinifera L. Aust J Grape Wine Res. 2011;17:206–
16.
Parker A, de Cortázar-Atauri IG, Chuine I, Barbeau G, Bois B,
Boursiquot JM, Jean-Yves Cahurel JY, Claverie M, Dufourcq T,
Gény L, Guimberteau G, Hofmann RW, Jacquet O, Lacombe T,
Monamy C, Ojedas H, Panigait L, Payan JC, Rodriquez Lovelle B,
Rouchaud E, Schneider C, Spring JL, Storchi P, Tomasi D.
Classification of varieties for their timing of flowering and veraison
using a modelling approach: a case study for the grapevine species
Vitisvinifera L. Agr Forest Meteorol. 2013;180:249–64.
Richardson EA, Seeley SD, Walker DR. A model for estimating the
completion of rest for Redhaven and Elberta peach trees. HortS-
cience. 1974;9:331–2.
Sarvas R. Investigations on the annual cycle of development of forest
trees. II. Autumn dormancy and winter dormancy. Commun Inst
For Fenn. (1974);84,1–101.
Weikai Y, Hunt LA. An equation for modelling the temperature
response of plants using only the cardinal temperatures. Ann Bot.
1999;84:607–14.
Zalom FG, Goodell PB, Wilson WW, Bentley WJ. Degree-Days: the
calculation and use of heat units in pest management. Leaflet
n.21373. Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University
of California, Davis; 1983.
Zapata D, Salazar-Gutierrez M, Chaves B, Keller M, Hoogenboom G,
Enol Vitic AJ. Restricted access Predicting Key Phenological
Stages for 17 Grapevine Cultivars (Vitisvinifera L.) January. 2017;
(2016)68:60–72.
 Physical and Chemical Characterization
of Ampelodesmos Mauritanicus
May Chenah and Moussa Amrani



Keywords
Ampelodesmos mauritanicus
1 Introduction
The lignocellulosic biomass resource comes from agricul-
tural and forestry residues or wood processing by-products
as well as from dedicated crops, whether they are woody
plants or herbaceous plants. Lignocellulosic material is the
main constituent of the cell wall of plants. It is the most
abundant source of renewable carbon in the planet; it is
made up of three major elements which are cellulose,
hemicelluloses and lignin. (O’donohue and Debeire 2006).
Algeria, by its surprising richness in biodiversity (fauna and
flora) contains many species. There are more than 3000
species belonging to several botanical families. These plants,
with more than 15% endemic, are only scarcely explored, so
it is possible to orient ourselves towards their production of
lignocellulosic biomass (Hanifi 1991). In the framework of
our study we were interested in the physical and chemical
study of the stems of Ampelodesmos mauritanicus (Diss).
The Diss, which belongs to the Poaceae family, is a large
grass widespread in northern Mediterranean Africa and the
dry regions of southern Europe. It blooms between April and
June; the leaves are long up to 1 m and are 7 mm wide, and
it is extremely rough. (Toudert 2011). The objective of this
study was to characterize the chemical composition and
morphology of Diss from the north east of Boumerdes,
Algeria.
M. Chenah (&)
M. Amrani
Laboratory of Soft Technology, Recovering, and Sustainable
Development Faculty of Science, M’Hamed Bougara University,
Boumerdes, Algeria
e-mail: chenah-may@hotmail.fr
M. Amrani
e-mail: moussaamrani@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_357



FTIR Cellulose Hemicelluloses Lignin
2 Materials and Methods
In our study, chemical and instrumental analysis methods
were used such as: Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM),
Infrared Fourier Transform (FTIR), X-ray Diffraction
(DRX), Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and X-ray Flu-
orescence (FRX).
3 Preparation of the Plant Powder
Washing and drying was carried out in order to remove all
the unwanted particles, followed by grinding to obtain fine
particles with a diameter of 500 lm.
4 Analysis by X-Ray Fluorescence
Spectrometry
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry is an overall elemental
analysis technique that identifies and determines most of the
chemical elements that make up a sample. The analyses of
the plant powders were carried out by X-ray fluorescence
(XRF) on the PHILIPS PW 1480 spectrometer with a dis-
persive technical wavelength. Before the chemical analysis,
each sample was heated to 1000 °C for 2 h, and the
decrease in mass was taken as loss during ignition.
5 Analysis by Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy (FTIR)
The plant powder was analyzed by infrared (FTIR), using a
“Bruker Thermo Scientific Waltham, MA, USA” spec-
trometer, by preparing KBr pellets containing 1% by weight
1235
1236
of the plant powder. The spectra were recorded between 400
and 4000 cm−1 at a resolution of 4 cm−1. The recorded
spectra are the average of 32 scans.
6 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis (DRX)
The plant powder samples were scanned for the wave
number 0–4000 cm−1 and degree 2h (0–50 °C). The X-ray
diffractometer used is of the D8 Advance BRUKER type,
using monochromatic Kalpha1 radiation of copper
(CuKa-radiation) (k = 0.154 nm) at 45 kV and continuous
scanning.
In order to determine the crystallinity degree of the cel-
lulose, the crystallinity index was determined by the
empirical method of the height of the DRX peak developed
by Segal et al. (1959) which examines the DRX spectra. The
crystallinity index (CI) was calculated from the ratio of the
peak height of 002 (I002) to the height of the minimum
value (IAM) between 002 and the tips 101, using Eq. (1).
CI ¼ ðI002  IAMÞ=I002Þ  100 ð1Þ
CI Crystallinity Index
I002 Maximum intensity of the diffraction peak
IAM Intensity diffused by the amorphous phase of the
sample
7 Results and Discussion
The results obtained show that Diss consists mainly of crude
cellulose with 46%, 25% lignin and 26% hemicelluloses.
The mineral content is estimated at 8.6% with different
concentrations of SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, Na2O and K2O.
This difference in content is due to the composition of the
soil, the stage of plant development, and climatic conditions.
(Guéguen 1959).
The FTIR spectra analysis showed a wide band at
3424 cm−1 of the OH group of the polysaccharides (Grobe
1989). The band at 2923 cm−1 corresponds to the C-H
groups of the polysaccharides. According to the literature,
the bands between 2700–2900 cm−1 correspond to the C-H
bonds of CHO. The peaks of 1728 cm−1 correspond to the
valence vibration of the xylan esters present in lignin and
M. Chenah and M. Amrani
hemicelluloses (Sain and Panthapulakkal 2006). According
to Eq. (1), the crystallinity index of Diss (CI) is 47%. The
degree of crystallinity of the cellulose is one of the most
important crystal structure parameters. The rigidity of the
cellulose fibers increases and their flexibility decreases with
the increase in the ratio between the crystalline and amor-
phous regions.
8 Conclusion
This study showed a high content of cellulose and
hemicelluloses which can participate in the production of
third generation fuel or the production of industrial fibers
and new materials. The main advantage of this lignocel-
lulosic biomass is that it is very abundant and renewable
and, following these results, some perspectives are
conceivable:
– Produce ethanol by hydrolysis followed by ethanolique
fermentation (Biochemical transformation);
– Obtain biodegradable composites and the pulp paper
– Use lignocellulosic biomass as a raw material for
biofuels.
We can conclude that the Diss fibers, can be valorized
and find potential applications in the processing
industries.
References
Gueguen L. Étude de la composition minérale de quelques éspèces
fourragères. Influence du stade de développement et du cycle de
végétation. Annales de zootechnie, INRA/EDP Sciences. 1959;8(3),
pp. 245–68.
Grobe A. Polymer Handbook. New York: Editions J. Bandrup et E.H.
Immergut; 1989. p. 117–70.
Hanifi N. Importance des ressources phytogénétiques et leur utilisation
en Algérie. In conservation des ressources végétales. 1991.
Publication des Actes éditions, p. 47–49.
O’donohue MJ, Debeire P. Fractionnement de la biomasse lignocellu-
losique en synthon, la chimie vert, Lavoisier; 2006.
Sain M, Panthapulakkal S. Bioprocess preparation of wheat straw fibers
and their characterization. Ind. Crops Products. 2006;23:1–8.
Segal L, Creely JJ, Martin AE, Conrad CM. Text Res J. 1959;29:
786–94.
Toudert N. Étude phytochimique et évaluation de quelques activités
biologiques de Ampelodesma mauritanica. 2011. Thèse de mag-
istère. Université Badji Mokhtar, Annaba.
 Research of Secondary Metabolites
with Non-polyenic Antifungal Activity
Produced by Actinomycetes Isolated
from Different Moroccan Habitats

Ahmed Nafis, Najoua Elhidar, Brahim Oubaha, Asma Azmani,

Salam eddine Samri, Noureddine Mezrioui, Timo Niedermeyer,
Lahcen Hassani, and Mustapha Barakate

Keywords
Moroccan habitats Natural products Actinomycetes Non-polyenic antifungal

microorganisms. Actinomycetes have become a very

1 Introduction
Fungal diseases are currently a serious public health prob-
lem; they have become one of the major causes of death,
especially for immunocompromised people around the
world. The increase in intercontinental travel has also con-
tributed to the dissemination of certain tropical pathogens.
Moreover, the number of fungal species involved in human
diseases is increasing.
Despite the availability of many antifungal medicines, the
treatment of mycoses remains a major concern. This problem
is due to the limited number of really effective principles and
their very high cost and it is also limited by the emergence of
resistant strains to many usual antimycotics, especially to
polyenic antifungals. The discovery of new molecules may
be the key to eliminate pathogenic factors and improve
patients’ health (Planque, 2011).
Bioactive compounds from different natural habitats
represent one of the most promising alternatives for the
development of novel antifungal agents isolated from new
A. Nafis (&)
N. Elhidar
B. Oubaha
A. Azmani
N. Mezrioui

L. Hassani
M. Barakate
Laboratory of Biology and Biotechnology of Microorganisms,
Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, PO
Box 2390Marrakech, Morocco
A. Nafis
T. Niedermeyer
Interfaculty Institute of Microbiology and Infection Medicine
(IMIT), Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen,
Germany
T. Niedermeyer
Institute of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Biology,
Martin-Luther-University, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany
S. e. Samri
Department of Biology, Nador Multidisciplinary Faculty,
Mohammed First University, Oujda, Morocco
important group in applied microbiology and pharmaceutical
industry. They are also known for the production of a wide
variety of secondary metabolites useful for humans such as
antibiotics with different chemical structures and many
action mechanisms (Ouhdouch et al. 2001).
2 Materials and Methods
The screening of the non-polyenic antifungal activity was
carried out using 480 isolates of actinobacteria from different
Moroccan habitats. The activity was tested using 16 human
pathogenic strains of yeasts and molds, especially Candida
and Aspergillus.
Several methods have been used to study the polyenic or
non-polyenic nature of the antifungal molecules produced by
Actinobacteria: (i) The study of the antibacterial activity (the
bacterial plasma membrane is devoid of sterols); (ii) The
screening of the antimicrobial activity of resistant strains to
polyenic antifungals essentially Candida tropicalis R2 and
Pythium irregular; (iii) The inhibition of antifungal activity
by the addition of exogenous ergosterol in the culture
medium and (iv) The UV-Visible light spectrophotometric
analysis of the crude extracts of the actinomycete isolates
(Lemriss et al. 2003).
3 Results and Discussion
The results obtained from the antifungal activity, using
molds as test strains, showed a large variability between the
different tested isolates. Among these isolates, 26.8% were
active on at least one microorganism test. The highest

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_358
1238
percentage of activity was noted in Aspergillus parasiticus
M24 and A. niger M100 with more than 29%, but only 24.2,
26.9 and 22.3% for Scorpulariopsis candida M84,
Microsporum canis M103 and Trichophyton rubrum M127,
respectively.
While more than 28% of the isolates have produced
metabolites with antifungal activity against at least one of
the five tested Candida strains. The highest activity was
observed in Candida albicans L4 and C. glabrata L7 with a
percentage higher than 30%. About 28% are recorded in C.
krusei L10 and C. albicans L61, but only 23% in C. para-
psilosis L18.
Based on the results of the study of antibacterial activity,
the activity in the presence of Candida tropicalis R2 and
Pythium irregulare, the inhibition of antifungal activity by
the presence of ergosterol in the medium and the spec-
trophotometric analysis in UV-visible light of the active
extracts with the known polyene antifungals, the Z26 isolate
was selected as the most promising. This isolate endured a 2
week fermentation in the NL 300 medium and the purified
bioactive substances are under investigation.
Furthermore, the comparison of the selected strain 16S
RNA sequence with the NCBI database after purification,
amplification and sequencing, showed that our Z26 isolate
belongs to the genus Streptomyces with a similarity of
99.43% with the species Streptomyces phytohabitans. This
A. Nafis et al.
finding was confirmed by the study of morphological,
physiological and biochemical criteria.
4 Conclusion
Actinomycetes have been evaluated as a source of sec-
ondary compounds based on their distribution in various
habitats from several Moroccan ecosystems. They
showed promising or potent activity against selected
pathogenic species. In our work, further studies are nec-
essary to better identify the isolate Z26 by DNA-DNA
hybridization and determine the structure elucidation of
the potential active compounds produced and their action
mechanism.
References
Lemriss S, Laurent F, Couble A, Casoli E, Lancelin JM,
Saintpierre-Bonaccio D, et al. Screening of Nonpolyenic Antifungal
Metabolites Produced by Clinical Isolates of Actinomycetes. Can J
Microbiol. (2003);49:669–74.
Ouhdouch Yedir, Barakate Mustapha, Finance Chantal. Actinomycetes
of Moroccan Habitats: Isolation and Screening for Antifungal
Activities. Eur J Soil Biol. 2001;37:69–74.
Planque, C. Dermatoses Fongiques Canines Autres Que Les Teignes et
Les Dermatites À Malassezias. Thèse Présentée À l’Université
Claude-Bernard—Lyon I (Médecine—Pharmacie), (2011).
 Screening of Insect Pathogenic Bacteria
Isolated from Agricultural Soils,
Characterization of Their Bioactive
Metabolites and Study of Their Effects
Against Galleria Mellonela (Lepidoptera,
Pyralidae)

Hakima Oulebsir-Mohandkaci and Farida Tihar-Benzina

Keywords
Bacteria Agricultural soils Bioactive metabolites Biological control
Galleria mellonella

On the other hand, efficacy tests have been carried out

1 Introduction
Biological control, by introducing beneficial microorganisms
into the rhizosphere has been proposed as an alternative to
chemical control. Bacillus sp. and Pseudomonas fluorescent
spp. are considered as the group of rhizobacteria, most fre-
quently identified and used in biological control mainly for
their particularity to induce mortality in certain insects.
In this context, the bacterial strains of these two groups
were isolated from rhizospheric soil, rhizoplane and the
endorhizosphere of three cultivated plants (medlar, barley
and potato) from the Boumerdes region (central Algeria).
The aim of our work was to identify and characterize
bacterial strains of Bacillus sp. and fluorescent Pseudomonas
spp. isolated from our environment and explore their
biotechnological properties such as production of enzymes
and antibiotics to control Galleria mellonela the greater wax
moth or honeycomb moth.
2 Materials and Methods
After sampling and purification of the obtained isolates,
macroscopic and microscopic tests, it was possible to select
around twenty Strains for each genus, which underwent
physiological and biochemical characterization tests. After
this, a molecular study of 16S rRNA was carried out to
identify potentially interesting bacterial strains.
H. Oulebsir-Mohandkaci (&)
F. Tihar-Benzina
Laboratory of Valorisation and Conservation of Biological
Resources, Faculty of Sciences, University M’hamed Bougara
of Boumerdes, BP35000 Boumerdès, Algeria
e-mail: mohandkacihakima@yahoo.fr
with respect to the false ringworm of the hives Galleria
mellonela by studying several parameters including mortal-
ity rates and the effect on the hemolymphatic composition.
To this end, the quantitative and qualitative dosages of
proteins, Carbohydrates and lipids that occurred with the
enumeration of hemolymph cells in the treated larvae were
analysed.
In parallel, the production capacity of certain enzymes
and antibiotics by the isolated strains has been demonstrated.
Among the desired enzymes we can cite chitinase, phos-
phatase, cellulase, pectinase, lipase caseinase and lecithi-
nase. Thus the extraction of the antibiotics was followed by a
revelation by thin-layer chromatography (TLC).
3 Results and Discussion
In the light of the obtained results, we observed the domi-
nance of the genus Pseudomonas spp. fluorescent in the soil
rhizospheric prospected compared to the group of Bacillus
due to its better ability to penetrate the plants due to its
endophyte character.
On the other hand, isolated strains have shown their
ability to produce secondary metabolites such as enzymes
(chitinases, phosphatases, cellulases, pectinase, lipases …)
and antibiotics. These compounds have an important part in
the insecticidal activity of these bacteria.
The extraction of the antibiotics by the isolates gave
satisfactory results. The production of various antibiotics by
the different strains was confirmed by thin-layer chro-
matography (TLC)
As for their insecticidal activity, the tested strains were
found to be effective and affect significantly the

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_359
1240
haemolymphatic composition of Galleria mellonela. So, the
obtained mortality rate after treatment with a high concen-
tration of a strain of Bacillus sp. reached 100% after
08 days, against 12 days for second strain of the same
Bacterial genus.
The study of the effect of these bacteria on hemolym-
phatic metabolites of the insect revealed an increase in car-
bohydrate and lipid rate with a decrease in protein rate.
4 Conclusion
These isolates could find their place in biotech applica-
tions aimed at improving yields and preserving the
environment for sustainable development. Numerous
studies have demonstrated model strains, but the stability
and reproducibility of the beneficial effects of these rhi-
zobacteria must be guaranteed at the scale of agronomic
practices. Although biopesticides based on Pseudomonas
spp. Fluorescent and Bacillus sp. are already marketed in
Europe and America, their large-scale application has not
yet been delineated. Difficulties in formulation and use, as
H. Oulebsir-Mohandkaci and F. Tihar-Benzina
well as problems related to handling and mainly the cost
of these microorganisms, are among the obstacles that
have delayed their extension.
References
Altuntas H, Effects of Ethephon on the Hemolymph Metabolites of the
Greater Wax Moth Galleria mellonella L. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae).
ACTA PHYSICA POLONICA A No. 2-B. Special issue of the
International Conference on Computational and Experimental
Science and Engineering (ICCESEN 2014), 2015;128.
Avignone-Rossa C. et Mignone C. Bacillus thuringiensis growth and
Toxicity. Molecular biotechnology, 1995;4:55–71.
Ellis J-D., Graham JR. Mortensen A, Standard methods for wax moth
research. J Apicultral Res. 2013;52(1):1–5.
Fernandez N, et Coineau Y. Maladies, parasites et autres ennemis de
l’abeille mellifére. Ed. Atlantica, Biarritz,1 Vol, Paris. 2007; p. 498
Pagès S, Ginibre N, Evaluation de la virulence de bactéries ento-
mopathogènes. Mise en place au laboratoire d’un bio essai
reproductible. en conditions contrôlées. Cah. Tech. I.N.R.A.
2006;57:11–19.
 Acridicidal Activity of Cassia italica
Butanolic Extract on Locusta migratoria
(Linnaeus, 1758)

Abderrahmane Soudani and Abdelhamid Moussi

Keywords

Locusta migratoria (Linnaeus, 1758) Biopesticides Cassia italica (Mill)
Butanolic extract Acridicidal activity

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Locusts are highly ranked among insects that are harmful to
agriculture. Locusta migratoria (Linné, 1758) is a hetero-
geneous group of grasshoppers as well as sautereaux
(Doumandji and Doumadji-Mitiche 1994). Among the
enemy locusts of Sahelian cultures, the migratory locust
Locusta migratoria (Linne, 1758) is a major pest in Sahelian
cultures. Its invasions extend to all the steppe zones of
Europe, Asia and the tropical regions of Africa such as
Madagascar (Balachowsky and Mesnil 1936). Over the last
few decades, taking environmental issues seriously has
prompted research organizations and institutions to develop
more biological methods, in their various forms, to limit
the use of chemical pesticides. One of these forms is the
exploitation of secondary compounds from plants in the
control of insect pests (Kemassi et al. 2012). It is in this
context that our work lies, studying the insecticidal power of
Cassia italica from the region of Adrar, located in South
West of Algeria. To conduct this study, the butanol extract
of Cassia italica has been tested against the newly emerged
Locusta migratoria.
2.1 Locust Rearing
The newly emerged Locusta migratoria imagos in the gre-
garious phase were collected and used for the experiments.
Insects were obtained from the rearing of adults gathered
from the Tsabit region of Adrar in Algeria (28° 21′ 07″N,
00° 04′ 03″W) and in September 2016 from the fields of the
Maîs grown under pivots. The locusts were maintained in
mass breeding in the laboratory of the department of nature
and life sciences at the University of Biskra in parallelepiped
wooden cages of dimensions 1  1  1 m. The cages were
equipped with tree branches to perching and facilitating the
moulting of larvae. The breeding was carried out at day
temperatures of 28–33 °C and night temperatures of 25 °C
and relative humidity of 40–60% and an alternating pho-
toperiod L/D: 12 h/12 h. The locusts were fed with wheat
(Triticum durum L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), wheat-
grass (Cynodon dactylon L.) and wheat bran mixed with
powdered milk.

2.2 Vegetable Material

Cassia italica (Mill.) Lam. (Caesalpiniaceae, Fabaceae) is a

A. Soudani (&)
Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Exact Sciences,
Nature and Life Sciences, University of Biskra, Biskra, Algeria
e-mail: abderrahmanesoudani86@gmail.com
A. Soudani
A. Moussi
Laboratory of Genetic, Biotechnology and Valorization
of Bio-resources, University of Biskra, Biskra, Algeria
e-mail: moussi.a.hamid@gmail.com
wild plant spread throughout the Arabian Peninsula. It is
native to Sudan (Africa) and produces yellow flowers in
clusters that become black when completely opened. The
seeds are toxic to animals and used for medical and cosmetic
purposes, mainly for the production of hennè (Khan et al.
2007). The arrival of this plant in the South west of Algeria
may be due to the strong trade activity between this region

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1241

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_360
1242 A. Soudani and A. Moussi

and the Sudano-Sahelian zone. The young leaves of Cassia
italica were harvested in September 2016 by hand at flow-
ering stage from Zaouiet Kounta region of Algéria (27° 15′
32″N, 00° 08′ 45″W). The sample were dried in the open air
and protected from light and moisture.
2.3 Preparation of Butanol Plant Extract
The ground plants material (100 g) was macerated in 500 ml
of methanol for 72 h with a renewal of solvent every 24 h
and agitation from time to time with a magnetic bar. Then,
the filtrates were evaporated to near dryness by a rotary
evaporator at 40 °C. The residue was taken up in 100 ml of
boiling water and the aqueous solution was left to stand for
24 h. The liquor was exhausted successively in a decantation
with the same volume (4  100 ml) of petroleum ether,
chloroform, ethyl acetate and n-butanol (Fathiazad et al.
2006). The butanol extract was evaporated to dryness using
a rotary evaporator at 40 °C for use in biological tests.
3 Results and Discussion
The biological effect of Cassia italica on the Locusta migra-
toria survival and body weight is shown in Figs. 1 and 2.
The butanol extract of the studied plant shows a detri-
mental effect on the survival of the locusts and caused a
significant mortality in the imagos of the Locusta migrato-
ria, which was manifested by the blackening in the abdo-
men. The mortality rate increased according to the
concentration level and time. For the low dose D1, the
mortality reached 100% after 14 days while the high dose
D5 causes 100% mortality after a 03-day treatment. As
expected, the mortality rate in the batch of controls is null.
The doses (D1 = 0.25 mg/ml, D2 = 0.5 mg/ml, D3 = 01
mg/ml, D4 = 2 mg/ml and D5 = 4 mg/ml) tested succes-
sively showed lethal times (LT50) of 8.4, 6, 4, 2.2 and
1.6 days respectively, whereas lethal times 90 (LT90) are
successively 13.2, 9.2, 6.6, 4.6 and 2.6 days respectively.

2.4 Treatment

Following the treatment technique applied in Acheuk et al.

(2012), the newly exuded Locusta migratoria were placed
separately in plastic jars, enclosed by gauze to ensure locust
respiration. Five doses of the butanol extracts were tested:
D1 = 0.25 mg/ml, D2 = 0.5 mg/ml, D3 = 0.1 mg/ml,
D4 = 2 mg/ml and D5 = 5 mg/ml. 16 newly exuviae ima-
gos were treated by buccal forcing after six hours of fasting.
For each dose, three replicates were performed. The control
group consisted of 16 imagos treated with sterile distilled
Fig. 1 Cumulative percentage mortality of newly emerged L. migra-
water. The lethal times LT50 and LT90 were determined, toria imagos treated with butanol extract of Cassia italica at different
and the body weight evolution was calculated every day. doses

Fig. 2 Evolution of mean weight newly emerged L. migratoria imagos treated with butanol extract of Cassia italica at different doses. a Males,
b females
Acridicidal Activity of Cassia Italica Butanolic Extract …
The body weight of the individuals treated by the butanol
extract, presented in the Fig. 2, knew, generally, a reduction
dice the first day of the treatment for all the doses used
until the death of the individuals, and that depended on the
doses administered and sex, whereas no effect on the body
weight evolution of the control individuals, treated with
sterile distilled water has been registered. In addition, the
butanol extract studied also caused a slowing of locomotor
activity, red diarrhea and an anti-feeding effect of the treated
imagos. The activity of this extract may be the result of its
richness of flavonoid compounds. Similar results were
obtained by Yagi et al. (2013) for n-hexan extract of Cassia
italica. Indeed, the authors showed a 100% insecticidal
effect against Callosbruchus analis. F. Our results are also in
line with those proposed by Acheuk et al. (2012), who
observed the toxic effect of a methanolic extract of Haplo-
phyllum tuberculatum on the newly emerged female of
Locusta migratoria. Belmadani et al. (2014) obtained similar
results in the evaluation of the larvicidal activity of the
aqueous extract of Datura innoxia on fifth instar larvae of
the African migratory locust.
4 Conclusion
At the end of our experiments, our results show that the
treatment of the newly exuded Locusta migratoria with
the butanol extract of Cassia italica has caused a very
high mortality in the individuals treated according to the
1243
doses administered. The extract also affected food intake,
locomotor activity and body weight of the locusts. From
these results, it appears that Cassia italica extracts can
constitute an alternative to the chemical control of
Locusta migratoria.
References
Acheuk F, Cusson M, Doumandji Mitiche B. Effects of a methanolic
extract of the plant Haplophyllum tuberculatum and of teflubenzuron
on female reproduction in the migratory locust, Locusta migratoria
(Orthoptera: Oedipodinae). J Insect Physiol. 2012;58(3):335–41.
Balachowsky A, Mesnil L. Les insectes nuisables aux plantes. Paris: II.
Establissements Busson; 1936. p. 1183–5.
Belmadani ABK, Mouhouche F. Insecticide activity of Datura innoxia
on migratory locust: Locusta migratoria (linné, 1758) (oedipodinae,
acrididae). Int J Agric Sci Res. 2014;4(5):1–8.
Doumandji S. Doumandji-Mitiche B Criquets et sauterelles (Acridolo-
gie). OPU: Ben Aknoun, Alger; 1994. p. 99.
Fathiazad F, Delazar A, Amiri R, Sarker SD. Extraction of Flavonoids
and Quantification of Rutin from waste Tobacco Leaves. Iranian J
Pharm Res. 2006;3:222–7.
Kemassi A, Boual Z, Ould El hadj-Khelil A, Dabi Bouhoun M, Ould El
hadj MD. Etude de l’activité biologique des extraits foliaires de
Cleome arabica L(Capparidaceae). Lebanese Sci J. 2012;13(2):81.
Khan AJ, Al-Subhi AM, Calari A AL-SAADY NA, Bertaccini A.
A new phytoplasma associated with witches’ broom of Cassia
italica in Oman. Bull Insectology. 2007;60(2):269–270.
Yagi S, El Tigani S, Ali M, Elkhidir I, Mohammed AMA. Chemical
Constituents and Insecticidal Activity of Senna italica Mill. from
the Sudan. Int Lett Chem Phy Astron. 2013;9(2):146–151.
 Nitrophenol Removal from Wastewater
onto Prepared Activated Carbon
from Opuntia ficus-indica

Hanedi Elhleli, Faten Mannai, Elimame Elaloui, and Younes Moussaoui

Keywords
Opuntia ficus-indica p-Nitrophenol Activated carbon Kinetics Thermodynamics

1 Introduction Temkin, Dubinin-Radushkevich, Langmuir and Freundlich

p-nitrophenol (p-NP) is a common pollutant that serves as a
precursor for many pharmaceuticals, pesticides, petrochem-
icals and other industries (Bastami and Entezari 2012; Zhang
et al. 2006). Due to its harmful effects, several studies have
been performed on the removal of p-NP such as biological
degradation, oxidation, membrane filtration,
photo-degradation and adsorption (Hamidouche et al. 2015;
Rabaaoui et al. 2013; Saad et al. 2016). Adsorption process
using activated carbon has been efficiently used for the
removal of organic pollutants from aqueous solutions (Saad
et al. 2014). This work aimed to study the feasibility of the
removal of p-NP by Opuntia ficus-indica activated carbon.
The effects of such parameters as adsorbent dose, p-NP
concentration, temperature and pH on p-NP adsorption were
considered. The equilibrium results were fitted by the
H. Elhleli (&)
F. Mannai
E. Elaloui
Materials, Environment and Energy Laboratory (UR14ES26),
Faculty of Sciences of Gafsa, University of Gafsa, 2112 Gafsa,
Tunisia
e-mail: hanadi.hleli@gmail.com
E. Elaloui
Y. Moussaoui
Faculty of Sciences of Gafsa, University of Gafsa, 2112 Gafsa,
Tunisia
Y. Moussaoui
Organic Chemistry Laboratory (LR17ES08), Faculty of Sciences
of Sfax, University of Sfax, 3018 Sfax, Tunisia
H. Elhleli
F. Mannai
Faculty of Sciences of Gabes, University of Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia
models. The thermodynamics parameters (DG°, DH° and
DS°) were also calculated.
2 Materials and Methods
The AC from Opuntia ficus-indica was prepared by a car-
bonization followed by chemical activation with NaOH. The
material was pyrolysed at 450 °C for 2 h under N2 flow at
100 mL/min. The activation step was performed under
impregnation ratio of 2:1 (w:w) NaOH:char. The obtained
dried mixture was heated at 600 °C for 2 h under N2 flow at
100 mL/min. The AC was characterized by BET, pHPZC
measurement and SEM. The adsorption performance of AC
for p-NP removal was examined using the batch method.
Batch adsorption experiments were performed by stirring an
appropriate mass of AC with 10 mL aqueous solution of
p-NP of known concentration in a series of 25 mL bottle
flasks placed in a controlled temperature at different con-
centrations (10–150 mg/L), pH values (2–10), temperatures
(288, 303 and 313 K) and adsorbent doses (20–80 mg).
After the desired contact time, the samples were centrifuged
and supernatants were analysed to determine the final p-NP
concentration using a UV–vis spectrophotometer at a
400 nm wavelength. The amount of equilibrium adsorption
Qe (mg/g) was calculated as follows:
ðC0  Ce Þ
Qe ¼ V
m
where C0 and Ce (mg/L) are the initial and equilibrium
concentration of p-NP solution, respectively. V (L) is the
volume of the solution, and m (g) is the mass of the adsorbent.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1245

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_361
1246
Fig. 1 SEM micrographs of AC
3 Results and Discussion
The BET surface area, total pore volume and average pore
diameter of obtained AC were 331.5 m2/g, 0.0174 cm3/g
and 5.5352 nm, respectively. The SEM image of AC
(Fig. 1) shows that adsorbent has abundant porous structure
which was confirmed by the adsorption-desorption of N2.
The point of zero charge (pHPZC) is 9.25 indicating a
basic pH value in aqueous dispersion. Adsorptions experi-
ments showed that the optimal removal efficiencies were
obtained at a contact time of approximately 120 min,
pH = 2, and adsorbent dose of 60 mg. The adsorption
kinetics data were well described with pseudo-second-order
model. The adsorption isotherm data greatly obey the
Langmuir model with maximum adsortion capacity (Qe =
16.103 mg/g at 288 K). The negative DG° values indicate
the spontaneity and feasibility of the adsorption process. The
negative value of DH° (−4.7937 kJ/mol) suggests the
exothermic nature of the adsorption process of pNP onto
AC, while the positive DS° value (83.26 J/mol K) confirms
the increased randomness at the solid–liquid interface (Taleb
et al. 2017).
4 Conclusion
The present study examined the feasibility of using
Opuntia ficus-indica trunk as a bio-available source to
prepare activated carbon. The adsorption experimental
data of p-NP fit greatly well to the Langmuir model,
suggesting that adsorption occurs by the formation of a
H. Elhleli et al.
monolayer adsorption. The adsorption of p-NP onto AC
obeys to the pseudo-second order kinetic equation. The
thermodynamic analysis indicated that the p-NP adsorp-
tion was spontaneous and exothermic.
References
Bastami TR, Entezari MH. Activated carbon from carrot dross
combined with magnetite nanoparticles for the efficient removal
of p-nitrophenol from aqueous solution. Chem
Eng J. 2012;210:510–9.
Hamidouche S, Bouras O, Zermane F, Cheknane B, Houari M,
Debord J, Harel M, Bollinger JC, Baudu M. Simultaneous sorption
of 4-nitrophenol and 2-nitrophenol on a hybrid geocomposite based
on surfactant-modified pillared-clay and activated carbon. Chem
Eng J. 2015;279:964–72.
Rabaaoui N, Saad MK, Moussaoui Y, Allagui MS, Bedoui A,
Elaloui E. Anodic oxidation of o-nitrophenol on BDD electrode:
variable effects and mechanisms of degradation. J Hazard Mater.
2013;250–251:447–53.
Saad MK, Khiari R, Elaloui E, Moussaoui Y. Adsorption of anthracene
using activated carbon and Posidonia oceanic. Arab J Chem.
2014;7:109–13.
Saad MK, Rabaaoui N, Elaloui E, Moussaoui Y. Mineralization of
p-methylphenol in aqueous medium by anodic oxidation with a
boron-doped diamond electrode. Sep Purif Technol. 2016;171:
157–63.
Taleb F, ben Mosbah M, Elaloui E, Moussaoui Y. Adsorption of
ibuprofen sodium salt onto Amberlite resin IRN-78: kinetics,
isotherm and thermodynamic investigations. Korean J Chem Eng.
2017;34:1141–48.
Zhang WM, Chen JL, Pan BC, Chen Q, He MY, Zhang QX. Modeling
cooperative adsorption of aromatic compounds in aqueous solutions
to non polar adsorbent. Sep Purif Technol. 2006;49:130–5.
 NaOH-Activated Carbon Prepared from Date
Palm Petiole as Adsorbent for Indigo
Carmine

Nisrine Khadhri, Mohamed EL Khames Saad, Elimame Elaloui,

and Younes Moussaoui

Keywords

NaOH-activated carbon Date palm petiole Indigo carmine Kinetics Adsorption
isotherms Thermodynamic

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

The indigo carmine (IC) is an anionic dye usually used in the
textile, food, paper and cosmetic industries. It is one of the
most common dyes in wastewater discharged from industries
(Hu et al. 2016). Discharge of indigo carmine into the
environment may cause skin and eye irritations, injury to
cornea and conjunctiva, dermatitis and cancer in humans (Li
et al. 2015). Thus, it is necessary to remove them from
effluents before being discharged. To remedy this problem,
several processes have been used. Adsorption is considered
as the most appropriate treatment process for the removal of
organic pollutants, since it offers many advantages such as
low cost, simplicity of design, ease of operation and insen-
sitivity to toxic pollutants (Saad et al. 2014). Several com-
mercially available adsorbents have been used, such as, clay
and activated carbon (Berrios et al. 2012; Saad et al. 2015).
The objective of this work was to study the adsorption of IC
from aqueous solution using activated carbon prepared from
date palm petiole (AC–Pt).
N. Khadhri (&)
M. E. K. Saad
E. Elaloui
Materials, Environment and Energy Laboratory (UR14ES26),
Faculty of Sciences of Gafsa, University of Gafsa, 2112 Gafsa,
Tunisia
e-mail: khadhrinisrine@gmail.com
E. Elaloui
Y. Moussaoui
Faculty of Sciences of Gafsa, University of Gafsa, 2112 Gafsa,
Tunisia
Y. Moussaoui
Organic Chemistry Laboratory (LR17ES08), Faculty of Sciences
of Sfax, University of Sfax, 3018 Sfax, Tunisia
N. Khadhri
Faculty of Sciences of Gabes, University of Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia
The AC–Pt was prepared from date palm petiole by car-
bonization for 2 h under N2 flow at 100 mL/min, followed
by NaOH activation and then another pyrolysis. The
obtained activated carbon was characterized. The feasibility
of using AC–Pt for the removal of IC from aqueous solution
was investigated. The effects of pH solution (2–10), contact
time (20–900 min), adsorbent dose (10–100 mg), initial
concentration (10–500 mg/L) and temperature (15, 30 and
40 °C) were evaluated through a series of batch experiments.
The equilibrium concentration of IC (Ce) and the adsorbed
amount of IC, qe (mg/g), were, respectively, calculated
according to the following equation:
ðC0  Ce Þ
Ce ¼ 22:6244  A; qe ¼ V
m
where A is the IC absorbance at 610 nm, qe is the amount
of IC adsorbed (mg/g). C0 and Ce are the initial and equi-
librium concentrations of IC (mg/L), respectively. V is the
volume of the solution (L), and m is the sorbent weight (g).
The equilibrium results were fitted by the Temkin,
Dubinin-Radushkevich, Freundlich and Langmuir models.
3 Results and Discussion
The textural properties of AC–Pt were obtained from the
standard BET method and the BJH equation, respectively.
The BET surface area, total pore volume and average pore
diamater of AC–Pt were 654.3 m2/g, 0.005 cm3/g and
99.907 nm, respectivelly. The SEM image of AC–Pt (Fig. 1)
shows that adsorbent has a macroporous structure.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1247

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_362
1248 N. Khadhri et al.

