Int. J. Educational Development, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp.

337–346, 1998
 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
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PII: S0738-0593(98)00018-2

PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT AND ATTITUDES

TOWARD MATHEMATICS: THE CASE OF DUDU
DUMMA C. MAPOLELO
Lecturer, Department of Primary Education, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana

Abstract — There is a need to move beyond the use of predetermined categories to classify
teachers’ orientations and an attempt should be made to understand, from the teachers’ perspectives,
their orientations and the beliefs from which they are generated. Such an understanding may help
in the development of mathematics teacher education programmes that will assist teachers to formu-
late appropriate attitudes toward mathematics. This paper provides an in-depth study of one pre-
service elementary teacher’s views about mathematics and mathematics teaching. Dudu is a ‘case’
that fits in with the emergent themes identified in the larger sample. Data for the study were
collected by means of audio tape, an observational framework, field notes, student’s written work
and unstructured and formal interviews. The themes that emerged and that were emphasised by
the participant were: limited vision for mathematics, construction of meaning in mathematics,
knowledge of mathematics content and poor self-perception of pre-service primary mathematics
teachers. The findings also suggest that although the participant reported uneasiness in learning
mathematics, she was very enthusiastic about her teaching practice.  1998 Elsevier Science Ltd.
All rights reserved

INTRODUCTION having mastered the basic learning skills in

The most recent National Commission on Edu-
cation (Government of Botswana, 1993)
received many submissions relating to the poor
quality of primary education. One of these com-
mented on the low standards of achievement at
this level and on the poorly qualified teaching
force. Research findings and the evidence
received from the public confirms that achieve-
ment at primary level is low.
One of the objectives of the Botswana pri-
mary school curriculum is to ensure that chil-
dren acquire a basic command of written and
spoken English and competence in mathematics.
However, the results of a study by Husen (1976)
indicated that the average scores on general
achievement tests of Standard 7 pupils were
low, and a substantial number of children
attained unacceptably low scores in reading and
mathematics tests. Evidently things have not
improved since Husen’s study. Mautle et al.
(1993) report that the performance at Primary
School Leaving Examination (PSLE) in math-
ematics, science and English has declined since
1977. Yoder and Mautle (1991) and Mack
(1992) expressed concern that a good number
of primary school children leave school without
reading, writing and numeracy. Also Taole and
Chakalisa (1995) reported that performance in
public examinations in mathematics is poor.
Achievement in the primary schools is low
and by implication the quality of teaching and
amount of learning is less than acceptable.
Snyder and Fuller (1991) reported that the
teaching strategies used by many Botswana pri-
mary school teachers are procedural-oriented.
They are uninspiring because they are teacher
dominated. These methods of teaching encour-
age teacher dependency by students. Students
need to be involved in mathematics learning.
Mathematics plays an important role in the
study of science and technology, and is con-
sidered as the basis for any science-oriented cur-
riculum. However, concern has been expressed
by governments and educators about both the
adequacy of their mathematics curricula and the
performance of the students in the subject
(Masinga, 1993). The problem concerning
mathematics education is multidimensional. It
involves an appreciation of the structure of
mathematics, the availability or otherwise of
learning resources, the quality of teachers, the
curriculum, the learners themselves, and the
value placed on the subject by society.

337
338 DUMMA C. MAPOLELO
Mathematics is a compulsory subject in the
Botswana school curriculum. In the Primary
Teacher Training Colleges (PTTCs) and in the
Colleges of Education preparing students for the
Diploma in Primary Education (DPE), math-
ematics is a foundation subject. It has to be
passed by all teacher trainees. However, in the
1996 mathematics final examinations, out of a
total of 490, the three PTTCs at Serowe,
Francistown and Lobatse each had a total of 70,
63 and 45 candidates failing either content or
method. Also according to the 1996 DPE
results, the students were not performing as well
in the content area as in the professional section.
The learning of mathematics continues to be a
major problem in teacher training in Botswana.
