Fluid mechanics

MEE1004
Topics to be discussed…

 Measurement Of Flow Rate Through Pipe

 Venturimeter
 Orificemeter
 Static and stagnation pressure
 Pitot tube
 Reynolds transport theorem
 momentum theorem
 Moment of momentum theorem
Measurement Of Flow Rate Through Pipe
 Flow rate through a pipe is usually measured by providing a
coaxial area contraction within the pipe and by recording the
pressure drop across the contraction.

 Therefore the determination of the flow rate from the

measurement of pressure drop depends on the straight forward
application of Bernoulli’s equation.

 Three different flow meters operate on this principle.

 Venturimeter
 Orificemeter
 Flow nozzle
Venturimeter
 Construction:
 A venturimeter is essentially a short pipe consisting of two
conical parts with a short portion of uniform cross-section in
between.
 This short portion has the minimum area and is known as the

throat.
 The two conical portions have the same base diameter, but one is
having a shorter length with a larger cone angle while the other is
having a larger length with a smaller cone angle.
 Such a constricted convergent-divergent passage was first
demonstrated by an Italian scientist Giovanni Battista Venturi in
1797
 Working:
 The venturimeter is always used in a way that the upstream part
of the flow takes place through the short conical portion while the
downstream part of the flow through the long one.
 This ensures a rapid converging passage and a gradual diverging
passage in the direction of flow to avoid the loss of energy due to
separation.
 In course of a flow through the converging part, the velocity
increases in the direction of flow according to the principle of
continuity, while the pressure decreases according to Bernoulli’s
theorem.
 The velocity reaches its maximum value and pressure reaches its
minimum value at the throat. Subsequently, a decrease in the
velocity and an increase in the pressure takes place in course of
flow through the divergent part.
Measurement of Flow by a Venturimeter

 Figure shows that a venturimeter is inserted in an inclined pipe line

in a vertical plane to measure the flow rate through the pipe.
 Let us consider a steady, ideal and one dimensional (along the axis
of the venturimeter) flow of fluid. Under this situation, the velocity
and pressure at any section will be uniform.
 Let the velocity and pressure at the inlet (Sec. 1) are V1 and p1
respectively, while those at the throat (Sec. 2) are V2 and p2. Now,
applying Bernoulli’s equation between Secs 1 and 2, we get

 From continuity
 For the manometer we can write

(1)
Where

 The expression for flow rate, in terms of manometer deflection Δh,

remains the same irrespective of whether the pipe-line along with
the venturimeter connection is horizontal or not.
 Measured values of Δh, the difference in piezometric pressures
between Secs I and 2, for a real fluid will always be greater than that
assumed in case of an ideal fluid because of frictional losses in
addition to the change in momentum.
 Therefore, Eq. (1) always overestimates the actual flow rate. In
order to take this into account, a multiplying factor Cd, called the
coefficient of discharge, is incorporated in the Eq.(1) as
 The coefficient of discharge, Cd is always less than unity and is
defined as

 where, the theoretical discharge rate is predicted by the Eq. (1) with
the measured value of Δh, and the actual rate of discharge is the
discharge rate measured in practice.
 Value of Cd for a venturimeter usually lies between 0.95 to 0.98.
Orificemeter
 Construction:
 An orificemeter provides a simpler and cheaper arrangement
for the measurement of flow through a pipe.
 An orificemeter is essentially a thin circular plate with a sharp
edged concentric circular hole in it.
 Working
 The orifice plate, being fixed at a section of the pipe, creates an
obstruction to the flow by providing an opening in the form of an
orifice to the flow passage.
 The area A0 of the orifice is much smaller than the cross-sectional
area of the pipe. The flow from an upstream section, where it is
uniform, adjusts itself in such a way that it contracts until a section
downstream the orifice plate is reached, where the vena contracta is
formed, and then expands to fill the passage of the pipe.
 One of the pressure tapings is usually provided at a distance of one
diameter upstream the orifice plate where the flow is almost uniform
(Sec. 1-1) and the other at a distance of half a diameter downstream
the orifice plate.
 Considering the fluid to be ideal and the downstream pressure taping
to be at the vena contracta (Sec. c-c), we can write, by applying
Bernoulli’s theorem between Sec. 1-1 and Sec.c-c,
 where p1* and pc* are the piezometric pressures at Sec.1-1 and c-c
respectively
 From the equation of continuity, A1V1 = AcVc where Ac is the area
of the vena contracta, we get

 ( p1* - pc* ) in Eq. is substituted by its measured value in terms of the

manometer deflection 'Δh'