Table 1 Thermodynamic parameters for IC adsorption onto AC–Pt

Temperature ΔG0 ΔH0 ΔS0
(K) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (J/mol K)
288 −32.786 −69.187 −127.150
303 −30.333
313 −29.726

Fig. 1 SEM micograph of AC–Pt
The adsorption of IC was studied as a function of pH,
mass adsorbent, contact time, initial concentration and
temperature. The optimized conditions for IC adsorption
onto AC–Pt were found to be solution pH, adsorbent
dose = 40 mg, contact time = 720 min. the pseudo
second-order kinetic model was found to be well suited for
the adsorption process of IC. In order to study the theoretical
aspects of IC adsorption onto AC–Pt, four models Langmuir,
Freundlich, Temkin and Dubinin–Radushkevich were used
to fit the experimental data. The experimental isotherm data
were better explained by the Langmuir isotherm model with
maximum adsorption capacity of 53.763 mg/g at 15 °C.
From Table 1, it can be seen that DGo values were negative
confirming the spontaneous adsorption of IC onto AC–Pt.
Furthermore, the weakening of DG° negative values with an
increase of temperature suggests the adsorption is more
favorable at low temperature. On the other hand, DHo pre-
sented a negative value (−69.187 kJ/mol) indicating the
exothermic character of the adsorption process. Meanwhile,
the negative value of DSo (−127.15 J/mol K) suggests the
decrease of randomness.
4 Conclusion
The present work showed that activated carbon with good
structural proprieties can be prepared from date palm
byproduct such as petiole. The obtained AC–Pt was a
promising adsorbent for the removal of IC from aqueous
solutions. The pseudo second order kinetic model provides
the best correlation of the experimental data. The adsorp-
tion isotherm fits with the theoretical Langmuir model with
an adsorption capacity of 53.763 mg/g at 15 °C. The
thermodynamic analysis indicated that adsorption was
spontaneous and exothermic.
References
Berrios M, Martín MA, Martín A. Treatment of pollutants in
wastewater: adsorption of methylene blue onto olive-based
activated carbon. J Ind Eng Chem. 2012;25:780–84.
Hu Y, Chen X, Liu Z, Wang G, Liao S. Activated carbon doped with
biogenic manganese oxides for the removal of indigo carmine.
J Environ Manage. 2016;166:512–8.
Li HX, Xu B, Tang L, Zhang JH, Mao ZG. Reductive decolorization of
indigo carmine dye with Bacillus sp. MZS10. Inter Biodeter
Biodegr. 2015;103:30–7.
Saad MK, Khiari R, Elaloui E, Moussaoui Y. Adsorption of anthracene
using activated carbon and Posidonia oceanic. Arab J Chem.
2014;7:109–13.
Saad MK, Mnasri N, Mhamdi M, Chafik T, Elaloui E, Moussaoui Y.
Removal of methylene blue onto mineral matrices. Desalin Water
Treat. 2015;56:2773–80.
 Protective Effects of Nigella Sativa Oil on IL-4
and Nitric Oxide Levels in a Model
of Experimental Asthma in Wistar Rat
Taha Khaldi, Zineb Rouibah, Meriem Rouag, Mahfoud Messarah,
and Amel Boumendjel



Keywords
Nigella sativa Asthma
Wistar rat
1 Introduction
Allergic inflammation associated with airway hyperreactiv-
ity is the main feature of allergic asthma, that affects about
300 million people of all ages worldwide and is increasing
by 50% per decade (Abdel-Aziz et al. 2014). The inflam-
matory response is characterized by an increase in the
numbers of eosinophils and mast cells, mucus hypersecre-
tion and activation of T cells, development of various
structural alterations in airway wall and smooth muscles of
blood vessels in lung tissues (Raza et al. 2010).
Nigella sativa commonly known as black seed is an
annual herbaceous plant belonging to the Ranunculaceae
family. It has been widely studied for its pharmacological
and therapeutic effects and shown to have extensive range of
activities as antibacterial, antifungal, antidiabetic, antioxi-
dant, anti-inflammatory and analgesic, anticancer and
immunomodulatory properties (Aftab et al. 2013). Many
active compounds have been isolated and identified through
T. Khaldi (&)
Z. Rouibah
M. Rouag
M. Messarah
A. Boumendjel
Laboratory of Biochemistry and Environmental Toxicology,
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Badji Mokhtar
University, Annaba, Algeria
e-mail: khaldi.taha@univ-annaba.org
Z. Rouibah
e-mail: zineb.rouibah@hotmail.com
M. Rouag
e-mail: rouag_meriem@yahoo.fr
M. Messarah
e-mail: mmessarahdz@yahoo.fr
A. Boumendjel
e-mail: amelibis@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_363



Allergic inflammation Chronic pathology Therapeutic
phytochemical investigations such as phenolic acid, epicat-
echin, quercetin and flavones. Moreover, most of the ther-
apeutic properties of this plant are related to the presence of
thymoquinone (TQ) which is the main active chemical
component of essential oil (Aftab et al. 2013).
Different animal models have been developed in order to
investigate the therapeutic effect of Nigella sativa oil
(NSO) on allergic asthma. However, we selected our model as
it shows all the salient features of allergic airway inflamma-
tion in humans including increased serum antigen-specific
IgE, increased Th2 cytokine levels and decreased Th1 cyto-
kine levels in BALF, enhanced airway responsiveness, air-
way eosinophilic inflammation, and goblet cell hypertrophy
and hyperplasia (Balaha et al. 2012). In the present study, we
aimed to investigate preventive and ameliorating effects of
NSO, at a dose of 4 mL/Kg (b. w.) during 31 days, on IL-4
and nitric oxide levels in an allergen-induced airway
inflammation in a mouse model of allergic asthma.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Animals
Twenty-Four Wistar albino male rats weighing 160 ± 10 g
(6–8 weeks old), obtained from Pasteur institute (Algiers,
Algeria) were used. The animals were housed in polypropylene
cages which were sanitized every 48 h. The rats were fed a
standard laboratory diet (standard food, supplied by the “ONAB
of Bejaia”, Algeria) and clean tap water ad libitum. They were
exposed to a natural photoperiod, at temperature of 25 ± 1 °C
and a relative humidity of 40 ± 5% and allowed to acclimatize
in this condition for 2 weeks prior to experimental use.
1249
1250
2.2 Sensitization and Aerosol Exposure
The rats were immunized by an intraperitoneal injection of
10 mg ovalbumin (Ova) adsorbed to 1 mg aluminum
hydroxide in a volume of 1 mL phosphate buffered saline
(PBS) on Day 0 and boosted on Day 7 (Moerloose et al.
2005). At Days 14, 16, 18, 21, and 24, rats were placed in a
plexiglass exposure chamber connected to the outlet of an
ultrason aerosol generator (OMRON, NE-C29-E) for
30 min. Ovalbumin (1% OVA-solution) (Grade III; Sigma
chemical Co., Poole, UK) challenges were performed with a
mean particle size of 3.2 µm and with an output of
3 mL/min. To avoid the tolerance induction, allergen
exposures did not take place daily. The last aerosol exposure
was performed 72 h before the end of the experiment
(Moerloose et al. 2005). The animals in the other groups
were sensitized with PBS.
2.3 Plant
NSO was obtained from a local commercial market. The
company produces NSO by cold pressing of fresh seeds
without using chemicals. The NSO was administered orally
by gavage for 31 days, at a dose of 4 mL/kg/day (Balaha
et al. 2012). On the days of sensitization and challenge, NSO
was given 30 min before the treatment.
2.4 Interleukin-4 (IL-4) Measurement
Serum and broncho alveolar lavage fluid (BALF) IL-4 levels
were measured, according to the manufacturer’s protocol,
using Novex Rat IL-4 ELISA commercial kit purchased
from Invitrogen (Camarillo, CA, USA). After measuring the
optical density at 450 nm, the concentrations of IL-4 is
determined by interpolation from a standard curve, and all
data were expressed in pg/mL.
Fig. 1 IL-4 levels in serum
(a) and BALF (b) of treated and
control rats. Significant
difference: treated groups
compared to the control one
(**p  0.01, ***p  0.001),
compared to the Ova sensitized
one (##p  0.01)
T. Khaldi et al.
2.5 Nitric oxide (NO) Measurement
Nitric oxide production in serum and BALF was determined
by the detection of nitrite (NO-2) concentration from the
Griess reaction (Valença et al. 2009). Briefly, 100 mL of
each sample was added to equal volume of Griess reagents
(1.5% sulfanilamide, 0.1% napthylethelene diamine dihy-
drochloride, 2.5% phosphoric acid) in a microtiter plate and
incubated for 20 min at room temperature in the dark. The
absorbance was measured at 530 nm from an automatic
microplate reader (Mindray MR-96A). Nitrite concentration
was compared to a sodium nitrate standard curve.
3 Results and Discussion
Our results show a significant increase (p  0.001) of IL-4
levels in serum and BALF in Ova-sensibilised rats compared
to the control group (Fig. 1). Moreover, we noticed a sig-
nificant increase of NO levels in serum (P  0.05) and
BALF (P  0.001) (Table 1). However, the administration
of NSO to sensitized animals resulted in a significant
improvement (P  0.01) of IL-4 levels in serum and BALF
of Ova-sensitized group (Fig. 1). Furthermore, NO levels
showed a significant improvement in serum (P  0.05) and
BALF (P  0.001) (Table 1).
IL-4 is necessary for differentiation of T cells to the Th2
type and is a key factor for isotype switching to IgE in B
cells, regulation of chemokines required for eosinophil
migration and may increase mucus secretion in the allergic
airways (Boumendjel et al. 2006). Therefore, restoration of
local Th1/Th2 cytokine balances is a rational strategy for
developing new treatment approaches for allergic asthma
(Balaha et al. 2012). Our results are in agreement with many
previous studies which demonstrated that Nigella sativa
suppresses IL-4 production and recovers the decreased Th1
cytokine production (IFN-c) after antigen challenge in sen-
sitized mice (Balaha et al. 2012).
Protective Effects of Nigella Sativa Oil on IL-4 …
Table 1 Nitric oxide (NO) levels in serum and BALF of treated and
control rats
Parameters and treatments Serum (mM) BALF (mM)
C 02.14 ± 0.06 0.31 ± 0.04
Ova 02.32 ± 0.07* 0.55 ± 0.02***
NSO 01.98 ± 0.05 *
0.26 ± 0.01
Ova/NSO 02.10 ± 0.08# 0.41 ± 0.03*###
Values are given as mean ± S.E.M for groups of six animals each.
Significant difference: treated groups compared to the control one
(*p  0.05, ***p  0.001), compared to the Ova sensitized one
(#p  0.05, ###p  0.001)
Nitric oxide is a signaling molecule responsible for sev-
eral diverse physiological and pathophysiological processes,
and so far the prevailing hypothesis about NO has been that
it contributes to toxicant-induced lung inflammation and
injury (Suralkar et al. 2013). Moreover, NO is an important
marker of lung inflammation and increased exhaled NO
levels have been found in patients with asthma as well as in
Ova-induced asthma in experimental animals (Mahut et al.
2004). Furthermore, this NO is a free radical playing a
pivotal role as a vasodilator, neurotransmitter and immune
regulator in a variety of tissues at physiological concentra-
tions (Suralkar et al. 2013). Furthermore, as reported in the
literature, the production of NO is also influenced by the
presence of different alkaloids (nigellidine, nigellimine and
nigellicine) in Nigella sativa oil (Shahzad et al. 2009).
4 Conclusion
The present study suggested that Nigella sativa oil has an
effective role to attenuate the intensity of allergic
inflammation generated in a model of experimental
1251
asthma and can represent a potential treatment for this
pathology.
References
Abdel-Aziz M, Abass A, Zalata K, Abd Al-Galel T, Allam U,
Karrouf G. Effect of dexamethasone and Nigella sativa on
inducible nitric oxide synthase in the lungs of a murine model of
allergic Asthma. Iran J Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2014;13(5):324–
34.
Aftab A, Asif H, Mohd M, Shah AK, Abul KN, Nasir AS, Zoheir AD,
Firoz A. A review on therapeutic potential of Nigella sativa: A
miracle herb. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2013;3(5):337–52.
Balaha MF, Tanaka H, Yamashita H, Abdel Rahman MN, Inagaki N.
Oral Nigella sativa oil ameliorates ovalbumin-induced bronchial
asthma in mice. Int Immunopharmacol. 2012;14:224–31.
Boumendjel A, Tawk L, Malefijt RW, Boulay V, Yssel H, Pène
J. IL-27 induces the production of IgG1 by human B cells. Eur
Cytokine Netw. 2006;17(4):281–9.
Mahut B, Delacourt C, Zerah-Lancner F, De Blic J, Harf A, Delclaux C.
Increase in alveolar nitric oxide in the presence of symptoms in
childhood asthma. Chest. 2004;125:1012–8.
Moerloose KB, Pauwels RA, Joos GF. Short-Term Cigarette Smoke
Exposure Enhances Allergic Airway Inflammation in Mice. Am J
Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;172(2):168–72.
Raza Asim MB, Shahzad M, Yang X, Sun Q, Zhang F, Han Y, Lu S.
Suppressive effects of black seed oil on ovalbumin induced acute
lung remodelling in E3 rats. Swiss Med Wkly. 2010;140:w13128.
Shahzad M, Yang X, Raza Asim MB, Sun Q, Han Y, Zhang F, Cao Y,
Lu S. Black seed oil ameliorates allergic airway inflammation by
inhibiting T-cell proliferation in rats. Pulm Pharmacol Ther.
2009;22(1):37–43.
Suralkar AA, Kasture SB. Inhibitory effect of Abrus precatorious
extract on bronchial hyperreactivity induced by ovalbumin in
experimental animals. Int J Pharm Sci. 2013;5(1):403–9.
Valença SS, Pimenta WA, Rueff-Barroso CR, Ferreira TS,
Resende AC, Moura RS, Porto LC. Involvement of nitric oxide in
acute lung inflammation induced by cigarette smoke in the mouse.
Nitric Oxide. 2009;20:175–81.
 Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities
of Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.)
Essential Oil Growing in Djelfa (Algeria)

Samah Lakehal, Cherifa Chaouia, and Fatma Zohra Benrebiha

Keywords
Antimicrobial activity Antioxidant activity Essential oil Rosmarinus officinalis L

The oil was analysed by gas chromatography-mass

1 Introduction
spectrometry (GC-MS).
The essential oil was individually tested against Gram
Currently, several questions are raised about the effective-
positif bacteria and Gram negatif bacteria (Klebsiella
ness and safety of chemical products used in medicine or in
Pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli,
the food industry. Indeed, because of the side effects of some
Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus).
synthetic antioxidants used in food processing and the
Antibacterial activities of Rosmarinus officinalis
resistance to antibiotics that some micro organisms have
L. essential oil were assessed using the paper disk agar
acquired, the development of new avenues of research to
diffusion method according to (Imelouane et al. 2010) with
achieve alternatives seems indispensable. Recently, natural
some modifications. The minimum inhibitory concentration
products from aromatic and medicinal plants have repre-
(MIC) of the tested essential oil was determined using the
sented a fertile ground for the development of novel
agar dilution method approved by Bansod and Rai (2008).
antibacterial agents (Zu et al. 2010). Plants essential oils
The antioxidant activity was measured using three tests:
have come more into the focus of phytomedicine (Zu et al.
2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging
2010; Sylvestre et al. 2006). In this context and in order to
test, b-carotene bleaching test and determination of the
enhance our diverse and rich national heritage, we are
reducing power (FRAP).
interested in the study of Rosmarinus officinalis L. essential
oil.
3 Results and Discussion
2 Materials and Methods
Volatile components of Rosmarinus officinalis L. essential
oil obtained by hydro-distillation (using Clevenger type
The aerial parts of Rosmarinus officinalis L. were collected
apparatus) growing in Djelfa (city of south Algeria) were
on April 2012 from Djelfa, region with a semi- arid climate,
investigated GC-MS. The essential oil yield of the study was
located right in the heart of the steppe zone (Coordinates:
1.2%. The major components were found to be camphor
latitude 33°–35° N, longitude 2°–5° E).
(39.7%), 1, 8-cineole (18.26%), a-pinene (13.19%) and
Air-dried leaves were submitted to hydrodistillation for
camphene (9.51%).
3 h, using a Clevenger type apparatus (Clevenger 1928),
The antimicrobial activity was studied, by the agar dif-
according to the European Pharmacopoeia (2008). The oil
fusion method (Table 1), towards five microbial strains:
yield was expressed v/w versus dry matter.
Klebsiella Pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escher-
ichia coli, Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus, they
S. Lakehal (&)
C. Chaouia
F. Z. Benrebiha are revealed sensitive to essential oil studied except for
Laboratory of Biotechnology Plants Production, Department of Pseudomonas aeruginosa has proved resistant.
Biotechnology, Blida 1 University, Blida, Algeria
e-mail: laksam@hotmail.fr

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1253

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_364
1254 S. Lakehal et al.

Table 1 Antibacterial activity of essential oil as determined by agar Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values, deter-
diffusion method mined using agar dilution method, for all the susceptible
Microorganisms ZI (mm)* bacteria ranged between 0.15 mg ml-1 and 0.62 mg ml-1.
Klebsiella pneumoniae 13 ± 0.51 The antioxidant activity was measured using three tests:
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 06 ± 00 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging
Escherichia coli 17 ± 0.25
test (Table 2), b-carotene bleaching test (Fig. 1) and deter-
mination of the reducing power FRAP. The results show that
Bacillus subtilis 22 ± 0.54
the tested essential oils have moderate antioxidant activity,
Staphylococcus aureus 28 ± 0.46
relatively low compared with antioxidants standards.
ZI: Essential oil zone inhibition
*Data are presented as mean values ± SD
4 Conclusion
The results indicate that essential oil of Rosmarinus
Table 2 The IC50 values of Rosmarinus officinalis L. essential oil and officinalis L. growing in Algeria may be a potential
antioxidants standards evaluated by the 2, 2- diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH) test source of natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agents, in
foods, in order to find a possible alternative to synthetic
Sample IC50 (mg/ml)
antioxidant, and the pharmaceutical industry for the pre-
Essential oil 3.4838 ± 0.42 vention and the treatment of various human diseases.
BHT 0.0086 ± 0.0005 Further toxicological study is required to prove the safety
BHA 0.006 ± 0.0001 of the oil.
Vit C 0.0046 ± 0.0003

References

Zu YG, Yu HM, Liang L, Fu YJ, Efferth T, Liu X, Wu N. Activities of

Ten Essential Oils towards Propioni bacterium acnes and PC-3,
A-549 and MCF-7 Cancer Cells. Molecules. 2010;15:3200–10.
Sylvestre M, Pichette A, Longtin A, Nagau F, Legault J. Essential oil
analysis and anticancer activity of leaf essential oil of Croton
flavens L. J Ethnopharm. 2006;103:99–102.
Clevenger JF. Apparatus for the determination of volatile oil. J Am
Pharm Assoc. 1928;17:341–6.
European Pharmacopoeia. Huiles essentielles. Aetherolea.
2008;1:2098.
Imelouane B, El Bachiri A, Ankit M, Khedid K, Wathelet JP,
Amhamdi H. Eessential oil composition and antimicrobial activity
of Artemisia Herba-Alba Asso grown in Morroco. Banat’s J
Biotechnol. 2010;I(2):48–55.
Bansod S, Rai M. Antifungal activity of essential oils from Indian
Fig. 1 Kinetics of b-carotene bleaching in the presence of Rosmarinus medicinal plants against human pathogenic Aspergillus fumigatus
officinalis L. essential oil by comparison with the antioxidants standards and A. niger. World J Med Sci. 2008;3(2):81–8.
 Diagnosis of Biodiversity of Rhizobium
Leguminosarum Nodulating Pea (Pisum
Sativum L.) in Differents Soils of Tunisia

Amira Hachana, Imene Hemissi, Hanene Cherif, Dorsaf Hlel,

Manel Bouraoui, Neila Abdi, Houda Maazaoui, Ameur Cherif,
and Bouaziz Sifi

Keywords
Pea Rhizobium Diversity Symbiosis Genetic structure of populations

couples. In order to promote the diversity of rhizobial

1 Introduction
Pulses such as peas (Pisum sativum L.) are essential com-
ponents of the human diet. They are an important source of
protein, energy, minerals, vitamins and other nutrients. They
are recognized by their symbiosis with soil bacteria of the
genus Rhizobium, fixing atmospheric nitrogen. However, the
areas reserved for legumes in Tunisia are in constant decline,
leading to a decrease in production particularly for peas
production. The extension of this culture is limited by its
extreme sensitivity to biotic and abiotic stresses. To resolve
these problems, farmers resorted to the excessive use of
fertilizers and pesticides, which is harmful to the environ-
ment. Therefore, sustainable alternative practices for pea
production should be developed. Among the abiotic con-
straints, the absence of efficient and specific rhizobial strains
for the cultivation of pea was noted. The study of the bio-
logical diversity of indigenous symbiotic micro-organisms
remains a necessity for any screening of efficient symbiotic
A. Hachana (&)
I. Hemissi
D. Hlel
M. Bouraoui
N. Abdi

H. Maazaoui
B. Sifi
Sciences and Agronomic Technics Laboratory, National Institute
of Agricultural Research of Tunisia, University of Carthage,
Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: amira.hachana@gmail.com
I. Hemissi
e-mail: imen.hemissi@yahoo.fr
D. Hlel
e-mail: dorsafhlel@gmail.com
M. Bouraoui
e-mail: manelbouraoui83@gmail.com
N. Abdi
e-mail: neilaabdi@yahoo.fr
genetic resources specific to pea, a prospective study was
initiated in 16 sites in different geographical areas of Tunisia.
The main aims of this work were to explore the symbiotic
Rhizobium/pea interactions by creating a collection of
indigenous symbiotic rhizobia and the molecular and phe-
notypic characterization of collected strains for an assess-
ment of their genetic and functional diversity and the
selection of the most efficient for potential applications.
2 Materials and Methods
Pea seeds of ‘lincoln’ variety were provided by Sciences and
Agronomic Technics Laboratory of the National Institute of
Agronomic Research of Tunis. A total of 110 isolates were
purified from sixteen soils. Dilution/plating was the method
used to identify the number of cultivable bacteria and rhizobia
population in the soil. Isolates were tested for their infectivity
H. Maazaoui
e-mail: maazaouihouda@gmail.com
B. Sifi
e-mail: bouazizsifi@yahoo.fr
A. Hachana
National Institute of Agriculture of Tunisia, University of
Carthage, Tunis, Tunisia
H. Cherif
Laboratory of Microbiology and Active Biomolecules,
Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, Tunis,
Tunisia
e-mail: cherifhanene@gmail.com
A. Cherif
Laboratory BVBGR, ISBST, University of Manouba, Manouba,
Tunisia
e-mail: cherif.ameur@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1255

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_365
1256
in order to select the nitrogen-fixing strains. Then, the syn-
thetic media of Pikovskaya (1948) were used for the screening
of the solubilizing phosphorus strains. For the genetic diver-
sity study of the pea nodulating rhizobia, the bacterial DNA
was extracted using the commercial kit Vivantis. Finally,our
isolates were characterized by PCR followed by denaturing
gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) of the intergenic
region between the genes encoding the 16S and 23S DNA and
the nodA-D-F symbiotic region.
On the other hand, the physico-chemical analysis of the
soils was carried out and the structure of the bacterial
community was investigated using Vivantis soil DNA
extraction kit. The genetic diversity was studied by
PCR-DGGE of the gene encoding 16S DNA.
3 Results and Discussion
The results showed a great variability on the cultivable bacteria
number and rhizobia population in the different soil samples.
This could depend on the various climatic conditions and soil
caracteristics. In fact, ‘Alia’ sol contains the most important
number of rhizobia and cultivable bacteria. While ‘Mahdia’
soil is poor and contains the smallest number. The infectivity
test revealed that from the 103 isolates, only 16 were infective,
but not all of them were able to fix atmospheric nitrogen. ‘Beja’
and ‘Sbiba’ soils are the first in number of strains specific to
pea. However strains isolated from ‘Alia’, ‘Batan’, ‘Jbeniana’,
‘Jem’, ‘Msaken’, ‘Mateur’, ‘Slimen’ and ‘Moknine’ are non
infectives and therefore non specific to pea plants, despite this
culture is well practiced in theses locations. The results also
showed a variable efficiency among the infective bacteria. The
strains Mah2, Morg15, Jed2, Jed3 and Sb4, stimulated height
growth and dry biomass production of pea plants, which con-
firms their efficiency conversely to the rest of isolates. The
bacteria screening test for their performance to solubilize
inorganic phosphorus in Pikovskaya medium showed that 31%
of the isolates are P-solubilizing bacteria, which results in a
strong acidification of the medium and decrease of its pH. We
note that only tow strains, Mah2 and Jed2, are infectives and at
the same time solubilize inorganic P.
According to the assimilation test of biochemical sub-
strates, it was noted that the 16 infective rhizobial strains can
be classified into five independent groups with a significant
assimilation similarity. This confers their diversity and
heterogeneity.
Concerning the molecular characterization of rhizobia by
PCR-DGGE of the 16S-23S rDNA intergenic region (IGS),
and the nodA D-F symbiotic region, isolates were classified
on IGS an nod types. The combination of these haplotypes
allowed clustering the isolates into many distinct genotypes.
A. Hachana et al.
The results obtained showed that the variation of symbiotic
marker (nodA-D-F) was low with the predominance of one
haplotype. Sequence analysis of IGS confirmed its high
variability in the studied strains. The results analysis showed
a highly significant differentiation in the IGS haplotype
distribution between populations from different eco-climatic
zones. This difference was reflected by differences in dom-
inant genotype frequencies. The nodD gene sequence based
phylogeny suggests that symbiotic gene diversity in pea
nodulating rhizobial populations in Tunisia is low compared
to those reported elsewhere in the world. These results were
proved by Riah (2014) and Depret (2008) who found that all
rhizobia isolated from pea were affiliated to R. Legumi-
nosarum. This is due to the symbiotic host plant specificity.
4 Conclusion
The results of this study demonstrated that, for most of the
studied soils, an important number of rhizobia strains are not
specific for pea plants and non-nodulating bacteria. The
effective strains isolated from different localities, in addition
to their ability to fix nitrogen, could have other promoting
activities for plant growth, such as phosphorus solubilization,
and could be used as in inoculation in critical conditions.
These are the first studies of indigenous pea rhizobia
in Tunisia following those of Laabidi and Dahmane
(1989) and Laabidi et al. (2003) which studied simply the
effectiveness of strains isolated from 10 different loca-
tions in Tunisia.
The obtained data clearly confirm the importance of
rhizobial strain selection and can contribute to a better
understanding of rhizobial ecology.
References
Depret G. Importance de la variabilité génétique bactérienne sur le
fonctionnement de la symbiose Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar
viciae avec le pois (Pisum sativum L.) Thesis. University of
Bourgone; 2008. p. 203.
Laabidi M, Dahmane ABK. Dry matter and nitrogen yields of peas
(Pisum sativum) grown on different soil types from the North of
Tunisia. Annale of INRAT; 1989.
Laabidi M, Dahmane ABK, Ben Mansou H, Khiari L, Darakhshan A.
Soil P-status and cultivar maturity effects on pea-Rhizobium
symbiosis. Plant and Soil. 2003;252:339–48.
Riah N. Diversité et structure génétique des populations de Rhizobium
leguminosarum symbiovar viciae isolées du pois (Pisum sativum) et
de la lentille (Lens culinaris) cultivés dans deux zones éco-clima-
tiques subhumide et semi-aride de l’est algérien. Thesis. Univesity
of Costantine; 2014. p. 118.
Pikovskaya RI. mobilization of phosphorus in soil connection with the
vital activity of some microbial species. Microbiologiya. 1948;
17:362–370.
 Treated Olive Mill Wastewater Effects on Soil
Properties and Olive Plants

Salma Mseddi, Mohamed Zouari, Yosr Smaoui, Leila Chaari,

Monem Kallel, and Nada Elloumi

Keywords

Olive mill wastewater Fenton reaction Adsorption Chemlali olive trees Oxidative
stress Polyphenols

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Olive mill wastewater (OMW) production is one of the most
serious environmental problems, mainly in countries where
olive oil production is an important economic activity. Its
contamination potential is related to its high organic load
(COD between 40 and 210 g/L) and the significant con-
centrations of phenolic compounds (between 0.5 and
24 g/L) which are toxic and ecologically noxious.
The management of this pollutant wastewater is of major
importance nowadays, especially in the Mediterranean
countries. Therefore, various treatments methods have been
suggested such as aerobic, anaerobic digestion, physico-
chemical treatments and composting process (Saadi et al.
2007). Furthermore, several researchers have established that
OMW improves soil fertility and can be used as a potential
soil conditioner and fertilizer in agriculture (Magdich 2013).
Our research study was focused on an integrated
approach using treated OMW in fertigation practice.
The results indicated that untreated OMW increased soil
salinity and reduced plant growth, while the treated OMW
improved plant growth and the chemical properties of soil,
especially, for the treatment of Adsorption followed by the
treatment of Fenton.
2.1 Soil Characterization
A sandy soil with low organic matter content was used in
this study. The soil was air-dried and sieved through a 2-mm
sieve. Measurements of pH and electrical conductivity
(EC) were determined on a mixture of soil/water (1:2.5 and
1:5, respectively); phenolic content was determined follow-
ing Hund and Traunspurger (1994) and Organic matter
content was determined as described in Walkley-Black
method (Walkley et al. 1934).
2.2 Pot Experiment
Pot experiment was carried out in the greenhouse. Each pot
was filled with 20 kg air-dry soil. Young olive plants
(Chemlali cultivar) aged 7 months, were cultivated and
irrigated for one year with raw and treated OMW using 2
doses (50 and 80 m3/ha).
2.3 Plants Measurement

2.3.1 Leaf Pigment Content

S. Mseddi (&)
M. Zouari
Y. Smaoui
L. Chaari
M. Kallel
N. Elloumi
Laboratory of Environmental Engineering and EcoTechnology
(GEET), ENIS, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: mseddi.salma@gmail.com
M. Zouari
Laboratory of Improvement of Olive Productivity and Fruit Trees,
Olive Tree Institute of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
To quantify chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoid leaf
content, a spectrophotometry approach based on the
methodology of Sims and Gamon (2002) was adopted.
2.3.2 Leaf Malondialdehyde (MDA) Content
Lipid peroxidation was analyzed through the quantification
of leaf MDA content according to Dhindsa et al. (1981).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1257

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_366
1258 S. Mseddi et al.

Table 1 Effects of untreated and treated OMW by different treatments because of the toxicity generated by hydrogen peroxide used
on soil properties in the Fenton reaction. These findings are correlated with
Soil pH EC (mS OM (%) TP (g kg−1) those of Magdich et al. (2016) that proved that the highest
properties cm−1)
OMW dose exhibited a significant decrease of chlorophyll a
Treatment and chl b content.
C 8.26 0.11 ± 0.03 0.6 0.12 ± 0.01 Moreover, the results showed an oxidative stress in
R50 8.11 ± 0.01 0.24 ± 0.03 0.71 ± 0.14 0.2 plants, especially, in the plants irrigated with untreated
F50 8.13 ± 0.02 0.25 ± 0.01 0.5 ± 0.13 0.14 ± 0.02 OMW. This stress was shown with the high concentration of
A50 8.14 ± 0.01 0.2 0.4 0.16 ± 0.01 both H2O2 and MDA.
R80 8.03 ± 0.02 0.31 0.91 ± 0.14 0.23 ± 0.01
F80 8.34 ± 0.01 0.4 ± 0.02 0.61 0.19 ± 0.01
4 Conclusion
A80 8.3 ± 0.01 0.3 ± 0.03 0.61 0.20 ± 0.01 The agronomic application of treated OMW improved the
C: Control, R: Raw OMW with two doses (50 and 80 m3/ha), F: OMW chemical properties of the soil, with marked increases in
treated by Fenton process with two doses (50 and 80 m3/ha), A: OMW
treated by adsorption with two doses (50 and 80 m3/ha)
organic matter and reduction of the concentration of toxic
polyohenols.Furtheremore, irrigation with treated OMW
improved the growth of young olive plants, by increasing
its photosyntetics activity. The treatment of OMW with
2.3.3 Hydrogen Peroxide Content (H2O2) Adsorption process and its application with the dose of
H2O2 level in the leaves was determined according to the 50 m3 ha−1 should be an interesting practice.
method of Sergiev et al. (1997). It was calculated using a
standard curve.
References

3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Soil Physicochemical Properties
Table 1 revealed that the pH varied from 8.03 to 8.34.
During the OMW treatment process, the soil pH decreased
slowly in comparison with the control, which could pre-
sumably be attributed to the acidic nature of OMW. Soil
electrical conductivity (EC) was significantly increased for
all the experimented treatments of OMW. This increase
depended on OMW doses. In fact, R80, F80 and A80 resulted
in the highest EC. After adding OMW, a significant increase
in organic matter was noted as compared to the control soil.
Total Polyphenols (TP) was the highest in the untreated
OMW compared to the other treatments where no significant
differences were detected.
3.2 Leaf Biochemical Parameters
The results showed that olive plants which received 50 m3
ha−1 of OMW, showed higher photosynthetic pigment
concentrations when compared to the olive plants irrigated
with the dose 80 m3 ha−1. Olive plants which received
OMW treated with Fenton with the dose 80 m3 ha−1 died
Dhindsa RS, Plumb-Dhindsa P, Thorpe TA. Leaf senescence: corre-
lated with in- creased levels ofmembrane permeability and lipid
peroxidation, and decreased levels of superoxide dismutase and
catalase. J Exp Bot. 1981;32:93–101.
Hund K, Traunspurger W. Ecotox—evaluation strategy for soil
bioremediation exemplified for a pah -contaminated site. Chemo-
sphere. 1994;29(2):371–90.
Magdich S. Contribution à l’étude des effets de l’épandage répétitif de
différentes doses de margines dans les oliveraies de Sfax sur le sol et
la plante. Thèse de Doctorat En Sciences Biologiques. 2013.
Magdich S, Abid W, Boukhris M, Ben B, Ammar E. Effects of
long-term olive mill wastewater spreading on the physiological and
biochemical responses of adult Chemlali olive trees (Olea europaea
L.). Ecol Eng. 2016;97:122–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.
2016.09.004.
Saadi I, Laor Y, Raviv M, Medina S. Land spreading of olive mill
wastewater: effects on soil microbial activity and potential phyto-
toxicity. Chemosphere. 2007;66:75–83.
Sims DA, Gamon JA. Relationships between leaf pigment content and
spectral reflectance across a wide range of species, leaf structures
and developmental stages. Remote Sens Environ. 2002;81(2–
3):337–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(02)00010-X.
Sergiev I, Alxieva V, Karanov E. Effect of spermone, atrazine and
combination between them on some endogenous protective systems
and stress markers in plants. Comp Rend Acad Bulg Sci.
1997;51:121–4.
Walkley A, Black IA. An examination of the degtjareff method for
determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the
chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci. 1934. https://doi.org/10.
1097/00010694-193401000-00003.
 Ecophysiological, Nutritive and Growth
Responses of Two Olive Tree Cultivars (Olea
Europaea L. ‘Chemlali’ and ‘Koroneiki’)
Under Salt Stress

Olfa Boussadia, Rihem Zaabar, and Mohamed Braham

Keywords
Olea europaea L Gas exchange Chlorophyll index Growth K+/na + ratio Salt
stress

Many studies have focused on physiological aspects of

1 Introduction
Tunisia’s olive resources are estimated at over 83 million of
olive trees, grown on 1.83 million ha. Despite the immense
potential for olive production, Tunisia is known as an
underprivileged country in water resource and water scarcity
is evident in certain regions. In the long-term, this situation
could become more and more exacerbated, considering the
increased risk of aridity. Plants grown in these regions are
often exposed to a long period of drought and harsh envi-
ronmental conditions, which affects plant growth and, hence,
agricultural development. In order to increase productivity of
olive trees the intensification of the olive tree sector in
Tunisia is a necessity. The irrigated olive orchards in Tunisia
cover about 75000 ha in 2016.
Water used for irrigation in olive orchards is often saline
water, especially in the coastal area, centre and southern of
Tunisia. Olive (Olea europaea L.) is more salt tolerant than
other woody crops and has great potential for cultivation in
areas, such as the Mediterranean region, where salinity is
becoming a major problem (Gucci and al. 1997). Although
significant differences in salt tolerance have been reported
among cultivars (Chartzoulakis and al. 2002; Chartzoulakis
2005).
O. Boussadia (&)
R. Zaabar
M. Braham
Olive Tree Institute, Unit of Sousse, BP N°14, Ibn Khaldoun,
4061 Sousse, Tunisia
e-mail: boussadio@yahoo.fr
R. Zaabar
e-mail: zaabarrihem@gmail.com
M. Braham
e-mail: braham2015@yahoo.fr
salinity in plants. Thus, plant growth (i.e., root and shoot
length, total leaf area, and dry weight) is inhibited by
moderate and high salinity The extent of reduction showed,
however, significant variation according to the cultivar type
and the duration of salt exposure (Chartzoulakis 2005; Vigo
and al. 2005).
2 Materials and Methods
Olive plants of two varieties Chemlali and Koroneiki were
grown in 4L plastic pots and were placed under greenhouse
at the Institute of the olive tree (Tunisia, 35 49′ N, 10 38′ E)
under normal day-light conditions with an average temper-
ature of 25 °C and relative humidity of 40%. The trial was
conducted for a period of 49 days and includes three treat-
ments: T0 control, T1 (6 g NaCl/l), T2 (6 g NaCl/l with
Stockosorb). Leaf gas exchange measurements, chlorophyll
index determination growth parameters and K+/Na+ ratio
were performed.
3 Results and Discussion
The main results showed that increasing salinity levels
caused negative effects on photosynthetic assimilation for
both cultivars.
The use of Stockosorb in association with salt stress has
shown an increase of the stomatal conductance and photo-
synthesis rate, especially for the Koroneiki variety.
For the chlorophyll index, control plants showed the
highest level during the experimental period. This parameter
decreased with salinity for the two cultivars. Under salt
stress, the Stockosorb improves this index.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1259

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_367
1260
The use of Stockosorb also showed an effect on biomass
and K +/Na + ratio. Indeed, with the salt stress, it increased
the growth and the nutritive statute of the vegetative part for
the two varieties studied.
4 Conclusion
Salinity induced negative effects on ecophysiological
parameters for both cultivars, but the Chemlali cultivar
showed a higher resistance to increasing NaCl salinity.
Stockosorb improved the ecophysiological and growth
parameters especially for the Koroneiki cultivar.
O. Boussadia et al.
References
Chartzoulakis K. Salinity and olive: Growth, salt tolerance, photosyn-
thesis and yield. Agric Water Manage. 2005;78:108–21.
Chartzoulakis K, Loupassaki M, Bertaki M, Androulakis I. Effects of
NaCl salinity on growth, ion content and CO2 assimilation rate of
six olive cultivars. Sci Hortic. 2002;96:235–47.
Gucci R, Lombardini L, Tattini M. Analysis of water relations in leaves
of two olive (Olea europaea) cultivars differing in tolerance to
salinity. Tree Physiol. 1997;17:13–21.
Vigo C, Therios IN, Bosabalidis AM. Plant growth, nutrient concen-
tration, and leaf anatomy of olive plants irrigated with diluted
seawater. J Plant Nutr. 2005;28:1001–21.
 Variability of Chemical and Physical
Parameters and Plankton in the Rearing
Ponds of Three Species of Carp-Rearing
Period
Sana Farid, Anouar Ouizgane, Mustapha Hasnaoui,
and Mohammed Droussi



Keywords
Water Phytoplankton Zooplankton
1 Introduction
The objective of this work is to complete the work already
carried out on the fish farming station of Deroua (Province
Fkih Ben Saleh, Morocco), monitoring the variability of
physico-chemical parameters of water and biological (zoo-
plankton, Phytoplankton) at the nursery ponds of three carp
species: Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp),
Ctenopharyngodon idella (herbivore carp) and Cyprinus
carpio (common carp).
2 Materials and Methods
The rearing ponds A1, A2 and B2 in which our work was
carried out have an area of 2000 m2 and a depth of 1.5 m.
The harvest took place during the nursery period 2014. It is
usually carried out in the spring of April to June.
The alevins studied are fry of silver carp CA contains in
pond A1, carp herbivore CH contains in pond B2 and
common carp CC contains in pond A2.
S. Farid (&)
A. Ouizgane
M. Hasnaoui
Laboratory of Management and Valorization of Natural
Resources, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, University Sultan
Moulay Slimane, BP. 523, Béni Mellal, Morocco
e-mail: sana1farid@yahoo.fr
A. Ouizgane
e-mail: anouarouizgane@hotmail.fr
M. Hasnaoui
e-mail: must_hasnaoui@yahoo.com
M. Droussi
Laboratory of Management and Fishing Station Deroua, Fkih Ben
Saleh, Morocco
e-mail: mdroussi@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_368




Fry Carp Deroua station
The physical parameters analyzed are water temperature,
pH, electrical conductivity and dissolved oxygen. The
chemical parameters analyzed are nitrates, nitrites and
orthophosphates. The phytoplankton density was estimated
from the cell count performed using a Euromex inverted
microscope according to the Uthermöhl method (1958)
modified by Legendre and Watt (1972).
3 Results and Discussion
The variation in temperature recorded at ponds A1, A2 and
B2 is mainly due to the increase in air temperature. The
waters warm up to reach maximum values of 28.5 and 29 °C
respectively for pond A1 and A2. While falling temperatures
are due to the addition of fresh water from the well into the
ponds to compensate for seepage losses and evaporation.
The pH reaches high values especially in pond A2 and B2,
this may be due to the increased photosynthetic activity of
phytoplankton. The decrease in water pH may be due to the
addition of well water (pH = 7) and may be promoted by the
release of H+ ions following the release of CO2 through fish
respiration. The temperature and pH of carp rearing ponds
are favorable for the good production of these fish consid-
ered as hot water species. The values recorded are compa-
rable to those given by Boyd (1982), Hasnaoui et al. (2007).
The measured conductivity values reflect the high mineral-
ization of the waters of the ponds, the source of which may
be linked to the filling water (groundwater). High levels of
dissolved oxygen in the studied ponds can only be related to
the development of Chlorophyceae Scenedesmus crassus,
Scenedesmus serratus, Scenedesmus protuberans and Sce-
nedesmus acuminatus (1,34.105 and 1,04.105 cells, fil and
col./l respectively recorded on 28 April and 01 May at pond
1261
1262
A1) and (4,16,105 ind., Thread and col./l recorded on 01
May at pond A2). The same species of the genus Scene-
desmus are inventoried at the level of ponds A1 and B1 by
Hasnaoui et al. (2007) in 1997 with a density of 2.105 cells.
And col./l. Concentrations of orthophosphates are generally
below the theoretical optimum (0.2 to 0.5 mg PO4/l). These
same orthophosphate values were noted at the ponds A1,
A2, A4, F3, F5 and B2 C2 during the rearing period 2013.
This result is in agreement with those reported by Barbe
et al. (1999) and Hasnaoui et al. (2002a).
The phytoplankton in ponds A1 and A2 are represented
by stands which follow one another in parallel with the
enrichment of the medium by dissolved elements. This is
also shown by Barbe et al. (1991) and Hasnaoui et al.
(2002b). Indeed, the species present along the study period
at these two ponds are Coelastrum reticulatum var. reticu-
latum, Coelastrum microporum var. microporum, Scene-
desmus protuberans, Scenedesmus crassus, Scenedesmus
serratus and Navicula veneta. At the nursery pond of the
herbivorous carp (B2), the Dinophyceae proliferate with a
rather high density of the order of 11.8 105 ind./l on June
11th. This high concentration coincided with a high con-
ductivity (930 lS/cm). This is in perfect harmony with the
work of Benabdellouahad (2006) and Atanle et al. (2013).
Indeed, according to these authors, the highest cell densities
of this group of algae agree very well with the highest
salinities. This explains the presence of Dinophyceae on
June 11 at the level of pond B2, the most mineralized during
this period Farid et al. (2017).
4 Conclusion
The monitoring of the evolution of the physicochemical
parameters of the water of the ponds of fish farming
Deroua showed that these waters are favorable to the
development of the fry. The main evolutions evident are
mainly due to dilutions following the supply of well
water to compensate for losses due to infiltration.
During the rearing period of 2014, Diatomophyceae
and Chloroccocales were the most important and diver-
sified groups of phytoplankton in nursery ponds. Nitz-
schia dissipata, Nitzschia amphibia and Navicula veneta
S. Farid et al.
are the most dominant diatom species. In the class of
Chloroccocales, it is the genus Coelastrum reticulatum
var. reticulatum which predominates. Within the
Cyanobacteria, three species namely, Merismopedia
punctata, Oscillatoria tenuis, and Phormidium tenue are
the most encountered during this period. The succession
of phytoplankton populations is therefore largely condi-
tioned by physicochemical parameters.
References
Atanle K, Bawa ML, Kokou K, Djaneye-Boundjou G, Edorh TM.
Distribution saisonnière du phytoplancton en fonction des car-
actéristiques physico-chimiques du lac de Zowla (Lac Boko) dans le
Sud- Est du Togo: cas de la petite saison sèche and de la grande
saison sèche. J Appl Biosci. 2013;64:4847–57.
Barbe J, Camus JC, Schlumberger O. Facteurs de production piscicole
en étang and gestion. Echo-système. 1991;20:3–25.
Barbe J, Schlumberger O, Bouretz N. Utilisation du phytoplancton pour
estimer la production potentielle des étangs. Bull Fr Pêche Pisci.
1999;355:387–402.
Benabdellouahad S. Structure, dynamique and typologies
physico-chimiques and phytoplanctoniques de l’estuaire du Bou
Regreg (Côte atlantique marocaine). Thèse de Doctorat, Université
Mohammed V-Agdal de Rabat (Maroc); 2006. p. 252.
Boyd CE. Water quality in warmwater fish ponds. Alabama: Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn University; 1982. p. 359.
Farid S, Ouizgane A, Droussi M, HASNAOUI M. Evolution des
paramètres zootechniques de la carpe argentée (Hypoph-
thalmichthys molitrix) élevée sous climat semi-aride à la station
de pisciculture Deroua, Maroc. J Wat Env Sci. 2017;1(Numéro
spécial COP22):115–22.
Hasnaoui M, Souissi S, Kassila J, Droussi M, Loudiki M, Balvay G.
Relation Cyanobactéries—Hypophthalmichthys molitrix dans un
étang de polyculture en climat semi-aride. Rev Sci Eau. 2002a;15
(1):137–52.
Hasnaoui M, Kassila J, Droussi M, Loudiki M, Balvay G. Variabilité
des descripteurs physiques, chimiques and phytoplanctonique dans
les étangs d’alevinage (station de la Deroua, Béni-Mellal, Maroc).
Rev Sci Eau. 2002b;15(1):357–69.
Hasnaoui M, Souissi S, Balvay G. Distribution spatio-temporelle du
phytoplancton dans un étang d’alevinage (station de la Deroua,
Béni-Mellal, Maroc). Revue Sud Sciences and Technologies, N° 15;
juin 2007.
Legendre L, Watt WD. On rapid technique for plankton enumeration.
Ann Inst Oceanogr, Paris. 1972;58: 173–77.
Utermöhl H. Zur Vervollkommung der Quantitativen Phytoplankton
Methodik. Mitt Int Verein Theor Angew Limnol. 1958;9:1–38.
 Extraction of Chitosan from Shrimp Shells:
Effect of Deacetylation Time
on the Morphological, Thermal Properties
and the Value of Deacetylation Degree (DD)

Fatima Zahra Bougueraa, Fatima Essabti, Saoussan El Mouhri,

and Said Ettaqi

Keywords
Chitosan Chitin Degree of deacetylation Morphology Thermal properties

1 Introduction industrial area are detailed. Recent developments in chem-

Shrimp is one of the most valuable sea food resources in
Morocco produced in large quantities (El Knidri et al. 2016),
but shrimp waste is an environmental problem in the country
because the shells are very insoluble and resistant (Teli and
Sheikh 2012). To overcome the problem of shrimp waste, a
solution has been proposed to upgrade biodegradable
material. In general, shrimp waste contains (30–40%) pro-
tein, (30–50%) calcium carbonate and (20–30%) chitin on a
dry basis.
Chitin, b- (1 ! 4) N-acetyl-d-glucosamine, is the second
most abundant natural polysaccharide after cellulose and the
main component of exoskeleton animals such as crustaceans,
shrimps, insects and fungal cell walls. Chitosan is a
polysaccharide comprising copolymers of glucosamine and
N-acetylglucosamine. It can be derived by partial deacety-
lation of chitin (Younes and Rinaudo 2015). It is a
biodegradable, biocompatible and hydrophilic polymer of
low toxicity (Tolaimate et al. 2003). It is found in abundance
in crustacean shells. The applications of chitin and chitosan
in the area of biomedical, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and
F. Z. Bougueraa (&)
S. El Mouhri
S. Ettaqi
Laboratory of Materials, Metallurgy and Process Engineering,
ENSAM, 50500 Meknes, Morocco
e-mail: f.z.bougueraa@gmail.com
S. El Mouhri
e-mail: elmouhrisaoussan@gmail.com
S. Ettaqi
e-mail: ettaqi@usa.com
F. Essabti
PIMM, Arts et Métiers ParisTech, CNRS, CNAM,
151 Bd de l’Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France
e-mail: essabtifatima@gmail.com
istry and applications of chitosan and chitosan derivatives
are surveyed (Abdou et al. 2008; Pillai et al. 2009). The
scope and objectives of the present work were achieved to
study the effect of deacetylation time of chitosan extraction
on the thermal (TGA), morphological and deacetylation
degree value.
2 Materials and Methods
• Chitosan preparation
In this work, chitosan polymer (CS) was extracted from the
crustaceans shells powder with different desacetylation time
(Sagheer et al. 2009). Chitosan was prepared in laboratory
and was obtained following steps: Demineralization using
hydrochloric acid 2.0 mol/l, ratio 1:20 (w/v) for 24 h at 25 °
C. After, the powder was treated to eliminate the protein
with sodium hydroxide solution 2.0 mol/l. Removal of
acetyl groups by the chitin was achieved by high concen-
trated sodium hydroxide and temperature at 100 °C. In this
step, the deacetylation reaction time was varied (2, 4, 6, 8 h).
• IR spectroscopy
The chemical composition of prepared chitosan was ana-
lyzed by the Infrared spectroscopy IR-4100 Jasco spec-
trometer to identify the functional group (Ahlafi et al. 2013).
The chosen frequency range was from 4000 to 400 cm−1.
The deacetylation degree (DD) of the chitosan samples was
calculated using two different baselines referring to Baxter
et al. (Baxter et al. 1992). The DD was determined by the
reference line drawn for the amide I intensity at 1655 cm−1

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1263

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_369
1264 F. Z. Bougueraa et al.