The goal of this case study is to investigate
the views about mathematics and mathematics
teaching of one pre-service primary school
teacher enrolled on a two-year Primary Teacher
Certificate programme at Lobatse PTTC. This
single case is part of a larger study carried out
at Lobatse PTTC in 1994–1995 involving six
pre-service primary school teachers. This paper
briefly describes the data analysis strategies and
the themes that emerged from the interviews,
the observations, the participant’s own notes,
and the researcher’s field notes throughout the
four months of the study at Lobatse PTTC. The
experiences were carefully recorded and, in
developing the themes which emerged from the
study, the participant is directly quoted.
According to Schram et al. (1991) and Ball
(1988), pre-service primary teachers bring to
their professional studies deeply rooted ideas
about teaching and learning mathematics. These
ideas are embedded in the content knowledge,
the pedagogical experiences, and epistemologi-
cal orientations of prospective teachers who are
seen to view mathematics as a fixed body of
knowledge that is best learned by memorising
facts and procedures. This conception of math-
ematics education contrasts with the nature and
the creation of knowledge in the discipline
(Davis and Hersh, 1981), and it denies chil-
dren’s natural capacity for and interest in under-
standing mathematical ideas (Romberg and
Carpenter, 1986).
Knowing appropriate facts, algorithms and
procedures is not sufficient to guarantee success.
Other factors, such as the decisions one makes,
the strategies one uses and the beliefs one holds
that are relevant to performance on mathemat-
ical tasks, influence the direction and the out-
come of one’s performance (Schoenfeld, 1985;
McLeod, 1988). The importance of school tea-
chers’ views about mathematics has been recog-
nised for several years (Mura, 1993). Ernest
(1989) believes that teachers’ perceptions of
mathematics influence, albeit indirectly and
inconsistently, the model of teaching that they
espouse and eventually their action in the class-
room. Becoming aware of and reflecting upon
one’s beliefs about mathematics is crucial to the
development of teachers’ professional auto-
nomy.
METHODOLOGY
This is a qualitative study of one Botswana
pre-service primary teacher at Lobatse PTTC. I
chose this one pre-service teacher because I
wanted someone with a weak mathematics
background and who finds the PTTC mathemat-
ics difficult. The goal of the study is to illustrate
and analyse the understanding and beliefs about
mathematics of the pre-service primary teacher
as she does mathematics and talks about math-
ematics.
The methodology for this study evolved from
an interest in finding holistic methods of
investigating the mathematics beliefs and atti-
tudes of one Botswana pre-service primary
teacher. The evaluation strategy most appropri-
ate to gain insight into the pre-service teacher’s
beliefs about and attitudes toward mathematics
from her perspective is the illuminative and
qualitative approach. This method has three sig-
nificant features. It is holistic, inductive and
naturalistic (Glasser and Strauss, 1967). This
allows the dimensions of the analysis to emerge
naturally in the course of the investigation while
also offering flexibility to changing circum-
stances (English et al., 1992).
Munby (1982) suggested that a legitimate
approach in research is the qualitative method,
for it generates a particular, rather than gen-
eralisable knowledge. The utility of the knowl-
edge obtained in this way is very limited, of
course, for it pertains to a particular person
alone. But knowledge is not to be judged solely
upon the criterion of its range of applicability.
Power is important too. Since the knowledge I
obtained is of one pre-service primary teacher
and how she sees her world of mathematics, it
is powerful for the way it informs us about her
 PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT AND ATTITUDES TOWARD MATHEMATICS
perspective and her professional preparation as
a primary school teacher.
I used the case study approach in educational
research in this study. Goetz and LeCompte
(1984) suggested that the case study approach
is the one that allows the researcher to pursue
the participant’s perceptions. Case studies
intend to probe deeply and to analyse inten-
sively the multifarious phenomena that consti-
tutes the life of the unit and can be used to
understand the educational system (Cohen and
Manion, 1992).
Sampling of subjects in qualitative studies
tends to be purposeful rather than random. The
aim is to illuminate the study question, and the
concern is with information richness not rep-
resentation. Patton (1990) observed that:
Validity, meaningfulness and insight generated from
qualitative inquiry have more to do with the information-
richness of the cases selected and the observational and
analytical capabilities of the researcher than with sample
size (p. 185).
The logic and power of purposeful sampling
lies in selecting information-rich cases for study
in depth. Information-richness cases are those
from which one can learn a great deal about
issues of central importance to the purpose of
the research.
PROCEDURE
I did not know any member of the Lobatse
PTTC first year class although I had known their
class teacher for a long time. We had worked
together when I was a PTTC mathematics mod-
erator from 1987 through 1991. She had taught
at Tlokweng PTTC for three years before she
was transferred to Lobatse PTTC in 1993. She
informed me that most of the Lobatse PTTC stu-
dents are young compared with the students she
had at Tlokweng PTTC. The average age of the
current Lobatse PTTC students is 19 years. She
also mentioned that the majority of the students
had not been successful at the General Certifi-
cate in Education (GCE) level, and that most of
them had failed mathematics, science and
English.
The class was very interesting in that out of
a total of 45 students, about 70% of the students
had a GCE background. The remaining 30% of
the students in this class had either passed Jun-
ior Certificate (JC) or attempted it. About 60%
339
of the students were females. A few of the stu-
dents had had teaching experience.
I suggested to the class teacher that I would
like to have a participant who found mathemat-
ics difficult and who had had teaching experi-
ence. After a week of class observation, one
student was identified as a possible participant.
Throughout this study the pseudonym Dudu is
used. Dudu was having some problems with
mathematics and she had taught in primary
schools before coming to Lobatse PTTC.
After we had identified this student, I talked
with her about the possibility of her taking part
in the study. She was reluctant, saying that she
could not offer anything that could be of any
interest to anyone. I convinced her that she will
be surprised to find that she has the most
important story to tell about her experiences
regarding the learning of mathematics. She said:
I do not think anyone will learn anything interesting
from me about mathematics learning. People like to hear
from someone who is good in mathematics. I am not
good at all. People will laugh at me when they read
your report.
She later agreed to participate in the study
after I had explained to her how the study might
help her and others. Before the beginning of the
study I explained to the participant the purpose
of the study, and pointed out to her that the suc-
cess of this study depended on her willingness
to share with me her experiences in learning
mathematics during her school life.
CASE STUDY
Portrait
Dudu was a 22 year-old female student from
Kanye Village in the Southern District. She
completed her Junior secondary education in
Kanye at Mookani Community Junior Second-
ary School. Dudu was described by her PTTC
teacher as one of the anxious students in the
class. Her college records showed that she was
an average student with a less than impressive
overall class performance, particularly in math-
ematics.
She had a JC educational background
although she did not pass her JC. She was an
average student but a dedicated one. Her PTTC
average scores for mathematics foundation and
curriculum were 58% and 60%, respectively. To
pass the programme a student has to have an
340 DUMMA C. MAPOLELO
overall minimum of 50%. Her PTTC teacher
described her as one of the students who found
the PTTC mathematics difficult. She described
Dudu as someone who preferred working in a
group rather than alone. In class discussions, she
contributed only very little, but participated
keenly when teaching methods were discussed.
She had two years of primary teaching
experience in a school in a remote area, and she
told me that she taught Standard 2 and enjoyed
it although she had no training at that time. She
felt she needed to be trained as a primary school
teacher, so she applied to Lobatse PTTC and
appeared to be very much committed to teach-
ing as a career.
Although Dudu’s experiences may be unique,
it is very likely that her views about mathemat-
ics may be shared by other pre-service teachers
in the PTTCs. Most of the pre-service teachers
have had unpleasant experiences with math-
ematics at Junior and Senior secondary school
level. The concerns she raises about mathemat-
ics teaching and learning are important in influ-
encing some changes in teaching mathematics
at both PTTC and primary school level.
Data Analysis
To gain an understanding of the complexity
of the Botswana pre-service primary teachers’
mathematics experiences, the situation had to be
considered from a variety of perspectives. Tri-
angulation was an important aspect in the data
collection for the study and several sources of
data collection were used: class observations,
formal and informal conversations, PTTC stu-
dents’ written work, and audio taped interviews.
The interviews mostly used open-ended ques-
tions. Open-ended questions allow and encour-
age the respondent to give her opinion. Open-
ended questions allow for further probing by the
interviewer and comments from the respondent.