(a) 3450 1655 (b) 100

0,07
90
0,06
80
0,05
Absorbance (a,u)

70

DDA (%)
0,04
Cs-8h
60
0,03

50
0,02
Cs-6h
40
0,01
Cs-4h
30
0,00 Cs-2h 2h 4h 6h 8h
4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
wavenumber (cm-1) Temps of deacetylation (h)

Fig. 1 a FT-IR spectra of chitosan powder samples, b Curve of evolution DD (%) with time deacetylation

Fig. 2 SEM images of the chitosan powder surface according to deacetylation time a 2 h, b 4 h, c 6 h, d 8 h

(A1655) with that of band hydroxyl groups at 3450 cm−1 voltage of 10 to 20 kV. The observations focused on the
(reference band, A3450). The computation equation for the prepared chitosan powders.
two baselines are given below (Eq. 1):
   3 Results and Discussion
A1655
DDð%Þ ¼ 100   115 ð1Þ
A3450
The degree of deacetylation (DD) is an important factor in
the production of chitosan because it affects the physico-
chemical properties. The effect of the reaction time on the
• Thermal analysis DD of chitosan is shown in Fig. 1. The results of chitosan
deacetylation show that the DD percentage increases with
The thermal properties of chitosan samples were investi- the reaction time increase reaching a maximum of 80–94%,
gated by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). TGA was per- after 4 h of reflux heating using traditional heating
formed under nitrogen and air flows from room temperature methods.
to 600 °C at a rate of 10 °C/min with a Q500 (TA Instru- The morphology images for the prepared chitosan
ments). The samples weights varied from 4 to 5 mg. powders were observed by SEM (Fig. 2). The surface
observations of the CS-2h, CS-4h CS-6h and CS-8h
• SEM analysis obtained samples reveal a fibrillar microstructure and
granular structure. The surface of the chitosan consists of
The used instrument is a scanning electron microscope (XL fibers which form parallel wire arrays. This shows a rela-
30). SEM has a detector of the BSE and SE type with a tively irregular appearance of dimensions. Moreover, we
Extraction of Chitosan from Shrimp Shells: Effect …
Fig. 3 Chitosan samples TGA curves
note that the surface of the CS-2h sample is larger with
spherical particles of different sizes.
The chitosan samples thermograms (TG) (CS-2h, CS-4h,
CS-6h, CS-8h) are shown in Fig. 3. All chitosan samples
showed similar behavior to the GTA analysis. It is observed
that the thermal degradation of the chitosan begins at about
275 °C. The Thermogravimetric method analysis of chi-
tosan has three remarkably different steps. The first takes
place between temperature 30 and 100 °C, a mass loss of
the tested sample of 7%. This is attributed to the evaporation
of the water, corresponding to the release of the volatile
compounds (free water and water related). The polysac-
charides water loss can therefore be easily hydrated due to
the affinity of chitosan to water. The degradation second
stage takes place between 275 and 426 °C. It corresponds to
the finalization of the dehydration, which was caused by the
depolymerization/decomposition of the polymer chains by
deacetylation and the C–O–C glycosidic chain division
associated with the rupture of the Protein chain. Finally, the
third stage reflects residual decomposition at temperatures
above 426 °C (Ou et al. 2010).
1265
4 Conclusion
Chitosan has been extracted from Moroccan local sources.
The samples of polymer were prepared by varying the
deacetylation time. The extraction results show that chi-
tosan can be produced with high deacetylation percentage
after 4 h of reaction. The obtained polymer chitosan
thermal behavior revealed that they both decompose by
two step patterns and that it is more thermally stable.
References
Abdou ES, Nagy KS, Elsabee MZ. Extraction and characterization of
chitin and chitosan from local sources. Biores Technol. 2008;99
(5):1359–67.
Ahlafi H, Moussout H, Boukhlifi F, Echetna M, Bennani MN,
Slimane SM. Kinetics of N-deacetylation of chitin extracted from
shrimp shells collected from coastal area of Morocco. Mediterr J
Chem. 2013;2(3):503–13.
Baxter A, Dillon M, Taylor KDA, Roberts GAF. Int J Biol Macromol.
1992;14:166–9.
El Knidri H, El Khalfaouy R, Laajeb A, Addaou A, Lahsini A.
Eco-friendly extraction and characterization of chitin and chitosan
from the shrimp shell waste via microwave irradiation. Process Saf
Environ Prot. 2016;104:395–405.
Ou C-Y, et al. Thermal degradation kinetics of chitosan–cobalt
complex as studied by thermogravimetric analysis. Carbohydr
Polym. 2010;82(4):1284–9.
Pillai CKS, Paul W, Sharma CP. Chitin and chitosan polymers:
Chemistry, solubility and fiber formation. Prog Polym Sci. 2009;34
(7):641–78.
Sagheer FAA, Al-Sughayer MA, Muslim S, Elsabee MZ. Extraction
and characterization of chitin and chitosane from marine sources in
Arabian Gulf. Carbohydr Polym. 2009;77(2):410–9.
Teli MD, Sheikh J. Extraction of chitosan from shrimp shells waste and
application in antibacterial finishing of bamboo rayon. Int J Biol
Macromol. 2012;50(5):1195–200.
Tolaimate A, Desbrieres J, Rhazi M, Alagui A. Contribution to the
preparation of chitins and chitosans with controlled
physico-chemical properties. Polymer. 2003;44(26):7939–52.
Younes I, Rinaudo M. Chitin and Chitosan Preparation from Marine Sources.
Structure, Properties and Applications. Mar Drugs. 2015;13(3):1133–74.
 Yogurt Enrichment with Spirulina
(Arthrospira platensis): Effect of Storage
on Physicochemical Parameters

Hajer Debbabi, Badis Boubaker, Taysir Gmati, Moncef Chouaibi,

Aziza Boubaker, and Ahmed Snoussi

Keywords
Yogurt Spirulina platensis Functional ingredient Nutritional quality Storage

was to investigate the effect of storage on physicochemical

1 Introduction quality of the yogurt enriched with Spirulina.

The cyanobacterium Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis), a

planktonic blue–green alga, is gaining increasing attention
because of its nutritional and medicinal properties. It is
certified GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe). Spirulina
is a source of proteins and essential fatty acids such as
linoleic acid and c-linolenic acid, as well as of minerals and
vitamins (Wells et al. 2017). Moreover, Spirulina is a
valuable resource of natural antioxidants, such as phyco-
cyanin pigments, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds
(Wells et al. 2017). Interestingly, a noteworthy trend is the
addition of Spirulina for the improvement of the nutritional
properties of yogurt and fermented dairy products (Kavi-
mandan 2015). In fact, recent studies have shown that
Spirulina can promote the growth of lactic acid bacteria
(LAB) in yogurt (Kavimandan 2015). The aim of this study
H. Debbabi (&)
A. Boubaker
National Institute of Agronomy of Tunisia (INAT), Research Unit
UR17GR01“Innovation & Tradition”, University of Carthage,
Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: debbabih@gmail.com
A. Boubaker
e-mail: azizaboubaker@yahoo.com
B. Boubaker
T. Gmati
M. Chouaibi
A. Snoussi
Higher School of Food Industries of Tunisia (ESIAT), University
of Carthage, Tunis, Tunisia
e-mail: boubakerbadis@yahoo.fr
T. Gmati
e-mail: slama_1991@live.fr
M. Chouaibi
e-mail: moncef.chouaibi@yahoo.com.au
A. Snoussi
e-mail: amd.snoussi@gmail.com
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Materials
Spirulina platensis biomass was obtained from the Gatrana SA
(Sidi Bouzid, Tunisia). The dried biomass contained 58%
proteins, 1.5% lipids, 21% carbohydrates, and 9.41% ashes.
Yogurt was manufactured by fermenting standardized
pasteurized milk with the starter thermophilic culture
(Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilus and Lacto-
bacillus delbrueckii subsp bulgaricus) according to stan-
dards of Société Lait et Dérivés (Tunisia). Spirulina powder
(0.24 g per 100 mL of milk, % w: v) was added to the
standardized milk, prior to fermentation step. A dose of
Spirulina above 0.3 g/100 mL impaired consumers accep-
tance (data not shown). Products were stored at 4 ± 1 °C for
28 days corresponding to manufacture shelf life.
2.2 Analytical Methods
Yogurts titrable acidity, pH and proximate composition
(total solids, ashes, protein using the factor 6.5  N) were
determined as per standard methods (AOAC 2012).
2.3 Statistical Analysis
Results were expressed as means of 3 independent samples.
Data were subjected to a two way ANOVA (Spirulina

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_370
1268 H. Debbabi et al.

Table 1 Spirulina enrichment and storage impact on yogurts physicochemical composition (n = 3)

Parameters Raw milk Yogurt
Day 0 Day 9 Day 14 Day 18 Day 28
1 2
C E C E C E C E C E
pH 6.50 4.61 4.57 4.32 4.30 4.30 4.28 4.28 4.25 4.22 4.20
Titrable acidity (°D) 16.75 80 95 83 100 87 104 90 107 94 110
Total solids (%) 11.7 21.00 22.90 22.50 23.10 23.50 23.30 25.00 23.60 26.00 23.90
Proteins (%) ND3 3.04 5.30 2.61 4.60 2.58 4.50 2.48 4.40 2.36 4.28
Ashes (%) ND 0.62 0.81 0.63 0.84 0.64 0.86 0.66 0.86 0.68 0.87
1 2 3
C: control yogurts; E: Spirulina enriched yogurts; ND: not determined

enrichment, storage time) at / = 0.05, using Prism Graph- for holding water in Spirulina-enriched yogurts, limiting the
Pad software (v 4.00, 2003). phenomenon of syneresis (Zayas 1997) and therefore
improving the gel network and texture stability (Lucey and
Singh 1998).
3 Results and Discussion

As shown in Table 1, the addition of Spirulina led to an

increase in titrable acidity, total solids, proteins and ashes
contents of yogurts, due to its biochemical characteristics
(see Materials), in agreement with Malik et al. (2013).
Two way ANOVA showed not only significant effects on
titrable acidity, total solids, proteins and ashes for “Spir-
ulina” factor (p < 0.05), but also significant effects on pH,
titrable acidity, total solids, proteins and ashes on “Storage”
factor (p < 0.001). However, the interaction between both
factors was not significant for all parameters. Titrable acidity
increased constantly in both control and enriched yogurts
during storage, due to post-fermentation acidification
(Andleeb et al. 2008). The addition of Spirulina in fermented
dairy products enhanced the growth and survival of LAB
(Kavimandan 2015), which in turn probably induced a
transformation of lactose into lactic acid. Protein and ash
levels in enriched yogurts remained higher when compared
to the control ones, through the storage period. However,
proteins decreased in both control and enriched yogurts
during storage, probably due to milk quality and proteolytic
activity (Andleeb et al. 2008). Total solids increased in
control yogurts during storage, probably due to LAB
syneresis (Lucey and Singh 1998), but were stable in enri-
ched yogurts. This may be related to the capacity of proteins
4 Conclusion
Our results are of practical value. The addition of Spir-
ulina into yogurt was advantageous due to its nutritional
properties. The enriched yogurt was found to be stable for
28 days at 4 °C.
References
Andleeb N, Gilani AH, Naheed A. Assessment of the quality of
conventional yogurt as affected by storage. Pak J Agri Sci. 2008;45
(2):218–22.
AOAC. Official Methods of Analysis. 19th ed. Gaithersburg: AOAC
International; 2012.
Kavimandan A. Incorporation of Spirulina platensis into Probiotic
Fermented Dairy Products. Int J Dairy Sci. 2015;10(1):1–11.
Lucey JA, Singh H. Formation and physical properties of acid milk
gels: a review. Food Rev Int. 1998;7:529–42.
Malik P, Kempanna C, Murthy N. Quality characteristics of yoghurt
enriched with Spirulina powder. Mysore J Agri Sci. 2013;47
(2):354–9.
Wells ML, Potin P, Craigie JS, Raven JA, Merchant SS, Helliwell KE,
Brawley SH. Algae as nutritional and functional food sources:
revisiting our understanding. J Appl Phycol. 2017;29:949–89.
Zayas JF. Water holding capacity of proteins., Functionality of proteins
in foodBerlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 1997. p. 76–133.
 Impact of Ploughing Techniques on Wind
Erosion: Field Experiments Assessment

Mohamed Labiadh

Keywords
Wind erosion Horizontal flux Tilled surfaces South tunisia Field experiment

instrumented masts and the geometric characteristics of the

1 Introduction
Wind erosion is one of the main processes controlling the
functioning of the Earth system. The continental surfaces
vulnerable to wind erosion being estimated to 33 million
km2 (Middleton and Thomas 1997). In North African the
arid and semi-arid regions which are vey prone to soil ero-
sion by wind, the rapid increase in population and the
socio-economic development have induced a growing
demand on agricultural products. As a result, the pressure on
natural resources is growing steadily with an expansion of
the cultivated areas, stimulated by the introduction of mod-
ern ploughing techniques (such as the disc plough, the
mouldboard plough and the tiller plough). Few studies have
been performed to investigate the relationship between til-
lage ridges and wind erosion. Armbrust et al. (1964) mea-
sured in wind tunnel soil losses from soils with ridge heights
ranging from 1 to 20 cm. Their results suggested that, for
equal wind friction velocities and soil cloddiness, the pres-
ence of ridges reduces total erosion up to 50% compared to
unridged surfaces.
In this work, we reported the results from three field
experiments carried out in southern Tunisia in order to
estimate the erosion fluxes over different types of tilled
surfaces and evaluate the impact of ploughing techniques on
wind erosion. Fifteen erosion flux measurements were per-
formed in the South inside parcels tilled with different
ploughing tools (mouldboard, tiller, disc). Additional
micro-meteorological measurements were obtained for
M. Labiadh (&)
Institut Des Régions Arides (IRA), 4119 Médenine, Tunisia
e-mail: Mohamed.labiadh@ira.rnrt.tn
ridged surfaces were determined.
2 Materials and Methods
To evaluate the impact of ploughing techniques on wind
erosion, three field experiments were performed in Southern
Tunisia, in the area of Medenine/Zarzis. These experiments
took place during the spring season which is the windy
period of the year during which wind erosion events are the
most frequently observed in Tunisia. Different ploughing
techniques were used on each parcel (such as the disc
plough, the mouldboard plough and the tiller plough).
Additional micro-meteorological measurements were
obtained for instrumented masts and the geometric charac-
teristics of the ridged surfaces were determined. We per-
formed additional measurements using fast response ©Sensit
instruments to improve the identification of the wind erosion
periods and obtain an estimate of the threshold wind
velocity. The wind erosion fluxes were measured using Big
Spring Number Eight (BSNE), catchers described in detail
by Fryrear (1986).
3 Results and Discussion
The results show that the wind erosion fluxes are signifi-
cantly higher on surfaces tilled with disc plough compared to
those measured on the parcel tilled with mouldboard plough.
The difference is about an order of magnitude between the
two ploughing techniques. The surfaces ploughed with a
tiller tool are intermediate, the erosion fluxes being about a
factor 4 greater on the surface ploughed using the tiller

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1269

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_371
1270
compared to those tilled with the mouldboard tool. These
results strongly suggest that the new tillage techniques like
disc, could increase drastically the wind erosion on agri-
cultural parcels consisting of loose soils. They also suggest
that the traditional tools, like the mouldboard, are probably
the best adapted tools for tillage in semi-arid agricultural
regions when the soil preservation is considered. Since the
parcel ploughed with the disc can be considered as an
unridged surface, these results also confirm the efficiency of
ridges to reduce wind erosion on loose soils.
4 Conclusion
In semi-arid cultivated areas, where conventional tillage
remains to be used, owing to limited vegetation cover,
tillage ridges and soil cloddiness are the only soil
roughness elements which help reduce wind erosion. In
addition to the well-known soil factors, such as aggre-
gates size distribution, crust, etc., which control wind
erosion on flat, unridged surfaces, two specific processes
M. Labiadh
affect the susceptibility to wind erosion of tillage ridged
soils: 1. The ridges affect the wind profile by increasing
the surface aerodynamic roughness length, and thus
influencing the threshold wind friction velocity for wind
erosion. 2. On ridged surfaces, a soil grain can defini-
tively be trapped in the bottom of a furrow or can con-
tinue its movement, depending on (i) its characteristic
path length of saltation and (ii) the ridge height and
spacing. This affects the net budget of the soil mass
exported from the field.
References
Armbrust DV, Chepil WS, Siddoway FH. Effects of ridges on erosion
of soil by wind. Soil Sci Soc Am Proc. 1964;28:557–60.
Fryrear DW. A field dust sampler. J Soil Water Conservation.
1986;41:117–20.
Middleton NJ, Thomas D. World Atlas of desertification. 2nd ed.
London: UNEP, Arnold Publ; 1997. p. 182.
 Volatile Compounds as Propolis
Characterization Markers
Narimane Segueni, Fatiha Khadraoui, and Salah Rhouati



Keywords
Algerian propolis Volatils compounds
1 Introduction
Propolis is a resinous material produced by honeybees from
vegetables resins, exudates, wax, pollen, leaf pieces and self
secretion. It is used to seal and to protect the hive against
heat, cold, wind, water, insects and microorganisms. Volatile
compounds are found in low concentration in propolis, but
their biological activity makes them important for propolis
characterization. The propolis chemical composition as well
as biological activities depends on its botanical origin and
the local flora at the collection site. Propolis volatiles may be
used as markers in the identification of the propolis botanical
origin and its characterization.
2 Materials and Methods
Propolis was collected from the north-east of Algeria (Jijel) by
scraping the “bee glue” of walls, frames and entrance of the hive.
Propolis (500 g) was extracted with CH2Cl2–MeOH (1:1). The
extract was concentrated to dryness, the residue was then
extracted with MeOH–H2O (70:30 v/v) and concentrated under
reduced pressure. The extract (70:30 v/v) was dissolved in boiling
water, stored in cold and filtered after 24 h. The filtrate was
N. Segueni (&)
S. Rhouati
Laboratory of Natural Products of Vegetable Origin and Organic
Synthesis, Department of Chemistry, University Constantine 1,
Constantine, Algeria
e-mail: segueninarimane@yahoo.fr
F. Khadraoui
Regional Laboratory of Scientific Police, Constantine, Algeria
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_372
GC-MS analysis
extracted successively with n-hexane to yield (3 g), CHCl3 to
yield (0.9 g), EtOAc to yield (2.7 g) and n-BuOH to yield (8.3 g).
The CHCl3 extract seems to contain an oily part with a
distinguished green colour. The oily part was separated in a
funnel filtered, dried under vacuum to yield 0.42 g and the
chemical composition was then analysed by GC-MS. The
CH2Cl2–MeOH (1:1) extract (10 g) was initially subjected to
silica gel column chromatography (CC) eluting with increasing
polarity of CH2Cl2 in hexane, followed by MeOH in CH2Cl2
up to 15% MeOH. The eluted fractions were evaluated and
pooled by TLC analysis affording 28 subfractions. Visualiza-
tion of TLC plates was performed by spraying with
vanillin/H2SO4 solution followed by warming. Subfractions 2
and 3 were analysed by GC-MS. Subfraction 5 (416 mg) was
further purified by silica gel CC and eluted with hexane- die-
thyl ether (3:1). The eluted fractions were evaluated and pooled
by TLC analysis affording 12 subfractions. Subfraction 5
yielded compound 1. Subfraction 6 (1.97 g) was purified by
silica gel CC and eluted with increasing polarity of CH2Cl2 in
cyclohexane, followed by MeOH in CH2Cl2 up to 100%
MeOH. The eluted fractions were evaluated and pooled by
TLC analysis affording 26 subfractions. Subfraction 5 yielded a
mixture of compounds 2 and 3 (100 mg). Subfraction 6 yielded
compound 4 and 5 (15 mg). Subfractions 10, 12 yielded
compounds 6 (15 mg) and 7 (30 mg). All isolated compounds
were identified by spectroscopic techniques (1H NMR, 13C
NMR, IR and EI-MS) and compared to the reported data.
3 Results and Discussion
The propolis samples chemical composition was investi-
gated by GC-MS. The constituents as demonstated in Fig. 1
are aliphatic hydrocarbons (undecane, isooctane, tridecane,
1271
1272 N. Segueni et al.

Fig. 1 GC-MS analysis of (a) 11

Algerian propolis fractions. ` 1 7 8 9 10
2 3 4 5 6 69.03
Compounds: (1) unkown, 100 12 13
(2) benzene 1,3 dimethyl, % 15.84 22.78 30.75 14
24.61 38.06 41.79 46.96 77.52
(3) 2-hexenal, (4) benzene 1,3,5 28.69 35.93 51.06 71.96 86.48
0 Time
trimethyl, (5) undecane,
20.84 30.84 40.84 50.84 60.84 70.84 80.84
(6) p-cymene, (7) isooctane,
11
(8) menthol, (9) 2,4 decadienal E, (b)
1 15 69.39 12 13 14
E, (10) tridecane, 100 16
(11) tetradecane, (12) myristic % 15.90 26.30 71.88 77.51 83.63 86.50
acid, (13), linoleic acid, 62.67
0 Time
(14) octacosane, (15) methyl
20.84 30.84 40.84 50.84 60.84 70.84 80.84
hexadecanoate, (16) hexadecane,
(17) 4(T-butyl)-2-(T-pentyl)- 4
(c) 5
phenol 1 2 3 68.56
100 6 7 8 9 10 17 12 13 14
30.64
% 15.72 22.78
24.57 35.87 40.94 46.90 77.52 83.46 86.55
28.64 38.03 51.01 56.21 71.93
0 Time
20.84 30.84 40.84 50.84 60.84 70.84 80.84

A: oily part of CHCl3 extract

B: subfracƟon 2
C: subfracƟon 3

tetradecane, octacosane, hexadecane and methyl hexanoate)
and aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene 1,3 dimethyl, benzene
1,3,5 trimethyl and 4(T-butyl)-2-(T-pentyl-phenol). In
addition fatty acids such as linoleic and myristic acid, ali-
phatic aldehydes (2-hexenal and 2, 4 decadienal E,E) and
oxygenated and non oxygenated monoterpenes (menthol and
p-cymen) were also identified.
From the CH2Cl2–MeOH (1:1) extract seven compounds
were isolated. Compound 1 was identified as cis-
9-ocatadecanoic acid. Compounds 2 and 3 were identified as
a mixture of a and b amyrin acetate. Compounds 4, 5, 6 and
7 were identified as methy-13-methyl tetradecanoate, stearic
acid, linoleic acid and eicosanoic acid.
Volatile compounds could be considered as an important
class of propolis constituents. Previous studies performed on
volatile fraction of propolis collected in regions temperate
showed chemical composition similar to poplar. In addition,
poplar type is a common type of propolis found all over the
world (Rushdi et al. 2014). Among detected compounds:
undecane, tridecane, menthol (Marccuci 1995), cymene,
eicosanoic, ocadecanoic, linoleic and stearic acids (Pellati
et al. 2013) were reported as a constituents of propolis poplar
type.
Triterpenoids have been reported to occur in diverse plant
species as resin or gum constituents. In the present study a
and b amyrin acetate were isolated. The cited compounds
were detected in Ethiopian propolis where major vegetation
was dominated by acacia species (Rushdi et al. 2014). In
addition octacosane and methyl hexadecanoate were also
reported from the same propolis.
The propolis composition is affected by phytogeographic
characteristics of beehive surroundings. By the apiary,
vegetables as eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus), fig tree
(Ficus carica), pomegranate (Punica granatum), blackberry
bush (Rubus fructicosus), and barbary fig (Opuntia ficus-
indica) were grown. It is interesting to note that Olea sp
might be another source of the present propolis. Olea sp is
largely distributed in the site of collection. On the other
hand, previous studies on some Algerian virgin olive oils
indicate that the most representative volatile compounds of
Algerian olive oils are C6 aldehydes and alcohols. 2-hexenal
represents 12.6 ± 0.8 to 39.7 ± 0.5% of the identified
compounds (Nigri et al. 2012).
4 Conclusion
Hydrocabons are considered as a basic component of
propolis. In recent years, aromatics and aliphatics
hydrocarbons, esters and fatty acids have been identified
in many types of propolis such as Egyptian propolis
(Hegazi et al. 2002), Ethiopian propolis (Rushdi et al.
2014), Chinese propolis (Cheng et al. 2013), Brazilian
propolis (Bankova et al. 1995) and Italian propolis (Pel-
lati et al. 2013). Compared to previous reports on propolis
volatile compounds from other localities, the composition
of the present analyses showed some differences.
2-hexenal, 2,4 decadienal E,E and 1,3,5 benzene tri-
methyl were identified.
References
Rushdi A, Adgaba N, Bayaqoob N, Al-Khazim A, Simoneit B,
El-Mubarek A, Al-Mutlaq K. Characteristics and chemical compo-
sitions of propolis from Ethiopia. Springer Plus. 2014;3:253.
Volatile Compounds as Propolis Characterization Markers
Marcucci MC. Propolis: chemical composition, biological properties
and therapeutic activity. Apidologie. 1995;26:83–99.
Pellati F, Pio Prencipe F, Benvenuti S. Headspace solid-phase
microextraction-gas chromatography–mass spectrometry characteri-
zation of propolis volatile compounds. J Pharm Biomed Anal.
2013;84:103–11.
Nigri S, Oumeddour R, Fernandez X. Analysis of some Algerian virgin
olive oils by headspace solid phase micro-extraction coupled to gas
chromatography/mass spectrometry. La Rivista Italiana Delle
Sostanze Grasse. 2012;LXXXIX:54–61.
1273
Hegazi A, Abd El hady F. Egyptian propolis: 3-Antioxydant, antimi-
crobial activities and chemical composition of propolis from
Reclalaimed lands. Z Naturforsch 2002; 57 C:395–402.
Cheng H, Qin ZH, Guo XF, Hu XS, Wu JH. Geographical origin
identification of propolis using GC–MS and electronic nose
combined with principal component analysis. Food Res Int.
2013;51:813–22.
Bankova V, Christov A, Kujumgiev A, Marcucci MC, Popov S .
Chemical composition and antibacterial activity of Brazilian
propolis. Z. Naturforsch 1995; 50 C: 167–172.
 Effect of Interaction Between Tow Cytokinins
and Tow Auxins on Alkaloidss Accumulation
in Hyoscyamus Albus L.

Kenza Kadi, Sofia Hamli, Sabah Boukeria, Dounia Dib, Dalila Addad,
and Abdelouahab Yahia

Keywords
Hyoscyamus albus L. Alkaloids Auxins Cytokinins Accumulation Interacted

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

H. albus L. is one of the principal plants of Solanaceae
family endowed with broad therapeutics properties because
of its rich content in tropic alkaloids used as parasympathetic
drugs (Tarm and Catherine 2001). These alkaloids are syn-
thesized in tiny quantities in this plant (Bonnier 1987).
Several studies have shown that this shrub is able to
accumulate high amounts (Davies 1990; Hibi et al. 1992).
Our interest in this species H. albus L. which grows widely
in many areas of Eastern Algeria and Mediterranean coun-
tries led us to study how to improve its production and know
the effect of interaction between plant hormones applications
on the rate of alkaloids accumulation.
Plant-hormones: auxins and cytokinins were applied on
H. albus L. at three rates 0-10-20 mg/L isolated and interacted
[auxins X cytokinins] in a three factorial randomized complete
block design with three replications. Alkaloids extraction and
quantification were achieved after the classical methods
described elsewhere (Pelletier and Fodor 1970) and extracts
were subjected to chromatography analyses (Stahl 1969;
Trease and Evans 1983). The obtained data were subjected to
statistical analyses using STATISTICA package.
3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Estimation of the Percentage of Total

Alkaloids

Effect of plant-hormones (K, 2, 4-D, IAA and BAP)

K. Kenza (&)
H. Sofia
D. Dounia
A. Dalila speared on percent of total alkaloids accumulated in H.
Faculty of Life and Natural Sciences, Institute of Agronomy, albus L.
University of Khenchela, Khenchela, Algeria The Analysis of variance revealed a significant treatment
e-mail: koukou870@yahoo.fr
effect for the percentage of alkaloids produced by shoot and
H. Sofia root plant parts. Treatment with IAA (20 mg/L) produced the
e-mail: sofiahamli@yahoo.fr
highest percentage of alkaloid 2.153% in the root part of the
D. Dounia plant while the best value of 1.103% was observed in the shoot
e-mail: dib19819@yahoo.fr
part of treatment with K (20 mg/L). The check produced the
A. Dalila low value of 1.115% by the treatment with K (10 mg/L) in the
e-mail: dalath12@yahoo.fr
root part and 0.743% of treatment with IAA (10 mg/L). From
K. Kenza
B. Sabah
Y. Abdelouahab the comparison results between witness or chick and which
Laboratory of Natural Sciences and Materials, University of
MILA, Constantine, Algeria were treated with plant-hormones (IAA, 2,4-D, BAP, K) at 10
e-mail: yahiaabdelouahab@yahoo.fr and 20 mg/L, we can conclude that the treatment with plant
B. Sabah hormones speared increases the accumulation of tropic alka-
e-mail: Alggeria.Boukeriasabah@gmail.com loids which differs with the plant hormone rates.

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_373
1276
Shan et al. (1990) reported Favorable increase in growth
and alkaloid yield with Hyoscyamus muticus L. treated with
kinetin (Trease and Evans 1996), when increased concen-
tration of auxin stimulated growth of root culture and
inhibited alkaloids biosynthesis in Hyoscyamus niger L.
(Hashimoto et al. 1986) and the IAA is the predominant
auxin and is important for plant growth and development
(Oetiker and Bacher 1997).
Effect of interaction between cytokinins (K and BAP)
and auxins (2, 4-D and IAA) on the percentage of total
alkaloids accumulated in H. albus L.
The Analysis of variance showed a significant interaction
between cytokinins and auxins.The treatment by (K  2,
4-D) (20  20 mg/L) gives the highest percentage of alka-
loids in the root part with a percentage mean value of
2.321% and 1.702% in shoot part with same plant hormones
but a dosage of (20  10 mg/L) in order, as compared with
control which accumulated the amount of 0.873% in the root
part and 0.505% in shoot part.
These results indicated that the alkaloids production is
enhanced by interacting or combining application of cyto-
kinins and auxins. This is in agreement with the results of
El-Bahr et al. who found that the best growth of callus
culture of H. muticus L. and maximum alkaloid production
was obtained with 01 mg/L of both 2; 4-D and K (El-Bahr
et al. 1997).
The value of 0.24% of alkaloids was measured in H.
albus L. under natural conditions of Afghanistan (Pelt et al.
1967).This value is lower than that measured in the control
of the present experiment which leads to conclude that
growth conditions may enhance alkaloids accumulation in
this species, too.
Auxins and cytokinins enhanced the production of ethy-
lene by a factor 08 to 10 when sprayed on leaves and the
ethylene favors accumulation of secondary products in vitro
culture (Cary et al. 1995) and Grewal et al. (1979) men-
tioned that K combined with IAA and NAA at 10−5 M/L
produced alkaloid during the 4th; 5th and 6th week and the
rapid dividing undifferentiated callus cultures of H. muticus
L. are capable of producing alkaloids depending on hor-
monal level. From the previously mentioned data, it can be
concluded that the applied plant hormones (K, IAA, BAP,
2,4-D) acted on the physiological processes of the plant,
leading to an increase in nitrogenous products enhancing
ions absorption and permitted more production of tropic
alkaloids in H. albus L. (Wernicke et al. 1979).
TLC investigation of alkaloid extracts of the aerial
and root parts of Hyoscyamus albus L.
Thin layer chromatographic screening of the alkaloid
extract of contrl and all treatment with 2,4-D, K, IAA and BAP
were carried out using silica gel chromatoplates and solvent
systems which was chloroform: methanol (9:1) (Isogai et al.
1990).
K. Kadi et al.
The developed plates were visualized by UV light [wave
length 254 mm] and Dragendorff’s spray reagent followed
by spraying with 0.5% sodium nitrite (Parr et al. 1990)
where six spots were detected and three among them were
known: the atropine (Rf = 0.21), belladonine (Rf = 0.00)
and scopolamine (Rf = 0.56). (Pelt et al. 1967; Cary et al.
1995) have found that the H. albus L. contains 06 alkaloids
which are: The atropine, the scopolamine, the belladonine,
the meteloidine, the tigloidine and the hyoscyamine. Atro-
pine and scopolamine were isolated as major alkaloids in H.
albus L. (Basu and Chand 1998).
4 Conclusion
Plant-hormones auxins and cytokinins enhance the alka-
loids accumulation in Hyoscyamus albus L. The treat-
ment by (K  2,4-D) (20  20 mg/L) gives the highest
percentage of alkaloids in the root part with a mean
percentage value of 2.321% and 1.702% in shoot part
with same plant hormones but at a dosage of [20  10
mg/L] in order. Hyoscyamus albus L. contains 06
alkaloids.
References
Basu P, Chand S. J Plant Biochem Biotechnol. 1998;7:39.
Bonnier G. Plantes médicinales. Edition BELIN Paris 6éme. 1987:40–
64.
Cary AJ, Lui W, Howell SH. Cytokinin action is coupled to ethylene in
its effects on the inhibition of root and rypocotyl elongation in
Arabidopsis thaliana seedling. Plant Physiol. 1995;107:1075–82.
Davies PJ. The plant hormones: their role in plant growth and
development; 1990. p. 24–477.
El-Bahr MK, Ghanem SA, El Missiry MM, El Nasr MMS. Fitoterapia.
1997;68:423.
Garland T, Barr AC. Toxic plants and other natural toxicants.
Cambridge: ABE-print (CABI publishing); 2001. p. 577.
Grewal S, Koul S, Ahuja A, Atal AK. Ind J Exp Biol. 1979;17:558.
Hashimoto T, Yukimune Y, Yamada Y. J Plant Physiol. 1986;124:61.
Hibi N, Fujita T, Hatano M, Hashimoto T, Yamada Y. Putrescine N-
methyltransferase in cultured roots of Hyoscyamus albus. Plant
Physiol. 1992;100:826–35.
Isogai A, Fukuchi N, Hayashi M, Kamada H, Harada H, Suzuki A.
Photochemistry. 1990;29:3131.
Oetiker JH, Ae Sch Bacher G. Plant Physiol. 1997;114:1385.
Pelletier SW, Fodor G. Chemistry of the Alkaloids. New York
Cincinnati, Toronto, London, Melbourne: Van No strand Reinhold
Company; 1970. p. 431.
Pelt JM, Younos Ch, Hayon J-C. La constitution alcaloidique de
quelques solanaceae d’ Afghanistan: Datura et Hyoscyamus.
Annales pharmaceutiques françaises; 1967. p. 59–68.
Stahl E. Thin-Layer Chromatography. 2nd ed. Berlin: Springer; 1969.
Trease G, Evans WC. Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy. 12th ed.
London: Bailliere Tindall; 1983.
Trease G, Evans WC. Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy. 14th ed.
London Philadelphia, Toronto, Sydney, Tokyo: WB Saunders
Company Ltd; 1996.
Wernicke W, Lorz H, Thomas E. Plant Sci Lett. 1997;15:239.
 Quality of Crop Residues Influence
on the Variations of Soil Microbial Biomass
(Tiaret Region -Algeria)

Karima Oulbachir, Nadia Bouchenafa, Fatiha Labdelli,

Sabrina Ait abderrahim, and Malika Adamou-djerbaoui

Keywords
Sol Association Crop residues Previous crop Microbial biomass Tiaret

1 Introduction 3 Results and Discussion

To respond to the need of growing human population to food
production, it is necessary to sustainably ensure the ability of
soil to produce. After harvesting, the plants leave the roots,
stems and leaves in the soil which constitutes an important
source of organic material. This will be consumed by soil
organisms, responsible for all life processes of soil evolution
and balance.
Organic matter is very important for the soil’s fertility. It
largely controls its physical, chemical and biological prop-
erties and consequently influences its functional properties
(Leguillou 2011). It mainly consists of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur (C, H, O, N, P, S).
Knowing that Carbon represents more than 50% of the mass
of organic matter, it is the main indicator used to determine
its quantity (GIP 2015).
2 Materials and Methods
The effect of the quality of crop residues on the variation of
microbial soil germs was showed by physicochemical and
microbiological characterization of soil samples which were
obtained from different preceding crops namely; one legume
(lentils), one cereal (soft wheat), and fodder crop:
legume-cereal association (vetch-oast).
The physicochemical analyses showed that the soils of the
region of Tiaret are silty and silty-clay, unsalted and have a
very good water holding capacity. These soils are poor in
organic materials with the exception of those obtained from
the preceding crops of legume cereal association which are
richer. Otherwise, the soil microbial biomass showed a
heterogeneous and variable distribution according to the
physicochemical characteristics and the type of preceding
crops. The high microbial density was recorded in soils from
legume-cereal association as a preceding crop, which proved
the most favorable in organic stock and microbial biomass.
4 Conclusion
Crop residues from a cereal-legume association is the best
preceding indicator able to promote the quantitative and
quantitative evolution of microbial population in com-
parison to preceding crop of non associated legume that
proves to be the less qualified. In the perspective of
cultural practices, it appears that the association of
legumes with cereals has an economic and ecological
interest, and can be beneficially inserted by the intro-
duction of improved plants in the succession of crops for
the conservation of soils fertility.

References
K. Oulbachir (&)
N. Bouchenafa
F. Labdelli
S. Ait
GIP (Groupement d’intérêt public). La matière organique « L’or
abderrahim
M. Adamou-djerbaoui
noir » des sols Bretons. Dossier N°10. Rennes; 2015.
Faculty of Nature and Life, University Ibn Khaldoun, Tiaret,
Algeria
e-mail: k.oulbachir@yahoo.fr

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1277

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_374
1278 K. Oulbachir et al.