The framework of each interview was based
on four areas: (i) mathematics as an interesting
subject, (ii) satisfaction and success from math-
ematics, (iii) students confidence in mathematics
and beliefs about mathematics, and (iv) math-
ematics content. Each interview was planned to
last for at least one hour. Interviews lasted
between 50 min and 1 h depending on the par-
ticipant’s time. The interviews covered the
entire period of the study which was 12 weeks.
Interview guides were prepared daily based on
earlier classroom observations.
The first two interview phases were to eluci-
date the participant’s point of view. Cooney
(1984) argued that because pre-service teachers
are not likely to have well-articulated theories
about the teaching and learning of mathematics,
they may have implicit theories which may be
expressed when provided with a variety of dif-
ferent stimuli. The second two interview phases
were concerned with what the participant thinks
mathematics was all about and what she thinks
about the mathematics content she is taught in
the PTTC. The interview also covered the area
of how mathematics should be taught in pri-
mary schools.
The data analysis proceeded in three stages.
The first stage took place alongside data collec-
tion. It involved daily reflection on what had
happened that day in the PTTC class and its
relationship to the research questions. A main
concern at this stage was to look at the data for
unclear issues which could be worth pursuing,
and which could be referred back to the partici-
pant for clarification.
The second stage was organisational. The
interviews, which were conducted in Setswana,
had to be translated into English before tran-
scription. I transcribed all the interviews. A pre-
liminary analysis of the transcripts was carried
out. The PTTC student’s mathematics written
work collected from the participant was also
read carefully. At the end of this stage, a number
of preliminary themes started to emerge. Out of
this experience, came an initial framework on
which to build my presentation of the study.
The complexity of the data was reduced as
the transcripts were read and the coding stages
with overlapping categories were developed. By
the end of this stage, several themes were
becoming more clear. One that clearly emerged
was the pre-service primary teachers’ view
about the mathematics content they learn in
the PTTCs.
In the final stage the focus was on writing the
report. This stage in the description of the data
analysis is included because the writing contrib-
uted to the further refinement of the analysis.
Writing helped me organise my thoughts and
resulted in the themes being narrowed down.
Organising Data and Generating Categories
During the first three weeks of the study, I
listened, translated, and transcribed the audio
tapes of the interviews. I compared and con-
 PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT AND ATTITUDES TOWARD MATHEMATICS
trasted my observation notes with the transcrip-
tions of the audio tapes so as to identify the
common categories of the participant and to
arrange them in order of emphasis.
Data within the categories was refined by
using the numbers 01 for similarities and 00 for
uniqueness. Statements and observed events
were then grouped according to their categories.
For example, statements like, ‘I am confused
with this problem’, and ‘I am afraid I will fail’,
were grouped under 01. After this stage, I nar-
rowed down the categories further. All state-
ments under 01 were now arranged according
to the frequency that they appeared in the group.
At this stage some of the statements were left
out because they were not given much empha-
sis. Using this strategy, I was able to outline the
specific findings of the study, and to construct
the process that the Botswana pre-service pri-
mary teachers went through in learning math-
ematics.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Emergent Themes
After the coding and careful analysis of the
data, the following themes emerged: construc-
tion of meaning in mathematics; limited vision
for mathematics; knowledge of mathematics
content, and poor self-perception by pre-service
primary school mathematics teachers. All four
themes were evident from the stories told by the
participant about how she was learning math-
ematics.
Construction of Meaning in Mathematics
In Botswana, mathematics has a long tra-
dition of being taught by a teacher centred
method without much development of meaning.
Even before children are ready to deal with
abstract concepts, mathematics is frequently
taught as a system of rules (Kennedy and Tipps,
1991; NRC, 1989). Instead of developing mean-
ing, mathematics is memorised. In general, pri-
mary school mathematics tasks tend to be low
level tasks such as receiving and recalling infor-
mation or acquiring basic concepts and learning
skills. In social studies, but not in mathematics,
students often engage in activities that require
thought and discussions (Stodolsky, 1988). She
observes that mathematics teachers feel
accountable for ensuring that students have
341
mastered the basic skills, whereas social studies
does not suffer from such constraints.
However, if mathematics is to have meaning,
the student must understand terms, symbols and
underlying concepts of operations learned
(Kutz, 1991). Simon (1994) advocates that:
Successful mathematics instruction should result in, not
only conceptual development and increased problem
solving ability, but also the development of useful con-
ceptions about mathematics. Toward this end, classroom
mathematical activity should involve students in explo-
ration of mathematical situations, hypothesis generation,
communication, validation, and application of new ideas
(p. 77).
Dudu, however, reflected the dominant para-
digm of mathematics learning. She suggests that
‘Memorising is how to learn mathematics. It is
a tricky subject that requires a lot of memoris-
ation. Dudu believes mathematics ability is
innate. You have to be good to succeed in math-
ematics.” Although not all her experiences were
negative, Dudu was not optimistic about ever
liking mathematics.
Dudu had reported that mathematics had
never been easy for her. She mentioned that her
PTTC teacher was a patient person with whom
it was easy to discuss any problems. She
described her as someone who knows how to
teach mathematics, particularly pedagogy. She
said that the teacher always began a class by
showing them how problems are solved. She
stated that although she felt comfortable with
her teacher and the way she teaches, this did not
make studying mathematics easier for her. She
blamed her early experiences in mathematics:
I feel so frustrated and overwhelmed by my lack of
understanding in mathematics. Throughout my schooling
I had never been taught why we are to write each step
of a problem or the meaning and usefulness of oper-
ations we were to memorise. I remember being told what
to do, but never why. To me mathematics had been a
series of memorisation of facts. I am so concerned about
my ability to make mathematics meaningful to children
by explaining the concepts thoroughly and by making
connections to the real world... connections that I had
not made for myself.
Investigator: Why do you think mathematics is a series
of memorisation of facts?
Dudu: Some concepts are difficult to know how they are
arrived at. For example, the formula for the surface area
of a cylinder: A ⫽ 2␲rh ⫹ 2␲r2. I do not know how
the 2␲rh is arrived at. I am comfortable with the last
part of the formula. It is for the areas of two circles. The
other part has been always a problem for me to under-
stand.
342 DUMMA C. MAPOLELO
Investigator: Have you ever asked your teacher or some-
one to explain to you how this formula was arrived at?
Dudu: I asked my teacher and she tried to explain it to
me. I think she related this formula to the formula for
the area of a rectangle (L ⫻ B), but it still does not make
sense. I have now decided to memorise the formula. If
I can remember it in the examination, I am fine.
Investigator: Can you show with the aid of a paper why
the formula of the rectangle is related to that formula
of 2␲rh?
Dudu: I am not sure. The teacher showed us in class,
but I do not think I got it that time. If I wrap the paper
around the tin, it takes the shape of the tin. The lengths
of the paper become the height of the tin, and the widths
become the circles at the top and the bottom of the tin.
Investigator: So can you relate the formula to the area
of the rectangle?
Dudu: I think this is what my teacher showed us and I
could not understand it very well.
Throughout the interviews, it was apparent
that acquiring meaning in mathematics was an
issue for Dudu. Her lack of understanding of the
connection between mathematics concepts for-
ced Dudu to memorise most of the procedures
for solving problems, and to try to follow them
without any understanding. Because of that, ner-
vousness during mathematics classes interfered
with her studying and understanding of math-
ematics. Dudu reported that meaning in math-
ematics was very important, but it was not dis-
cussed in detail in the training programme. Most
of the time during mathematics foundation
classes, the teacher tried to prepare students to
be competent and accurate in computational
skills. The emphasis was on preparing the pre-
service teachers to be successful in the final
examinations.
Limited Vision for Mathematics
This theme describes a rigid, narrow view of
mathematics as a subject taught by following a
textbook, and in isolation from other subjects,
with emphasis on drill, practice and right
answers. Even in classrooms where meaningful
connections are made to other curriculum areas,
mathematics is often taught with emphasis on
computation. The message is that mathematics
is exact and you must not be wrong.
Mathematics may be viewed as a narrow
domain simply because numbers and operations
present the major part of the primary school cur-
riculum. Although strands other than numbers
and operations may have been included in the
printed curricula and textbooks, they may not
have been successfully integrated into class-
room instruction (Fey, 1979).