Leguillou C. Effets combinés de la qualité des résidus de culture et de la l’obtention du diplôme de docteur en science de l’environnement
disponibilité en azote minéral sur la stabilisation de la structure du option sciences agronomiques, agroalimentaires horticoles et du
sol par les microorganismes. Mémoire de fin d’étude en vue de paysage. Université européenne de Bretagne; 2011.
 Spatio-Temporal Variability of the Soil
Hydraulic Properties—Effect on Modelling
of Water Flow and Solute Transport
at Field-Scale

Sabri Kanzari

Keywords
Clay loam soil Soil hydraulic properties Beerkan method BEST algorithm
Hydrus-1D

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

In the unsaturated soils, the modeling of water flow and
solute transport requires the characterization of hydraulic
properties. Several analytical models were developed to
describe the characteristic curves of unsaturated soil (Bur-
dine 1953; Brooks and Corcy 1964; Mualem 1976; van
Genuchten 1980). The Beerkan test is one of the simplest,
the least expensive and the easiest method to set up and carry
out in field conditions. In this study, the Beerkan method
(Haverkamp et al. 1994) was used to characterize the
hydraulic properties of the soil. The BEST (Beerkan Esti-
mation of Soil Transfer Parameters) algorithm, presented by
Lassabatère et al. (2006), allows processing the infiltration
tests. This algorithm specifically relates van Genuchten’s
expression for the water retention curve (van Genuchten
1980) with Burdine’s condition (Burdine 1953) and use the
Brooks and Corey equation for the hydraulic conductivity
curve (Brooks and Corey 1964). The main objective of
investigation was to study the effect of spatial and temporal
variations of the soil hydraulic properties on water flow and
solute transport through numerical modeling.
S. Kanzari (&)
National Institute for Rural Engineering, Water and Forestry,
Rural Engineering Laboratory, University of Carthage, Tunis,
Tunisia
e-mail: sabri.kanzari@gmail.com
A square land parcel (10 m  10 m) was chosen in the city
of Ariana ([36°50′40.791′′N, 10°11′13.795′′E], Tunisia) with
a clay loam soil. A mesh size of 5 m2 (9 points) was chosen
to perform Beerkan infiltration tests. The Beerkan infiltration
method uses a simple annular ring. The cylinder was posi-
tioned at the soil surface and inserted to a depth of about
1 cm to avoid lateral loss of the ponded water at the soil
surface. A fixed volume of water is poured into the cylinder
at time zero, and the time elapsed during the infiltration of
the known volume of water was measured. When the first
volume has completely infiltrated, a second known volume
of water was added to the cylinder, and the time needed for it
to infiltrate was measured (cumulative time). The procedure
was repeated for a series of about 8–15 known volumes and
cumulative infiltration was recorded. The results were pro-
cessed according the BEST algorithm (Lassabatère et al.
2006) in an Excel sheet developed by Di Prima (2013). The
algorithm requires as input the ring diameter, the initial
water content, the soil granulometric composition and the
experimental data. After the final processing, the hydraulic
properties were estimated as output.
Hydrus-1D (Simunek et al. 2005) model was used to
simulate the water flow and solute transport. The simulation
period lasted 383 days from 01/08/2015 (initial profiles) to
15/08/2016 (final profiles) with a daily step-time and 80 cm
in depth. The measured profiles were located at the coordi-
nate point (5,5) which corresponds to the center of the land
parcel. The hydrodynamic parameters were specified from
values measured by the Beerkan infiltration tests and the
transport parameters of the solutes were introduced from the
literature (Kanzari and Bouhlila 2014). For the water

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1279

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_375
1280 S. Kanzari

Fig. 1 Measured and simualted profiles at point 5 (5,5)

dynamics, boundary conditions, at the upper limit, “atmo- Table 1 Normalization parameters values
spheric BC with surface layer” where rainfall and evapo-
Point Hg (cm) Ks (cm.d−1)
transpiration were introduced and at the lower limit, were
“free drainage” type. For the transport of solutes, the 1 (0,0) −17.88 1239
boundary conditions were “Concentration Flux” type. The 2 (5,0) −23.19 990
Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) was calculated to evaluate 3 (10,0) −20.63 416
the simulation results. 4 (0,5) −20.45 757
5 (5,5) −31 551
6 (10,5) −26.7 391
3 Results and Discussion
7 (0,10) −23.62 1775
8 (5,10) −20.17 425
The hydraulic properties were characterized using the BEST
algorithm. The form parameters n, m and η are constant for 9 (10,10) −16.53 599
all measurment points (n = 2.111, m = 0.052 and
η = 21.07) because they were estimated from the soil par-
ticle size composition, whereas the normalization parameters hydraulic properties measured at point 5 (5,5) gave the best
appeared to be related to the structural state of the soil and match between measured and simulated values (Fig. 1). This
vary from one point to another except for the water content result is confirmed by the values of RMSE at the same point,
at saturation which was equal to 0.46 cm3.cm−3. The values which are lowest with a value of 0.08 for both the water
of the saturated hydraulic conductivity and the capillary content and the soil salinity profiles.
length are presented in the following table. To study the effect of temporal variation of hydraulic
The spatial variability of the saturated hydraulic con- properties on water flow and solute transport modeling, two
ductivity shows that most permeable zones were located sets of parameters were used: the hydraulic properties
around the boundary points of coordinates (0,0) and (5,10), measured by (Kanzari et al. 2015) in August 2015 and those
whereas for the rest of the parcel, Ks is fairly homogeneous. measured in August 2016 (Table 1) in point 5 in the center
The capillary length varies from 24.5 cm to 38.5 cm. The of the land parcel. The simulated profiles were very close to
largest value was around the coordinate point (5.0) and the those measured. The calculated RMSE values calculated
lowest values were within the boundaries. were small and confirmed the graphical results.
The variation of the soil water content and soil salinity
showed that the content varied between 0.09 cm3.cm−3 and
0.18 cm3.cm−3, mainly between 0 cm to 40 cm in depth. 4 Conclusion
While the salt concentration varied between 1 g.l−1 and In the case of a homogeneous soil, the spatial variation of
1.3 g. l−1 in the surface layer (0–20 cm) and was stabilized the hydraulic properties does not seem to have a signifi-
around 1.2 g.l−1 in deeper layers. cant effect on the modeling of water and solute dynamics
The simulated profiles using the measured hydraulic for a distance of 5 m from the measurement point.
properties at the different points were close to the measured Indeed, the Hydrus-1D model adequately reproduces the
profiles at the center of the land parcel. However, the measured profiles. The same result is observed for a
Spatio-Temporal Variability of the Soil Hydraulic Properties …
temporal variation of the hydraulic properties during one
year.
References
Brooks RH, Corey AT. Hydraulic properties of porous media.
Hydrology Papers 3, Colorado State University, Fort Collins,
Colorado; 1964. p. 29.
Burdine NT. Relative permeability calculations from pore size distri-
bution data. Petrol Trans Am Inst Mining Metall Eng. 1953;198:71–
7.
Di Prima S. Automatic analysis of multiple Beerkan infiltration
experiments for soil hydraulic characterization; 2013. p. 1–9.
Haverkamp R, Ross PJ, Smettem KR, Parlange JY. Three-dimensional
analysis of infiltrationfrom the disc infiltrometer 2. Physically based
infiltration equation. Water Resour Res. 1994;30(11):2931–5.
1281
Kanzari S, Bouhlila R. Simple evaporation method for estimating soil
water retention properties of an unsaturated zone in Bouhajla
(Kairouan-Central Tunisia). Exp J. 2014;26(4):1834–43.
Kanzari S, Sahraoui H, Ben Mariem S. Estimation des paramètres
hydrodynamiques des sols par la méthode Beerkan. J New Sci Agric
Biotechnol. 2015;18:1328–35.
Lassabatère L, Angulo-Jaramillo R, Soria Ulgade JM, Cuenca R,
Braud I, Haverkamp R. Beerkan Estimation of Soil Transfer
Parameters through Infiltration Experiments—BEST. Soil Sci Soc
Am J. 2006;70:521–32.
Simunek J, Huang K, Sejna M, van Genuchten MT. The Hydrus-1D
software package for simulating the one-dimensional movement of
water, heat, and multiple solutes in variably—saturated media.
Internaional ground water modelling center Colorado School of
Mines, Golden, Colorado; 2005. p. 162.
van Genuchten MT. A closed-form equation for predicting the
hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils. Soil Sci Soc
Am J. 1980;44:892–8.
 Perceptions and Threats to Wetlands
in South-Eastern Algeria: The Case of Lake
Ayata
Fatma Demnati, Naima Madjour, Farid Allache, Anis Guelmami,
and Lisa Ernoul



Keywords
Lake ayata Arid land
1 Introduction
The Mediterranean basin is home to many wetlands with
great ecological, economic and social values. During the
twentieth century, these important natural resources were
considerably degraded or destroyed. Algeria is no exception,
in recent decades there has been a marked erosion of pre-
cious wetlands throughout the country (De Bélair and
Samraoui 1994).
The Saharan zones have limited water potential and few
natural wetlands. A mosaic of wetlands from brackish
floodplains to chotts and sebkhas are an excellent example of
wetlands in an arid climate. Wetlands are dynamic ecosys-
tems well known for the important role they play for
migratory birds and the reproduction of waterbirds (Sam-
raoui and Samraoui 2008).
Lake Ayata is an important wetland in the Oued Righ
valley. It encompasses a remarkable floristic and avifauna
diversity. The first objective of this study was to identify the
perception of the local population concerning the ecological
threats of local wetlands. The second objective, was to
characterize the physiochemical quality of Lake Ayata
F. Demnati (&)
N. Madjour
F. Allache
Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Biskra,
BP 145 RP, 07000 Biskra, Algeria
e-mail: fat_demnati@yahoo.fr
F. Demnati
Laboratory of Ecosystems Diversity and Agricultural Production
Systems Dynamics in Arid Zones (DEDSPAZA), University of
Biskra, BP 145 RP, 07000 Biskra, Algeria
A. Guelmami
L. Ernoul
Centre de recherche la Tour du Valat, Le Sambuc, 13200 Arles,
France
e-mail: ernoul@tourduvalat.org
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_376



Survey Threats Conservation
water. The results could provide indications for future
management of wetlands in arid areas and help to insure
sustained and sustainable ecosystem services.
2 Materials and Methods
Lake Ayata (33° 29′ 17′′N, 05°5 9′ 10′′E) is located between
Touggourt and chott Merouane; administratively attached to
the Wilaya of El Oued (Fig. 1) and covers an area of 40 ha.
The study area is located in the arid bioclimatic floor, in
which rainfall is less than 200 mm/year. It is connected to
two natural sites (Chott Merouane and river El Khrouf) that
are classified as Ramsar sites.
The methodology was inspired from Demnati et al.
(2012). We first gathered information about the main
stakeholders in this region in order to identify the overall
perception concerning the wetlands, the main threats to the
wetlands and the management strategies. A survey ques-
tionnaire was implemented targeting the users and stake-
holders in six agglomerations close to the study area
(Zahoulia, Ain Choucha, El Mansoura, Tamerna, Sidi
Amrane, Djamaa). The questionnaires were administered to
a sample of 140 participants randomly selected. The ques-
tionnaire was divided into three principal parts, (1) demo-
graphic information (age, gender, family size, and
educational level), (2) economic activity (main activity,
agriculture, livestock, industrial…), and (3) perceptions
about the wetland. The questionnaires were analyzed using
Microsoft Excel.
Water characteristics and quality was also tested. We
tested the pH, the conductivity and we determined the
specific ions including: Assay Chlorides (Cl ̄ ), Sulphates
(SO2 2
4 ), Carbonates (CO3 ) and bicarbonates (HCO3). The
1283
1284
Fig. 1 Lake Ayata location
Na+ and K+ cations were determined by flame photometry.
The Ca++ and Mg++ cations were determined using a com-
plexometry with EDTA. We used the atomic absorption
spectrophotometer to determine traces of some heavy metals
(Cu, Zn).
3 Results and Discussion
Most of the respondents were farmers (47.89%) followed by
livestock producers (29.58%) and industrial workers for
sand and bricks (22.53%). The age of the respondents varied
between 35 and 81 years; the average age for farmers was
62.26 ± 11.90, for breeders 56.62 ± 11.47 and
43.78 ± 4.98 for industrial workers. As for the distribution
by gender, the entire sample was male. It is noted that
agriculture remains the main activity in the Oud Righ region.
The old oases concentrate the highest human densities and
have more socio-economic impacts (Saker et al. 2011). The
F. Demnati et al.
intensification and extension of agriculture in the region
through land reclamation has led to groundwater over-use
(Demnati et al. 2012). The main direct effect of water
resources over-use in the Algerian northern Sahara is the
ecological phenomenon of water upwelling in urban areas
(Bouchahm et al. 2013).
The stakeholders’ perception about the wetlands showed
that the majority of the individuals (90.17%) believe that the
lake is protected. The participants from the agglomeration
surveys of El Mansoura were an exception, with few people
indicating that the area was protected. All of the respondents
stated that the diversity of the lake is very remarkable for its
migratory birds richness. The participants expressed that this
richness is due to the palm groves of the wetland and the
favorable environment. However, only 17% of the popula-
tion of El Mansoura stated that the study area was important
for local economic reasons. Approximately 70% of the
surveyed population stated that the area has an aesthetic
aspect which can attract national and even international
Perceptions and Threats to Wetlands in South-Eastern Algeria … 1285

Table 1 Physicochemical analyses of Lake Ayata water The heavy metals concentrations (Cu, Zn) are far from the
Element Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 toxicity thresholds. The wastewater and drainage water
33° 49′ 27′′ 33° 48′ 88′′ 33° 49′ 31′′ 33° 49′ 48′′ discharge and irrigation water are a significant source of
N, 5° 98′ N, 5° 98′ N, 5° 99′ N, 5° 99′ Copper and Zinc. According to Yan and Pan (2002), Copper
91′′E 95′′E 14′′E 10′′E can induce a toxic effect which may result in a reduction or
CE (ms/cm) 14.7 14.2 10.2 11.5 inhibition of microalgae growth.
pH (meq/l) 7.5 7.6 7.2 7.6
Na+ (meq/l) 58.3 67.8 80.6 61.5
K+ (meq/l) 1.1 3.5 1.2 1.4 4 Conclusion
Ca ++
(meq/l) 3.5 3.2 2.1 2.8 The results show that the wetland region maintains
Mg ++
78 101 67 70 principally an agricultural vocation, which can be a
(meq/l) degrading factor due to the lack of water and reutilization
Cl− (meq/l) 125 160 67 90 of drainage water. Lake water is influenced primarily by
SO2
4
7.9 6.8 4.5 5.2 climatic factors such as evaporation and temperature,
(meq/l) which are the most important factors in producing pre-
CO2
3
0 0 0 0 cipitation and the formation of salts indicated by the high
(meq/l) levels of the elements analyzed. It is also influenced by
HCO3 6.5 6.5 8.7 6 the anthropogenic uses of the lake, as an outlet for sew-
(meq/l) age discharge and irrigation water drainage. The current
Cu (ppm) 0.08 0.13 0.11 0.10 uses are potential threats for the wetland. These threats
Zn (ppm) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 have to be considered in order to maintain the floristic
and faunistic richness of the area and eventually increase
tourism, while the population of Tamerna and Ain Choucha the attraction and socio-cultural values of the lake.
Lake does not have this asset due to urban waste and
wastewater rejection which has diminished the aesthetic
value of the area. All of the respondents stated that the References
region has become much polluted since the installation of
the brick factory. The activities in the region cause important Bouchahm N, Chaib W, Drouiche A, Zahi F, HamzaouiW, Salemk-
noise pollution as well due to the extraction and traffic. This our N, Fekraoui F, Djabri L. Caractérisation et cartographie des sites
can have negative consequences on the wetlands ecology. de remontée dans la region de l’Oued Righ (bas Sahara algérien).
All of the respondents deplored the lack of water, which J Algérien des Régions arides 2013; N Spécial:76–88.
Boukhoubza F, Aît Boughrous A, Yacoubi Khebiza M, Jail A,
led others to use drainage water. They were aware that Hassani L, Loukili Idriss L, Nejemeddine A. Impact des effluents
wastewater discharges were also very harmful to the envi- des huileries d’olive sur la qualité physico-chimique et biologique
ronment. This highlights that biodiversity conservation des eaux souterraines dans la plaine du Haouz au sud de Marrakech
cannot be dissociated from local development to preserve (Maroc). Environ Technol. 2008;29:959–74.
De Bélair G, Samraoui B. Death of a lake: Lac Noir in Northeastern
biodiversity. Local communities must be taken into con- Algeria. Environ Conserv. 1994;21:169–72.
sideration (Demnati et al. 2012). Demnati F, Allache F, Ernoul L, Samraoui B. Socio-Economic stakes
The conductivity of the lake water is very high. While the and perceptions of wetland management in an arid region: a case
measured pH at the various sampled sites is fairly alkaline. study from Chott Merouane, Algeria. Ambio. 2012;41:504–12.
Saker ML, Daddi Bouhoun M, Brinis A, Brinis L. L’agriculture
The majority (Table 1) of the analyzed elements (Ca++, Mg++ saharienne: réalités et perspectives: cas de la vallée de l’Oued Righ
−
for the cation, SO2
4 , Cl for the anion) are relatively high. (sud- est algérien). Agriculture. 2011;2:66–78.
The same is noticed for the concentration of certain ions Samraoui B, Samraoui F. An ornithological survey of Algerian
(Na+, HCO 3 ). The relatively high value of electrical con-
wetlands: important bird areas, Ramsar sites and threatened species.
Wildfowl. 2008;58:71–96.
ductivity can be explained by the drop in oxygen and the high Yan H, Pan G. Toxicity and bioaccumulation of Copper in three green
−
concentration of PO4þ 3 , NH4þ , NO 
3 , NO2 , Cl and SO4
2 microalgal species. Chemosphere. 2002;49:471–6.
which are the main sources of pollution (Boukhoubza et al.
2008).
 From the Characterization, Geochemical
Behavior and Health Risk Assessments
of Tunisian Phosphogypsum to a Potential
Way of Inerting and Valorization

Sonia Lazaar, Emmanuel Joussein, Soubrand Marilyne,

Alexandra Courtin-Nomade, Rania Hbaieb,
Matthias Monneron-Guyrits, and Mounir Medhioub

Keywords
Phosphogypsum Mineralogy Bioaccessibility Heavy metals Alkaline activation

1 Introduction fractionation, leaching experiments and their explanation

Phosphogypsum is the by-product of the acid process for
producing phosphoric acid from a phosphate rock. In
Tunisia, phosphate production generates very large volumes
of the phosphogypsum near the city of Sfax, which is stored
without a real management. In this case, cleaning of indus-
trial phosphogypsum is an environmental problem and a
potential human health risks. Indeed, phosphogypsum con-
tains metals and metalloids such as zinc, cadmium, or lead
which may induce environmental risks. In the literature, a
large number of authors have focused on the potential use of
phosphogypsum in agriculture, construction, landfill,
cement, manufacture of bricks… but rarely onto the
well-done mineralogical characterization and geochemical
behaviour of phosphogypsum materials. A recent paper of
Macias et al. (2017) has reported the characteristics and main
properties of large number of phosphogypsum deposits
including that of Sfax. However, nothing was stated about
their bioaccessibilty assessment even if this is a crucial point
for use and reuse.
The aim of this study was firstly to characterize and
evaluate their geochemical trends taking in consideration,
S. Lazaar
E. Joussein (&)
S. Marilyne
A. Courtin-Nomade

R. Hbaieb
M. Monneron-Guyrits
GRESE (Groupement de Recherche Eau Sol Environnement),
EA4330, Université de Limoges, 123 Avenue Albert Thomas,
87060 Cedex Limoges, France
e-mail: emmanuel.joussein@unilim.fr
S. Lazaar
R. Hbaieb
M. Medhioub
Faculté Des Sciences et Techniques, Université de Sfax, Sfax,
Tunisia
relative to mineralogy. According to these results, a new
valorization way of phosphogypsum by alkaline activation
was then proposed allowing its use without risks.
2 Materials and Methods
Phosphogypsum was sampled near Sfax in Tunisia. Several
physical-chemical properties have been measured like CEC,
pH, grain size distribution and chemical composition. Spe-
ciation has been determined by BCR sequential extraction
and mineralogical characterization using XRD, SEM-EDS
and FTIR analyses. Leaching experiments have been con-
ducted according to the EN12457-2. In vitro bioaccessibility
methods have been used to simulate the physiological
mechanisms of digestion and estimate the actual quantity
potentially absorbable of metal by the human body. This
protocol is based on the Unified BARGE Method
(UBM) developed by the Bioaccessibility Research Groupe
of Europe (BARGE). Finally, the valorization way method
performed from metakaolin-based alkaline activation by
mixing various amounts of metakaolin, phosphogypsum and
silicate solution. The behavior of phosphogypsum was pre-
viously investigated into NaOH, Ca(OH)2 and KOH alkaline
solution from leaching experiments at 5 min, 1 h, 6 h, 1d
and 7d then elements as well as mineralogical change were
measured individually. Then the phosphogypsum-based
materials were synthesized. Briefly, metakaolin has been
substituted by phosphogypsum from 10% up to 100%.
Synthesized materials were then characterized by XRD and
FTIR. The environmental risk was evaluated from the
EN12457-2 as well as BCR after synthesis.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1287

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_377
1288
3 Results and Discussion
Mineralogical characterization by XRD, FTIR and SEM was
effective. As expected, phosphogypsum consisted of gypsum
and a small amount of brushite and hemihydrate. The pH
value is quite acidic about 2.8 and the main elements are
calcium and sulphate. Even if the main deposits of phos-
phogypsum around the world are classically heavy
metal-rich, the Sfax deposit is lower-rich, i.e. the main ele-
ments are Zn, Cd and Pb of about 149.8, 24.5 and
0.69 mg/kg, respectively. This fact is quite important as it
favours their potential reuse. BCR experiments were con-
ducted in such a way to determine the partitioning of these
three elements. The distribution of Cd and Zn into the
various fractions is: Fresidual >>> Facid-soluble > Foxidable >
Freductible whereas the distribution for Pb is Facid-soluble >
Foxidable > Freductible- > Fresidual. Finally, a large part of Zn
and Cd are localized in the residual fraction for 95% of the
total content.
Leaching tests have shown that phosphogypsum is con-
sidered hazardous waste Landfills for Cd; Non-hazardous
waste Landfills for the Zn and as inert waste landfills for Pb.
Finally, these results clearly show that a potential environ-
mental risk is quite obvious.
The bioaccessibility tests (UBM) reveal that cadmium is
the most bioaccessible element (50 to 75% of total cad-
mium). To assess the non-carcinogenic heath risk for chil-
dren and adults, Average Daily Intake (ADI) and Hazard
Quotient (HQ) for Cd, Pb and Zn have been calculated. For
all elements, the non-carcinogenic risks to children and
adults were lower than the safe levels (HQ < 1).
In order to inert and reuse this by-product, it was pro-
posed to test the alkaline activation metakaolin-based way.
The leaching experiments by NaOH, KOH and Ca(OH)2
evidenced that phosphogyspsum is more reactive in NaOH
media. Then, the alkaline activation was chosen rather the
NaOH since it was more reactive. Synthesis of
phosphogypsum-based material was performed by substitute
S. Lazaar et al.
metakaolin from 0 to 100% by the phosphogypsum as
reactive compound. The results evidence that phosphogyp-
sum can be highly incorporated into geomaterials based
metakaolin up to 100% but inducing a decrease of the
mechanical properties. However synthesized samples are
quite consolidated which is a crucial point. Moreover, SEM
investigations evidenced the partial dissolution of phospho-
gypsum, inducing the redistribution of metals and metalloids
into the matrix. This is in accordance with the BCR exper-
iments showing that the main pollutants are localized in the
residual fractions. The leaching behavior from the
EN12457-2 confirms the fact that the environmental risks are
quite reduced. The values of the leached contents are lower
than the detection limits whatever the synthesized samples.
The materials formed may be considered as inert waste.
4 Conclusion
A complete mineralogical and geochemical approaches
coupled with leaching experiments were achieved onto
Sfax phosphogypsum. The study highlighted that phos-
phogypsum presented an environmental risk due to the
presence of contaminants such as Cd, Pb and Zn limiting
their use. A proposition based onto alkaline activation
was forwarded and tested. The first results evidenced its
high potential to inert the main contaminants in the
material matrix and exhibited well-achieved mechanical
properties. More investigations onto this valorization
method should be carried out to increase the potential.
Reference
Macias F, Canovas CR, Cruz-Hernandez P, Carrero S, Asta MP,
Nieto JM, Perez-Lopez R. An anomalous metal-rich phosphogyp-
sum: characterization and classification according to international
regulations. J Hazard Mater. 2017;331:99–108.
 Assessment of Land Degradation Related
to Groundwater Irrigation of Oasis
Environments. Case Study: The Zibans
(Biskra), Algeria

Salah Belghemmaz, Mohammed Fenni, Gabriela Mihaela Afrasinei,

Yacine Louadj, and Nouara Degui

Keywords

Land degradation Water Oasis Soil salinization Arid areas Decision tree
classifier Landsat LCLU mapping

1 Introduction agricultural sites in the Zibans region (Daoud and Halitim

Irrigated agriculture from groundwater is a common solution
to sustain food security in arid and semi-arid areas, such as
the Zibans of the Biskra area, Algeria. Sustainable devel-
opment is limited by land degradation, such as secondary
salinization of soils. This study aimed to assess the state of
soil and land degradation, greatly enhanced by the mobility
of soluble salts through seepage from brackish/saline water
tables and their accumulation due to evaporation (Daddi
Bouhoun and Brinis 2004; Fares and Philip 2008; Abbas
et al. 2013), through the use of groundwater for the irrigation
of oases and small-farming perimeters in three different
S. Belghemmaz (&)
M. Fenni
Labortory of Valorisation of Biological and Natural Resources,
Faculty of Life and Natural Sciences, Ferhat ABBAS University,
Sétif-1, Algeria
e-mail: sbelghemmaz@yahoo.fr
M. Fenni
e-mail: fennimodz@yahoo.fr
G. M. Afrasinei
Remote Sensing and GIS TeleGIS Laboratory, Department of
Chemical and Geological Sciences, University of Cagliari,
Cagliari, Italy
e-mail: afrasinei.gabriela.m@ieee.org
Y. Louadj
N. Degui
Department of Agronomic Sciences, Faculty of Life and Natural
Sciences, Ferhat ABBAS University, Sétif-1, Algeria
e-mail: pedologist899@gmail.com
N. Degui
e-mail: degui.n38@gmail.com
1994; Guergazi and Achour 2005). The three selected sites
are: Site 1 of Sidi Okba and its surroundings (located in the
eastern Zeb); site 2 Tolga and its surrounding areas (located
in Western Zeb); and site 3 located north of Biskra and
represented by El Outaya and its surroundings.
2 Materials and Methods
Land degradation and soil salinization were assessed through
the use of ancillary, field, laboratory and remote sensing data
and techniques. The three sites were chosen and assessed
according to their pedological, geological, hydrological and
geomorphological settings of the sites and surrounding
areas. The study was carried out according to N-S oriented
topo-sequences, and field work was achieved in April 2015
in site 3, April 2016 in site 2 and April 2017 in site 1.
Standard methods (Mathieu and et Pieltain 2003) were
employed for the laboratory analysis of the soil and water
samples. Soil samples analysis comprised pH and EC, using
the potentiometric methods and total calcium carbonate
Content (%), using a volumetric method (calcimetry). The
water samples analysis included pH and EC using the
potentiometric method. Furthermore, Landsat imagery was
employed in a supervised classification using a Decision
Tree classifier containing customized spectral indices aimed
at the extraction of the main features of interest: gypsum-rich
soils, carbonate-rich areas and sandy areas (Pal and Mather
2003; Zhu and Woodcock 2014; Asfaw et al. 2016; Afra-
sinei et al. 2017a, b).

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A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_378
1290
3 Results and Discussion
The outcomes of this study allowed the identification of three
different situations. First, the Western Zeb oasis ecosystems
are highly affected by secondary salinization. Indicators of
halomorphy and hydromorphy develop noticeably. The
waters have an EC varying between 4 and 9.4 dS/m and a pH
that oscillates between 7.5 and 8.1. The soils are very saline
and extremely saline. Their pH is alkaline and reaches 8.5 in
oases, being dominated by alkalization and hydromorphy. In
the north, the waters of the boreholes are strongly saline (EC
varies between 3.5 and 3.8 dS/m) and their pH ranges
between 7.65 and 8.1 with a low to moderate alkalization
risk. The soils are halomorphic (EC between 1.2 and 2 dS/m)
and their pH varies between 7.4 and 8.3.
On the other hand, Eastern Zeb presents a different
hydropedological context from the previous ones. The
salinity of the wells is low, ranging from 0.218 dS/m
(Seriana Oasis north of Sidi Okba) to 0.951 dS/m (Oasis
located in El Haouche, south of Sidi Okba). Salinization
partly affects palm groves or irrigated perimeters located in
Sidi Okba and El Haouche. The EC of the soil exceeds
1.4 dS/m. The soil is weakly acid to weakly alkaline (pH
6.4–7.5). The type of relief and the situation of the agri-
cultural sites in the landscape make the hydromorphy
develop only punctually. The remote sensing analysis sus-
tains these findings, as spatial distribution of salt-affected
soils follows the results of field and laboratory analysis
(Tarek et al. 2014).
4 Conclusion
The risk of degradation by salinization is more obvious in
the western Zeb (Tolga) and north of the Ziban (El
Outaya). Very specific measures and practices (leaching
and drainage) must be applied in order to safeguard these
oases. In eastern Zeb, salinization is lower and there are
no restrictions on the management of the oasis ecosystem.
S. Belghemmaz et al.
References
Abbas A, Khan S, Hussain N, Hanjra MA, Akbar S. Characterizing soil
salinity in irrigated agriculture using a remote sensing approach.
Phys Chem Earth, Parts A/B/C. 2013;55–57:43–52. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.pce.2010.12.004.
Afrasinei G-M, Melis MT, Buttau C, Arras C, Pistis M, Zerrim A,
Guied M, Ouessar M, Essifi B, Ben Zaied M, Jlali A, Jarray H,
Ghiglieri G. Classification methods for detecting and evaluating
changes in desertification-related features in arid and semiarid
environments. Euro-Mediterranean J Environ Integration.
2017a;2:14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41207-017-0021-1.
Afrasinei GM, Melis MT, Buttau C, Bradd JM, Arras C, Ghiglieri G.
Assessment of remote sensing-based classification methods for
change detection of salt-affected areas (Biskra area, Algeria). J Appl
Remote Sens. 2017b;11:16025. https://doi.org/10.1117/1.JRS.11.
016025.
Asfaw E, Suryabhagavan KV, Argaw M. Soil salinity modeling and
mapping using remote sensing and GIS: the case of Wonji sugar
cane irrigation farm, Ethiopia. J Saudi Soc Agric Sci. 2016. doi:10.
1016/j.jssas.2016.05.003.
Daddi Bouhoun M, Brinis L. Etude de la dynamique des sels solubles
dans un sol irrigué Gypso-Salin : cas d’une palmeraie de la cuvette
de Ouargla. 2004.
Daoud Y, Halitim A. Irrigation et salinisation au Sahara algérien. 1994.
Fares MH, Philip CG. Characterization of salt-crust build-up and soil
salinization in the united arab emirates by means of field and remote
sensing techniques. In: Metternicht G, Zinck A (eds) Remote
sensing of soil salinization. CRC Press; 2008.
Guergazi S, Achour S. Caractéristiques physico-chimiques des eaux
d’alimentation de La Ville De Biskra. Pratique de la Chloration
Larhyss J. 2005;119–127. doi:ISSN 1112-3680.
Mathieu C, et Pieltain F. Analyse chimique des sols: méthodes choisies.
Ed Tec et Doc. Lavoisier; 2003, 386 p.
Pal M, Mather PM. An assessment of the effectiveness of decision tree
methods for land cover classification. Remote Sens Environ.
2003;86:554–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(03)00132-9.
Tarek A, Baelhadj H-A, Amor H, Tawfik M, Houria R. Apport de La
Télédétection dans l’étude de la relation entre états de surface et
pédopaysages En Milieu Aride: Exemple de la région d’El Outaya.
Algérie: Biskra; 2014.
Zhu Z, Woodcock CE. Continuous change detection and classification
of land cover using all available Landsat data. Remote Sensing
Environ. 2014;144:152–171. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2014.01.011.
 Electrochemical and Surface Morphological
Studies of a Carbon Steel Corrosion
by Natural Product in Acidic Solution

Hana Ferkous, Meriem Zerroug, Manelle Radjai,

Mohamed Aymen Chaouch, Zayneb jebali, and Hatem Majdoub

Keywords
AFM SEM Inhibitor Corrosion Carbon steel RMS

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Acid cleaning, acid pickling, acid descaling and oil well
acidizing need the use of corrosion inhibitors to stop their
corrosion attack.
Many of their inhibitors are synthetic which maybe very
exorbitant and toxic to living creatures and environnement.
In the recent years investigating the use of low cost and
green compounds as corrosion inhibitors for carbon steel has
been reinforced.
The purpose of this study was to explore the ability of
Nopal peel PPEN to inhibit corrosion when adsorbed on
carbon steel surfaces. To determine the corrosion inhibition
efficiency; Morphological Studies and Electrochemical tests
were performed, to obtain more information on inhibitor
adsorption and film forming processes.
H. Ferkous
Laboratoire de Physique Des Matériaux Rayonnement et
Nanostructures, Université El-Bachir El-Ibrahimi Bordj Bou
Arreridj, El Anasser, Algérie
M. Zerroug (&)
Laboratoire des matériaux et systèmes électroniques, Université
El-Bachir El-Ibrahimi Bordj Bou Arreridj, El Anasser, Algérie
e-mail: sc.mariem@hotmail.fr
M. Radjai
Laboratoires de génie des procédés catalytiques, Université Ferhat
Abbass, Sétif-01, Sétif, Algérie
M. A. Chaouch
Z. jebali
H. Majdoub
Faculté des sciences de Monastir Laboratoire des Interfaces et des
Matériaux Avancés (LIMA), Université de Monastir, BD. De
l’environnement, 5019 Monastir, Tunisia
Z. jebali
Faculté des Sciences de Gabes, Université de Gabes, Gabès,
Tunisia
The experiments were performed with coupons of carbon steel
with chemical composition presented in Table 1. The Specimens
were polished, degreased, washed and dried until application.
The tests were carried out in 1 M HCl solution with and
without addition of inhibitor at different concentrations.
The electrochemical measurments were performed using
a Potentiostat/galvanostat SP300 piloted by EC-Lab V 10.33
Software. The Three-electrode cell, used for tests, includes a
working electrode (WE) of 0.5 cm2 of surface, a platinum
counter electrode (CE) and saturated Ag/AgCl/KClsat as a
reference electrode (RE).
The effect of temperature on the inhibition process in
absence and the presence of 400 ppm (optimum concentration
of PPEN) at temperature ranging from 25 to 50 °C was studied.
For the AFM measurements, the samples were, firstly,
wet-polished with abrasive paper. Afterward, the sample was
cleaned with acetone then distilled water and dried.
The 2D AFM morphologies, were taken by Asylum
Research an Oxford Instruments company type: MFP-3D
with contact mode after twelve hours of immersion in 1 M
HCL in the presence and absence of inhibitors at room
temperature with a scan rate of 1 Hz.
3 Results and Discussion
The increase in temperature causes an increase in corrosion
current densities (Icorr) in the absence and presence of the
PPEN inhibitor as shown in Fig. 1.
–The inhibitory efficacy was slightly modified indicating
that PPEN has an independent effect of temperature.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1291

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_379
1292 H. Ferkous et al.

Table 1 Chemical composition C Mn Si Ni Cr Mo Fe

of carbon steel
0.38% 0.66% 0.27% 0.02% 0.21% 0.02% Balance

50 °C. and a phase shift of the semicircles compared to the real

axis. This is due to the decrease in the charge transfer resis-
tance Rct with the increase in temperature.

3.1 AFM study

The 2D AFM morphologies, for polished mild steel (con-

Fig. 1 Polarization curves of carbon steel in 1 M HCl in the presence
of PPEN at different temperatures
trol), immersed respectively in 1 M HCl (blank) and 1 M
HCl containing 400 ppm of PPEN as indicated in Fig. 3
The RMS values of the freshly polished surface (a) is
27.86 nm. A slight roughness is noticed; a presence of few
scratches due to the atmospheric corrosion (Geetha and
Rajendran 2016) or the polishing treatment.
The RMS values for the mild steel surface immersed in 1 M
HCl solution is 141.74 nm. From this value and the image (b), it
is easy to see that the mild steel immersed in hydrochloric acid
solution has a greater surface roughness due to corrosion.
However, in the presence of NPE, the RMS decreased to
63.41 nm. This reduction demonstrates that the surface
becomes smoother because of the deposition of the inhibitors
on the metal surface (Anbarasi et al. 2013) as shown in (c).

4 Conclusion
The inhibitor has an independent mode of action of
temperature.
According to The AFM study, it is found that the
protective film formed on the surface decreases the cor-
rosion rate of carbon steel for polysaccharides extracted
from nopal peel PPEN inhibitor.

Fig. 2 Nyquist plots of carbon steel in 1 M HCl at different
temperatures in the presence of PPEN
According to the Nyquist diagrams shown in Fig. 2. A re-
duction in the size of the loops was observed, in particular for
References
Anbarasi CM, Rajendran S. Electrochemical and AFM study of
corrosion inhibition of carbon steel by Octanesulphonic acid-Zinf
ion system. Int J Curr Eng Technol. 2013. ISSN 2277–4106.
Geetha MB, Rajendran S. Synergistic Inhibition of corrosion of mild
steel in sulphuric acid by New Ternary system. Der Pharma
Chemica. 2016;8(3):194–201.

Fig. 3 2D AFM images of mild steel (a) Polished sample (b) Immersed in 1 M HCl (c) Immersed in 1 M HCl containing 400 ppm
 Green Corrosion Inhibitor for Carbon Steel
in 1 M HCl: A Comparative Study
of Polysaccharides Extracted from Prickly
Pear Nopals of Opuntia Ficus-Indica (Peel
and Pulp)

Hana Ferkous, Meriem Zerroug, Mohamed Aymen Chaouch,

Manelle Radjai, Hatem Majdoub, and Abderrazak Bouzid

Keywords
Green corrosion Inhibitor Adsorption LPR EIS SEM FTIR AFM

1 Introduction environment, aquatic and animal life as well as the exorbi-

Corrosion control of metal, particularly in acidic media,
appears to draw a critical importance from an economic,
environmental and aesthetical prspective. HCl is amply used
for the cleaning, pickling, descaling and etching of steel,
while, inversely, favorizing the corrosion of metals. Corro-
sion prevention and protection prevents the degradation of
metals and materials, thus, contributes significantly in the
conservation of resources with a minimum damage to the
ecosystem. In this respect, applying inhibitors stands one of
the major protection methods that proved to be effective in
shielding metal and alloys from the effects of such a phe-
nomenon. Many organic compounds have been, and are still
being used, but most of these compounds are not only costly
but also display negative impacts on both health and envi-
ronment (Acharya 2013), prompting researchers to find
rather effective alternatives. Hence, the study of new
low-cost and eco-friendly nontoxic inhibitors seems abso-
lutely imposed to get rid of the undesired toxic effects on the
H. Ferkous (&)
Laboratoire de Physique Des Matériaux, Rayonnement et
Nanostructures, Université El-Bachir El-Ibrahimi Bordj Bou
Arreridj, El Anasser, Algérie
e-mail: hanaferkous@gmail.com
M. Zerroug
A. Bouzid
Laboratoire des Matériaux et Systèmes électroniques, Université
El-Bachir El-Ibrahimi Bordj Bou Arreridj, El Anasser, Algérie
M. A. Chaouch
H. Majdoub
Laboratoire des Interfaces et des Matériaux Avancés (LIMA),
Faculté des Sciences de Monstir, Université de Monastir, BP.de
L’environnement, 5019 Monastir, Tunisia
M. Radjai
Laboratoires de Génie des Procédés Catalytiques, Université
Ferhat Abbass Sétif-01, Sétif, Algérie
tant related costs. Actually, plant based products constitute
the major sources of these green inhibitors.
Many studies dealing with the utilization of environ-
mentally friendly inhibitors have reported the successful
application of these substances as effective means of metal
corrosion inhibition in acidic media (Prabakaran 2016;
Ramdani 2016). Indeed, polysaccharides represent a vast
class of natural polymers. In fact, the present research is
focused on exploring the ability of polysaccharides extracted
from nopal pulpe (PPUN) and nopal peel (PPEN) to inhibit
corrosion of mild steel in 1 M hydrochloric acid solution.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Inhibitor
Fresh prickly pear cladodes were collected during the month
of March, from the area of Monastir (Tunisia). The cladodes
were firstly cleaned with tap water, and the spines were
removed manually. Then, cladodes peels and pulp were
separately collected and blended with a mixing machine
using distilled water.
Thereby, peel’s and pulp’s juices were left for 10 min
under ultrasonic treatment then and for two hours under
mechanical agitation at 40 °C. The mixtures were then fil-
tered, centrifuged for 20 min at 3000 Trm and dialyzed
against deionized water by means of dialysis tubing, with
molecular weight cut-off 14 kDa. Finally, the different dia-
lysates were freeze-dried leading to a pair of extracts from
peels (PPEN) and pulp (PPUN). The structural characteris-
tics of PPEN and PPUN were determined by (Shimadzu

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1293

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_380
1294 H. Ferkous et al.

FTIR-8400S, Japan) in the frequency range of 4000–

400 cm−1 (Majdoub 2001).

2.2 Sample and Medium

Corrosion tests were performed on the carbon steel of the

following range rated composition: C% 0.38%, Mn%
0.66%, Si% 0.27%, Ni% 0.02%, Cr% 0.21%, Mo% 0.02%.
Inhibitor solutions were prepared in the range, 0–
400 ppm concentrations in a 1 M HCl solution.

2.3 Weight Loss Methods

Carbon steel specimen were dislocated into 2 cm  0.5

cm  0.2 cm, abrades with different grades of emery papers,
washed with distilled water, degreased with acetone, dried
and immersed in a solution containing 1 M HCl solution
with and without various concentrations of the investigated
inhibitors at different time intervals of immersion. The cor-
rosion rate (W) and the inhibition efficiency (IE%) were
computed.

2.4 Electrochimical Tests

Polarization measurements were conducted in a conven-

tional three-electrode cell, involving a working electrode
(sample) of a surface of 0.5 cm2, a platinum counter elec-
trode (CE) as well as a saturated Ag/AgCl reference elec-
trode (RE). Measurements were carried out via an SP300
Potentiostat/galvanostat piloted by means of a microcom-
puter equipped with an EC-Lab V 10.33 Software. The
potentials were scanned at a scan rate of 0.5 mVs−1 from the
corrosion potential (Ecorr) in the cathodic direction and,
subsequently, in the anodic direction.
The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, EIS, was
carried out with the open circuit potential, Eocp, with respect
to each single sample. The entirety of samples were
immersed for 60 min over a frequency range of 50 kHz at
10 MHz with a signal amplitude perturbation of 10 mV. It
was, then, fitted with sets of circuits to help yield the best
value.
3 Results and Discussion
The FTIR can be used to characterize the chemical structure
through identification of the functional groups persistent in
each sample. The FTIR spectra of PPEN and PPUN are
depicted in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 FTIR spectra of nopal pulpe (PPUN) and nopal peel (PPEN)
A visual inspection of the spectra reveals that the samples
prove to exhibit rather similar spectral features. The repre-
sentative bands located in 3411 cm−1 can be attributed to
O-H or N-H stretching vibration (Yeddes 2014). The band at
2915 cm−1 (PPUN) and 2877 cm−1 (PPEN) was assigned to
asymetric and symetric C–H bands. The typical bands
assigned to the polysaccaharides were located at 1063 cm−1
(PPEN) and 1079 cm−1 (PPUN) for C–O–C glycosidic band
vibrations. 1419(PPUN) and 1406 cm−1 (PPEN) were
respectively attributed to the stretch vibration of C–H.
Finally, signals perceived at 1640 cm−1 (PPUN) and
1627 cm−1 (PPEN) were due to the asymetric stretch
vibration of C = O.
Figure 2 helps highlight that the inhibition efficiency
reached up 83% at 25 ppm for PPUN to remain stable over
the entire range of concentrations. In contrast, in the case of
PPEN, the inhibition efficiency proved to increase with
increasing inhibitor concentration until 400 ppm, at which it
was discovered to reach 97%. The two nhibitors helped
reduce both of the anodic and cathodic reactions (Fig. 3),
denoting that they are of a mxied-type.
Green Corrosion Inhibitor for Carbon Steel in 1 M HCl … 1295

Fig. 2 Comparison of inhibition efficiency of PPEN and PPUN in 1 M HCl

The EIS measurement (Fig. 4) seemed to highlight well

that the Rct value increased with the addition of both inhi-
bitors, while the Cdl value proved to decrease, indicating the
formation of film on the surface (Zarrouk 2013; Al-Otaibi
2014). The AFM and SEM were applied for the purpose of
investigating the surface morphology to confirm the corro-
sion results (Figs. 5 and 6).
Adsorption isotherm data were recorded at room tem-
perature and analyzed through selected adsorption isotherm
models, so as to highlight the inhibition relating character-
istics. Thermodynamic calculations proved to indicate that
the inhibition efficiency appeared to increase with increasing
inhibitor concentration. Adsorptions of PPUN and PPEN on
the carbon steel surface were found to be spontaneous and

Fig. 3 Polarization curves for carbon steel in 1 M HCl solution

containing different PPUN concentrations

Fig. 4 Impedance diagrams for carbon steel in 1 M HCl solution Fig. 5 SEM image of Carbon steel immersed in 1 M HCl containing
containing different PPUN concentrations PPUN 25 ppm
1296
Fig. 6 3D AFM image of Carbon steel Steel immersed in 1 M HCl
containing PPUN 25 ppm
exothermic. Adsorption is suggested to be physisorption, in
confrmity with the Langmuir isotherm model.
4 Conclusion
Within the scope of the present research, it has been
demonstraed that:
1. Both extracts turn out to stand as effictive inhibitors of
carbon steel corrosion in 1 M HCl.
H. Ferkous et al.
2. Polarization studies proved to reveal well that the com-
pounds under investigation were mixed type inhibitors.
3. The weight loss, electrochemical impedance spec-
troscopy, polarization curves and linear polarization were
in A harmonious agreement.
4. Adsorption of PPUN and PPEN on the steel surface
followed the Langmuir isotherm.
5. The PPEN efficiency appears to increase with increase in
concentration.
References
Acharya M, Chouhan JS, Dixit A, Gupta D. 2013.
Al-Otaibi M, Al-Mayouf A, Khan M, Mousa A, Al-Mazroa S,
Alkhathlan H. Arabian J Chem. 2014;7:340–346.
Majdoub H, Roudesli S, Deratani A. Polym Int. 2001;50:552–60.
Prabakaran M, Kim S-H, Hemapriya V, Chung I-M. Res Chem
Intermed. 2016;42:3703–19.
Ramdani M, Elmsellem H, Haloui B, Elkhiati N, Layachi M,
Mesfioui A, Hammouti B, Aouniti A, El Mahi B. Der Pharma
Chemica. 2016;8(1):330–7.
Yeddes N, Chérif JK, Trabelsi AM. Pak J Biol Sci: PJBS.
2014;17:650–8.
Zarrouk A, Zarrok H, Salghi R, Touir R, Hammouti B, Benchat N,
Afrine L, Hannache H, El Hezzat M. M. BOUACHRINE. J Chem
Pharm Res. 2013;5(12):1482–91.
 Extraction and Characterization of Tannins
Obtained from Fresh and Dried Tunisian
Pomegranate Peel

Samia Ben-Ali

Keywords
Pomegranate peel Waste by-product Extraction Tannins Optimization
Characterization

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Pomegranate peels (PGP) are considered a waste product
generally used as animals feed without any added value
despite the high content of polyphenolic compounds that are
more important than that contained in the edible part of the
fruit. The polyphenolic compounds of the PGP have
important health properties because of their antioxidant,
anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties (Xi et al.
2017). These properties provide the PGP with a great
potential to be used as an attractive ingredient and natural
additive for food enrichment. Otherwise, different applica-
tions are associated with the presence of hydrolysable tan-
nins (ellagitannins), flavonoids (anthocyanins) and
condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins) such as dye and
ecological adhesive applications (Ajmal et al. 2014; Saad
et al. 2012). In this context, the present study opimized
tannins extraction conditions, characterized the resulting
extract and compared yield extraction from fresh and dried
PGP. It appears that fresh form of this agro-industrial waste
has higher polyphenolic content than its dried form,
whereas, generally, PGP is valorized in the form of dry
agriculture waste.
S. Ben-Ali (&)
Research Laboratory of Engineering Processes and Industrials
Systems, National School of Engineers of Gabes, University of
Gabes, Gabès, Tunisia
e-mail: benali.samia@gmail.com
Fresh pomegranate fruit were collected daily from local
sites of Gabes (in the southern part of Tunisia) in october
2016. The peels were separated manually from the fruit.
Fresh peels were reduced to a desired size and immedi-
ately used. Another part of peels were dried at 60 °C until
reaching a constant moisture content of 8%. Dried
pomegranate peels were then, ground (3 mm/3 mm). The
used extraction method in this study was maceration
technique at different temperatures [30–80 °C] for
150 min. Various solid liquid ratios were used [1/2–
1/50 g/mL]. The effect of pH was studied for pH values of
[2–8]. To evaluate the effect of solvents nature, different
extractions were carried out with: water, ethanol and
acetone. Particle size and agitation effect were also stud-
ied. The effect of these parameters on yield extract was
evaluated by spectrophotometric measurement. Con-
densed tannin content was determined as described by
(Fuleki 1968), hydrolysable tannin content was deter-
mined with potassium iodate test method proposed by
(Willis 1998) and polyphenols content was determined
with the Folin–Ciocalteu method as detailed by (Scalbert
et al. 1989). FTIR spectrum of the PGP extract was
recorded in a Nicolet IR200 Model Infrared Spectropho-
tometer equipped with DTGS detector and with a spec-
trum range 4000–400 cm−1. Thermogravimetric Analyzes
(TGA) were performed under a nitrogen atmosphere with
Setaram equipment (SETSYS Evolution Ev 1750 (TGA–
DTA 1600) thermal analyzer).