Mathematics is often viewed as an exclusive
domain in the sense that mathematics is some-
thing that only occurs in school. Some students
may exclude as mathematical, items with out-
of-school context as well as items that relied on
processes learned outside school (Kauba and
McDonald, 1991). The students’ view of in-
school mathematical activities as being separate
from out-of-school mathematical activities is
consistent with the findings of Carraher et al.
(1985).
Dudu was described by her class teacher as
a student who is not at ease with, or competent
in, core numerical skills that are of great impor-
tance in students’ entry requirement at the
PTTCs. She has a comparatively weak math-
ematics background and a general fear and
uncertainty about mathematics as a whole. The
teacher feels that if given much encouragement
she might improve, as shown by her end of first
year mathematics scores. Dudu’s definition of
mathematics is as follows:
Mathematics is a tricky subject. It is solving difficult
problems. You need to remember many formulas. Math-
ematics requires skills. I think one has to be given the
mathematics abilities to be able to do mathematics.
Some people are not good at mathematics, and there is
nothing you can do to improve their mathematics abili-
ties. A teacher can contribute to some extent, but you
should be good in mathematics for you to succeed.
Dudu holds the view that for students to learn
mathematics effectively, they should be good at
memorisation. ‘They should learn all the for-
mulas because if they don’t remember the for-
mulas, they cannot get the correct answers to
the problems.’
Reasoning has no place in Dudu’s view of
mathematics. Nearly all the mathematics experi-
ences she shared with me were centred on com-
putation and memorisation of formulas. On a
few occasions she did mention mathematics as
a problem solving activity, but this was only in
connection with solving word problems. For
her, reasoning in mathematics was associated
with recalling some memorised procedures.
This is evident from her statement about math-
ematics classes. Dudu said:
 PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT AND ATTITUDES TOWARD MATHEMATICS
In mathematics classes, you have to remember every-
thing. It is not like many other classes where you can
think your way through it and think of different
approaches to the problem. In mathematics, you have to
remember the procedures and formulas, or you do not
get it right. There is no other way of solving a problem.
You have to do it the way it should be done. The answer
is always there. You should get it correct. You cannot
have a different answer.
When I asked her about the usefulness of
mathematics, Dudu remarked:
Mathematics is one of the most useful subjects taught in
schools. I think it comes second to reading and writing.
In Adult Literacy Programmes, students are taught read-
ing and writing. They are also taught basic mathematics
like adding and subtracting. Mathematics is very
important. The only trouble with mathematics is that it
is difficult for most students and even for some primary
school teachers.
The pre-service primary teachers’ years in
school have shaped their understanding of math-
ematics. Their experience of mathematics leads
them to think that its teaching involves giving
directions and instructing students to follow cer-
tain procedures. Substantive changes in the way
mathematics will be taught in the primary
schools by future teachers requires correspond-
ing changes in the preparation of teachers. The
vision of teaching calls for change from a focus
on presenting content through lectures and dem-
onstrations to a focus on active participation and
involvement on the part of students. Instruction
should be carefully planned to help students
rethink their beliefs about mathematics and
mathematics learning and teaching.
Knowledge of Mathematics Content
Studies have addressed the substantive
knowledge of teachers and the content that is
actually taught in classrooms. Some research
has indicated that teachers have difficulty teach-
ing certain areas because they themselves lack
sufficient understanding about those areas
(Kennedy, 1990).
Lampert (1988) suggests that training teach-
ers in pedagogical behaviour of ‘explaining’
cannot succeed if teachers do not adequately
understand the content they are supposed to
explain. Similar conclusions follow from studies
by Steinberg et al. (1985) and by Carlsen (1987)
who found that the quality of teaching varied
with the quality of the teacher’s understanding
of the content being taught. In this study, knowl-
edge of mathematics content refers to the PTTC
student mathematical background and her
343
understanding of the various topics taught in the
PTTCs. The student teacher may feel competent
in all of the content of the mathematics taught,
in some, or possibly in none.