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1297

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_381
1298
Fig. 1 a Effect of extraction time and solid/liquid ratio, b Comparison between FPGP and DPGP extract for different solid/liquid ratio
3 Results and Discussion
To measure the absorbance of each obtained extract, the
maximum wavelength was first determined. The spectrum
shows that the maximum wavelength of the pomegranate
extract was of the order of 363 nm. At this value of the
wavelength, the absorbances of all the samples were measured.
UV spectral studies of the extract showed a variation in
absorption maxima with respect to the pH, the temperature
and the solvent nature used during extraction. The optimum
conditions were found to be 62 min, 60 °C, 1/8 (g/mL) and
6 for the extraction time, temperature, solid-liquid ratio and
pH, respectively. Figure (1a) presents the absorbance vari-
ation versus extraction time. The curves obtained are char-
acterized by the presence of two parts. First part where the
absorbance was increasing as a function of time (time
between 10 and 120 min). This being explained by the
Fig. 2 a FTIR spectrum of PGP extract, b thermogravimetric analysis of extracted tannins
S. Ben-Ali
solubility of tannins in water which implies that the extrac-
tion was not yet completed during this period. A second part
where the absorbance was constant. This showed that the
extraction was completed within a two-hour period since
the concentration of the extract was constant. Therefore, the
extraction required a well-defined time to be completed. The
time required to obtain a maximum extraction was 120 min,
which corresponds to the optimum extraction time. The
maximum yield extracts obtained from fresh pomegranate
peel (FPGP) at the optimum conditions was found to be
50%, whereas only 34% was obtained from dried pome-
granate peel (DPGP) (Fig. 1b). This can be explained by
polyphenols thermal degradation, which induced higher
hydrolysable tannin content of FPGP than that obtained for
DPGP.
The FTIR spectrum is analyzed, using data from the lit-
erature, the absorption bands corresponding to the functional
Extraction and Characterization of Tannins Obtained from Fresh …
groups (Guzel 2012) were attributed. The broad band about
3260 cm−1 can be assigned to the stretching vibration bond
of hydroxylic groups (gallic acid). The band at 2938 cm−1
corresponds to C-H stretching vibration. The peak around
1730 cm−1 represents C=O stretching of the carbonyl
group. The band at 1617 cm−1 is assigned to the stretching
vibration bond of O–H group of polyphenols. The bands at
1460 and 1342 cm−1 are the skeletal vibration of the aro-
matic ring. The peak at 1214 cm−1 is assigned to the assy-
metric C–O–C stretching vibration. The strong band at 1023
and 1084 cm−1 are assigned to OH stretching deformation of
gallic acid and tannic acid, respectively. The band at 930 and
890 cm−1 are assigned to the out plane bending of the iso-
lated hydrogen in the benzene ring (Fig. 2a).
The thermogravimetry analysis curve of extracted tannins
from pomegranate peel is shown in Fig. (2b). It is charac-
terized by three mass losses. The first one of 5% is attributed
to the moisture mass loss. The second more important loss,
corresponds to the first thermal decomposition of gallic
starting at 165 °C. Above 300 °C, aliphatic bonds in the
aromatic ring begin to rupture to produce phenolic deriva-
tives. The third phase between 400 and 450 °C is charac-
terized by the reduction of the speed of mass loss and
corresponds to the thermal degradation of the residue
resulting from the decomposition of the main components
during the second phase. The residue rate is equal to 43%.
4 Conclusion
The objective of this work is to investigate the potential
of an agricultural by-product, a pomegranate peel, to
extract polyphenols contents. The obtained residue after
1299
extraction can be used for wastewater treatment (Ben-Ali
2017). Optimum extraction conditions have been deter-
mined and efficiency extraction from fresh and dry peel
has been evaluated. Extracted tannins have been charac-
terized using FTIR and TG analysis.
References
Ajmal M, Adeel S, Azeem M, Zuber M, Akhtar N, Iqbal N. Modulation
of pomegranate peel colourant characteristics for textile dyeing
using high energy radiations. Ind Crops Prod. 2014;58:188–93.
Ben-Ali S, Jaouali I, Souissi-Najar S, Ouederni A. Characterization and
adsorption capacity of raw pomegranate peel biosorbent for copper
removal. J Cleaner Prod. 2017;142:3809–21.
Fuleki T, Francis FJ. Quantative methods for analysis. 2. Determination
of total anthocyanin and degeadition index in cranberries. J Food
Sci. 1968;33:78–83.
Guzel F, Aksoy O, Akkaya G. Application of pomegranate
(punica-granatum) pulp as a new biosorbent for the removal of a
model basic dye (methylene blue). World Appl Sci J. 2012;20:965–
75.
Saad H, Bouhtoury FC-E, Pizzi A, Rode K, Charrier B, Ayed N.
Characterization of pomegranate peels tannin extractives. Ind Crop
Prod. 2012;40:239–246.
Scalbert A, Monties B, Janin G. Tannins in wood: comparison of
different estimation methods. J Agric Food Chem. 1989;37:1324–9.
Willis RB, Allen PR. Improved method for measuring hydrolyzable
tannins using potassium iodate. Analyst. 1998;123:435–9.
Xi J, He L, Yan L-G. Continuous extraction of phenolic com- pounds
from pomegranate peel using high voltage electrical discharge.
Food Chem. 2017;230:354–361.
 Methane Production from Browse Species
of Algerian Arid Areas
Samir Medjekal, Mouloud Ghadbane, Laid Benderradji, Raoul Bodas,
Hacène Bousseboua, and Secundino Lopez



Keywords
Forage Gas production Methane
1 Introduction
Ruminants establish a symbiotic relationship with rumen
microorganisms by which the animal provides nutrients and
optimal environmental conditions, and microorganisms
degrade fiber and synthesize microbial protein and protein
supply for the animal. However, this symbiotic relationship
has energy losses of methane inefficiencies (Van Nevel and
Demeyer 1988). Methane is the largest potential contributor
to the global warming phenomenon. Methane formation is
the major way of hydrogen elimination in the rumen through
the following reaction: CO2 + 4H2!CH4 + 2H2O
(Medjekal et al. 2016). In vitro techniques are useful to study
the rumen fermentation processes under controlled condi-
tions. Feeds or other substrates are incubated in cultures of
mixed rumen microorganisms. Fermentation end-products
such as volatil fatty acids (VFA) are accumulated in the
medium and can be measured after a given incubation time.
S. Medjekal (&)
M. Ghadbane
L. Benderradji
Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry, University
Mohamed Boudiaf of M’sila, M’sila, Algeria
e-mail: sammedj2008@gmail.com
R. Bodas
Instituto Tecnológico Agrario de Castilla Y León, Subdirección de
Investigación Y Tecnología, Valladolid, Spain
H. Bousseboua
Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Biotechnologie, Ville Universitaire
Ali Mendjeli BP 66E RP, 25100 Ali Mendjeli/Constantine,
Algeria
S. Lopez
Departamento de Producción Animal, Instituto de Ganadería de
Montaña (IGM) CSIC-Universidad de León, Universidad de León,
León, Spain
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_382


Methanogenesis
The three main VFA produced in ruminants are acetic acid
(CH3.COOH; 50–60%), butyric acid (CH3.CH2.COOH; 12–
18%) and propanoic acid (CH3.CH2.CH2.COOH; 18–20%).
All of them can be used to generate ATP in the intermediary
metabolism. However, unlike acetic and butyric acid, pro-
pionic acid can be used as a precursor for the synthesis of
glucose as well (Dijkstra 1993). The objective of this study
was to evaluate the methane production potential of 10
browse species largely used by farmers to feed their live-
stock in the arid and semi-arid regions of Algeria.
2 Materials and Methods
Ten plant samples were used in this study: eight dicotyle-
donous plants namely Arthrocnemum macrostachyum
(Moric.) K. Koch, Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt., Arte-
misia herba-alba Asso, Astragalus gombo Bunge, Calobota
saharae, Hedysarum coronarium L., Medicago sativa L. and
Ononis natrix L., and two monocotyledonous plants namely
Hordeum vulgare L. (straw) and Stipa tenacissima L. The
material collected was freeze-dried, ground to pass a 1-mm
screen and stored at room temperature (i.e. 20–25 °C) in
sealed containers until analysis. Rumen fluid was obtained
from four mature Merino sheep (body weight
49.04 ± 4.23 kg) fitted with permanent rumen fistula
(60 mm diameter) maintained in cages and fed lucerne hay
ad libitum (CP 167 g, NDF 502 g, ADF 355 g and ADL
71 g/kg DM) and had free access to water and a
mineral/vitamin block. A sample of rumen contents was
withdrawn prior to morning feeding, transferred into thermos
flasks and taken immediately to the laboratory. Rumen fluid
from the four sheep was mixed, strained through various
layers of cheesecloth and kept at 39 °C under a CO2
1301
1302
atmosphere (Ammar et al. 2004). Serum bottles containing
500 mg substrate and 50 ml of buffered rumen fluid were
incubated for 24 h. After incubation gas and methane pro-
ductions were recorded. Methane content in fermentation
gas was determined by gas chromatography (GC) using a
Shimadzu GC-14 B GC (Shimadzu, Japan). All data were
analysed using one-way analysis of variance, with browse
species as the only variation source (fixed effect) and an
inoculum source (rumen fluid from each sheep, random
effect) as a blocking factor (SAS 2000).
3 Results and Discussion
Total incubated gas (ml/g DM) and methane production
(ml/g DM) are presented in Fig. 1. The total gas production
of the plant species samples varied widely, being particu-
lary high for Medicago sativa (120.5 ml/g DM) and low for
the grasse Stipa tenacissima (41.2 ml/g DM). The total
amount of methane produced from 1 g of DM incubated
was the lowest with S. tenacissima, most likely because
this monocot species is of low degradability. The methane
production by S. tenacissima is nearly 31% of the total gas
production, which is the highest in comparaison with the
Fig. 1 Total gas and methane production (ml/g dry matter incubated)
S. Medjekal et al.
other species. It is well known that methane production is
influenced by the feedstuffs quality and quantity. The for-
age to concentrate ratio of the ration has an impact on the
rumen fermentation and hence the acetate: propionate ratio.
Van Soest (1982) indicated that a high grain diet and/or the
addition of soluble carbohydrates gave a shift in fermen-
tation pattern in the rumen which gives rise to a more
hostile environment for the methanogenic bacteria in the
rumen in which passage rates are increased, ruminal pH is
lowered and certain populations of protozoa, ruminal cili-
ates and methanogenic bacteria may be eliminated or
inhibited. The plants showing some potential to reduce
methane production through a specific effect were A.
herba-alba, A. gombo and O. natrix, for which methane per
mol of VFA produced was the smallest within the group of
the studied plants. However, the values were only signifi-
cantly different from those observed for S. tenacissima,
suggesting that the browse species studied herein would
show little potential for mitigating methane production in
the rumen. In recent years, methane production from the
livestock, especially those consuming large quantities of
fibrous food, has gained considerable attention due to the
significant role of methane in global warming (Johnson and
Johnson 1995). It is well known that methane production is
Methane Production from Browse Species of Algerian Arid Areas
influenced by the feedstuff quality and quantity. Therefore,
several strategies have been developed through dietary
manipulation (Durmic et al. 2014). Tannins are polyphe-
nolic substances of diverse molecular weights and variable
complexity. They have the ability to bind proteins in
aqueous solution. Tannins are classified into two classes:
hydrolysable and condensed tannins and are considered to
have both adverse and beneficial effects depending on their
concentration (Cheeke 1999). Tannins are known to reduce
enteric methane production through a direct inhibitory
effect on methanogens depending upon the chemical
structure of tannins and also indirectly by decreasing fiber
degradation (Patra and Saxena 2010). Tanins can form
complexes with fiber, reducing its degradation and/or lim-
iting the activity of the ruminal microorganisms responsible
for cellulose degradation (McSweeney et al. 2001).
4 Conclusion
A. macrostachyum and S. tenacissima. A. herba-alba,
A. gombo and O. natrix are the plants causing a greater
methane reduction, but our results suggest that the browse
species studied herein would show little potential for
mitigating methane production in the rumen. This study
confirms the importance of leguminous forages in small
ruminants’ nutrition particularly in the arid and semi-arid
regions.
1303
References
Ammar H, Lopez S, Gonzalez JS, Ranilla MJ. Seasonal variations in
the chemical composition and in vitro digestibility of some Spanish
leguminous shrub species. Anim Feed Sci Technol. 2004;115:
327–40.
Cheeke PR. Actual and potential applications of Yucca Schidigera and
Quillaja Saponaria saponin. Proc. A. Soc. Anim. Sci. 1999;1:1–10.
Dijkstra J. Production and absorption of volatile fatty acids in the
rumen. Livest Prod Sci. 1993;39:61–9.
Durmic Z, Moate PJ, Eckard R, Revell DK, Williams R, Vercoe PE. In
vitro screening of selected feed additives, plant essential oils and
plant extracts for rumen methane mitigation. J Sci Food Agric.
2014;94:1191–6.
Johnson KA, Johnson DE. Methane emission from cattle. J Anim Sci.
1995;73:2483–92.
McSweeney CS, Palmer B, McNeill DM, Krause DO. Microbial
interactions with tannins: nutritional consequences for ruminants.
Anim Feed Sci Tech. 2001;91:83–93.
Medjekal S, Ghadbane M, Bodas R, Bousseboua H, López S. Volatile
fatty acids and methane production from browse species of Algerian
arid and semi-arid areas. J Appl Anim Res. 2016;46(1):44–9.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09712119.2016.1257432.
Patra AK, Saxena J. A new perspective on the use of plant secondary
metabolites to inhibit methanogenesis in the rumen. Phytochem-
istry. 2010;71:1198–222.
SAS. SAS/STAT® Useŕs Guide, 8.1. 4th ed. Cary, NC: SAS Institute
Inc.; 2000.
Van Nevel CJ, Demeyer D. Manipulation of rumen fermentation. In:
Hobson PN, editor. The rumen microbial ecosystem. Elsevier
Science Publishers: New York, USA; 1988 p. 387–443.
Van Soest PJ. Nutritional ecology of the ruminant. O & B Books:
Oregon; 1982 p. 40–41.
 Adsorptive Removal of Nickel (II) Using Luffa
Cylindrica: Effect of NaCl Concentration
on Equilibrium and Kinetic Parameters

Chifaa Ad, Mebrouk Djedid, Mokhtar Benalia, Asma Boudaoud,

Hicham Elmsellem, and Fatiha Ben Saffedine

Keywords
Biosorption Nickel (II) Luffa cylindrica Isotherm

1 Introduction Kunkel IKA labortechnik to improve its specific area.

Considerable research has been carried out in developing
cost-effective heavy metal removal techniques. Physico-
chemical methods, such as chemical precipitation, chemical
oxidation or reduction filtration, electrochemical treatment,
membrane technology application, evaporation recovery,
solvent extraction and ion-exchange processes, have been
traditionally used for heavy metal removal from industrial
wastewater. However, these techniques may be ineffective or
extremely expensive, especially when the metals are dis-
solved in large volumes of solution at relatively low con-
centrations (around 1–100 g/ml) (Valdman and Leite 2000).
2 Materials and Methods
The Luffa Cylindrica collected from a local farmland in
Laghouat region (Algeria) was used in this study. This
material was cut into small pieces and washed several times
with double distilled water in order to eliminate impurities
such as sand and dust. After that, the material was dried at
105 °C for 120 min to evaporate humidity. The obtained
material was ground using a grinder of type Janke and
C. Ad (&)
M. Djedid
M. Benalia
A. Boudaoud
F. Ben
Saffedine
Laboratory of Process Engineering, Department of Process
Engineering, Laghouat University, PO BOX 37G03000 Laghouat,
Algeria
e-mail: chiffaad@gmail.com
H. Elmsellem
LC2AME-URAC18, COST Department of Chemistry, Faculty of
Sciences, Mohamed 1st University, PO BOX 71760000 Oujda,
Morocco
Finally, the powder was sieved at different diameters.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Characterisation of Luffa Cylindrica
The of Luffa Cylindrica surface morphology was analyzed
by scanning electron microscopy before and after Nickel
loading (Fig. 1a and b). The Luffa Cylindrica before expo-
sure were smooth and had certain dimensions. After their
exposure to Nickel ions solution, they became destroyed and
swollen, and their surface became meanders. This may be
due to Nickel ions precipitated around the Luffa Cylindrica
surface and linked with their functional groups. Also, these
changes were probably caused when the samples were
exposed to heavy metal solution; the metal ions replaced
some of the cations initially present in the cell wall matrix
and created stronger crosslinking. Due to the ion-exchange
mechanism, the heavy metal ions occupied the available free
binding sites (Saravanan et al. 2011).
3.2 Effect of salt concentration
Table 1, also, indicates the effect of NaCl concentration on
the uptake of Nickel (II) ions by Luffa Cylindrica at different
initial Nickel (II) concentrations. The results demonstrate
that in the absence of salt, the biosorbent showed good
ability for the Nickel (II) biosorption. When NaCl concen-
tration increased up to 50 mg/L, there was a significant
decrease in Nickel (II) biosorption indicating an antagonistic
effect of salts on Nickel (II) biosorption.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1305

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_383
1306 A. D. Chifaa et al.

Fig. 1 SEM micrograph of Luffa Cylindrica cell wall a before and b after Ni2+ adsorption from aqueous solution

Table 1 Equilibrium uptakes C0Ni(II) (ppm) C0 = 0 g/L C0 = 10 g/L C0 = 20 g/L C0 = 50 g/L

Nacl Nacl Nacl Nacl
and Nickel (II) removal
percentage at different metal ions qeq (mg/g) qeq (mg/g) qeq (mg/g) qeq (mg/g)
and NaCl concentrations 10 7.98 4.78 4.27 1.35
50 15.22 13.21 9.2 6.62
100 23.35 19.57 17 13.55

The decrease in biosorption ability of the biosorbent with
the increasing salt concentration may be a result of
biosorption mechanisms. NaCl concentration could mark-
edly influence the biosorption presumably due to the com-
petition between sodium ions (present in salt used to change
the ionic strength of solution) and Nickel (II) ions for the
same binding sites in the biosorbent surface (Diniz and
Volesky 2005; Niu et al. 2007).
biosorption. Pseudo-second-order equation, which fits the
data well showed that there is good correlation between
experimental and calculated qeq values explaining the
biosorption kinetics based on the assumption that the
metal biomass biosorption is the rate-limiting
step. Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms applied to the
sorption data were compared to observe the Nickel
(II) biosorptive capacity of the Luffa Cylindrica in the
presence and absence of salts.

4 Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to find out the adsorption
capacity of Luffa cylindrica for Nickel (II) in the presence
of mixed salts keeping in view the dual problems
encountered in industrial effluent treatment. Different
experiments performed with varying initial pH, initial
Nickel (II) concentrations and salt concentrations
revealed that pH 6, contact time 180 min and initial metal
concentration of 10 mg/L were optimum for Nickel
References
Diniz V, Volesky B. Water Res. 2005;39:2229.
Saravanan Sekaran, Nethala Sricharan, Pattnaik Soumitri, Tripathi
Anjali, Moorthi Ambigapathi, Selvamurugan Nagarajan. Int J Biol
Macromol. 2011;49:188.
Niu CH, Volesky B, Cleiman D. Water Res. 2007;41:2473.
Valdman E, Leite SGF. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng. 2000;22:171.
 Efficiency of SSR Markers to Analyze
the Molecular Fingerprinting of Some
Tunisian Olive Cultivars

Sameh Mnasri Rahmani, Olfa Saddoud Debbabi, and Ali Ferchichi

Keywords
Olive biodiversity Molecular markers SSR Tunisia

2007, Grati Kamoun and Khlih 2004, Grati Kamoun and

1 Introduction
The species Olea europaea L. represent one of the most
important cultivated tree in Tunisia, is spread over areas
from the northern to the southern regions, where a wide
range of edapho-climatic conditions prevail, from humid to
arid conditions (Mnasri et al. 2013; Mnasri et al. 2014;
Hannachi 2008; Grati-Kamoun 2007; Trigui and Msallem
2002; Loussert et Brousse 1978). Tunisia, as a founding
member of the IOC since its creation in February 1956, has
the second largest olive-growing area in the world and more
than 800 million olive trees, of which 99% are used for oil
extraction (IOOC 2016).
The main varieties cultivated in Tunisia are “Chemlali” in
the south and the centre of the country and “Chetoui” in the
north. These two varieties account for 95% of the total olive
tree orchards and contribute more than 90% of the national
production of olive oil (Trigui and Msallem 2002). Besides
these two principal oil varieties, many works of prospection
and characterization showed that the Tunisian olive grove
enjoys a remarkable richness of varieties (Ben Maachia and
Ben Ammar 2016; Mnasri et al. 2017; Mnasri et al. 2014;
Mnasri et al. 2013 and Mehri and Mehri Kamoun 2007 and
Mehri et Hellali. 1995). However, the number is probably
underestimated because of the scarce information on minor
local varieties widespread in the different olive growing
areas, especially in the traditional orchards (Grati Kamoun
S. Mnasri Rahmani (&)
O. Saddoud Debbabi
National Gene Bank of Tunisia, Street Yesser Arafet, 1080 Tunis,
Tunisia
e-mail: mnasrisameh@yahoo.fr
A. Ferchichi
National Institute of Agronomy of Tunisia, 43 Street Charles
Nicolle, 1082 Tunis Mahrajène, Tunisia
Khlih 2001, Trigui and Msallem 2002; Msallem and Mehri
2000 and Mnasri et al. 2013). The first objective of this
study is to assess the potential of SSR markers to differen-
tiate between the autochthon olive varieties. The second goal
is to create for the first time in Tunisia the molecular patterns
of Olea europaea L. in the international Green Global data
base.
2 Material and Methods
2.1 Plant Materials
Fifteen Tunisian olive varieties were selected from four
different geographical regions from the north to south of
Tunisia. The varieties (Meski, Chetoui and Besbessi) from
the region of Tunis, the varieties (Zalmati, Chemlali-Ontha,
Chemlali-Zarzis, Toffehi and Zarrazi) from Zarzis, the
varieties (Beldi, Fougi and Tounsi) from Gafsa, the variety
Chemlali from Sfax and the varieties (Sradki and Horr) from
Kesra.
2.2 Molecular Analysis
DNA was extracted from young leaves using the CTAB
method according to Saghai-Maroof et al. protocol (1984),
with some modifications. The PCR was performed in a 25 µl
volume consisting of 50 ng genomic DNA, 1.5 mM MgCl2,
0.2 mM each dNTP, 0.25 µM forward primer, 0.25 µM
reverse primer, 0.04 U Taq DNA polymerase (Promega) in
1X PCR buffer PCR reactions were analyzed by the use of
BIO-RAD ExperionTM DNA 1 K Analysis Kit.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1307

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_384
1308 S. Mnasri Rahmani et al.

Fig. 1 Dendrogram of the Chem-Sfax

identified olive cultivars based on
Jaccard coefficient and Zalmati
unweighted pair group method
with arithmetic mean (UPGMA)
Fougi
cluster analysis

Chem-ontha

Chem-Zarzis

Beldi

Lguim

Horr

Toffehi

Besbessi

Meski

Zarrazi

Chetoui-BA

Tounsi

Sradki

0.35 0.51 0.66 0.81 0.97

Coefficient

2.3 Data Analysis
SSR results were scored for presence (1) and absence (0) of
amplified fragments. Pair wise genetic similarities were
calculated using Dice similarity coefficient (Dice 1945; Neil
and Li 1979). Dendrogram was constructed from the resul-
tant matrix via the unweighted pair group method with the
arithmetic averages algorithm (UPGMA) methods. All cal-
culations were performed with the use of NTSYS-pc version
2.1 (Rohlf 1998).
3 Results and Discussion
A total number of 42 alleles were amplified by SSR loci with
an allelic size ranged from 108 bp to 232 bp. The number of
observed alleles passed from 3 for (GAPU71A and DCA18)
to 5 for (GAPU103A,UDO12,UDO28 and UDO39) with a
mean value of 4.2 alleles per locus and the observed
heterosigosity ranged from 0.4 at (UDO28 and UDO39) to
0.8 at DCA18. These results confirm those found by Rekik
et al. (2008) in twenty Tunisian olive varieties and especially
for the marker DCA18.
The highest genotype frequency was observed 0.66 was
observed for the alleles 212 pb (GAPU71A and GAPU 59)
while the lowest frequencies 0.03 were detected for the
alleles157pb (UDO 12) and 208pb (GAPU59) and charac-
terize specifically the varieties “Sradki” and “Tounsi” cul-
tivated in the regions of Kesra and Gafsa.
The similarity degree between the 15 olive tree based on
SSR markers ranged from 0.36 to 0.78 with an average value
of 0.66. The GS matrix was used to obtain a cluster diagram
of cultivars based on SSR markers. The dendrogram in
Fig. 1 represents the pattern of relationships between the
studied olive varieties. Three major clusters can be defined
by cutting the dendrogram at a GS value of 0.42.
4 Conclusion
The present work proved the efficiency of SSR markers to
discriminate between the autochthon olive trees in
Tunisia. The high level of observed heterozygosity con-
firmed the richness of the Tunisian olive genetic pool and
Efficiency of SSR Markers to Analyze the Molecular …
the importance of olive patrimony in our country. Par-
ticularly we are able here to discriminate between three
different groups of olive tree; this difference is based
mainly on the molecular fingerprinting of the studied
varieties and some morphological characters as the shape
of the fruits and the endocarps. The pattern of the vari-
eties “Sradki” and “Tounsi” present a specific molecular
model not observed in the other studied olive cultivars.
However the high similarity between Chemlali and Zal-
mati is troubling and should be analyzed in more detail
with the use of a large number of SSR markers. The
molecular data based on SSR markers permitted for the
first time in Tunisia to create the molecular pattern of the
autochthon olive tree in the international data based
Green Global of the National Gene Bank.
References
Ben Maachia S, Ben Amar F. Prospection, morphological and
Pomological identification of olive ecotypes (Olea europaea. L.)
in the Degache oasis (Tozeur, Tunisia). JNSCIECES. 2017;33
(2):1892–1900.
Dice LR. Measures of the amount of ecologic association between
species. Ecol.1945;26:297–302.
Grati Kamoun N, Khlif M. Technologic characterization of olive
varieties cultivated in Tunisia. Ezzaitouna. 2001; Special number:
74–2001.
Grati Kamoun N, Khlif M. Biodiversity of olive varieties (Olea
europaea L.) cultivated in the Sud of Tunisia review of arid regions.
2004;1:123–132.
1309
Grati Kamoun N. Study of genetic olive biodiversity in Tunisia. Thesis
of biology in the facuty of sciences sfax, Tunisia, 2007.
Hannachi H, Breton C, Msallem M, Ben El Had S, El Gazzah M,
Berville A. Differences between native and introduced olive
cultivars as revealed by morphology of drupes, oil composition
and SSR polymorphisms: A case study in Tunisia. Sci. Hortic.
2008;116:280–290.
Loussert L, Brousse G. Olive tree: Mediterranean agricultural tech-
niques of olive production. Neuve and Larose house. 1978:44–111.
Mehri H, Hellali R. Pomological study of the main varieties of olive
cultivated in Tunisia. Olive institute of sfax, Tunisia, 1995.
Mnasri RS, Dabbebi SO, Ferchichi A. AFLP markerbased identification
and genetic relationships of olive cultivars in the region of Hbebsa
“North West of Tunisia”. JBES. 2013;3(8):36–41.
Mnasri RS, Saddoud DO, Ben Saleh M, Ferchichi A. DNA
fingerprinting of millennium olive varieties in Tunisia by AFLP
markers. JBES. 2014;4(4):310–317.
Mnasri RS, Dabbebi SO, Rouz S, Ben Saleh M, Ferchichi A.
Fingerprinting of the main olive cultivars in Tunisia by morpho-
logical and AFLP markers.JNSCIENES. 2017;37(6):2055–2063.
Msallem M, Mehri A. Inventory of olive tree collections olive in
Tunisia. Plant Genet. Resour. Newsl. 2000;122:36–40.
Neil M, Li WH. Mathematical model for studying genetic variation in
terms of endonucleases. Proceedings of the national academy
sciences of the United States of America.1979;76:5269–5273.
Rekik I, Salimonti A, Grati-Kamoun N, Muzzalupo I, Lepais O,
Gerber S, Perri E, Rebai A. Characterization and identification of
Tunisian olive tree varieties by microsatellite markers. Hort Sci.
2008;43(5):1371–6.
Rohlf M. NTSYS-pc. Numerical taxonomy and multivariate analysis
system: Version 2.02. Exeter Software, Setauket, NY, USA, 1998.
Trigui A, Msallem M. Olive of Tunisia, Tunisian catalogue of Olive
varieties, IRESA, vol.3. Tunisian Olive Institute, 2002.
 Kinetic, Equilibrium and Thermodynamic
Studies of Nickel Adsorption in Batch
on a Red Alga Corallina Elongata

Farida Bouremmad, Abdennour Bouchair, Shalima Shawuti,

and Mehmet Ali Gulgun

Keywords
Biosorption Alga Heavy metals

(Salihi et al. 2016), Serbian natural clinoptilolite (Stojakovic

1 Introduction
Nickel is a heavy metal used in many industries such as
electroplating, battery manufacture, forging, finishing and
metal extraction, which contributes to environmental pollu-
tion (Salihi et al. 2016). The presence of this substance in the
effluents of waste water must be handled before rejecting
them in the environment, because above the authorized limit
of 0.02 mg/L−1 (drinking water quality standards), many
adverse health effects, such as anemia, diarrhea,
encephalopathy, hepatitis and central nervous system dys-
function can be caused (Zenasni et al. 2013). The main
conventional methods used for the heavy metal removing
from waters rest on the techniques of precipitation (Huisman
et al. 2006), ultrafiltration (Landaburu-Aguirre et al. 2009),
nanofiltration (Muthukrishnan and Guha 2008) the reverse
osmosis (Shahalam et al. 2002), the electrodialysis (Sadr-
zadeh et al. 2009) and the adsorption (Bhattacharyya and
Gupta 2008). The latter, is very important as method of
waste water treatment, it is based on the use of the activated
carbon as adsorbent, because of its excellent properties of
adsorption, but the high cost of the use of the activated
carbon, led several researchers to use other low-cost adsor-
bents for the elimination of Ni2+ present in the water, for
example some few inexpensive biosorbents are used to
eliminate the Nickel which is in waste water, including
natural Maghnit (Zenasni et al. 2013), Graphene oxide
et al. 2016) Indian soils (Ramachandran and D’Souza 2013),
Olive stone (Fiol et al. 2006), Scrap tire Multiwall (Gupta
et al. 2014) …etc.
The biosorption consist in using the dead or inert bio-
masses as bacteria, industrial and agricultural waste as well
as seaweeds to remove various contaminants (heavy metals,
pesticidal, coloring, micropolluting metals) present in liquid
or gaseous effluents. Among the biomasses, algae have the
advantage of being very inexpensive compared to other
commercial adsorbents, such as activated carbon. They are
also abundant and renewable. In addition, there are active
sites on their surface such as hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino,
sulfhydryl and sulfonate, which are important in adsorption
mechanisms (Chen et al. 2009; Vijayaraghavan and Yun
2008).
In this work we are interested in a mediterranean red
seaweed, the corallina elongata, from the East of Algeria
(city called Jijel), at first the study concerned its character-
ization by various methods such as the TDA, the TGA, the
FTIR, The DRX, the chemical analysis and the SEM, then
we studied the adsorption of Ni2+ in aqueous solution by
varying diverse parameters as pH, temperature, Initial con-
centration of Ni2+ and the mass of adsorbent.
2 Materials and Methods

F. Bouremmad (&)
A. Bouchair

Laboratoire de l’interaction des Matériaux et de l’environnement
(LIME), Université Mohammed Seddik Benyahia, Jijel, Algeria
e-mail: bouremmad_farida@yahoo.com;
f_bouremmad@univ-jijel.dz
S. Shawuti
M. A. Gulgun
FENS, Orhanli Tuzla, Sabanci University, 34956 Istanbul, Turkey
Alga Preparation
The corallina elongata (CE) alga, used in this study was
collected at the coasts of Jijel in eastern Algeria. The sea-
weed was washed several times with tap water to remove
adhering dust, impurities as well as NaCl until clear wash
water was obtained. Finally, it was rinsed with distilled

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1311

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_385
1312
water and dried in oven at a temperature of 105 °C. After
grinding, the sample was further dried in an oven and then
sieved through a stack of sieves of different mesh openings.
The fraction having a particle size between 80 µm and
100 µm were selected for the studies.
X-ray diffraction (XRD) experiments were performed
with a D8 Advance Bruker AXS diffractometer with CuKa
radiation equipped with a curved graphite monochromator.
The data were collected in the 2h range of 10–80° with a
step size of 0.03° and a count time of 2 s per step. Thermal
analysis of the sample was carried out using a
NETZSCH STA 449 C device, under a nitrogen flow at the
rate of 25 mL min−1 and a temperature range from room
temperature to 1000 °C. Characterization by Fourier Trans-
form Infrared spectroscopy was performed using
SHIMADZU FTIR apparatus 84005. FTIR spectra were
scanned between 4000 and 400 cm−1. Characterization of
morphology and microanalysis were performed by SEM
(Scanning Electron Microscopy) on a JEOL JSM-6010LV
instrument, equipped with an energy-dispersive X-ray
spectroscopy (EDX) unit.
Batch Adsorption Tests
Adsorption measurement was determined, by batch experi-
ments of a known quantity of the adsorbent, with 50 ml of
liquid Ni2+ solutions of known concentration, in an
exceedingly series of 250 ml glass flasks. Then, the flasks
were placed in a thermostat bath set at 25 °C temperature
and under 250 rpm stirring for the equilibrium time.
At a planned time, the flasks were withdrawn from the
thermostat, and after the centrifugation of the mixture
(adsorbent-adsorbate), the solution was analyzed on UV
visible spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, Model UV-3150,
Japan), by measure the absorption of the supernatant at the
wavelength that corresponds to the utmost absorbance of the
Ni2+ (460 nm). The residual dye concentration within the
solution was calculated from the calibration curve.
3 Results and Discussion
XRD
The X-ray diffraction results presented in Fig. 1 show that all
the peaks coincide with those of calcite containing magne-
sium (Ca, Mg)CO3(JCPDS 43-0697), which is indexed in the
trigonal system with the R-3c space group (No. 167) and the
F. Bouremmad et al.
following lattice parameters: a = 4.942 Å and b = 16.85Å,
proving that the corallina elongata alga is a good source of
calcium carbonate.
DTA and TG
Thermal analysis (Fig. 2) showed that the sample had
different weight losses between room temperature and
1000 °C. However, there remains a large amount of the
material after treatment at 1000 °C (about 50%), proving its
mineral character. In Fig. 2, we see three weight losses: the
first loss happens around 110 °C accompanied by an
endothermic peak, which corresponds to the loss of water
physically adsorbed, the second loss takes place at 450 °C
and is chemically related to adsorbed water and the most
important loss (43%) at 800 °C corresponds to the decom-
position of (Ca, Mg) CO3 with an endothermic peak (Cheng
et al. 2004) indicating the release of CO2 according to the
following reaction:
ðCa, MgÞCO3 ðsÞ ! CaOðsÞ þ MgOðsÞ þ CO2 ðgÞ
Beyond the temperature of disappearance of CO2, it’s
noticed that the mass remains unchanged without any peak,
which proves that the entire carbonate is converted into CaO
and MgO with the disappearance of all the CO2.
Infrared Spectroscopy
The infrared spectrum (Fig. 3) confirms the thermal analysis
and X-ray diffraction results; indeed, it confirms that the
corallina elongata, consists mainly of calcium carbonate, the
characteristic bands are 1432, 1789, 1084, 869 and
710 cm−1, which correspond to different vibrational modes
of the calcium carbonate molecule (Linga et al. 2002). Other
bands at 616 and 1150 cm−1, characterize the sulfate ions
(Fernández-Diaz et al. 2010). All these chemical bonds are
favorable factors for the adsorption, they testify to the
richness of the alga surface by active sites.
Chemical Analysis and SEM
The chemical analysis shows (Fig. 4) that the alga corallina
elongata contains important quantities of calcium, carbon,
magnesium and oxygen, which once again confirms that the
alga is essentially a calcite containing magnesium, there is
also some traces of other elements such as silicon, potas-
sium, sulfur; this allows us to affirm the existence of sulfates
(Table 1).
Kinetic, Equilibrium and Thermodynamic Studies … 1313

Fig. 1 X-ray diffraction pattern 700

Intensity (a.u.)
of the corallina elongata alga

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

2θ(°)

Fig. 2 DTA, DTG and TG

curves of the corallina elongata

The SEM micrographs of Fig. 4 show the general aspect of
grains whose average size is 50 µm. We also distinguish in grains,
highly ordered pores of uniform shapes, with a size of 5 µm.
4 Adsorption Kinetics
Determination of Equilibrium Time
The effect of contact time on the adsorption of Ni2+ onto CE
studied at 3 different initial concentrations 10, 20, and
50 mg L−1, is shown in Fig. 5.
From Fig. 5, we can affirm the following;
• The amount of Ni2+ adsorbed per unit mass on CE
increased with increasing of Ni2+ initial concentration.
• The unit adsorption of Ni2+ increased from 4.44 to
14.25 mg/g when the Ni2+ concentration increased from
10 to 50 mg/L.
• Equilibrium was reached after 90 min for all the initial
concentrations studied.
• Kinetic experiments clearly indicated that sorption of
Ni2+ on CE followed two-step processes; a speedy initial
adsorption, followed by no significant uptake. The
1314 F. Bouremmad et al.

Transmittance(%)

4000 3600 3200 2800 2400 2000 1600 1200 800 400
-1
cm
Fig. 3 FTIR spectrum of the corallina elongata

Fig. 4 SEM micrographs of the corallina elongata

Table 1 EDX data for the Element Weight%

corallina elongata
O 55,72
Na 0.36
Mg 3.62
Si 0.09
S 0.69
Cl 0.29
K 0.55
Ca 38,67
Total 100.00
Kinetic, Equilibrium and Thermodynamic Studies … 1315

20 50

18 50mg/l
20mg/l 50 mg
16 10mg/l 40 20 mg
10 mg
14

t/qe (min.g/ mg)

Qads (mg/g)

30
12

10
20
8

6
10
4

2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 t (min)
t (min)
Fig. 6 Pseudo-second order kinetics
Fig. 5 Effect of contact time on the adsorption of Ni2+ by CE

Similar phenomena have been observed for Ni2+

primary step is attributed to the instant use of the fore-
most readily available active sites on the adsorbent sur-
face (bulk diffusion), and the second step is an
equilibrium stage (Hameed 2009). The speedy kinetic
contains an important economic result for the sorption of
water pollutants (Arias and Sen 2009; Sen and Sarzali
2008).
To better describe the kinetics, we used the kinetic laws of
the pseudo first order and the pseudo second order, repre-
sented by relations (1) and (2) respectively (Davis et al.
2003; Cheng et al. 2004):
Lnðqe  qt Þ ¼ Lnðqe Þ  K1 t
t t 1
¼ þ
qt qe K2 q2e
The pseudo first order model is not verified by our results,
whereas the pseudo second order model applies perfectly
(Fig. 6).
The plot of t/qe versus t for pseudo-second order model
(Fig. 6) yields very good straight lines. The pseudo-second
order rate constant k2 and the adsorption density qe at
equilibrium are given in Table 2.
The experimental adsorption capacity coincides with that
obtained by modeling, with a correlation factor: R2 = 0.99.
The pseudo-second order rate constants decreased with
increasing initial concentrations.
The values k2 indicates that retention is quite fast, thus we
conclude that the adsorption of Ni2+ by CE, is a rapid pro-
cess and the adsorption rate follows a kinetic law of second
order.
adsorption on natural Maghnite (Zenasni et al. 2013),
SDS-functionalized graphene oxide (Salihi et al. 2016).
Effect of pH
The effect of initial pH on adsorption amount of Ni2+ onto
CE is studied at 25 °C, agitation speed 250 rpm, adsorbent
mass 100 mg, and 100 mg/L MB initial concentration, at
different pH value (3–8), for 3 h. The results in Fig. 7;
showed that the adsorption amount of Ni2+ increase from
6.15 to 20.13 mg/g, with increasing pH from 3 to 8.
At lower pH, the amount of adsorption was minimal, due
to the richness of the solution by H+ ions competing with the
Ni2+ to the CE adsorptions sites.
At higher pH value 8, the Ni2+ adsorption amount was
maximun which can be explained by the electrostatic inter-
ð1Þ action between the negatively surface charge of the CE, with
the positively charged of the nickel. A similar result was
ð2Þ observed for the adsorption of Ni2+ on Lotus stalks derived
active carbon (Wanga et al. 2014).
Effect of Adsorbent Masse
The effect of adsorbent mass on the adsorption amount of
Ni2+ onto CE was studied with dynamical adsorbent mass
from 100 to 400 mg, at temperature 25 °C, solution PH,
250 rpm and 100 mg/L Ni2+ initial concentration. The
results in Fig. 8 showed that the adsorption amount of Ni2+
enhanced from 11.51 to 26.03 mg/g with increasing adsor-
bent mass from 20 to 400 mg. This result justify by the
increasing adsorption sites when adsorbent quantity
increasing.
Adsorption Isotherm at Room Temperature
The adsorption isotherm of Ni2+ on the corallina elongata at
room temperature is shown in Fig. 9; we represent on the
1316 F. Bouremmad et al.

Table 2 Pseudo second order constants for the adsorption of Ni2+

Initial concentration qe,exp(mg/g) Second order
qe,cal(mg/g) K2(g mg−1 min−1) R2
10 4.30 4.54 0.026 0.997
20 8.33 9.09 0.019 0.999
50 14.25 15.15 0.007 0.987

20

15
qe (mg/g)

10

0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
pH
Fig. 7 Effect of solution pH on the removal of Ni2+ onto CE

28
Where:qe: Adsorbed quantity (mg g−1), V: volume of the
solution (L), m: adsorbent mass (g), C0: initial concentration
26
of the adsorbate (mg L−1), Ceq: residential concentration of
24 the adsorbate at equilibrium (mg L−1).
22
According to Giles et al. classification, Fig. 9 shows that
the adsorption isotherm of Ni2+ on corallina elongata is the
qe (mg/g)

20
L-type (called Langmuir type), where the shape of the
18 adsorption isotherm means that there is no strong competi-
16
tion between the solvent and the adsorbate to occupy the
adsorption sites (Giles et al. 1960).
14
Also the description of the adsorption isotherms was
12 carried out by applying the models of Freundlich and
Langmuir (Fig. 9) (Giles et al. 1960; Freundlich 1906). The
10
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 Langmuir model describes the adsorption behavior of MB
Adsorbent mass (mg/g) on CE better than the Freundlich model. where the linear
form of the Langmuir model, represented in Fig. 8b coin-
Fig. 8 Effect of adsorbent mass on the removal of Ni2+
cides better with the experimental results, giving a maximum
adsorption amount of 34.42 mg g−1 with a correlation
abscissa axis, the residential concentration in the equilibrium coefficient R2 exceeding 0.99.
solution Ceq (mg L−1) and on the ordinate axis, we represent According to Giles et al. classification, Fig. 9 shows that
the adsorbed quantity qe (mg g−1), which was determined by the adsorption isotherm of Ni2+ on corallina elongatais the
the following formula: L-type (called Langmuir type), where the shape of the
adsorption isotherm means that there is no strong competi-

V
qe ¼ C0  Ceq ð3Þ tion between the solvent and the adsorbate to occupy the
m adsorption sites (Giles et al. 1960).
Kinetic, Equilibrium and Thermodynamic Studies … 1317

20

15

qe (mg/g)
10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Ce (mg/l)
Fig. 9 Adsorption isotherm of Ni2+ on the corallina elongata

Fig. 10 Linearization of the 9 (a) 2 (b)

isotherm using Freundlich (a) and
Langmuir (b) models at room
temperature
6
Ce / qe (g/l)

Log(qe)
1

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 1 2
Ce (mg/l) Log(Ce)

Table 3 Comparison of sorption Adsorbent qmax(mg g−1) Reference

capacity between CE and other
sorbents for Ni2+ uptake
Corallina elongata 23.53 This study
Natural Maghnite 18.95 Zenasni et al. (2013)
Phondaghat soil 12.88 Landaburu-Aguirre et al. (2009)
Almond husk-activated carbon 30.7 Sadrzadeh et al. (2009)
Apricot stone-activated carbon 27.21 Bhattacharyya and Gupta (2008)
lotus stalks derived active carbon 31.45 Wanga et al. (2014)
Ficus carica-activated carbon 18.78 Stojakovic et al. (2016)
Modified coir fibers 4.33 Shukla et al. (2006)
Natural kaolinite clay oxidized 0.9 Jiang et al. (2010)
multi-walled carbon nanotubes 3.71 Yang et al. (2009)
Modified chitosan 9.80 Kandah and Meunier (2007)

Also the description of the adsorption isotherms was
carried out by applying the models of Freundlich and
Langmuir (Fig. 10) (Giles et al. 1960; Freundlich 1906). The
Langmuir model describes the adsorption behavior of Ni2+
on CE better than the Freundlich model. Where the linear
form of the Langmuir model, represented in Fig. 9a coin-
cides better with the experimental results, giving a maximum
adsorption amount of 23.53 mg g−1 with a correlation
coefficient R2 exceeding 0.97.
A comparison of corallina elongata to other inexpensive
adsorbents, for Ni2+ adsorption, is given in Table 2. It
appears clearly that corallina elongata is much more com-
petitive than the majority of others adsorbents for the
adsorption of Ni2+ from aqueous solutions (Table 3).
1318 F. Bouremmad et al.

30

25

20

qe (mg/g)
15

10

0
290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360
T (K)
Fig. 11 effect temperature for adsorption amount of Ni2+ on CE

5,85

5,80

5,75
Ln( Kd)

5,70

5,65

5,60

5,55

0,0030 0,0031 0,0032 0,0033 0,0034

1/T (1/K)
Fig. 12 Plot of Log (qe/Ceq) versus 1/T

Thermodynamic Study Where Kd is the distribution coefficient for the adsorption,

To determine the effect temperature on the adsorption
amount of Ni2+ onto CE, and the thermodynamic parame-
ters, we performed the adsorption isotherms at different
temperatures from 20 to 80 °C). Figure 11 showed the
increasing of Ni2+ adsorption amount from 17.13 to
28.70 mg/g with increasing temperature from 20 to 80 °C,
which indicates that the better adsorption amount of Ni2+ on
CE find in higher temperature.
The thermodynamic parameters such as standard free
enthalpy (DG), standard enthalpy (DH) and standard entropy
(DS) were determined using the following equations:
LnðKd Þ ¼ ðDS=RÞðDH=RTÞ
DG ¼ DH  TDS
Kd ¼ qe =Ce
The values of DH and DS were determined from the slope
and the intercept of the linear plot of Ln (Kd) versus (1/T)
respectively. These values were used to calculate DG, which
gives a straight line (Fig. 12).
Table 4 gives the values of the standard free enthalpy, the
standard enthalpy and the standard entropy.
The negative values of DG, indicate that the adsorption of
Ni2+ onto CE is spontaneous phenomenon, Similar phe-
nomena have been found for Ni2+ adsorption on natural
clinoptilolite (Rajic et al. 2010).
The positive value of DH, indicate that the adsorption of
Ni2+ on CE is an endothermic phenomenon, and suggests a
large amount of heat is consumed to the Ni2+ ion from
ð4Þ aqueous into the solid phase (Eren 2008).
The positive value of DS indicates the increased disorder
ð5Þ
in the system with changes in the hydration of the adsorbing
ð6Þ Ni2+cations (Zenasni et al. 2013).
Kinetic, Equilibrium and Thermodynamic Studies …
Table 4 Thermodynamic parameters of Ni2+ biosorption on corallina elongata
Concentration T (K) qe(mg/g) DG(kJ mol−1)
−1
100 mg.g 293 17.12 −13.38
313 18.52 −14.74
333 20.37 −16.10
A value of DH < 30 kJ.mol−1 indicates that the adsorp-
tion of MB onto CE is a physical sorption (Sun and Wang
2010).
5 Conclusion
In this study, we used the corallina elongata alga, as
novel and inexpensive adsorption material to remove
Nickel present in wastewater. The set of carried out
characterization methods showed that the material con-
sists essentially of calcium carbonate, which can be
identified perfectly as a calcite containing magnesium,
according to the results of the X-ray diffraction. This is
confirmed by DTA and TGA, which demonstrated a
behavior similar to that of thermal decomposition of
calcium carbonate, also infrared spectroscopy corrobo-
rates these methods. Therefore, we can conclude that this
material is a very good source of calcium carbonate.
Regarding its use as adsorbent, the first treatment has
allowed to remove impurities and to increase the
adsorption capacity. The kinetic experimental data were
found to conform to the pseudo-second-order model with
good correlation R2 = 0.99, and equilibrium data were
best fitted to the Langmuir model, with a maximum
adsorption capacity of 23.53 mg/g.
The thermodynamic study showed that the adsorption
of Ni2+ on Corallina elongata is a spontaneous and
endothermic physisorption process.
The adsorption results of Ni2+ on CE, showed a strong
affinity between the two products with a high adsorption
capacity.
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Bhattacharyya KG, Gupta SS. Adsorption of a few heavy metals on
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Chen C, Hu J, Shao D, Li J, Wang X. Adsorption behavior of
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(II) and Sr(II). J Hazard Mater. 2009;164:923–8.
Cheng B, Lei M, Yu J, Zhao X. Preparation of monodispersed cubic
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Davis A, Volesky B, Mucci A. A review of the biochemistry of heavy
metal biosorption by brown algae. J Water Res. 2003;37:4311–30.
Eren E. Removal of copper ions by modified Unye clay, Turkey. J Haz
Mater. 2008;159:235–44.
Fernández-Diaz L, Fernández-González A, Prieto M. The role of sulfate
groups in controlling CaCO3 polymorphism. J Gechimica et
Cosmochimica Acta. 2010;74:6064.
Fiol N, Villaescusa I, Martínez M, Miralles N, Poch J, Serarols J. Sorp-
tion of Pb(II), Ni(II), Cu(II) and Cd(II) from aqueous solution by
olive stone wast. Sep Purif Technol. 2006;50:132–40.
Freundlich HMF. User die adsorption in Losungen. J Phys Chem.
1906;57:385–470.
Giles CH, MacEvan TH, Najhwa SN, Smith D. Studies in adsorption.
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Gupta VK, Suhas A, Nayak S, Agarwal M, Chaudhary I, Tyagi.
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Hameed B. Evaluation of papaya seeds as a novel non-conventional
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Jiang M, Jin X, Lu X, Chen Z. Adsorption of Pb (II). Cd Natural
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Kandah MI, Meunier J-L. Removal of nickel ions from water by
multi-walled carbon nanotubes. J Hazard Mater. 2007;146:283–8.
Landaburu-Aguirre Junkal, García Verónica, Pongrácz Eva, Keiski
Riitta L. the removal of zinc from synthetic wastewaters by
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Linga RC, Narasimhulu KV, Gopal NO, Rao JL, Reddy BC. Electron
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Kaucic V. Removal of nickel (II) ions from aqueous solutions using
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 Valorization of Industrial Glass Debris
in Road Works
Omar Boudlal, Mohammed Khattaoui, and Saliha Belhaouci



Keywords
Glass debris Aggregates
1 Introduction
Roads present the most important heritage and the main vein
of development of any country. Since antiquity, the con-
struction of roads and highways has continued to develop
through the different civilizations. However, these con-
structions have always been based on natural materials,
especially sand and gravel. Consequently, the abusive
extraction of these materials, in addition to the adverse
effects on the environment, has increasingly led to the
depletion of quarries, which seriously threatens the conti-
nuity of projects supply.
For these reasons, researchers have trig-
gered the alarm about looking for new sources of aggre-
gates. Especially the industrial sources as (concrete debris,
plastic waste, glass debris,…) can satisfy the needs of
aggregates without harming the environment (Bazant and
Meyer 2000; Boudlal et al. 2017; Boudlal and Melbouci
2009; Halstead 1992; Rogel and Engelke 1997). This work
indeed, proposed the industrial glass debris as aggregates, to
be reused particularly in roads (foundations and base layers).
This can also, reduce wastes and pollution of the
environment.
O. Boudlal (&)
M. Khattaoui
Geotechnical Laboratory (L.G.E.A), University Mouloud
Mammeri of Tizi-Ouzou, Tizi Ouzou, Algeria
e-mail: boudlal_geniecivil@yahoo.fr
M. Khattaoui
e-mail: khattaoui_mohammed@yahoo.fr
S. Belhaouci
University Mouloud Mammeri of Tizi-Ouzou, Tizi Ouzou,
Algeria
e-mail: omar_geniecivil@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_386




Road works Recycling Environment Supply
2 Materials and Methods
The materials used in this study were natural aggregates
(gravel) and industrial glass debris. They were crushed,
prepared and sifted according to the granular class (0/20)
represented by the curves shown on Fig. 1.
The samples were prepared as mixtures according to the
following proportions (natural aggregates + 10, 20, 30, 40
50 and 60% of industrial glass debris).
In order to study their behavior under different types of
stresses to which they would be subjected in practice (under
traffic), the samples (mixtures) were firstly identified (iden-
tification tests) and then subjected to the different series of
mechanical tests at the laboratory, namely Proctor, CBR,
Los Angeles and Micro-deval tests.
3 Results and Discussion
The obtained results under the mechanical tests (Proctor and
CBR tests) are shown on Figs. 2 and 3.
After compaction tests, we have seen a significant
improvement of the dry density of mixtures according to the
addition of the glass debris. The improvement of densities
appeared especially with the addition of 40 to 50% of glass
to reach a maximum of 2.20. These improvements in den-
sities in the case of mixtures may be due to the reinforcement
of the skeleton of the natural material by the glass grains of
smaller sizes which are inserted in the existing voids before
compaction. In fact, during compaction, the glass debris
were easily crushed by following the shape of the voids
existing between the natural grains. Therefore, the voids
proportion was reduced and the densities of the samples
were increased.
1321
1322
Fig. 1 Grain size distribution
Fig. 2 Proctor test results
Fig. 3 CBR test results
However, beyond 50% of glass debris (60%), the dry
densities of samples begin to decrease slightly, nevertheless,
they were still higher than that developed by the natural
aggregates (without glass debris). This may be due to an
excess of glass debris exceeding the optimum content
O. Boudlal et al.
exactly necessary to filling the voids. This excess destabi-
lized the structure of the densest mixtures and made them
less dense, because natural grains were then more and more
separated by glass grains.
Figure 3 shows that the addition of the glass debris also
increases the bearing capacity of the mixtures before and
even after immersion (presence of water). Indeed, the bear-
ing capacity of samples increased with the addition of 50%
of glass debris from 75 to 130 (before immersion) and from
57.26 to 139.87 (after immersion).
This is directly related to the fact that the mixtures
were denser with 50% of glasses debris as shown in the
Proctor tests. They were also less sensitive to water
because glass is a nonabsorbent material. Consequently,
mixtures were more and more stable in contact with water
according to the glass debris proportion contained in the
samples.
However, for glass content higher than 50%, the CBR
index of mixtures (before and after immersion) has
decreased because the structure of the samples was desta-
bilized by the excess of glass, nevertheless it remains better
than that recorded in the case of the sample without glass.
Finally, we can state that, the bearing capacity developed
by the samples without glass (natural aggregates) were more
important before immersion. However, the bearing capacity
was more important after immersion in the case of the
mixtures (natural aggregates + glass debris), especially with
40 to 60% of glass debris.
The degradation of the roads is also directly linked to the
degradation of aggregates due to shocks and wear (caused by
vehicles), those are generally quantified by the Los Angeles
(LA) and Micro-deval (MDE) tests respectively.
According to results shown in Table 1, we can say that
the samples studied show a good resistance to impact and
abrasion. So, this type of aggregates can be used in lower
layers of roads (foundations and base layers), under low to
medium traffic.
Valorization of Industrial Glass Debris in Road Works
Table 1 Los-Angeles and Los-Angeles coefficient (LA)
Micro-Deval results
25.30
4 Conclusion
The results obtained from the laboratory tests, allowed
concluding that the mixtures present a better com-
pactability. Indeed, the incorporation of the glass debris
substantially increased the densities of the mixtures at
low water contents. This may lead to economize precious
natural sources, especially alluvial and water, considered
very rare in certain regions.
The addition, the glass debris also improved the bear-
ing capacity of the mixtures even in the presence of water,
with virtually zero swellings. They are generally fairly
permeable and not very capillary materials, therefore not
very susceptible to freeze-thaw (two properties required in
the case of a road material). The mixtures also presented
and acceptable resistances to impact and abrasion.
The studied mixtures (natural aggregates + glass
debris) showed then very interesting mechanical proper-
ties that would satisfy the conditions required by the
standards for road materials.
This research work may be of major interest in
geotechnical engineering for our region, both from the
economic aspect and the ecological and environmental
aspects. It can also be advantageous to the recycling of
materials, which is an open field for innovation.
In perspective, this study should be completed by
other tests, in particular long-term tests under the effect of
1323
Micro-Deval coefficient (MDE)
23.70
other mechanical (cyclical stresses,…) and climatic
stresses (freeze-thaw, temperature,…). It also needs to be
achieved on a real scale, involving academics and com-
panies in order to study the behavior of these materials on
a real road section and possibly to extend their use to
other construction areas.
References
Bazant ZKP, Zi G, Meyer C. Fracture mechanics of ASR in concretes
with waste glass particles of different sizes. J Eng Mech ASCE.
2000;126:226–32.
Boudlal O, Djemai M, Hamza A, Khattaoui M. Valorisation de
nouveaux matériaux naturels et recyclés dans la construction
routière en Algérie. Bull Eng Geol Env. 2017;76:523–35.
Boudlal O, Melbouci B. Study of the demolition aggregates behavior
by the proctor and CBR tests. Material, design, construction,
maintenance, and testing of pavement. Geotechnical special pub-
lication (ASCE) 2009; 193:75–80.
Halstead WJ. Use of waste glass in highway construction. Technical
assistance report, virginia transportation research council; 1992.
p. 23.
NF EN 13-285. Norme française, Graves non traitées, Spécifications;
2010.
Rogel L, Engelke P. Glass as a road base substitute. Garcla and Wright
Consultant: Public Works; 1997. p. 41–6.
 The Oued Amizour VHMS Zn-Deposit,
Northeastern Algeria: Does It Have
a Kuroko-Type Signature?
Rabah Laouar, Abdelmalek Lekoui, Tayeb Bouima,
Sihem Salmi-Laouar, Salah Bouhlel, and Adrian A. J. Boyce



Keywords
Igneous rocks Calc-alkaline
isotopes Oued amizour
1 Introduction
The Oued Amizour granitoids (Fig. 1) were studied in order
to assess the role of magma processes in the formation of the
largest Zn-deposit in the region. The igneous rocks that host
the giant Zn deposit, consist of two distinct lithologies: vol-
canic masses and subvolcanic-plutonic rocks, both of which
suffered severe hydrothermal alterations. The boundary
between the two lithologies is marked by a massive, 10 m
thick anhydrite layer. Field observations and petrological
study carried out at approximately 800 m length bore-hole
that cross-cut the whole igneous masses show the following
formations from the top to the bottom: pyroclastic rocks,
andesites, porphyritic pyroclastic rocks, vesicular andesites,
microgranites, tuff and lava flows, volcanic breccias and
highly altered andesites that are intruded by aplites, metaso-
matized granodiorites and, finally, massive granodiorites.
R. Laouar (&)
A. Lekoui
S. Salmi-Laouar
Département de géologie, Faculté des Sciences de la Terre,
Université Badji-Mokhtar Annaba, B.P. 1223000 Annaba, Algeria
e-mail: rabahlaouar@yahoo.fr
A. Lekoui
Département des Sciences de la Terre et de l’Univers, Université
Mohamed Seddik Ben Yahia, 18000 Jijel, Algeria
T. Bouima
Institut d’Architecture et des Sciences de la Terre, Université
Farhat Abbas Sétif, 19000 Sétif, Algeria
S. Bouhlel
Département de Géologie, Faculté des Sciences de Tunis,
Université de Tunis el Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
A.A.J. Boyce
Isotope Geosciences Unit, S.U.E.R.C, G75 0QU East Kilbride,
Glasgow, Scotland, UK
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_387




Zn-deposit Hydrothermal alteration Stable
The main sulphide mineralization is dominated by
Zn-sulphides, mostly sphalerite and schalenblende with rare
marcasite, melnikovite, galena and minor but ubiquitus
pyrite. The sphalerite ore body of about 20 to 30 m thick is
located between the anhydrite layer and the volcanic pile and
is hosted by brecciated hydrothermally altered andesite.
Replacement, pseudomorphism, colloform and open space
filling are the main texture patterns of mineralization which
indicates a hydrothermal process throughout successive
percolation phases.
Petrological and geochemical data were used to charac-
terize the igneous rocks of Oued Amizour region. Alteration
products, fluid inclusion and stable isotope studies were used
to elucidate the origin and evolution of the mineralizing
fluids responsible for the emplacement of the giant
Zn-deposit.
2 Materials and Methods
Among about the 120 studied samples, and because of
severe hydrothermal alterations, only 22 were selected
among the least altered rocks for geochemical analyses.
A lithium borate fusion of the samples prior to acid disso-
lution and ICP-AES and ICP-MS analyses provided
respectively the major and trace element contents.
For the sulphur isotope study, 22 sulphide and 10 sul-
phate samples were selected (being pure phases) and pre-
pared for isotope analyses. For carbonate carbon and oxygen
isotope studies, 12 gangue calcite samples were collected
from the whole volcanic pile, including the main ore body.
Stable isotope analyses were carried out at the S.U.E.R.C.,
East Kilbride, Glasgow, UK. 34S/32S ratios were determined
1325
1326
on a VG Isogas Sira 2 mass spectrometer. The results are
reported in the standard “delta” (d) notation as per mil (‰)
deviations relative to Cañon Diablo Troilite (V-CDT) stan-
dard. The isotope analysis of oxygen and carbon of prepared
CO2 was carried out on a seperate VG Sira mass spec-
trometer. The results are expressed in per mil (‰) relative to
PDB standard.
3 Results and Discussion
The SiO2 concentrations of the Oued Amizour igneous rocks
vary between 52.9 and 75.2 wt% indicating that they span
the range of compositions from mafic magma through
intermediate to acidic lithologies. These igneous rocks dis-
play high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic character, similar to
the majority of the Miocene magmatic rocks of northeastern
Algeria (Laouar et al. 2005). They were emplaced within a
subduction-collision geotectonic regime and the magmas
were generated during a slab beakoff process as previously
proposed by Maury et al. (2000).
The d34S values of Oued Amizour sulphide minerals vary
from −7.2 to +4.9‰ (n = 22; mean = −1.3‰). The mean
value of −1.3‰ is *23‰ lower than that of coeval Mio-
cene seawater sulphates (+22‰; Paytan et al. 1998),
whereas the sulphate minerals (anhydrite and gypsum)
exhibit significantly higher values (+13.2 to +20.6‰)
(Fig. 2). The lowest sulphate values are recorded in the
anhydrite layer close to the main ore deposit, whereas the
highest values, approaching those of coeval Miocene sea-
water sulphates, are observed in the anhydrite veins within
the metasomatized granodiorite.
The range of d34S values of Oued Amizour sulphides is in
agreement with the data observed in most VHMS deposits.
The relatively large range of variation in d34S values of
sulphides within the main ores (between −5.6 and +4.5‰)
along with the presence of argillic alteration and the narrow
range of d34S variation within the whole 800 m borehole
(between −2.7 and +3‰) indicates that the significant source
of sulphur is of magmatic origin. Both disprotionations of
magmatic-hydrothermal fluid alluded by Huston et al. (2011)
and dissolved rock sulphide processes are most likely, since
R. Laouar et al.
they gave similar sulphur isotopic compositions (Ohmoto
and Goldhaber 1997; Huston et al. 2011).
The presence of the anhydrite and gypsum layer and
veins underneath the Zn-mineralized zone of the Oued
Amizour deposit are distinctive feature of the Kuroko type
deposits (e.g., Ohmoto 1996), where anhydrite is considered
to be the primary mineral and gypsum results from later
hydration of anhydrite. The sulphur isotopic composition of
these sulphates (+13.2 to +20.6‰) is much closer to that of
coeval Miocene seawater suphates (d34S  + 22‰) than
that of igneous sulphur (d34S  −3 to +3‰). The data
indicate that the sulphate sulphur originates directly from
Miocene seawater sulfate, though a mixture with low d34.
S sulphate sulphur derived from disproportionation of
magmatic-hydrothermal fluid is not excluded, especially at
the Zn-mineralized zone. This is shown in the d34S values of
anhydrite and gypsum, respectively +13.2 and +14.7‰ at
the top of the anhydrite layer close to the main Zn ore, and
+20.6 and +19.3‰ at the bottom, in the anhydrite-gypsum
veins within the granodiorites.
The oxygen isotope composition of the hydrothermal
fluid (18Ofluid) in equilibrium with the analyzed gangue
carbonate samples was calculated. This was based on pre-
liminary fluid inclusion microthermometric investigation
carried out on anhydrite samples that gave homogenization
temperatures between 180 and 200 °C and salinities ranging
between 22 and 24 eq wt% NaCl. 18Ofluid gave values
between +2.9‰ and +7.8‰ (mean = +5.3‰). The high
temperatures coupled with 18O-rich ore fluids, relative to
seawater and meteoric waters, are consistent with the dom-
inant magmatic–hydrothermal fluids.
The carbon isotopic composition is depleted in 13C, with
values ranging from −3.7 to −11‰. Similar to many VHMS
(Huston 1999), there is no correlation between d13C and
d18O (r = 0.03). The observed d13C values of calcite sam-
ples could have been derived either by (1) mixing seawater
carbonate with that derived from oxidation of methane
resulting from the organic carbon degradation in underlying
sedimentary rocks as suggested for some VHMS deposits
(Huston 1999), or (2) by mixing of seawater carbonate with
that of igneous derivation (d13CCO2 values of −5 to −10‰:
Ohmoto and Goldhaber 1997).
The Oued Amizour VHMS Zn-Deposit, Northeastern Algeria … 1327

Fig. 1 a Geological sketch map of Bejaia-Oued Amizour region. b Simplified geological map of the Oued Amizour region showing the Ait
Bouzid sector (After O.R.G.M 1998, unpub. doc.)
1328
Fig. 2 Histograms showing the
sulphur isotopic composition of
Oued Amizour mineralization
4 Conclusion
Many features of the Oued Amizour Zn deposit are
similar to most VHMSDs. The host igneous rocks of
Miocene age, the physical (geometry, size) and chamical
features (mineralogy, alteration products, stable isotope
signatures and temperature of the mineralizing fluids) are
comparable to those of many Kuroko-type deposits.
References
Huston DL. Stable isotopes and their significance for understanding the
genesis of volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposits: a review. Rev
Econ Geol. 1999;10:151–80.
Huston D, Relvas JMRS, Gemmell B, Drieberg S. The role of granites
in volcanic-hosted massive sulphide ore-forming systems: an
assessment of magmatic-hydrothermal contributions to the ores.
Miner Depos. 2011;46:473–508.
R. Laouar et al.
Laouar R, Boyce AJ, Arafa M, Ouabadi A, Fallick AE. Petrological,
geochemical, and stable isotope constraints on the genesis of the
Miocene igneous rocks of Chetaibi and Cap de Fer (NE Algeria).
J Afr Earth Sci. 2005;41:445–65.
Maury RC, Fourcade S, Coulon C, El Azzouzi M, Bellon H,
Coutelle A, Ouabadi A, Semroud B, Megartsi M, Cotten J,
Belanteur O, Louni-Hacini A, Piqué A, Capdevila R, Hernandez J,
Réhault J-P. Post-collisional Neogene magmatism of the Mediter-
ranean Maghreb margin: a consequence of slab breakoff. Comptes
rendus de l_Acade´mie des Sciences, Paris IIA. 2000;331:159–73.
Ohmoto H. Formation of volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits: the
Kuroko perspective. Ore Geol Rev. 1996;10:135–77.
Ohmoto H, Goldhaber MB. Sulfur and carbon isotopes. In: Barnes HJ,
editor. Geochemistry of hydrothermal ore deposits. 3rd ed. New
York: Wiley; 1997. p. 517–611.
Paytan A, Kastner M, Campbell D, Thiemens MH. Sulfur isotopic
composition of cenozoic seawater sulfate. Science. 1998;282:
1459–62.
 Recycling of Tunisian Phosphogypsum
as Road Material: Assessment
of the Mechanical and Leaching Behavior

Raja Zmelma, Ikram Naifer, Mounir Benjdidia, and Boubaker Elleuch

Keywords
Phosphogypsum Recycling Leaching behavior Dynamic leaching Heavy element
Static leaching

1 Introduction date its acceptability in terms of these geotechnical and

At present, the growth of waste production associated with
the awareness of the environmental problems and the need
of a sustainable development make waste management the
key disposal method (Tiruta-Barna et al. 2007). Recycling is
becoming the primary policy used worldwide, trying to
reduce environmental pollution and preserve natural
resources. In Tunisia, there are several studies that showed
the reliability of the use of PG in building materials (Sfar
et al. 2005; Dalgren et al. 2011). Unfortunately, we do not
find practical applications; they remained at the lab scale.
The broader reason for this is that pollutants released from
the material recycling have not received much attention.
Furthermore, the available information about the leached and
pollution characteristics from these processes is still rare. In
this context, the objectives of the present study were two-
fold: Firstly, a basic characterization of the mixtures to
describe the characteristics of the treated materials to vali-
R. Zmelma (&)
I. Naifer
M. Benjdidia
B. Elleuch
National Engineering School of Sfax, Laboratory of
Environmental Engineering and Ecotechnology, Route de Soukra
Km 4.5 BP W, Sfax, 3038, Tunisia
e-mail: zmemla@yahoo.fr
I. Naifer
e-mail: ikramnaifar@hotmail.com
M. Benjdidia
e-mail: benjdidia.mounir@enis.rnu.tn
B. Elleuch
e-mail: boubaker.eleuch@enis.rnu.tn
Physic-mechanical properties. Secondly, to focus on the
leaching behavior of the mixtures using static (or
equilibrium-based) leaching tests and dynamic conditions
(mass transfer based leaching tests). These tests were
selected to simulate scenarios of underground storage and
alteration of the mixtures.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Raw Materials and Preparation of Mixtures
Raw PG samples were supplied by the Skhira factory located
in the south east of Tunisia. Natural sand commonly used in
road material, brought by the region of Sfax which is a
representative sand of Tunisian construction road of the
arrases. Two binders were used as a treatment material in
this work, a high sulfate resistance Cement HRS 42.5 N
provided by Tunisian Factory, with a density of 3100 kg/m3
and a Blaine specific surface of 3263 cm2/g. CEM III/C
42.5 N produced by Calcia France factory, it has a specific
gravity of 3130 and a Blaine fineness of approximately
4280 cm2/g. The percentage of each component was main-
tained constant (i.e. 46.5 wt% S46.5% wt PG and 7% wt C)
for all the samples. This combination was characterized
using the technical analysis detailed in the section below.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1329

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_388
1330
Fig. 1. Experimental equipment
used in the leaching test a Batch
test, b Dynamic leaching test
2.2 Test Procedures
2.2.1 Physico Mechanical Characterization
Geotechnical analyses were performed by Proctor modified
test PM NF P94-093 and California bearing ratio CBR NF
P94-078. Thereafter, cylindrical specimens (50 mm in
diameter by 100 mm height) were compacted using
geotechnical results to determine the materials mechanical
behavior (compressive strength, tensile strength and the
Young’s modulus) in the short and long run.
2.2.2 Leaching Tests
The leaching test results presented in this paper allow
evaluating the behavior of heavy metals in equilibrium
(static or equilibrium-based leaching tests) and dynamic
conditions (mass transfer based leaching tests). Batch
leaching tests were conducted at natural pH according to
standard procedure EN 12457-2 (Moudilou et al. 2002)
Fig. 1a. Dynamic leach test was used in this paper to explore
the long-run leaching behavior of the sample completely
immersed, and maintained without agitation.
A CTG-LEACHCRETE (Galvín et al. 2013) was derived
from the Soxhlet extractor principle, Fig. 1b presents the test
experimental set up.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Physical and Mechanical Characterization
The optimal water content OMC of all mixtures was within
the range of 13–14%, which are higher values than the NS.
Indeed, all the mixtures required high amounts of water than
R. Zmelma et al.
NS to reach the OMC, which could be attributed to the fine
particle size (high surface area) of both materials: PG and
cement. Further, the results indicate that MDD (1.77–1.67)
had little lower value than TV (1.8). PG in combination with
cement situated between the host soil constituents increased
the MDD of mixture which is an indicator of the improve-
ment of soil properties. The high CBR values were the result
of the high interlock between the aggregate particles, which
resulted in high shearing stresses; such results were proved
in several studies of cement-treated materials (Arulrajah
et al. 2013). Treated PG has clearly ameliorated its sensi-
tivity to water which gives Mix stable compaction behavior
and good workability over a wide range of water contents in
geotechnical engineering applications. Standards require
minimum CBR values of 25 and 50% for sub-grade and
sub-base materials, respectively. The mixtures mechanical
performances, in terms of CBR, were largely higher than the
minimum requirement in GTR for road materials (Malviya
and Chaudhary 2006).
The CS is generally acknowledged as an important
indicator of the mixture quality of the treated material.
Compressive strength results of all samples, as average
values of three determinations, are reported in Fig. 2. The
compressive strength at 7, 28, 90 and 360 days increased at
early and later stages for most of the mixtures ranging from 2
to 3.8 MPa. The curing time is an important factor that
affects the mechanical parameters of cement-treated materi-
als due to continuing hydration reactions. It can also be
observed that at early age, mixture prepared with HRS
cement shows good early strength compared to mix prepared
with CEM III. The treated raw PG, which has an initial low
performance than NS, provides good binding property.
A similar trend was reported by previous studies.
Recycling of Tunisian Phosphogypsum … 1331

tensile strength showed the ITS values of all mixtures to

reach up 0.25 MPa at 7 day of age which is the minimum
required. The results also show an appreciate development
of the mechanical strength for all the mixtures which con-
firmed the highest performances of the mixture.

3.2 Leaching Behavior

3.2.1 Static Leaching Behavior

Fig. 2. Compressive strength development of mixtures compared to
raw material
This performance may be attributed to the formation of
calcium silicate hydrates (C–S–H) and ettringite. A require-
ment of 1000 kPa is the minimum value currently used in
base course design (GTS 2000). All the mixtures presented
acceptance values at 7 days, the highest values were
achieved for Mix2 prepared with old PG and activated with
HRS cement. All mixes show a considerable increase of the
mechanical properties at all ages. The mean increment
strength enhancement was more obvious when using HRS
cement. The mechanical properties were also determined in
terms of indirect tensile strength (ITS) and Young’s
Modulus (E). Similar to the compressive, the measured
Table 1 shows the concentrations of the leachates from the
four tested materials which were compared with raw PG as
well as with the legal limits indicated by EU landfill
Directive. As, Cd, Cr, Se, Sr and Zn were the elements
leached above from both fresh and old raw PG, in order of
abundance. Therefore these elements deserve special atten-
tion due to their toxicity. After the treatment process, the
trace metal release was lowest in all mixtures during the
whole experiments. This result also demonstrates a low
leaching behavior for all trace elements especially for the Zn
which is highly leached by the raw material (>50 mg/kg).
Several studies affirmed that the main reason of heavy metals
immobilization is essentially due to alkaline nature and
buffering capacity provided by calcium hydroxide and C–S–
H (Deschamps et al. 2006). The leaching percentages of Zn
decreased from 40 to 0.04% the leached content of all ele-
ments was lower than raw PG.

Table 1 Leaching concentrations of trace elements

Elements traces (mg/kg) L/S 10(24 h)
Element PG Sk F PG Sk V F1 F2 F3 F4 Inert Non Haz Haz
As 0.80 0.58 0.3 0.4 0.39 0.38 0.5 2 25
Cd 1.29 1.25 0 0 0 0 0.04 1 5
Cr 3.12 0.23 0.28 0.26 0.059 0.19 0.5 10 70
Cu 0.3 0.11 0.06 0.1 0.018 0.1 2 50 100
Ni 0.45 0.11 0.06 0.08 0.025 0.06 0.4 10 40
Pb 0.13 0.006 0.15 0.002 0.157 0.09 0.5 10 50
Se 0.91 0.14 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.06 0.1 0.5 7
Sr 79.16 114.84 42 28 41 30 – – –
Zn 5.47 51.42 1.11 0.41 0.96 0.309 4 50 200
1332 R. Zmelma et al.

Table 2 Results of Dynamic leaching behavior

Cumulative time Elements traces in (µg/l)
As Ba* Cd Cr Cu Hg Ni Pb Se Sr* Zn
F2 93.5 9.53 18.53 6.20 19.65 18.92 2.87 10.56 7.72 10.55 1.48 13.2
264 9.48 20.52 5.99 14.65 18.60 4.54 10.15 7.71 10.21 4.79 6.40
428 9.16 50.49 6.19 11.75 18.68 4.80 10.30 7.32 15.02 5.81 9.08
576 9.57 43.97 6.16 10.91 18.64 4.48 9.79 7.44 9.35 6.65 17.05
670 9.29 28.99 5.95 10.74 18.75 4.79 8.44 7.33 8.79 1.67 12.27
F4 93.5 10.05 27.60 6.30 8.76 18.55 4.38 10.26 7.46 3.09 2.63 8.72
264 9.51 27.49 6.11 7.81 18.20 4.93 8.98 7.58 10.17 0.34 16.80
428 11.53 40.01 6.12 9.20 18.86 4.61 10.18 7.81 11.75 3.15 12.13
576 9.48 30.74 5.90 8.89 19.14 4.46 9.91 7.19 8.83 1.29 15.24
670 10.11 29.02 6.25 9.72 18.83 4.68 11.57 7.96 12.97 2.79 9.31
* mg/l

3.2.2 Dynamic Leaching Behavior
Heavy metal leaching from mixture monolith was negligible
for Pb, Ni Zn Cr Cu which was lower than that of raw
materials except for Ba. A comparison of the guidance
values and the leaching results for heavy metals shows that
the pH decrease seems to be decisive in the leaching of
heavy metals. The highest leached concentrations were
obtained according the acceptance requirements of the
landfill regulations (Table 2).
4 Conclusion
Mixture has good mechanical properties as a road base
material as the degree of compaction may enhance the
UCS, ITS and elastic modulus of mixture. The age of PG
is a dominating factor determining its mechanical prop-
erties. The samples were submitted to different leaching
tests (dynamic and static) in order to determine the
influence of the shape (monolith or granular) and eluate
renewal on the leaching of heavy elements. The com-
parison criteria were the eluate saturation state, the
cumulative release and the release flux. The environ-
mental impact assessment of a material in all leaching
scenarios requires data like cumulative total release,
pollutant fluxes and eluate concentrations. Heavy metal
presents a very low leach at concentration in the two
performed tests. The pollutant potential of tested mate-
rials was evaluated according to the European regulation.
The concentrations of the leachates from the four tested
materials were compared with the legal limits indicated
by EU landfill directive. Hence all the tested materials
were classified as non hazardous. The leaching solution
pH was determinable factor. The leachability effects on of
the results of this study indicate that the use of the treated
PG mixed with NS and activated by cement is feasible.
References
Arulrajah A, Piratheepan J, Disfani MM, Bo MW, M. ASCE.
Geotechnical and geoenvironmental properties of recycled con-
struction and demolition materials in pavement subbase applica-
tions. J Mater Civ Eng. 2013;25:1077–88.
Dalgren KE, Düker A, Arwidsson Z, von Kronhelm T, van Hees PAW.
Re-cycling of remediated soil: evaluation of leaching tests as tools
for characterization. Waste Manage. 2011;31:215–24.
Deschamps T, Benzaazoua M, Bussière B, Belem T, Mbonimpa M
(2006). Mécanismes de rétention des métaux lourds en phase solide
: cas de la stabilisation des sols contaminés et des déchets
industriels. La revue en sciences de l'environnement. 2006;7(2):1–
11.
Galvín AP, Ayuso J, Agrela F, Barbudo A, Jiménez JR. Analysis of
leaching procedures for environmental risk assessment of recycled
aggregate use in unpaved roads. Constr Build Mater.
2013;40:1207–14.
GTS. Traitement des sols à la chaux et/ou aux liants hydrauliques -
application à la réalisation des remblais et des couches de forme
(GTS), 2000.
Malviya R, Chaudhary R. Leaching behavior and immobilization of
heavy metals in solidified/stabilized products. J Hazard Mater.
2006;137:207–17.
Moudilou E, Bellotto M, Defosse C, Serclerat I, Baillif P, Touray JC.
A dynamic leaching method for the assessment of trace metals
released from hydraulic binders. J Waste Manage. 2002;22:153–7.
Sfar Felfoul H, Clastres P, Benouezdou M. Gestion des sous produits
industriels et developpement durable: cas du phosphogypse de
Sfax-Tunisie. Sciences et technologie. 2005;23:66–81.
Tiruta-Barna L, Benetto E, Perrodin Y. Environmental impact and risk
assessment of mineral wastes reuse strategies: review and critical
analysis of approaches and applications. Resour Conserv Recycl.
2007;50:351–79.
 Heat Shock Effects on Physiological
Parameters Durum Wheat Seedlings
and Relationships with Stress Tolerance
Indices

Sofia Hamli, Mostapha Labhilili, Kenza Kadi, Dalila Addad,

and Hmenna Bouzerzour

Keywords
Coleoptile Fluorescence P index Heat shock Seedling

physiological screening tests applied to durum wheat lines

1 Introduction
subjected to heat shock at the seedling growth stage and to
study their relationships with grain yield stress tolerance
Drought and temperature extremes are major factors limiting
indices.
wheat productivity particularly in arid and semi-arid regions.
The selection of a high and stable yield are an important
objective in these environments. This is particularly true in
the Mediterranean basin where harsh and fluctuating climatic
2 Materials and Methods
conditions lead to the occurrence of qualitative geno-
Eight durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. var. durum) geno-
type  environment interactions. Breeding relies, usually,
types namely Bousselam, Gaviota durum, Korifla, Mrb3,
on selection for yield and few alternatives to direct selection
Ofanto, Tajdid, Vitron and Waha were used as plant materials.
for yield have been adopted. Identification of characters that
At the 3-leaf stage seedlings were subjected to direct heat
could boost, both yield potential and stability, is an impor-
shock by placing them in a controlled temperature water bath
tant step in plant breeding (Cossani and Reynolds 2012).
at 40 °C for 0, 30 and 60 min. The following measurements
The lack of identification of appropriate morphological
were performed on the treated seedlings: Chlorophyll content
and/or physiological traits has been a major factor prevent-
(Chl (mg/g FW) = 20.2 A645–8.02 A663), Relative leaf water
ing the improvement of yield in stressful environments. Any
content (RWC (%) = [(FW-DW)/(TW-DW))  100), Mem-
desirable physiological trait should be simple and accurate to
brane thermo stability (%injury = (T1/T2)  100), Proline
measure on a large number of plants subjected to screening
accumulation, Sugars accumulation, Leaf area and coleoptile
(Slafer et al. 2005). Several traits, among which fluores-
growth, Leaf chlorophyll fluorescence.
cence, chlorophyll content, proline, sugars and membrane
Like the salinity susceptibility index reported by Jiang
stability, have been proposed as indirect selection criteria to
et al. (2006), the heat shock susceptibility index (HSSI) was
improve both stress tolerance and yield potential (Pinto et al.
calculated for each tested durum wheat variety as: HSSI
2010; Cossani and Reynolds 2012). The objective of this
(%) = (Ys/Yc)  100. Data were analyzed using the free
study was to assess the discriminating ability of
software Cropstat 7.2.3. (2007).
S. Hamli (&)
K. Kadi
D. Addad
Faculty of Life and Natural Sciences, Abbas Laghrour Khenchela
University, 40000 Khenchela, Algeria 3 Results and Discussion
e-mail: sofiahamli@yahoo.fr
M. Labhilili Significant heat shock effect was observed for the eight
Biotechnology Unit, Center Regional of Agricultural Research, measured parameters (Table 1). Averaged over varieties,
Rabat, Morocco proline, soluble sugars and damage to cell membrane
H. Bouzerzour increased; while Fv/Fm ratio, relative water content,
Valorization of Biological Natural Resources Lab, Fac. of Life and
Natural Sciences, Setif-1 University, 19000 Setif, Algeria

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1333

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_389
1334 S. Hamli et al.