The mathematics syllabus for the PTTCs is
geared towards the primary school mathematics
syllabus. All the topics covered are from the lat-
ter. The PTTC mathematics syllabus is divided
into two sections. The core section that comes
directly from the primary school syllabus is
compulsory for all the students. The extension
section that is made up of some topics from the
JC mathematics syllabus is optional. The PTTC
students are taught primary school mathematics
content because content and methods are closely
intertwined. It is important for the students to
fully understand how to teach the content they
have learned. Dudu commented:
The mathematics we learn in PTTC is from primary
school mathematics syllabus. But I have hard time with
some of the topics that are taught. For example, ratios,
percentages, volumes, and area of closed shapes give
me difficulties.
When asked what in particular she found dif-
ficult, Dudu responded:
I cannot remember the formulas and the methods to be
used in doing a problem. I am very much uncomfortable
in remembering formulas of different shapes. For
example, I have hard times remembering the surface area
of a cylinder: A ⫽ 2␲rh ⫹ 2␲r2. I confuse the last part
of this formula with ␲d, which I think is the circumfer-
ence of a circle. I only memorise these formulas. I hon-
estly do not know what they mean. My teacher tries to
explain it, still it does not make sense to me. I always
tell my colleagues that I never expect to get 70% in a
mathematics test. The only time I remember getting a
high mark in a mathematics test was when I got a 65%.
That was my happiest day in this college.
I interviewed Dudu immediately after the
examination. She was among the group who
came out from the examination room last. She
looked a little uneasy but I could not tell
whether it was because she did not finish the
paper or that the examination was difficult.
Investigator: How was mathematics two examination?
Dudu: I really do not know. I thought it was fair. There
were not many formulas required in this examination.
You know formulas make me sick.
Investigator: What about mathematics one examination?
Dudu: That was very good and easy for me because I
like curriculum questions.
344 DUMMA C. MAPOLELO
After the teacher had marked all the examin-
ation papers and given the results to the stu-
dents, I had an interview with Dudu about her
performance in the examination.
Investigator: How did you do in each of the mathematics
examination papers?
Dudu: I am lucky to have passed mathematics two exam-
ination. I got a 65. In mathematics one examination I
got a 73. I am glad I have made it through to second
year. Had I failed, I would have been discontinued. But
if I fail the final year examination, I will still have a
chance to supplement.
Dudu is still obsessed with failing examin-
ations. Although she passed this examination,
she does not consider that the result was through
her own effort, but just luck. She seems to
believe that she will never understand math-
ematics, and can only depend on luck and mem-
orisation.
The teacher’s knowledge of content plays an
important role in the understanding and evalu-
ation of their students’ questions and answers.
The teacher’s difficulties in understanding their
students’ questions, and their lack of ability in
explaining mathematical concepts, are likely to
affect the pre-service teachers in their teaching
of mathematics.
Because of their inadequate mathematics con-
tent knowledge, pre-service teachers spend
much of their limited time learning content
rather than planning how to present the content
to facilitate the children’s understanding. Pre-
service teachers without adequate mathematics
content knowledge are likely to lack confidence
in their ability to teach mathematics well.
Poor Self-Perception by Pre-Service Primary
Mathematics Teachers
Embarrassment is sometimes felt by students
who do not know how to solve a mathematics
problem. This may happen when a student is
called upon to work out problems on the chalk-
board in front of the other students, or when he
or she fails to solve a problem that is considered
by other students to be easy. This public
exposure results in a feeling of incompetence on
the part of the learner for not knowing enough
mathematics.
From my experience as a mathematics edu-
cator, some PTTC students have developed
negative attitudes toward mathematics because
of their weak mathematical background and
their experiences with mathematics. They
believe mathematics is a difficult subject
because of the experiences they had during their
early school days. Some of these students con-
tinue to have difficulties with the PTTC math-
ematics. These students also lack reading skills.
This resulted in them having difficulties in solv-
ing word problems. This feeling of incompet-
ence in mathematics classes emerged as a theme
in Dudu’s memories as a learner of mathemat-
ics.
I asked Dudu how she felt in a mathematics
class, and why she felt that way. Dudu said:
Mathematics sometimes makes me feel stupid. Although
my teacher is patient, I still feel scared of mathematics.
I wish there was a way of avoiding it. If I had a choice
I would not do or take mathematics. Every time in a
mathematics class I only wish to get a pass grade. I never
expect anything higher than 50. I am always embar-
rassed in a mathematics class, particularly this one.