Table 1 Analysis of variance Variation sources

mean squares of Fv/Fm ratio,
proline, soluble sugars, % injury HS Rep/HT Genotype (G) G x HS Error
to cell membrane, relative water Ddl 2 6 7 14 42
content, coleoptile length,
Fv/Fm 0.14476* 0.00595 0.01972 ns
0.01531** 0.00173
chlorophyll content, and leaf area
of eight durum wheat genotypes Pro (µg/ml) 3627.6** 17.5 696.8 ns
486.4** 10.9
subjected to heat shock stress at Suc (µg/ml) 14052.9 **
89.9 1331.1 *
380.9** 153.1
40 °C during 0, 30 and 60 min at ** * **
the seedling stage Chl (mg/g FW) 25.5 0.1 12.1 2.8 0.1
Inj (%) 3415.5** 9.8 44.4 ns
35.3** 6.0
** ns **
RWC (%) 1198.4 4.5 9.5 31.3 6.1
Col (cm) 3.7** 0.1 1.4** 0.18** 0.1
2 * ** *
LA (cm ) 2.5 0.7 4.5 1.3 0.4
Fv/Fm = quantum yield; Proc = proline, µg/ml; Suc = Soluble sugars, µg/ml; Inj = injury to cell membrane, %;
RWC = relative water content,%; Col = coleoptile length, cm; Chl = Chlorophyll content, mg/g FW; LA = leaf
area, cm2. ns, * = non-significant and significant effect at 5% probability level, respectively

Table 2 Heat shock main effect Heat shock duration at 40 °C

of accumulated proline, soluble
sugars, % injury to cell Parameters 0 30 60 Lsd5%
membrane, relative water content, Fv/Fm 0.74 0.68 0.59 0.05
coleoptile length, chlorophyll
Pro (µg/ml) 26.03 39.25 54.09 2.95
content, and leaf area of eight
durum wheat genotypes subjected Suc (µg/ml) 50.79 73.19 99.15 6.69
to heat shock stress at 40 °C Chl (mg/g FW) 3.98 2.81 1.92 0.18
during 0, 30 and 60 min at the
seedling stage Inj (%) 11.12 23.82 34.96 2.21
RWC (%) 88.64 84.94 74.97 1.50
Col (cm) 3.99 3.84 3.25 0.21
LA (cm2) 6.44 5.49 4.58 0.60
Fv/Fm = quantum yield; Proc = proline, µg/ml; Suc = Soluble sugars, µg/ml; Inj = injury to cell membrane,
%; RWC = relative water content,%; Col = coleoptile length, cm; Chl = Chlorophyll content, mg/g FW;
LA = leaf area, cm2

coleoptile length, chlorophyll content, and leaf area signifi-
cantly decreased (Table 2).
Grain yield stress tolerance indices
These results indicate that P index elected three geno-
types as stable and high yielding among which two (Bous-
selam and Waha) have been released as cultivars (Nouar
et al. 2012) (Table 3).
Relationships between tests parameters and stress tolerance
indices
The analysis of the spearman’s rank correlation indicated
that under 30-min exposure at 40 °C, soluble sugars were
positively correlated with % damage to cell membrane
(r = 0.881, P = 0.000), coleoptile length (r = 0.905,
P = 0.002), leaf area (r = 0.786, P = 0.028), and with

Table 3 Average grain yield per Grain yield (t/ha)/location Stress tolerance index
location and stress tolerance
indices of the eight durum wheat Génotype SET KH HAR SBA SAI Average P S STI
genotypes evaluated Bousselam 4.37 5.01 1.47 2.71 3.68 3.45 0.06 0.97 0.29
Gaviota durum 3.55 4.26 1.33 2.29 4.10 3.10 0.34 0.94 0.31
Korifla 3.97 5.13 1.23 2.31 3.33 3.19 0.17 1.04 0.24
Mrb3 4.61 4.98 1.32 2.97 3.78 3.53 0.05 1.01 0.26
Ofanto 2.84 4.15 1.37 2.06 3.42 2.77 0.65 0.92 0.33
Tajdid 3.69 5.59 1.05 2.50 2.96 3.15 0.25 1.11 0.19
Vitron 3.22 4.53 1.37 1.95 4.16 3.05 0.41 0.95 0.30
Waha 3.82 5.04 1.25 2.78 3.76 3.33 0.11 1.03 0.25
Locations: SET = Setif, KH = Khroub, HAR = Harrouch, SBA = Sidi Bel Abbes, SAI = Saïda
Heat Shock Effects on Physiological Parameters …
Fv/Fm ratio (r = 0.762, P = 0.037). Per cent damage to cell
membrane was positively and significantly correlated with
coleoptile length (r = 0.738, P = 0.046), leaf area
(r = 0.810, P = 0.022) and with Fv/Fm ratio (r = 0.762,
P = 0.037). Coleoptile length and leaf area were positively
correlated at 10% probability level (r = 0.643, P = 0.083).
Chlorophyll content showed a negative correlation with P
index (r = -0.714, P = 0.058). Under 60 min exposure to
heat shock stress, soluble sugars were positively correlated
with % damage to cell membrane (r = 0.850, P = 0.011),
coleoptile length (r = 0.659, P = 0.084) but not with leaf
area nor with Fv/Fm ratio, as it was observed under 30 min
exposure to heat shock stress. However soluble sugars
showed significant correlation with p index (r = -0.659,
P = 0.084), with S index (r = 0.716, P = 0.052) and with
STI index (r = -0.719, P = 0.052). These relationships were
not observed under a 30-min exposure. These results indi-
cated the inconsistency of the relationships between physi-
ological tests, except for the relationship between sugars and
% damage to cell membrane and between sugars and
coleoptile length which appeared as co regulated. The rela-
tionships with stress indices seem to be dependent on stress
severity, and so these laboratory tests do not predict the
genotypic response to stress experienced in the field. As
such, they could not be recommended to replace field testing
based on grain yield as screening tools for the identification
of tolerant genotypes to be used in crossing programs or
applied directly to segregating populations. The results of
the present study do not corroborate those of Zaheri and
Bahraminejad (2012) who reported a significant correlation
between % damage to cell membrane and STI index an
recommended this assay to screen under irrigated and rain
fed conditions. Talebi (2011) reported a significant correla-
tion between chlorophyll content and S index, under
moisture-stressed conditions, suggesting the potential of this
index for selecting drought tolerant genotypes. Cseuz (2009)
found that water retention, translocation and canopy tem-
perature tests were closely correlated, in drier years, with
multi-location yield tests, and as such suggested them for
screening purposes.
4 Conclusion
The various laboratory tests assessed in this study indi-
cated sufficient amount of variability in the responses of
the seedling of the eight durum wheat genotypes
1335
evaluated. Heat shock affected significantly the measured
parameters, Genotype responses varied according to
genetic background and stress intensity. Proline, soluble
sugars, leaf regrowth identified Korifla as tolerant geno-
type, while based on relative water content, membrane
stability, chlorophyll content, Bousselam was declared
tolerant to heat shock stress. Vitron and Waha were tol-
erant based on Fv/Fm ratio and coleoptile regrowth,
respectively. The P index appeared to be the best suited to
select for higher and stable yield under both stressed and
unstressed conditions. This index elected Mrb3, Bous-
selam and Waha as stable and high yielding. Spearman’s
rank correlations indicated that the relationships between
parameters and with tolerance indices varied according to
stress levels. As such, the laboratory tests assessed in the
present study could not be recommended to replace grain
yield field testing.
References
Cossani CM, Reynolds MP. Physiological traits for improving heat
tolerance in wheat. Plant Physiol. 2012;160:1710–8.
Cropstat 7.2. 3. Free software package for windows. International Rice
Research Institute, IRRI, Manila; 2007.
Cseuz L. Possibilities and limits of breeding wheat (Triticum aestivum
L.) for drought tolerance. In: Ph.D. Thesis SzentIstvan University;
2009. 18 p.
Jiang Q, Roche D, Monaco TA, Durham S. Gas exchange, chlorophyll
fluorescence parameters and carbon isotope discrimination of 14
barley genetic lines in response to salinity. Field Crops Res.
2006;96:269–78.
Nouar H, Bouzerzour H, Haddad L, Menad A, Hazmoune T, Zerar-
gui H. Genotype x environment interaction assessment in durum
wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) using AMMI and GGE models. Adv
Environ Biol. 2012;6:3007–15.
Pinto RS, Reynolds MP, Mathews KL, Mc Intyre CL,
Olivares-Villegas JJ, Chapman SC. Heat and drought adaptive
QTL in a wheat population designed to minimize confounding
agronomic effects. Theor Appl Genet. 2010;121:1001–21.
Slafer GA, Araus JL, Royo C, Garcia Del Moral L. Promising
eco-physiological traits for genetic improvement of cereal yields
in Mediterranean environments. Annals Appl Biol. 2005;
146:61–70.
Talebi R. Evaluation of chlorophyll content and canopy temperature as
indicators for drought tolerance in durum wheat (Triticum durum
Desf.). Aust J Basic Appl Sci. 2011;5:1457–62.
Zaheri A, Bahraminejad S. Assessment of drought tolerance in oat
(Avena sativa) genotypes. Annals Biol Res. 2012;3:2194–201.
 An AFM Study of the Surface Propriety
and Corrosion Inhibition on Carbon Steel
in Acidic Media

Meriem Zerroug, Hana Ferkous, Manelle Radjai,

Mohamed Aymen Chaouch, Anis Madaci, Hatem Majdoub,
and Abderrazak Bouzid

Keywords
AFM Inhibitor Weight loss Carbon steel Polarization RMS

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Atomic Force Microscopy is undoubtedly the most adapt-
able and dominant microscopic technology for studying
nanoscale samples. The study of corrosion and corrosion
inhibition have been coupled with the use of atomic force
microscopy (Philippe Marcus 2006) to investigate roughness
characteristics of the metal surface by several research
groups such as (Pandarinathan et al. 2014; Qhatan 2016).
The aim of this study was to explore the ability of
polysaccharides extracted from nopal pulp (PPUN) to inhibit
corrosion when they are adsorbed on carbon steel by weight
loss method and electrochemical test. Finally, we also aimed
at observing the surface after use of the inhibitor by AFM.
M. Zerroug (&)
A. Bouzid
Laboratoire des matériaux et Systèmes électroniques, Université
El-Bachir El-Ibrahimi Bordj Bou Arreridj, Bordj Bou Arreridj,
Algeria
e-mail: sc.mariem@hotmail.fr
H. Ferkous
Laboratoire de Physique Des Matériaux, Rayonnement et
Nanostructures, Université El-Bachir El-Ibrahimi Bordj Bou
Arreridj, Bordj Bou Arreridj, Algeria
M. Radjai
Laboratoires de génie des procédés catalytiques, Université Ferhat
Abbass Sétif-01, Sétif, Algeria
M. A. Chaouch
H. Majdoub
Faculté des sciences de Monastir, Laboratoiredes Interfaces et des
Matériaux Avancés (LIMA), Université de Monastir, BD. de
l’environnement, 5019 Monastir, Tunisia
A. Madaci
Département sciences de la matière, Université El-Bachir
El-Ibrahimi Bordj Bou Arreridj, Bordj Bou Arreridj, Algeria
Preparation of the Plant Extract.
Fresh prickly pear cladodes were collected in the area of
Monastir. These cladodes were firstly washed with tap water
and the spines were removed manually. Second, cladodes
were cut into small pieces and blended with distilled water
using a mixing machine.
Thereby, the pulp’s juices underwent ultrasonic treatment
for 2 min followed by a mechanical agitation for 2 h at
40 °C. The mixture was then filtered, centrifuged and dia-
lyzed using membranes with a molecular weight cut-off of
14KDa. Finally, the dialysate was freeze-dried to get an
extract from pulp (PPUN).
Preparation of Carbon Steel Specimen
Specimens of carbon steel with chemical composition of
(wt%) C 0.38%, Mn 0.66%, Si 0.27%, Ni 0.02%, Cr 0.21%,
Mo 0.02% were cut into coupons of size 5 cm  0.2 cm
 0.2 cm. The samples were polished with abrasive paper
(220–2000 grit size), rinsed with distilled water degreased
with acetone then stored in a desiccator for the application of
the weight loss method and the AFM investigation. For
electrochemical studies, cylindrical carbon steel was used as
a working electrode, with an exposed area of 0.5 cm2 while
the rest was covered.
Weight loss method
The carbon steel sheets were weighed and immersed in
the corrosive solution with and without inhibitor (0–
400 mg/L) for different times of 1, 2, 3, 7, 15 and 30
days. The coupons were weighed once the time has elapsed.
Electrochemical tests
A Preliminary Study of the concentration effect showed
that the inhibition efficiency was stable and reached a higher
value at 25 ppm.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1337

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_390
1338
Fig. 1 Variation of the corrosion rate and inhibitive efficiency against
the PPUN concentrations
Potentiodynamic polarization and EIS measurements
were carried out by an EC-LAB V 10.33 to investigate the
influence of the immersion time (1–2–3–7–15 and 30 days)
in a conventional three electrode cell containing 25 ppm of
PPUN including carbon steel specimen as working elec-
trode, platinum as counter electrode, and saturated Ag/AgCl
as reference electrode. The polarization curves were
obtained at the scan rate of 0.5 mV/s in the range of
−200 to +200 mV from open circuit potential.
Surface Investigation
The 3D AFM morphologies, for polished carbon steel
(control), immersed respectively in 1 M HCl (blank), 1 M
HCl containing 25 ppm of PPUN as indicated in Fig. 3 were
taken by Asylum Research an Oxford Instruments company
type: MFP-3D. The scan size of the AFM images was
5 µm  5 µm area with a scan rate of 1 Hz.
3 Results and Discussion
Weight loss method
Figure 1 illustrates the variation of corrosion rate and
efficiencies with concentration of inhibitor. From the mass
loss data, it was clear that PPUN inhibits the corrosion of
Carbon steel in 1 M HCl solution at all concentrations used
in this study. It was also observed that the corrosion rate of
carbon steel specimen decreases with the addition of the
inhibitor. Furthermore, it was found that the inhibition effi-
ciency achieved 83% at 25 ppm and stabilized around this
value regardless of the increase of the added concentration.
M. Zerroug et al.
Fig. 2 The potentiodynamic polarization curves of C-steel in 1 M HCl
and 25 ppm of PPUN solution at different times of immersion
The corrosion inhibition could be attributed to the adsorption
of this compound at the specimen/acid solution interface.
Electrochemical tests
Figure 2 shows the potentiodynamic polarization curves
of C-steel in 1 M HCl containing 25 ppm of PPUN added to
the corrosive solution at different times of immersion. As can
it be seen, both the anodic and cathodic currents decrease
after 30 days of immersion. This result suggests that the
addition of PPUN reduces anodic dissolution and also
retards the hydrogen evolution reaction. It is clearly seen that
the corrosion current decreased to a lower value 0.5 µm.cm–
2
and the corrosion potential shifted to more positive value,
less than 85 mV, after 30 days which may have contributed
to the formation of a protective layer that blocks cathodic
and anodic sites (Fig. 2).
Surface Investigation
– The values of RMS of the freshly polished surface (a) is
27.86 nm. A slight roughness is noticed; a presence of
few scratches due to the atmospheric corrosion (Geetha
and Rajendran 2016) or the polishing treatment.
– The RMS values for the carbon steel surface immersed in
1 M HCl solution is 141.74 nm. From this value and the
images (b), it is easy to see that the carbon steel
immersed in hydrochloric acid solution has a greater
surface roughness due to the corrosion.
– However, in the presence of PPUN, the RMS decreased
to 78,27 nm. This reduction demonstrates that the surface
An AFM Study of the Surface Propriety …
Fig. 3 3D AFM images of Carbon steel a Polished sample, b Immersed in 1 M HCl and c Immersed in 1 M HCl containing 25 ppm of PPUN
becomes smoother because of the deposition of the
inhibitors on the metal surface as shown in (c).
4 Conclusion
– Inhibition efficiency increases with increasing concen-
trations of the inhibitor. PPNU decreases the current
density after 30 days of immersion.
– The AFM study reveals that the protective film formed
on the surface decreases the corrosion rate of carbon steel
for polysaccharides extracted from nopal pulp PPUN.
– Nopal Pulp extract was found to be a good inhibitor of
corrosion of carbon steel in 1 M HCl. It inhibits corro-
sion by adsorption on the metal surface.
1339
References
Geetha MB, Rajendran S. Synergistic inhibition of corrosion of mild
steel in sulphuric acid by new ternary system. Der Pharma Chemica.
2016;8(3):194–201.
Marcus P, Mansfeld F. Analytical methods in corrosion science and
technology; 2006. Chapter 5, p. 133. ISBN: 0-8247-5952-4.
Pandarinathan V, Lekova K, Bailey SI, Becker T, Gubner R. Adsorp-
tion of corrosion inhibitor 1-dodecylpyridinium chloride on carbon
steel studied by in situ AFM and electrochemical methods. Ind Eng
Chem Res. 2014;53:5858–65.
Yousif QA, Al-Zhara AA. Electrochemical methods, SEM-EDS and
AFM studies for assesing corrosion inhibition of carbon steel in
acidic media. ARPN J Eng Appl Sci. 2016;11(21).
 Design of the Bricks Based on the Marine
Sediments of Bethioua Port

Nasr Boudjenane, Djamila Benyerou, and Mansour Belhadri

Keywords
Marine sediments Valorization Dredging Brick

1 Introduction distribution was determined by two complementary meth-

Dredging operations have always been essential in order to
maintain, deepen or develop these sites and to ensure the
proper functioning of trade by sea routes (Benyerou 2017).
This study deals with the feasibility of the incorporation of
the sediments of the Bethioua port in the bricks.
2 Materials and Methods
ods, screening by wet and an analysis by sedimentation,
respectively according to the standards (XP P 94-041) and
(NF P 94-057). The Atterberg limits have been measured
according to the standard (NF P 94-051). The density has
been measured according to the standard (NF P 94-054).
According to Benyerou et al. (2015), the mineralogical study
of marine sediments and clay brick, shows a presence of
quartz, calcite and dolomite as the main minerals.

Several formulations with different rates of substitution of
clay by sediments are compared and evaluated to the in-
dustrial scale. Mixtures prepared and their compositions are
given in Table 1 as well as their identification codes.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Identification of Marine Sediments
Table 2 presents the identification of physico-chemical
marine sediments and the clay of brick. The particle size
3.2 Method of Compaction and Design
of Specimens
The brick specimens were prepared by means of triaxial. The
slip samples were mixed with a predetermined amount of
water in a kneader for 15 min. Finally, the wet material is
introduced into a hollow cylindrical mold 2 cm in diameter
and 4 cm in height. The compaction is then carried out by
applying a pressure force of 100 bars. The material is
compacted vertically at the top and the bottom by means of
two cylindrical pistons (Fig. 1). After compaction, all the
specimens are placed in a drying chamber (40 °C).

N. Boudjenane (&)
D. Benyerou
M. Belhadri

Laboratory of Rheology, Transport and Treatment of Complex 3.3 Drying and Firing Tubes of Brick
Fluids (LRTTFC), Department of Hydraulic, Faculty of
Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Science and The test pieces of bricks have been cooked at temperatures
Technology of Oran (Usto-MB), Oran-EL-M Naouer, P.O.
Box 150531000 Bir El Djir, Algeria between 600 and 900 °C with a not of 100 °C (cf. Fig. 2).
e-mail: n_boudjenane@yahoo.fr These test pieces have been cooked in an oven with a
D. Benyerou cooking time of 24 h.
e-mail: Benyerou31amri@gmail.com
M. Belhadri
e-mail: belhadri_m@yahoo.fr

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1341

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_391
1342 N. Boudjenane et al.

Table 1 Formulations with Marine sediment % Clay brick % Sand %

addition of marine sediments for
0 to 20% Slip brick 0 75 25
Formulation 1 (F1) 5 70 25
Formulation 2 (F2) 10 65 25
Formulation 3 (F3) 15 60 25
Formulation 4 (F4) 20 55 25

Table 2 Physico-chemical marine sediments and the clay of brick

Parameters Marine sediments Clay brick
3
Density (g/cm ) 2.2 2.6
Fraction < 63 lm (%) 58 88
Fraction > 63 lm (%) 42 12
Wp (%) 30.0 49.8
WL (%) 18.9 25.7
VBS (%) 1.56 5.3
OM (%) 1.88 3.66
Siccity (%) 27.9 48.5
pH 8.7 8.1
Conductivity 361 ms 169 ls
Carbonate content (%) 29.5 10.7
Sulfate (%) 0.85 0.70
Iron (%) 3.62 5.72

Fig. 1 Preparation in laboratory

test pieces of the brick
Design of the Bricks Based on the Marine Sediments … 1343

3.4 Study of the Resistance in Compression

The substitution of the sediments with a concentration of 5

and 10% increases the resistance to compression with a low
temperature (600 °C instead of 900 °C) (Table 3).

4 Conclusion
Looking at the physico-chemical and mechanical char-
acteristics of the bricks produced with the addition of
sediment, we note that marine sediments can be valued
Fig. 2 Curve of cooking, variation of the temperature as a function of up to 15% and with a cooking temperature of 600 °C
time only for a cooking time of 24 h.

Table 3 Resistance in compression as a function of temperature for

the slips bricks without and with the marine sediments for a cooking
References
time of 24 h
Compressive strength (MPA) Benyerou D. Doctoral thesis, University of usto-MB; 2017.
Benyerou et al. Coastal cities and their sustainable future. ISSN
Time Temperature ° Slip F1 F2 F3 F4 1743-3509, doi:10.2495/CC150241; 2015.
(h) C brick NF P 94-057, particle size analysis of soil—Method by
24 600 19.5 28.71 25.81 20.01 17.95 sedimentation, AFNOR.
NF P 94-051, determination of the Atterberg limits.
700 24 26.16 22.01 18.35 15.94 NF P 94-054, determination of the density of soil solid particles—
800 26.12 20.38 18.86 15.63 14.34 method of the pycnometer to water, AFNOR.
900 28 16.85 15.43 12.39 11.76 XP P 94-041, particle size identification—sieving method by the
wet, AFNOR.
 Classification of Some Pristine Sand Deposit
from Ajali Formation (Southeastern Nigeria)
as Construction Aggregate and Industrial
Material

G. Ezekwesili Ene, Chidubem Emedo, and Basil Okwuolisa

Keywords
Natural Sands Properties Resource Assessment

1 Introduction laboratory obtained data. Special sampling techniques were

Naturally occurring sand deposit is an important geologic
material for its role as source of sand that function as fine
aggregates used in production of bricks, concrete, mortar,
and bulk as well as in the industry as minerals in glass
production, metallurgy and in some geotechnical process
systems of sundry and fracturing. The use of sands for any of
the construction and industrial purposes requires its chemi-
cal, mechanical and physical qualities to satisfy acceptable
standard specifications in order to ensure safe, economic and
adequate functioning of engineering constructions, industrial
products and processes. The inherent properties of sands
vary widely being strongly dependent on the paleodeposi-
tional setting, post depositional history and sand type. In this
paper, we presented an assessment of the suitability of some
naturally occurring sand deposit in southeastern Nigeria for
use as fine aggregate in civil engineering constructions and
for some industrial applications. The quality of the sands
was evaluated based on their engineering geological char-
acteristics relative to some referenced standard specifications
and characteristics of sand deposits with proven service
performance.
2 Materials and Methods
The investigated materials were sand deposits of the desig-
nated Ajali Formation in Anambra Basin. The classification
of the sand deposit was based on field observations and
G. E. Ene (&)
C. Emedo
B. Okwuolisa
Engineering and Applied Geology Unit, Department of Geology,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
e-mail: Ezekwesili.ene@unn.ed.ngecogrante@yahoo.com
not required as sands were loosely consolidated, but dis-
turbed and fresh samples were scooped from dug pits using
hand auger and packed in air tight polythene bags. Some
representative thin sections were made from the sand sam-
ples for mineralogical and textural (shape and surface
angularity) analyses using polarizing microscope. Samples
were subjected to mechanical particle size distribution
analysis using dry sieve method and the chemical compo-
sition of the sand was determined using the ICP-OES
methods (Pelkin Elmer).Standard geotechnical tests were
carried out following the procedure outlined in ASTM
C-128 to determine the rate of moisture absorption, bulk
density and specific gravity. Two other geotechnical tests of
quality assessment, which involved soaking samples in cold
water and caustic soda (NaOH), were carried out to assess
clay mineral percentage and presence of organics.
3 Results and Discussion
Geologic mapping show that the potential reserves from the
deposits often display as mesas, inselberges and butes
depicting a highly variable depositional setting which
depends on the location within the basin and/or absence of
the laterite cover and other units that may require outstrip-
ping before sand is mined, all of which delimits exploitable
reserves. Interpolation from map cross sections based on
outcrop section measurements and locations indicate varied
thickness of the sand body which ranges from about 210 m
from the right bank of River Niger thinning progressively to
less than 10 m southwards around Calabar Flank, a stretch of
over 260 km. Point count analyses of representative sections
show that the sand deposit consists of mainly quartz with

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1345

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_392
1346
minor heavy minerals (ilmenite) as the only detectable
minerals. Other minerals commonly found in sedimentary
clastic rocks such as feldspar and mica are rare. The sands
are exclusively quartz clasts with subordinate ferric oxide
which possibly caused the deposit its characteristic brown
colour on exposed surfaces. Hoque (1977) and Nwajide
(2013) opined that the near mono-mineralic nature of the
sands and the paucity of feldspars and mica, which are
obviously weak minerals, are factors attributable to the
provenance distance and energy of sand depositional setting
in which the more resistant minerals such as quartz survive
the attrition and decaying impacts. The texture of the studied
quartz grain indicates the predominance of grains with
angular to subrounded shapes. Enlongate and platy shaped
grains were rare. Hoque and Ezepue (1977) highlighted
similar textural characteristics from Ajali sandstone and
concluded that the shapes exhibited by particles classify the
deposit as being mature due to prolonged attrition and
winnowing energies provided by the sediment source and
depositional processes. The sands show very high percent-
age of Silica (SiO2) > 95% for all the tested samples. Al2O3
concentration ranges between 0.58 and 2.2 wt%, and Fe2O3
varies from 0.09 to 0.89wt%. Other oxides K2O, MgO and
CaO have notable low concentrations (>1wt%) which may
be attributed to the paucity of minerals bearing the elements
and preponderance of silica. The predominance of silica
correlates with mineralogy composition that is equally
dominated by quartz. For instance, the elemental ratios of
SiO2/Al2O3 range from 37.3 to 166.4 showing high silica to
alumina content; K2O/Al2O3 ratio is low(0.01–0.05) an
indication of low K-bearing minerals content in relation to
alumina, K2O/Na2O ratio ranges between 0.25 and 7.0
which supports the low contents of K and Na bearing min-
erals(Tijani and Nton 2009). Al2O/TiO2 ratio varies from 1.3
to 23, which shows a slightly high alumina relative to tita-
nium oxide. Particle sizes range from fine to coarse sand
grains. The presence of all particle sizes indicated a well
graded and poorly sorted deposit. Calculated coefficient of
uniformity (Cu) ranges from 9 to 2, while coefficient of
concavity (Cc) ranges from 2.7 to 0.85. Classification based
on Kovacs et al. (2011), (Cu > 4–6 and Cc > 1–3) qualify
the sands as well graded material. The percentage of material
retained in pans (Clay and slit-sized) particles range from
0 to 3%. The percentage of fines, gradation curve shape and
the distribution of grains within the limits of fine and coarse
sand sizes are all pointers to the well graded nature of the
sands. The finest modulus ranges from 0.5 to 2.3. The bulk
specific gravity of saturated surface dry samples varies from
G. E. Ene et al.
2.57 to 2.60, while the bulk density varies from 1587 to
1599 kg/m3. The total moisture content and surface moisture
content ranges from 5.3 to 6.4% and 4.9 to 5.8% respec-
tively. Sand samples show insignificant activity with 24 h
soaking in alkaline solution with no detectable changes in
alkalinity or amount of dissolved silica. Also, presence of
impurities such as clays and organics were not detected as
water remained relatively clear on addition of sand samples.
These engineering properties of the sands apparently stem
from the uniformity of mineral composition and homo-
geneity in chemical facies which predicate the clean nature
of the sands. The sand quality is evaluated based on com-
parison of the properties with the outlines of ASTM, British
Standards (BS 2975-1:2004, BS 2975-2:2008) specifications
as well as with reference to Ottawa, Chelford sand proper-
ties. The sand characteristics compared with standards for
building construction including brick, plastering and con-
crete works show, in addition to the absence of deleterious
minerals and innocuous nature of the dominant mineral
framework, fair to satisfactory physical quality. The sand
also satisfies the specification on silt/clay content (pan
fraction) of less than 5% but fail in fineness modulus
requirement for concrete works. To attain this requirement,
sand may require minor primary processing to improve on
the gradation such as screening to reduce the fine sand
percentage and increase the coarse grained proportion. When
compared with the standard requirement for sand for use as
industrial mineral, the gradation and chemical facies of the
sand deposit satisfy the required specifications low grade
glass types such as float, insulating, fibber, amber and other
coloured glasses. Similarly, the studied sands meet most of
the specification requirements for industrial sands used in
foundry, hydraulic fracturing, water treatment and metal-
lurgy since sand properties share approximate similar prop-
erties with known Ottawa and Chelford sands already being
in use as industrial sands. However, the ferric ion content
and gradation needs modification through screening and
soaking. Above all, the sands possess good to fair potential
for use in process systems of sundry, fracturing and manu-
facture at minimal processing.
4 Conclusion
Sand deposits from Ajali Formation show geological and
geotechnical properties that are fairly similar to the
properties of some known sand deposits with proven
service performance and satisfy most of the specifications
outlined in some referenced standards.
Classification of Some Pristine Sand Deposit …
References
Hoque M, Ezepue MC. Petrology and paleogeography of ajali
sandstone. J Min Geol. 1977;16:16–22.
Hoque M. Petrographic differentiation of tectonically controlled
cretaceous sedimentary cycles, Southeastern Nigeria. Sed Geol.
1977;17:235–45.
1347
Kovacs WD, Holtz TC, Sheahan TC. An Introduction to geotechnical
engineering. Peason; 2011. 853p.
Nwajide CS. Geology of Nigerian’s sedimentary basins. Lagos: CSS
Publishing; 2013. 565p.
Tijani MN, Nton EM. Hydraulic, textural and geochemical character-
istics of ajali formation, Anambra basin, Nigeria implication for
groundwater quality. Environ Geol. 2009;56:935–51.
 Thermodynamic Analysis of an SOFC
Coupled with Gas Turbine Power Plant

Tahar Khir, Salha Faleh, and Ammar Ben Brahim

Keywords
Gas turbine SOFC Hybrid system Natural gas Pre-reforming Polarization
Utilization factor Ambient temperature

1 Introduction In this paper, a parametric study was conducted on a

Fuel cells and particularly solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) are
widely considered in research investigations due to clean
energy production and their high efficiency. Furthermore,
Gas Turbine power plant performances are significantly
affected by ambient conditions especially in hot season. To
overcome this constraint, the integration of fuel cells SOFC,
in the Gas Turbine cycle was used.
Hybrid SOFC-GT plants are promising power generation
systems of high efficiency. SOFC converts the free energy
change of a chemical reaction directly into electrical energy
and it is effluent at high temperature which makes it suitable
for integration with gas turbine cycles (Chan et al. 2002;
Arsalis 2008). It was demonstrated that the integration of the
SOFC can achieve about 50% of net electrical efficiencies
(Massardo and Lubelli 2000). Barelli et al. (2012) studied
SOFC cycle with heat recovery system.
A national research program was established by the
Tunisian Society of Electricity and Gas STEG in the purpose
to improve the performances of the actual power plants and
develop a new installation design ensuring better energy
management. This study constitutes a part of this program
focused on the viability of the fuel cell integration in the Gas
Turbine cycle.
T. Khir (&)
S. Faleh
A. Ben Brahim
Applied Thermodynamic Research Unit UR11ES80, National
Engineering School of Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia
e-mail: taherkhir@yahoo.fr
S. Faleh
e-mail: elfaleh.s@gmail.com
A. Ben Brahim
e-mail: ammar.benbrahim@enig.rnu.tn
hybrid SOFC-GT cycle generating 120 MW Net Power. The
effects of key operating parameters, such as humidity,
pre-reforming fraction, extraction fraction from the Gas
turbine and fuel utilization on the performances of the
SOFC-GT hybrid system were studied. The equations gov-
erning the electrochemical processes and the energy power
plant components balances were established.
2 Materials and Methods
The considered hybrid power plant mainly consists of a gas
turbine cycle GT, a solid oxide fuel cell SOFC, energy
recovering system and absorption refrigerating cycle used to
cool the intake air to compressor as shown in Fig. 1. Mass
and Energy balances were established on the different
components. The fuel cell model developed in this study is
based on a tubular design. An external pre-reforming system
was installed before the SOFC. Heat recovery systems were
adopted to valorize the waste heat at the SOFC and GT
exhausts. The gas from the SOFC exhaust was also used as
additional supply of the combustion chamber. The NTU
method effectiveness was used to determine the actual heat
transfer fluxes through the different heat exchangers and
recovery systems.
The numerical simulations using EES software were
performed. The influences of key operating parameters, such
as ambient temperature, air flow, pre-reforming fraction and
fuel utilization on the performance of the SOFC-GT hybrid
system were analyzed. The SOFC electrochemical model
was established. The overall efficiency of the hybrid power
plant was determined.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1349

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_393
1350 T. Khir et al.

Fuel

Vapor P
SOFC

A CA HE1

SG Comp

Water
1 1 5
C GT
1 HE2
CA1

Condenser Generator
Fuel
Desorber

1
Evaporator Absorber
Ambient air

air
Fig. 1 Hybrid GT-SOFC power plant diagram

3 Results and Discussion
The effects of ambient temperature on the performance of
each system were analyzed. The modeling was carried out
considering a pressure ratio of 10. A pre-reforming fraction
of 0.8 and a utilization factor of 0.6 were considered.
The obtained results show that the ambient temperature
does not significantly affect the SOFC energy efficiency as
For the considered ambient temperature variation range, the
energy efficiency decreased by about 1% only.
However the energetic efficiency of the hybrid system
decreases with the increase of the ambient temperature as
shown in Fig. 2a.
For an ambient temperature variation range from 15 to
50 °C, the energetic efficiency decreased by about 3%. This
tendency is explained by the effect of ambient temperature
on both SOFC and GT efficiencies. The same effect was
observed for the exergetic efficiencies of GT and SOFC as
depicted in Fig. 2b, c. The exergetic efficiency of the Gas
Turbine decreased from 68% to 65.5% with the increase of

(a) 0,7
(b) 0,69
(c) 0,545
0,685 0,5414
0,695
0,68 0,5379
0,69
0,675
ex,sofc
en,sys

0,5343
ex,tg

0,685 0,67
0,5307
0,665
0,68
0,5271
0,66
0,675 0,5236
0,655

0,67 0,65 0,52

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

Tamb [°C] Tamb [°C] Tamb [°C]

Fig. 2 a Tamb effect on GT-SOFC energy efficency, b Tamb effect on GT exergy efficiency, c Tamb effect on SOFC efficiency
Thermodynamic analysis of an SOFC coupled … 1351

0,515 rising of the SOFC air compressor power consumption.

A slight improvement was obtained for the Gas Turbine
0,505
efficiency. That led to an increase in the hybrid cycle effi-
0,495 ciency by less than 2%.
en,sys

Figure 4 depicts the influence of the extraction fraction fs

0,485
on the hybrid SOFC-GT cycle energetic efficiency.
0,475 Increasing the extraction fraction from 4.2 to 8%, led to the
overall energetic efficiency decrease by about 4%.
0,465
0,48 0,52 0,56 0,6 0,64 0,68 0,72
Uf
4 Conclusion
Fig. 3 Uf effect on the energetic efficiency of SOFC-GT cycle A performance analysis of a hybrid SOFC-GT power
plant was conducted. The natural gas was used as fuel for
the SOFC and the GT cycle. A heat recovery system was
0,5 integrated. An external pre-reforming system was con-
0,495
sidered before the SOFC. The obtained results can be
highlighted as follows:
0,49
The integration of the SOFC enhanced the hybrid
en,sys

0,485
0,48
0,475
0,47
0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08
fs
Fig. 4 fs effect on the energetic efficiency of SOFC-GT cycle
ambient temperature from 15 to 50 °C. For the same tem-
perature range, the SOFC exergetic efficiency decreased
from 53.8 to 52.5%.
The utilization factor Uf is an important operating
parameter. It is defined as the ratio of the fuel really con-
sumed to the supplied fuel. The results show that a utiliza-
tion factor enhancement of 5% leads to a decrease of SOFC,
GT and SOFC-GT efficiencies by about 23.2 and 3%
respectively, as illustrated in Fig. 3. Furthermore increasing
the utilization factor causes a noticeable reduction of the cell
voltage due to internal irreversibility rise. Thus, the power
produced by the SOFC decreased significantly.
In order to improve the system performances,
pre-reforming and internal reforming were combined. For an
increase of the reforming factor from 0.5 to 0.9, the cell
temperature rises from 629.9 to 751.7 °C. This is due to the
endothermic reforming reaction.
As for the air flow effect through the SOFC, the results
reveal that the SOFC efficiency decreased remarkably with
the increase of air flow rate. This can be explained by the
cycle efficiency by about 50%. The increase of the
ambient temperature reduced the system efficiencies. The
utilization factor has a negative effect on the SOFC
temperature and voltage. That led to a decrease in the
0,09 0,1 0,11 system performances, while the pre-reforming fraction
had a positive effect on the indicated parameters.
The SOFC voltage increased with the air molar flow
rate. However required air compressor power becomes
important. That reduces significantly the SOFC effi-
ciency. A small improvement of about 2% is obtained for
the hybrid cycle efficiency SOFC-GT. These results may
constitute decision criteria for the Tunisian Society of
Electricity and Gas and can be very motivating for future
investigations on the hybrid power plants.
References
Arsalis A. Thermodynamic modeling and parametric study or hybrid
SOFC-gas turbine-steam turbine power plants ranging from 1.5 to
10 MWe. J Power Sources. 2008;181:313–26.
Barelli L, Bidini G, Ottaviano A. Part load operation of SOFC/GT
hybrid systems: stationary analysis. Int J Hydrog Energy.
2012;37:16140–50.
Chan SH, Ho HK, Tian Y. Modelling of simple hybrid solid oxide fuel
cell and gas turbine power plant. J Power Sources. 2002;109:111–
20.
Massardo AF, Lubelli F. Internal reforming solid oxide fuel cell-gas
turbine combined cycles (IRSOFC-GT): part A—cell model and
cycle thermodynamic analysis. J Eng Gas Turbine Power.
2000;122:27–35.
 Mass Transfer During Combined Processes
of Osmotic Dehydration and Blanching

Basma Khoualdia, Samia Benali Aoun, and Ahmed Hannachi

Keywords
Pomegranate Osmotic dehydration Blanching Water loss Solid gain

1 Introduction 2 Materials and Methods

Pomegranate, especially the Punica granatum L. variety, is

Sample preparation Fresh pomegranate fruits were pur-
widely grown in Tunisia. This fruit is a rich source of phe-
chased at a local market in Gabes at full ripeness, with
nolic compounds including ellagitannins, phenolic acids and
almost the same size. The fruits were cleaned with wet
flavonoids (Kazemi et al. 2016), and sugars such as glucose
paper, wiped very well with blotting paper and then stored at
and fructose (Mphahlele et al. 2016). Since it is a seasonal
5 °C until use. The humidity of the refrigerated arils was
fruit, several preservation techniques are used to prolong its
81%.
Shelf life. The famous one is the heat treatment but it causes
serious decreases of nutritive and sensorial values damaging
Blanching Blanching was carried out in two different
mainly the flavor, color, and nutrients of the product (Khoyi
procedures:
et al. 2007). Osmotic dehydration can be used as a pre-
treatment to reduce this damage. This technique can be
(1) Microwave treatment (MW): A beaker containing 20 g
coupled to many pretreatments such as pulsed electric field
of a sugar solution and 5 g of pomegranate seeds was
(Amami et al. 2007), liquid nitrogen pretreatment (Ketata
placed in a microwave at 600 W for one minute.
et al. 2013), freezing (Bchir et al. 2010)… etc.
(2) Blanching in water (BW): The arils were placed in a
In this study, osmotic dehydration was used to preserve
water bath at 92 °C for a minute. Then, they were wiped
pomegranate seeds. It is a cost-effective process for the
very well and subjected to the osmotic dehydration.
partial dewatering of cellular material. Indeed, it reduces the
loss of some noble elements from the aliment. The blanching
Osmotic dehydration The osmotic dehydration (OD) was
pre-treatment was applied to improve the mass transfer
carried out in a sucrose solution in batch mode under mag-
during osmotic dehydration. The water loss and solid gain
netic stirring. The temperature, the concentration, the stirring
were determined.
speed and the sample/solution ratio were at 40 °C, 50 °Bx,
400 rpm and ¼, respectively. Water loss, solid gain, pH and
conductivity were monitored versus time.
B. Khoualdia (&)
S. Benali Aoun
A. Hannachi
Research Laboratory of Process Engineering and Industrial
Systems, National Engineering School of Gabes, University of 3 Results and Discussion
Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia
e-mail: Besmakhoualdia12@gmail.com The evolution of the water loss during the osmotic dehy-
S. Benali Aoun dration of both treated and untreated pomegranate seeds is
e-mail: benali.samia@gmail.com shown in the Fig. 1. The mass transfer depends on the
A. Hannachi processing time. The kinetics was faster at the beginning
e-mail: ahmed.hannachi@enig.rnu.tn

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1353

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_394
1354
Fig. 1 Water loss during osmotic dehydration of treated and untreated
pomegranate seeds
Fig. 2 Solid gain during osmotic dehydration of treated and untreated
pomegranate seeds
where the potential between the two compartments was
greater, then, it slowed down gradually until equilibrium.
For the untreated arils the equilibrium in the water loss was
reached after 210 min. However, with the treated arils the
quasi-equilibrium was reached after 120 min. So, the two
blanching procedures accelerate the kinetics of the mass
transfer but it has no considerable effect on water loss at the
quasi-equilibrium. Indeed, the water loss was 54 and 59% in
the case of the blanching in the microwave and in the boiling
water, respectively.
The same behavior was shown for the solid gain, Fig. 2.
Solid gain at the quasi-equilibrium was almost unaffected
but the kinetics of the impregnation of sugar was improved.
B. Khoualdia et al.
The quasi-equilibrium of the solid gain of the blanched
samples was reached at about 120 min, faster than the
untreated samples which was about 240 min. Figure 2
shows the evolution of the solid gain in the three cases of
samples: blanched using a microwave treatment, blanched
using a water bath and un-blanched sample.
The kinetics of the solid gain of the blanched sample
using a boiling water bath was the fastest. The boiling water
bath was more effective for opening the pores of the cell
membrane.
During the OD, the pH of the osmotic solution decreased
and the conductivity increased reflecting the presence of
another mass transfer other than water and sugar. It is the
transfer of ionic and acidic compounds. This evolution was
carried out quickly (in the first 30 min) compared to the
water and solute transfer. The same trend of pH and con-
ductivity was found with the pre-treated samples.
4 Conclusion
OD was an effective technique for partial dewatering of
pomegranate seeds. But, the kinetics of dehydration was
slow so blanching pretreatment was used to improve it.
The blanching was performed by two methods: micro-
wave and boiling water bath treatments. It was useful to
reduce the OD duration by opening the cell membrane
pores and accelerating the mass transfer. Although, the
final water loss and solid gain were not really affected.
References
Amami E, Fersi A, Vorobiev E, Kechaou N. Osmotic dehydration of
carrot tissue enhanced by pulsed electric field, salt and centrifugal
force. J Food Eng. 2007;83:605–13.
Bchir B, Besbes S, Attia H, Blecker C. Osmotic dehydration of
pomegranate seeds (Punica granatum L.): effect of freezing
pre-treatment. J Food Process Eng. 2010;35:335–54.
Kazemi M, Karim R, Mirhosseini H, Hamid AA. Optimization of
pulsed ultrasound-assisted technique for extraction of phenolics
from pomegranate peel of Malas variety: Punicalagin and hydrox-
ybenzoic acids. Food Chemistry. 2016;206:156–66.
Khoyi MR, Hesari J. Osmotic dehydration kinetics of apricot using
sucrose solution. J Food Eng. 2007;78(2007):1355–60.
Ketata M, Desjardins Y, Ratti C. Effect of liquid nitrogen pretreatments
on osmotic dehydration of blueberries. J Food Eng. 2013;116:202–
12.
Mphahlele RR, Fawole OA, Mokwena LM. Umezuruike Linus Opara,
effect of extraction method on chemical, volatile composition and
antioxidant properties of pomegranate juice. S Afr J Bot.
2016;103:135–44.
 Characterization and Assessment of Fig
(Ficus carica L.) Genetic Resources in Tunisia:
An Overview
Fateh Aljane and Awatef Essid



Keywords
Ficus carica Tunisia
Morphological traits
1 Introduction
In Tunisia, fig is characterized by a high number of local
varieties and frequent exchange of varieties among different
regions (Aljane and Ferchichi 2010). The denominations of
the cultivars are usually based on the color, size and time of
fruit ripening or geographical origin resulting in confusion in
nomenclature (Aljane et al. 2012). Various studies have
reported the use of morphological traits and molecular tools
such as RAPD, ISSR and SSR (Khadari et al. 2005;
Salhi-Hannachi et al. 2005; Essid et al. 2015). The main
objective of this study was to characterize and evaluate the
genetic diversity of Tunisian fig and caprifig accessions
maintained in the Tunisian ex situ germplasm bank using
morphological traits and molecular (RAPD and SSR)
markers in order to develop strategies to preserve the genetic
resources of this species.
2 Materials and Methods
This study was carried out on 30 Tunisian local fig and 20
caprifig accessions. All the accessions were planted in the
Tunisian ex situ fig germplasm bank established in El
Gordhab, Tataouine in Southeastern Tunisia. The plant
material was propagated by hardwood cuttings. Morpho-
logical characterization of each accession was performed
according to the “Descriptors for Fig Ficus carica” provided
by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
F. Aljane (&)
A. Essid
Arid Land and Oasis Cropping Laboratory, Institute of Arids
Regions, 4119 Medenine, Tunisia
e-mail: fateh_aljane@yahoo.fr
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_395




Genetic resources Accession RAPD and SSR markers
(IPGRI), now Bioversity International (IPGRI and CIHEAM
2003). Genomic DNA was extracted from young leaves
following the method of Giraldo et al. (2005). After purifi-
cation, the DNA concentration was estimated spectropho-
tometrically. The DNA integrity was performed by analytic
agarose gel electrophoresis.
3 Results and Discussion
To achieve the purpose of this study, qualitative and quan-
titative traits were selected in order to describe the acces-
sions. In addition, most of these are of economic interest and
consequently usually serve as target characters of selection
by growers and breeders. Considerable variability was
revealed within all the fig accessions tested. Some acces-
sions named locally according to their morphological
characteristics.
From eleven arbitrary RAPD primers tested for their
potential to characterize fig accessions, only seven primers
revealed polymorphic bands. A total of 119 DNA fragments
(loci) were amplified and 95 (79.83%) were polymorphic.
the size of the bands ranged from 210 to 2000 bp. In addi-
tion, the maximum percentage of polymorphic markers was
100% in A04 primer and the minimum were 60.00, 64.28
and 56.25% in A03, C08 and W07 primers, respectively
(Table 1).
In this study, we reported the use of SSRs markers to
assess the diversity between Tunisian caprifig accessions in
order to optimize conservation of local caprifig genetic
resources. The 13 loci were successfully amplified in all the
caprifig accessions analyzed resulting in a total of 37 alleles
ranging from two (LMFC32, LMFC15, LMFC21, LMFC31,
1355
1356 F. Aljane and A. Essid

Table 1 Degree of Primer code Total Polymorphic Monomorphic Percentage of Resolving

polymorphism of the selected bands bands Bands polymorphic power (Rp)
RAPD primers and resolving markers
power (Rp) Obtained among 30
local Tunisian fig accessions AF14 21 19 2 90.47 8.53
A03 20 12 8 60.00 3.27
A04 22 22 0 100 9.58
AX16 12 11 1 91.66 5.47
C08 14 9 5 64.28 2.66
W07 16 9 7 56.25 4.13
C09 14 13 1 92.85 3.29
Total 119 95 24 – 36.95
Polymorphism 17 13.75 3.42 79.35 5.27
(average)

relationships among fig accessions. The limitations of the

use of morphological characters for assessing genetic
diversity in fig accessions can be minimized by the use of
ex situ field germplasm bank where the trees are grown
under the same environmental and edaphic conditions.
The set of RAPD and SSR markers used indicates that the
genetic diversity between the studied accessions is
overall narrow and that no clear relationship is found
between geographical origin and genetic composition
suggesting exchange of genetic material among different
regions. These morphological and molecular information
of fig diversity will be used to guide the ex situ conser-
vation measures and for improving this species.

Fig. 1. UPGMA dendrogram of 20 Tunisian caprifig accessions based References

on SSR markers
LMFC18, LMFC27 and LMFC23) to six (LMFC30) alleles
per locus, with an average of 2.85 alleles per locus and
amplification fragment sizes between 120 and 278 pb. Some
accessions showed the amplification of more than two alleles
(three alleles in LMFC30, MFC1, MFC4 and four alleles in
LMFC28) suggesting the probable amplification of more
than one locus. Among all the possible UPGMA dendro-
grams, that with the highest cophenetic correlation (r = 0.76)
between the cophenetic coefficient and the similarity matrix
was chosen. The UPGMA dendrogram obtained showed
three main groups among the genotypes analyzed (Fig. 1)
with three undistinguishable accessions (‘ASF’, ‘BLD’,
‘DKH6’).
4 Conclusion
In conclusion, the present study has demonstrated how
the integration of morphological and molecular analysis
can elucidate in part the denomination problems and
Aljane F, Ferchichi A. Assessment of genetic diversity among some
southern Tunisian fig (Ficus carica L.) cultivars based on
morphological and chemical characters. Acta Bot Gallica.
2010;157(1):171–82.
Aljane F, Nahdi S, Essid A. Genetic diversity of some accessions of
Tunisian fig tree (Ficus carica L.) based in morphological and
chemical traits. J Nat Prod Plant Resour. 2012;2(3):350–9.
Essid A, Aljane F, Ferchichi A, Hormaza JI. Analysis of genetic
diversity of Tunisian caprifig (Ficus carica L.) accessions using
simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. Hereditas. 2015;152:1–7.
Giraldo E, Viruel MA, Lopez-Corrales M, Hormaza JI. Characterisa-
tion and cross-species transferability of microsatellites in the
common fig (Ficus carica L.). J Hort Sci Biotech. 2005;80:217–24.
IPGRI, CIHEAM. Descriptors for fig (Ficus carica L.). The Rome,
Italy: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute; 2003.
Khadari B, Oukabli A, Ater M, Mamouni A, Roger JP, Kjellberg F.
Molecular characterization of Moroccan fig germplasm using
intersimple sequence repeat and simple sequence repeat markers
to establish a reference collection. HortScience. 2005;40:29–32.
Salhi-Hannachi A, Chatti K, Mars M, Marrakchi M, Trifi M. Compar-
ative analysis of genetic diversity in two Tunisian collections of fig
cultivars based on random amplified polymorphic DNA and inter
simple sequence repeats fingerprints. Genet Resour Crop Evol.
2005;52:563–73.
 Characterization of Three Different Sewage
Sludge for Reuse in the Context
of Sustainable Development in Algeria

Ishak Belkaid, Abdelkader Namane, Hubert Cabana, and Maamar Nakib

Keywords
Pollution Sludge Sludge treatment Characterisation Valorization

1 Introduction sludge characterization from three treatment plants (3) which

Sewage sludge is traditionally landfilled as it is. This leads to
olfactory nuisances, health and environmental risks
(Gutierrez et al. 2014).
In the current context of sustainable development, agri-
cultural and/or energy recovery of sludge from sewage
treatment plants is at the heart of environmental concerns
(Gutierrez et al. 2017). Composting and methanisation are
green techniques, which allow the transformation of waste to
a high added value at the same time as it minimizes the risks
of pollution. In Algeria, currently the only outlet for sludge
is its discharge into landfill centers (Kalloum et al. 2011).
This work could be useful both, for anyone wishing to
learn about sludge treatment techniques and as a
decision-making tool for operators of wastewater treatment
plants.
To evaluate the suitability of sludge for a suitable treat-
ment and to know their reuse potential (agricultural, energy
or other), it is obviously necessary to characterize it (Lassée
1985). The purpose of this study was to present the results of
treat sludge differently.
The Water and Sanitation Society of Algiers (SEAAL)
among others manages:
1. Baraki Wastewater Treatment Plant which received an
average of 63400 m3/day in 2013 and produces 12 tons
of sludge which treatment is carried out by anaerobic
digestion at 35 °C.
2. Beni-Messous Wastewater Treatment Plant:
33400 m3/day and produced 9 tons of sludge in 2013.
3. Reghaia Wastewater Treatment Plant: 62300 m3/ day in
2013 and produced 10 tons of sludge without treatment.
All sludge is subsequently squeezed and evacuated to
landfill sites. All these stations will see their capacities
doubled (The Water and Sanitation Society of Algiers
(SEAAL) 2013).
2 Materials and Methods

The studied sludge was collected at the treatment plants of

Baraki (anaerobic digestion), Reghaia (without treatment)
I. Belkaid (&)
A. Namane
M. Nakib
and Beni-Messous (aerobic concentration) (Table 1). The
Ecole nationale polytechnique d’Alger, El Harrach, Algeria
e-mail: ishak.belkaid@g.enp.edu.dz; belkaid.ishak.pr@gmail.com characterization was carried out at the Laboratory of Envi-
ronmental Sciences and Techniques (LEST) of the National
A. Namane
e-mail: abdelkader.namane@g.enp.edu.dz Polytechnic School of Algiers, and the mineralogical anal-
ysis (Table 2) at the SONATRACH Research and Devel-
M. Nakib
e-mail: maamar.nakib@g.enp.edu.dz opment Center (RDC), Boumerdès (Algiers).
H. Cabana
Université de Sherbroke, Sherbroke, Canada
e-mail: Hubert.Cabana@USherbrooke.ca

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1357

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_396
1358 I. Belkaid et al.

Table 1 The baseline data of Parameters Baraki Reghaia (Nakib Beni-Messous (Nakib Compost (Matejka
sludge from the three treatment (Belkaid 2016) et al. 2015) et al. 2015) et al. 2001)
plants
Dryness 23.3 35 51 –
(%)
OM (%) 41 34 51 33
C (%) 23.83 21.6 22.6 15
N (%) 0.77 1.45 2.62 1.15
C/N 30.94 14.89 8.65 13.5
P2O5 (%) – 2.2 5.62 1.05
K2O (%) 0.15 0.05 0.048 1.1
MgO (%) 0.68 1.2 – 0.75
CaO (%) 7.34 – 3.68 7.75
pH 6.95 7.37 6.59 –

Table 2 Metal trace elements Cd Cr Cu Ni Pb Zn Hg

average contents (mg/kg) of DM
DM: dry matter Beni-Messous 13.58 70.2 243.4 87.47 164.6 594.46 1.1
Baraki 12.5 146.3 266.6 109.76 250.84 5934.7 0.1
Reghaia 12.9 4216.6 196 100.36 236.86 9305.4 0.38
NFU44-051 (AFNOR 2006) 3 120 300 60 180 600 2
NFU 44-051 concerns: fertilizing materials consisting mainly of carbonaceous combinations of vegetable,
animal or vegetable origin in mixtures intended for the maintenance or reconstitution of the stock of organic
matter in the soil and the development of its Physical and/or chemical and/or biological properties (AFNOR
2006)

Table 3 Influence of sludge Ratio Massic load Sludge treatment

treatment on the value of the C/N C/N
ratio
Baraki 30.94 Average load (Cm = 0.25 à Anaerobic digestion, thickening,
0.3 kg BOD5/kg VSS/day) mechanical dehydration (band filter)
Reghaia 14.89 Low load (Cm = 0.17 à Without treatment, thickening,
0.25 kg BOD5/kg VSS/day) mechanical dehydration centrifugation
Beni-Messous 8.65 Very low load Aerobic digestion mechanical
(Cm = 0.075 kg BOD5/ dehydration (band filter)
kg VSS/day)
BOD5 Biological oxygen demand (5 days); VSS Volatil suspended solids

3 Results and Discussion The C/N ratio

Chemical characterisation The C/N ratio or carbon-to-nitrogen ratio is an indicator

These results show that the sludge is rich in nutrients,
nitrogen, phosphorus and organic matter which are valuable
resources for future reuse (Heimersson et al. 2017).
At first glance, if no undesirable elements are suspected,
the sludge can be used as it is in agriculture. So the prob-
lematic waste was integrated into a life natural process.
that allows us to judge the evolution degree of organic
matter, i.e. its ability to decompose more or less rapidly in
the soil. The nutritional balance of the microorganisms is
thus located at a C/N ratio of 24 (Machinet 2009) (Table 3).
Contrary to what has been said previously, the sludge will
need a pre-treatment before use.
Characterization of Three Different Sewage Sludge …
Metal characterization
The mineralogical comparison between different sludges
on (Table 2) shows that the trace metallic elements
(TME) vary from one station to another their concentrations
depend on the origin of the wastewater entering the
wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), these (TME) found
in sewage sludge, represent a limiting factor in agricultural
reuse, (Nakib et al. 2015).
4 Conclusion
This study stated that:
• The contents of fertilizing elements and metallurgical
trace elements of the sludge quite vary from one station
to another.
• The agronomic value of the sludge generally respects the
mineralization criteria because of better conservation of
the organic matter during the waste water treatment
process.
Concerning biodegradability and metallic trace ele-
ments (TME), it should be noted that Beni-Messous is an
agricultural region and that the produced sludge can be
used as it is.
By cons, Reghaia and Baraki receive wastewater
respectively from the industrial zones of Rouiba and
Oued Smar and this is reflected on the sludge quality.
1359
References
AFNOR N. Limites des teneurs en ETM, CTO, agents pathogènes,
inertes et impuretés [French standards, limits contents ETM, CTO,
pathogens and inert impurities]. Paris; 2006.
Gutierrez MC, Martin MA, Chica AF. Usual variables and odour
concentration to evaluate composting process and odour impact.
Environ Technol. 2014;35(5–8):709–18.
Gutierrez MC, Serrano A, Siles JA, Chica AF, Martin MA. Centralized
management of sewage sludge and agro-industrial waste through
co-composting. J Environ Manage. 2017;196:387–93.
Heimersson S, Svanström M, Cederberg C, Peters G. Improved life
cycle modelling of benefits from sewage sludge anaerobic digestion
and land application. Resour Conserv Recycl. 2017;122:126–34.
Kalloum S, Bouabdessalem H, Touzi A, Iddou A, Ouali M. Biogas
production from the sludge of the municipal wastewater treatment
plant of Adrar city (southwest of Algeria). Biomass Bioenergy.
2011;35(7):2554–60.
Lassée C. Analyse des Boues. Lassée C. Analyse des Boues. Tome 1:
Généralités et analyse physique / Association française pour l'étude
des eaux A.F.E.E. vol 138: 1985.
ISBN/ISSN/EAN:978-2-85238-004-2
Machinet GE. Utilisation de la variabilité énergétique du maïs pour
évaluer le rôle de la qualité chimique des racines sur le processus de
décomposition dans les sols [Using the genetic variability of maize
to assess the role of the chemical quality of roots on the
decomposition processes in soils]. Thèse de Doctorat. France :
Université de Reins Champagne Ardenne; 2009. 207 p.
Matejka G, Barbier J, De Las Heras F, Klein A, Paqueteau F, Kebe A.
Composting of urban refuse in Labé (Guinea): process optimization
and agricultural value. Cagliari (Sardinia). In: Eighth international
waste management and landfill symposium. CISA: Environmental
Sanitary Engineering Centre; 2001. pp. 1–5.
Nakib M, Kettab A, Berreksi A, Mandi L. Study of the prospects for
agricultural utilization of sludge produced from WWTPS in North
Central Algeria. Desalin Water Treat. 2015;55(5):1152–66.
The Water and Sanitation of Algiers (SEAAL). 2013. http://www.seaal.
dz/qui-sommes-nous/metiers/assainissement/epuration-des-eaux/.
 Variability in the Response of Citrullus
Colocynthis (L.) to Water Deficiency Stresses

Said El Madidi, Abdelhamid Ben Moumou, and Fatiha Hakimi

Keywords
Citrullus colocynthis Water deficiency stresses Variability Drought tolerance

1 Introduction McCouch 1997). Species of the Citrullus genus are wild

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad (2n = 22), closely related
to domesticated watermelon (Citrullus lanatus var. lanatus)
(Chomicki and Renner 2015), is a very drought-tolerant
perennial herbaceous species in the Cucurbitaceae family.
This plant is a drought tolerant species with a deep root
system, widely distributed in the Sahara-Arabian desert in
Africa and the Mediterranean region (Si et al. 2010; Wang
et al. 2014). C. colocynthis is a rich source of functionally
important bioactive compounds and therapeutics such as
polyphenols, glycosides, triterpenes and cucurbitacins and
its fruit has been widely used for the treatment of many
diseases including diabetes, rheumatism, paronychia, ulcer
and cancer (Hussain et al. 2014; Marzouk et al. 2010).
Drought is the most important environmental stress in
agriculture and many efforts have been made to improve
crop productivity under water-limiting conditions (Akashi
et al 2008; Cattivelli et al. 2008). Its severity is determined
by amount, intensity, and timing of precipitation. Early
domestication of crop plants and plant breeding have dra-
matically eroded the allelic variations of crop species. This
led to an increasing susceptibility of the crop plants to
environmental stresses, diseases and pests (Tanksley and
S. El Madidi (&)
A. Ben Moumou
F. Hakimi
Equipe Biométrie & Bio Ressources Laboratoire Biotechnologies
& Valorisation des Ressources Naturelles (LBVRN), Agadir,
Morocco
e-mail: s.elmadidi@uiz.ac.ma
A. Ben Moumou
e-mail: benmoumou36@yahoo.fr
F. Hakimi
e-mail: hakimi.fatiha@gmail.com
closely related to domesticated watermelon. These species
are a possible source of genetic improvement for drought
stress resistance, because they are distributed in desert areas
and therefore they are adapted to this environmental stress.
The gene pool of wild C. colocynthis can be explored as a
source of genes for enhancing watermelon cultivars for
resistance to biotic and abiotic stress (Levi et al. 2016). Our
study aims to evaluate the response of different genotypes of
C. colocynthis to water deficiency stresses induced by PEG
6000. Polyethylene glycol molecules (PEG) of high molec-
ular weight is inert, non-ionic and virtually impermeable
chains that have frequently been used to induce water stress
and maintain a uniform water potential throughout the
experimental period (Hohl and Peter 1991; Verslues et al.
1998).
2 Materials and Methods
12 accessions of C. colocynthis collected from different
regions from Morocco, were studied for their tolerance to
water deficiency stresses. We used different concentrations
of polyethylene glycol (PEG 6000) to simulate osmotic
stress levels including: 0 (the control), −0.4 MPa (slight),
−0.8 MPa (moderate) and −1.2 MPa (severe). The relative
water content (RWC) was estimated according to Turner
(1981) and was evaluated from the equation given below:
RWC = 100  [FW − DW]/DW (DW basis) where FW is
the fresh weight and DW is the weight estimated after drying
at 70 °C until a constant weight is achieved. Root and shoot
length (mm), and the dry weights of shoot and root (mg
plant−1) were measured on the 10th day. All ratios were
arcsine transformed and analysed in a two-way analysis of

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1361

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_397
1362
variance. Differences between the means were compared
using the Newman-Keuls Test.
3 Results and Discussion
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated statistically sig-
nificant differences among the 12 genotypes for all the
characters analyzed. The two-way analysis of variance
showed a highly significant difference between genotypes
and between treatments. The interaction genotype x treat-
ment was highly significant for root length, the dry weight of
roots, significant for the relative water content of roots and
shoots. Hierarchical cluster analysis assorted the genotypes
into two main groups according to their relative water con-
tent. The first group included 5 genotypes and the second
group included 7 genotypes. The discriminant function
analysis (DFA) was used in order to test the validity of this
separation. The discriminant analysis was highly significant,
the value of F (Pseudo F) equal to 16.73, the squared
Mahalanobis distance between groups was equal to 25.81
and the percentage of well classified equal to 100%. All
these results revealed the existence of a genetic variability
for the drought tolerance and suggested that variability in
tolerance to water stress exists among Moroccan C. colo-
cynthis accessions and there is a need to screen a large
number of accessions to identify genotypes with a high
degree of tolerance to water deficiency stress. In the sweet
dessert watermelon, Citrullus lanatus, several studies indi-
cated a very low genetic diversity (Levi et al. 2001b; Reddy
et al. 2015). Considering the narrow genetic base of agri-
culturally grown varieties, exploration of natural genetic
diversity of crop wild relatives (CWRs) is critically impor-
tant to broaden for biotic and biotic stresses (Hajjar and
Hodgkin 2007; Roy et al. 2011). The development of more
drought-resistant crop plants is a future goal necessary to
alleviate future threats to food availability in the demo-
graphically expanding trend of human population (Rampino
et al. 2006; Pretty et al. 2010).
4 Conclusion
The present research work was conducted to evaluate the
potential of 12 accessions of C. colocynthis plants from
different water deficiency conditions through artificial
water stress by PEG. It was concluded that variation
among accessions could be related to their different
adaption to water deficiency stresses. The results of this
research could be productive in further breeding pro-
grams or grafting with watermelon for drought tolerance
aspects.
S. El Madidi et al.
References
Akashi K, Yoshimura K, Nanasato Y, Takahara K, Munekage Y,
Yokota A. Wild plant resources for studying molecular mechanisms
of drought/strong light stress tolerance. Plant Biotechnol. 2008;25
(3):257–63.
Cattivelli L, Rizza F, Badeck FW, Mazzucotelli E, Mastrangelo AM,
Francia E, Stanca AM. Drought tolerance improvement in crop
plants: an integrated view from breeding to genomics. Field Crops
Res. 2008;105(1):1–14.
Chomicki G, Renner SS. Watermelon origin solved with molecular
phylogenetics including Linnean material: another example of
museomics. New Phytol. 2015;205:526–32.
Hajjar R, Hodgkin T. The use of wild relatives in crop improvement: a
survey of developments over the last 20 years. Euphytica. 2007;156
(1–2):1–13.
Hohl M, Peter S. Water relations of growing maize coleoptiles.
Comparison between mannitol and polyethylene glycol 6000 as
external osmotica for adjusting turgor pressure. Plant Physiol.
1991;95:716–22.
Hussain AI, Rathore HA, Sattar MZA, Chatha SAS, Sarker SD,
Gilani AH. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad (bitter apple fruit): A
review of its phytochemistry, pharmacology, traditional uses and
nutritional potential. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;155:54–66.
Levi A, Thomas CE, Wehner TC, Zhang X. Low genetic diversity
indicates the need to broaden the genetic base of cultivated
watermelon. HortScience. 2001;36:1096–101.
Levi A, Simmons A, Ling K, Tadmor Y, Nimmakayala, P, Reddy UK.
Utilizing genetic diversity in the desert watermelon Citrullus
colocynthis for enhancing watermelon cultivars for resistance to
biotic and abiotic stress. In: Cucurbitaceae 2016, XIth Eucarpia
meeting on cucurbit genetics and breeding, July 24–28. Warsaw,
Poland; 2016. pp. 105–108.
Marzouk B, Marzouk Z, Haloui E, Fenina N. Bouraoui A., Aouni, M.
Screening of analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of Citrullus
colocynthis from southern Tunisia. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;128
(1):15–9.
Pretty J, Sutherland WJ, Ashby J, Auburn J, Baulcombe D, Bell M,
Campbell H. The top 100 questions of importance to the future of
global agriculture. Int J Agric Sustain. 2010;8(4):219–36.
Rampino P, Pataleo S, Gerardi C, Mita G, Perrotta C. Drought stress
response in wheat: physiological and molecular analysis of resistant
and sensitive genotypes. Plant Cell Environ. 2006;29(12):2143–52.
Reddy UK, Abburi L, Abburi VL, et al. A genome-wide scan of
selective sweeps and association mapping of fruit traits using
microsatellite markers in watermelon. J Hered. 2015;106:166–76.
Roy SJ, Tucker EJ, Tester M. Genetic analysis of abiotic stress
tolerance in crops. Curr Opin Plant Biol. 2011;14(3):232–9.
Si Y, Dane F, Rashotte A, Kang K, Singh NK. Cloning and expression
analysis of the Ccrboh gene encoding respiratory burst oxidase in
Citrullus colocynthis and grafting onto Citrullus lanatus (water-
melon). Exp Bot. 2010;61(6):1635–42.
Tanksley SD, McCouch SR. Seed banks and molecular maps:
unlocking genetic potential from the wild. Science. 1997;277
(5329):1063–6.
Turner NC. Techniques and experimental approaches for the measure-
ment of plant water status. Plant Soil. 1981;58:339–66.
Verslues PE, Ober ES, Sharp RE. Root growth and oxygen relations at
low water potentials. Impact of oxygen availability in polyethylene
glycol solutions. Plant Physiol. 1998;116:1403–12.
Wang Z, Hu H, Goertzen LR, McElroy JS, Dane F. Analysis of the
Citrullus colocynthis transcriptome during water deficit stress.
PLoS ONE. 2014;9(8):e104657.
 Enthalpy-Entropy Compensation
in Carob Seeds Sorption Phenomena
(Ceratonia selequa L.)

Zakaria Tagnamas, Heytem Moussaoui, Younes Bahammou,

Mounir Kouhila, Abdelkader Lamharrar, and Ali Idlimam

Keywords
Seeds of carob Sorption isotherms Water activity Equilibrium moisture content
Isosteric heat of sorption

In the present work, the static gravimetric method was used.

1 Introduction
Carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is native vegetation in the
Mediterranean area; it is mainly cultivated for its environ-
mental and economic benefits. Morocco is considered as one
of the main producers of carob in the world with an esti-
mated global production of about 24800 tons (Organisation
des Nations Unies pour l’Agriculture et l’Alimentation
(FAO) 2010). The seeds of the pods are used to obtain the
locust bean gum and the pulp is quite rich in sugars (Mulet
et al. 2015; Kamal et al. 2013). Determination of sorption
isotherms are necessary steps in all processes of drying and
storage of food materials.
The objectives of the present work were:
1. Present the experimental isotherms of carob seeds sorp-
tion with the gravimetric static method;
2. Calculate the net isosteric heat of water sorption from the
experimental data.
Fresh product was used in desorption experiments. The used
samples in adsorption isotherms were dried in an oven
regulated at a temperature of 105 °C until they reached the
maximum dehydration. Six salts were chosen {KOH,
MgCl2, K2CO3, NaNO3, KCl, and BaCl2} to provide a range
of 5.72–89.8% relative humidity (Ait et al. 2005).
The experimental apparatus consisted of six glass jars
with an insulated lid. Every glass jar was quarter filled with a
saturated salt solution. It consists of a filled oven six jars
each containing a different salt. Each sample is placed in a
small vial and placed on a tripod placed in each jar. The jars
should be tightly closed so that the partial pressure of water
vapor remains constant throughout the experiment. Dupli-
cate samples each of 0.2 g for desorption and 0.1 g for
adsorption were weighed into glass jars. The six samples
were weighed every two days. Equilibrium moisture was
recognized when two consecutive weight measurements
showed a difference of less than 0.001 g. The equilibrium
moisture content of each sample was determined by a drying
oven whose temperature was fixed at 105 °C (Kouhila et al.
1999).

2 Materials and Methods

2.2 Sorption Isosteric Heat and Entropy
2.1 Experimental Protocol
The net sorption isosteric heat qn is the amount of energy
The pods of the carob tree used in this study were collected, above the heat of water vaporization (HL) associated with the
between April and May 2016, locally in Marrakesh region. sorption process, and calculated from the experimental data
using the Clausius–Clapeyron equation (Tsami 1991).
Z. Tagnamas (&)
H. Moussaoui
Y. Bahammou
M. Kouhila

A. Lamharrar
A. Idlimam  
d lnðaw Þ qn
Laboratory of Solar Energy and Aromatic and Medicinal Plants, ¼ ð1Þ
Physics Department, ENS Marrakesh, Marrakesh, Morocco dð1=TÞ X R
e-mail: zakariatagnamas@gmail.com

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1363

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_398
1364 Z. Tagnamas et al.

where qn is the sorption net isosteric heat (J/mol), aw the
water activity, T the absolute temperature (K), R the uni-
versal gas constant (J/mol K) and X the moisture content (g
H2O/100 g).
2.3 Enthalpy–Entropy Compensation Theory
The compensation theory suggests a linear relationship
between the sorption net isosteric heat (qn) and the sorption
entropy (Sd) for determined moisture content:
qn ¼ Tb Sd þ DGb
The isokinetic temperature (Tb) and constant (DGb) are
calculated using the linear regression. The parameter Tb
represents the linear function slope between qn and Sd.
3 Results and Discussion
We studied the variation of the product water content as a
function of relative humidity. Our experiments were under-
taken at different temperatures in order to identify the
influences on the hygroscopic behavior of our product. The
hygroscopic equilibrium of carob seeds was achieved in
eleven days for desorption and eight days for adsorption.
The sorption isosteric heat was high at lower moisture
content (Fig. 1); the higher sorption isosteric heat might be
explained by the greater resistance to water migration from the
interior to the surface of the samples. On the other hand, at high
moisture content the isosteric heat decreased. This decrease can
be qualitatively explained by considering that sorption initially
occurs at the most active sites, giving rise to the greatest
interaction energy. As the equilibrium moisture content
increases, the sites available for water sorption decrease,
resulting in a decrease in the net isosteric heat values.
ð2Þ The differential entropy of the sorption was computed
according to Eq. (1). A nonlinear optimization method was
applied to calculate the differential entropy of sorption of
raw olive pomace. Then, it represented the intersection of the
same curve with the ordinate axis within a constant R. Thus,
Fig. 2 illustrates the differential entropy of carob seeds
sorption for the temperatures of 30, 40 and 50 °C.
Figure 3 shows the differential enthalpy plotted against
differential entropy. As can be noted, a linear relation
between these variables was obtained, indicating that com-
pensation exists. The isokinetic temperature (Tb) for
adsorption and desorption were found to be 362.90, and
348.87 K, respectively.

80000
180
Adsorption Desorption
70000 Desorption 160 Adsorption
Net isosteric heat of sorption (J/mol)

Differential entopy of sorption (J/ mol,K)

60000 140

50000 120

100
40000

80
30000
60
20000
40
10000
20

0
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Equilibruim moister content (% d.b) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Equilibruim moister content (% d,b)
Fig. 1 Differential enthalpy of adsorption and desorption of carob
seeds versus equilibrium moisture content Fig. 2 Differential entropy of adsorption and desorption of carob seeds
versus equilibrium moisture content
Enthalpy-Entropy Compensation in Carob Seeds … 1365

theory was further used to good straight lines were

Desorption observed for adsorption and desorption. The Gibbs free
The net isosteric heat of sorption J/mol

Adsorption
energy values are positive (DGb > 0), indicating that the
60000
sorption processes are not spontaneous.

30000
0
0 100 200
Differential entropy of sorption J/K mol
Fig. 3 Compensation relationship for carob seeds desorption and
adsorption
4 Conclusion
The sorption isotherm curves were determined experi-
mentally for the carob seeds at three temperatures (30, 40,
50 °C) and relative humidity within the range of 5–90%
commonly used in drying and storage. The compensation
References
Ait Mohamed L, Kouhila M, Lahsasni S, Jamali A, Idlimam A,
Rhazi M, Aghfir M, Mahrouz M. Equilibrium moisture content and
heat of sorption of Gelidium sesquipedale. J Stored Prod Res.
2005;41:199–209.
Kamal M, Youssef E, El Manfaloty MM, Ali HM. Assessment of
proximate chemical composition, nutritional status, fatty acid
composition and phenolic compounds of carob (Ceratonia Siliqua
L.). Food Public Health. 2013;3(6):304–8.
Kouhila M, Belghit A, Daguenet M. Approche Expérimentale des
Courbes de Sorption de la Menthe en vue d’un Séchage par Energie
Solaire. Rev Energ Ren. 1999;2:61–8.
Mulet A, Fernández-Salguero J, García-Pérez JV, Bon J. Mechanistic
modeling to address process analysis: kibbles of Carob (Ceratonia
Siliqua L.) pod extraction. J Food Eng. 2015.
Organisation des Nations Unies pour l’Agriculture et l’Alimentation
(FAO). Rapport FAOSTAT. 2010.
Tsami E. Net isosteric heat of sorption in dried fruits. J Food Eng.
1991;14(4):327–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/0260-8774(91)90022-K
.
 Metallic Contamination of Water
and Sediments of “Hillil River” (North-West
of Algeria) Near Wild Dump Site
Ouiza Ould Ali, Florence Vouvé, Fatiha Abdelmalek, Dominic Aubert,
Régis Rouillon, and Ahmed Addou



Keywords
Dumpsite Leachates
Watercourse
1 Introduction
In the North West of Algeria, wastes represent a serious
problem for environment and a potential risk for the popu-
lation health. In this region, wastes are generally deposed in
wild dumps located on the banks of rivers (Belhadj et al.
2006), which represent a real risk of contamination for
ground and surface waters (Melnyk et al. 2014).
2 Materials and Methods
The aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of a dumpsite
on the quality of the “Hillil River”, one of the secondary
tributaries of the “Cheliff River” which is the largest per-
manent Algerian river. Four sampling campaigns were car-
ried out according to the seasons (April, August, December
2015 and February 2016). Water and sediment samples were
carried out in the watercourse at the upstream, the down-
stream and the contact point with the dumpsite. When it was
O. Ould Ali (&)
F. Abdelmalek
A. Addou
Laboratoire des Sciences et Techniques de l’Environnement et de
la Valorisation (STEVA), Université de Mostaganem, BP 188,
27000 Mostaganem, Algeria
e-mail: oaouiza@gmail.com
F. Vouvé
R. Rouillon
Laboratoire de Biocapteurs – Analyses – Environnement,
Université de Perpignan, Via Domitia, Bâtiment S, 52 Av Paul
Alduy, 66860 Perpignan Cedex, France
D. Aubert
Centre de Formation et de Recherche sur les Environnements
Méditerranéens, Université de Perpignan, Via Domitia, Bâtiment
U, 52 Av Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan Cedex, France
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_399


Metallic trace elements Water and sediments contamination
possible, leachates have also been sampled within the
dumpsite. Samples were transported to the laboratory and
conserved over there in the dark at 4 °C before analysis.
Some parameters were measured in both waters and lea-
chates in situ (temperature, pH, conductivity, turbidity and
salinity). In waters, sediments and leachates samples,
metallic trace elements (Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, Cr, Ni, Rb, Sr, Mn,
Fe, Al, Ba, As, Li …) were analyzed.
3 Results and Discussion
In waters, the concentrations of Ru, Ni, Ba, Li, Mn, Sr and
Zn were higher than those of other metals for all seasons, but
Fe and Ag concentrations were much lower in spring than in
other seasons. Leachates were characterized by high con-
centrations of Sr, Ba, Rb, Mn, Fe, Al and Ni in spring and by
high concentrations of Fe, Al, Zn, Sr, Rb and Ba in both
autumn and winter. The contact point with the dumpsite was
characterized by the highest concentrations in Sr, Fe, Mn, Al
and Cu. In the downstream V, Zn, Rb and Co were more
concentrated.
In sediments, the concentration of the natural elements as
Rb, Sr, Ba, Li and Al were higher than those of other metals
for the summer and the spring seasons. During autumn and
winter, the sediments were characterised by the high con-
centrations of As, Mn, Pb, Zn and Cr. The contact point with
the dumpsite was characterized by the high concentration of
Cu, Pb, Cd and Zn in autumn, and by Co, Be, Ba, and Rb in
winter. Whereas the sediments sampled in the downstream
were more concentrated in Li, Al, Ni, Sr and Rb during
summer. For Mo, As and Pb the highest concentrations were
measured in the upstream.
1367
1368 O. Ould Ali et al.

4 Conclusion metals of the Cheliffriver, Algeria. Fresenius Environ Bull.

This study has contributed to the evaluation of the
metallic contamination from the dumpsite to this
watercourse.
2006;15(3).
Melnyk A, Kuklińska K, Wolskaa L, Namieśnik J. Chemical pollution
and toxicity of water samples from stream receiving leachate from
controlled municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill. Environ Res.
2014;135:253–61.

References

Belhadj M, Ghezzar M, Abdelmalek F, Benahmed, Ouddane B,

Addou A. Assessment of the sediment contamination by heavy
 N-Doping Effect on the Activity of TiO2
Supported Catalysts in Glycerol Oxidation

Dhia Cherni, Noomen Moussa, Mohamed Faouzi NCIB, Laura Prati,

and Alberto Villa

Keywords
TiO2 Gold platinum bimetallic catalyst Glycerol oxidation

1 Introduction using different N-containing precursors during the synthesis

Glycerol is an important renewable feedstock and its val-
orization greatly contributes to the economy of some pro-
cesses mainly in the field of biofuels. Glycerol oxidation can
produce a large amount of useful products such as glyceric
acid, glycolic acid, hydroxyacetone… etc., but for the feasi-
bility of the processes active and selective catalytic systems
should be designed. This research focused on the use of
N-doped support in order to improve the catalytic activity of
AuPt on TiO2 under base/free conditions. Indeed it has been
shown that a basic environment is beneficial for the catalytic
conversion of glycerol even affecting the selectivity of the
reaction [ref]. Au based catalysts have been shown to be
active and selective in glycerol oxidation but present the
drawback to be active only in the presence of an external base.
However, the addition of Pt allows the reaction to proceed
under neutral conditions (Brett et al. 2011; Villa et al. 2010).
Here we prepared N-doped TiO2 via facile sol-gel method
D. Cherni (&)
Faculty of Sciences of Gabès, University of Gabes, Gabes, Tunisia
e-mail: cherni.dhia.89@gmail.com
N. Moussa
National Engineering School of Gabès, Gabes, Tunisia
e-mail: mnoomen@yahoo.fr
M.F. NCIB
Higher School of Sciences and Technology of Hammam Sousse,
Hammam Sousse, Tunisia
e-mail: mohamed.faouzi.ncib@gmail.com
L. Prati
A. Villa
University of Milan, Milan, Italy
e-mail: laura.prati@unimi.it
A. Villa
e-mail: alberto.villa@unimi.it
[4-fluorobenzylamin (TNF), urea (TN) and chitosan (TNC)].
The N-TiO2 materials were used for supporting preformed
bimetallic AuPt nanoparticles. This preparation method
allowed obtaining nanoparticles with comparable sizes and
dispersions thus allowing studying the real influence of the
support modification in the catalytic reaction.
2 Materials and Methods
N-TiO2 materials have been prepared as follows: firstly, a
precursor TTIP and isopropanol were measured (1 M) and
put into 100 ml flask with stirring for 20 min to form
solution A; the water concentrations were chosen in order to
result in a water to precursor ratio, W = [H2O]/[TTIP], equal
to four, isopropanol and the amount of oxalic acid (molar
ratio TTIP:acid = 1:2), were mixed to form solution B.
Secondly, solution B was added into solution A under
vigorous stirring until the formation of the gel. Samples were
dried at 80 °C for 24 h, then the pure TiO2 were obtained by
calcination of the dried gel at 400 °C for 3 h (2 °C/min). For
the doped TiO2, the precursor of the dopant was added to the
sol after mixing the two solutions A and B.
1%wt AuPt on N-TiO2 samples were syntetized via sol
immobilisation technique. The molar ratio between Au and
Pt was fixed at 1.5. A solution of PVA (poly(vinyl alcohol))
1% was used to ensure the formation of nanoparticles and a
solution of sodium borohydride (0.1 M) was used for the
co-reduction of Au(III) and Pt(II). The TiO2 samples were
characterized by XPS, XRD and N2 physisorption methods.
The catalytic activity of the samples were evaluated in the
glycerol oxidation in a batch reactor for 6 h using 0.3 M of
Glycerol (metal/glycerol = 1/500 mol/mol) under oxygen

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1369

A. Kallel et al. (eds.), Recent Advances in Environmental Science from the Euro-Mediterranean and Surrounding Regions,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70548-4_400
1370 D. Cherni et al.

Table 1 Characterization results

Catalyst Crystallinity Crystallite BET Pore volume Pore size %at N %wt N %at %at %at
size (nm) (m2/g) (ml/g) (nm) [XPS] [bulk] Ti O C
Undopped Anatase 15 76 0.13 19.8 0 – 17.9 49.7 32.4
100%
TN Anatase 28.2 17 0.03 24.4 0.602 46.5 17.8 49.7 31.8
100%
TNF Anatase 12.2 63 0.17 11.3 0.263 11.2 20.08 55.54 24.12
100%
TNC Anatase 24 27 0.07 6.4 0 8.7 18.45 50.53 31.02
100%

Table 2 Glycerol oxidation in AuPt/(N) Conversion Selectivity (%) Mass

the presence of 1%wt TiO2 at 6 h (%) balance
AuPt/N-TiO2 Tartronic Glyceric Glycolic Dihydroxyacetone
acid acid acid (%)

Undopped 67.6 2.5 75.2 11.6 14.7 84.0

TN 78.4 2.3 77.7 10.4 11.1 97.9
TNF 73.4 2.4 74.9 11.7 13.6 93.6
TNC 92.1 2.6 79.9 17.2 11.8 79.5
Metal/Glycerol = 1/500; Glycerol = 0.3 M; T = 100 °C; O2 = 3 atm; time = 6 h

pressure of 3 atm in a thermostatted oil bath at 100 °C.
Samples were withdrawn periodically and analyzed by
high-performance chromatography (HPLC) using a column
(Alltech OA-10308, 300 mm  7.8 mm) with UV and
refractive index (RID) detectors in series. H3PO4 0.1%
solution was used as the eluent. The identification of the
products was performed through comparison with original
samples. The activity of the catalysts were reported based on
conversion per mol of metal per hour (activity).
introduction of N-groups has a beneficial effect on the cat-
alyst performance even the pH autogenerated into the solu-
tion appeared very similar. The most active catalyst is the
one synthetized with chitosan, which however presents the
lowest N content.
We did not observed relevant selectivity difference and
even the mass balance showed the highest lacking in the case
of TNC doped TiO2. This could mean that in this case a
higher production of CO2 can be envisaged.

3 Results and Discussion
The synthetized TiO2 catalysts showed a major Anatase
phase in all the cases (Table 1). The XPS results shows that
the amount of nitrogen is low on the surface of TN and TNF
but negligible in the case of TNC. On the contrary in the
bulk we observed a decrease of N amount as TN > TNF >
TNC. The autogenerated pH is similar—around 6.0 in all the
cases. The surface area appeared quite low except in the case
of TNF which presents an SA similar to an undoped material
(63 vs. 76 m2/g).
After deposition of AuPt nanoparticles, all the catalysts
appeared active in the selective oxidation of glycerol
(Table 2) showing conversions in the range 53–92% after
six hours of reaction with high selectivity to glyceric acid
(74–79%). Comparing the results using N-doped versus bare
TiO2 (entry 1, Table 1) we can conclude that the
4 Conclusion
We prepared AuPt catalysts on differently N-doped TiO2.
We expected that in glycerol selective oxidation at least
the conversion benefits by the introduction of basic ele-
ments such as N will be enhanced. This is what happened
but the conversion followed neither the pH nor the N
content. We have therefore to conclude that the effect of
the N-doping of the support is not merely due to an
enhancement of the basic environment.
References
Brett GL, He Q, Hammond C, Miedziak PJ, Dimitratos N, Sankar M,
Herzing AA, Conte M, Lopez-Sanchez JA, Kiely CJ, Knight DW,
Taylor SH, Hutchings GJ. Angewandte Chemie. 2011;123:10318–21.
Villa A, Veith GM, Prati L, Angewandte Chemie. 2010;122:4601–4604;
Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 2010;49:4499–502.
 Breeding Regime of Two Accessions of Vicia
Narbonensis L.

Siwar Bouabid, Lamia Jemai, and Aziza Zoghlami Khélil

Keywords
Vicia narbonensis Breeding regime Bagging Free pollination Autogamy Fertility

In order to assess the reproductive capacities of the two

1 Introduction accessions of Narbon vetch, we carried out bagging and free
pollination experiments on 30 plants per accession (10
The genus Vicia is widely spread in the temperate zones of plants/replication and accession). For each type of experi-
the northern and southern hemispheres (Alkin et al. 1986) ment, 10–14 flowers per plant and accession w