Dudu reported that her class teacher was bet-
ter at teaching curriculum than content:
Sometimes when the teacher explains a mathematics
problem, I seem to understand her very well. The most
frustrating moments come when I am called to come
before the class and work a problem on the board or
when we are to take a test or an examination. I feel
completely confused and uncertain of every step I write
down. I only feel comfortable when I am called to give
presentation on how to teach.
I asked her if she had ever talked with anyone
about her feelings toward mathematics. She
replied:
I suppose I have, but it has never made any sense to me.
I always feel embarrassed to talk about my mathematics
experiences. You know I am left with one more year to
become a teacher and I am still not confident about my
mathematics. It is not right.
Investigator: Have you ever felt frustrated in any math-
ematics class before?
Dudu: I think in my primary school days, I was not bad
in mathematics. I started having problems with math-
ematics in Junior secondary school. I think I did not pay
much attention. I always thought I would still do better
as I did in primary school. I realised very late that it was
not easy to recover the lost time. My teachers, however,
kept on warning me that I was not working hard enough
but I did not take advantage of the advice.
The beliefs a person holds about his or her
ability to do mathematics, about the nature of
mathematics, and about problem solving are
dominant forces in shaping that person’s behav-
iour while engaged in work on a mathematical
 PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT AND ATTITUDES TOWARD MATHEMATICS
task. How long a person goes on trying, and
how much frustration he or she can tolerate, will
depend on the degree of confidence he or she
brings to the learning skills initially. A person’s
success will depend partly on how long he or
she perseveres. A good level of initial confi-
dence can lead to later success. However, lack
of confidence will have the opposite effect.
CONCLUSION
The present PTTC mathematics instruction
places great emphasis on accuracy and compu-
tational competency, the processes involved in
the learning of mathematics are not adequately
covered. Teacher educators should realise that
computational competency alone does not make
a good primary school teacher. Knowing how
to learn mathematics is also important in the
teaching of mathematics. Dudu showed a lack
of knowledge about how to learn mathematics.
She understood learning mathematics to mean
being able to do a mathematics problem.
The other issue that the study raised concerns
the pre-service teachers’ mathematical knowl-
edge. The primary mathematics content that pre-
service teachers study does not adequately
upgrade their mathematical knowledge. While
the teaching of the primary content might be
concerned with developing skills of competency
and accuracy, the pre-service teachers still have
limited mathematical knowledge because they
tend to memorise the procedures involved.
Finally, the study raised an important concern
about the building of confidence in mathematics
in the pre-service teachers. Most of them have
not had pleasant experiences with mathematics.
Dudu was such a case in point. She was not
doing well in the mathematics foundation
course. Although it cannot be claimed that her
weak performance in mathematics was solely
because of her perception of mathematics, one
wonders how she would perform if she felt
comfortable with mathematics. The pre-service
teachers’ perceptions of their ability is an
important factor in their performance in math-
ematics. A low self-esteem regarding one’s
ability in mathematics can be devastating. The
major question is, how can mathematics teacher
educators build a positive self-concept of their
ability to do mathematics in the pre-service tea-
chers.
Botswana, like other countries, is demanding
345
better mathematics teachers. Our future primary
school teachers hold the key to success in the
current reform movements in mathematics
teaching. It is important that they have the
necessary mathematics content, but just as
important, are the beliefs and attitudes that these
pre-service primary teachers have concerning
mathematics and mathematics teaching.
The information gained in this study about
the pre-service primary teachers’ perceptions of
mathematics should be used by the teacher edu-
cators to design courses that are geared to the
needs of the primary school teachers. These
courses should help the pre-service teachers
upgrade their mathematics content and hope-
fully raise their confidence in mathematics and
mathematics teaching. The information could
also be utilised by mathematics teacher edu-
cators in modifying mathematics instruction in
the PTTCs and the Colleges of Education
(Primary). The in-service educators should also
find the information useful to alert the primary
school teachers about the influence of their own
beliefs about mathematics and mathematics
teaching in their instructional processes. To date
the importance of students’ attitudes toward
mathematics has been ignored in the primary
teacher training institutions in Botswana. The
study reveals that this is an important consider-
ation which should not be overlooked in the
future.
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