 Where
 where 'Δh' is the difference in liquid levels in the manometer and ρm
is the density of the manometric liquid.
 The measured value of the piezometric pressure drop for a real fluid
is always more due to friction than that assumed in case of an
inviscid flow, a coefficient of velocity Cv (always less than 1) has to
be introduced to determine the actual velocity Vc

(2)

 Volumetric flow rate Q = AcVc (3)

 If a coefficient of contraction Cc is defined as, Cc = Ac /A0, where
A0 is the area of the orifice, then Eq.(3) can be written, with the help
of Eq. (2),
 Where

 The value of C depends upon the ratio of orifice to duct area, and
the Reynolds number of flow.
 The main job in measuring the flow rate with the help of an
orificemeter, is to find out accurately the value of C at the operating
condition.
 The downstream manometer connection should strictly be made to
the section where the vena contracta occurs, but this is not feasible
as the vena contracta is somewhat variable in position and is
difficult to realize.
 In practice, various positions are used for the manometer
connections and C is thereby affected. Determination of accurate
values of C of an orificemeter at different operating conditions is
known as calibration of the orifice meter.
A comparison of the typical values of Cd, accuracy, and
the cost of three flow meters
Example:#1

 Water flows at the rate of 0.015 m3/s through a 100

mm diameter orifice used in a 200 mm pipe. What is
the difference in pressure head between the upstream
section and the venacontracta section? (Take
coefficient of contraction Cc=0.60 and Cv=1.0).
Solution:
Pitot tube:
 Static pressure:
 The thermodynamic or hydrostatic pressure caused by molecular

collisions is known as static pressure in a fluid flow and is usually

referred to as the pressure p.
 When the fluid is at rest, this pressure p is the same in all directions
and is categorically known as the hydrostatic pressure.
 For the real fluids it is the arithmetic average of the normal stress at
a point.
 Static pressure is a parameter to describe the state of a flowing fluid.

Measurement of Static pressure

(a) Single Wall tap (b) Multiple Wall Tap
Stagnation Pressure
 The stagnation pressure at a point in a fluid flow is the pressure
which could result if the fluid were brought to rest isentropically.
 The word isentropically implies the sense that the entire kinetic
energy of a fluid particle is utilized to increase its pressure only.
This is possible only in a reversible adiabatic process known as
isentropic process.

 When equilibrium is attained, the fluid in the tube will be at rest,

and the pressure at any point in the tube including the point B will
be more than that at A where the flow velocity exists.
 By the application of Bernoulli’s equation between the points B and A,
in consideration of the flow to be inviscid and incompressible, we have,

 where p and V are the pressure and velocity respectively at the point A
at Sec. I-I, and p0 is the pressure at B which, according to the definition,
refers to the stagnation pressure at point A.
 The stagnation pressure p0 consists of two terms, the static pressure, p
and the term ρV2/2 which is known as dynamic pressure
 Pitot Tube
 Construction:
 The principle of flow measurement by Pitot tube was adopted

first by a French Scientist Henri Pitot in 1732 for measuring

velocities in the river.
 A right angled glass tube, large enough for capillary effects to be
negligible, is used for the purpose.
 One end of the tube faces the flow while the other end is open to

the atmosphere as shown in Fig.

Simple Pitot Tube (a) tube for measuring the Stagnation Pressure
(b) Static and Stagnation tubes together
 The liquid flows up the tube and when equilibrium is attained, the
liquid reaches a height above the free surface of the water stream
 Since the static pressure, under this situation, is equal to the
hydrostatic pressure due to its depth below the free surface , the
difference in level between the liquid in the glass tube and the free
surface becomes the measure of the dynamic pressure

 Where po, p and V are the stagnation pressure, static pressure and
velocity respectively at point A
Or

 Such a tube is known as Pitot tube and provides one of the most
accurate means of measuring fluid velocity
 For an open stream of liquid with a free surface , this single tube is
sufficient to determine the velocity
 But for a liquid flowing through a closed duct, the pitot tube
measures only the stagnation pressure and so the static pressure
must be measured separately.
 Measurement of static pressure in this case is made at the boundary
of the wall
 The axis of the tube measuring the static pressure must be
perpendicular to the boundary and free from burrs.
Example #2

 Air flows through a duct, and the pitot-static tube

measuring the velocity is attached to a differential
manometer containing water. If the deflection of the
manometer is 100 mm, calculate the air velocity,
assuming the density of air is constant and equals to
1.22kg/m3, and that the coefficient of the tube is
0.98.
Solution
Example #3
 Air is drawn into a wind tunnel used for testing automobiles
as shown in Fig.
(a) Determine the manometer reading, h, when the velocity in
the test section is 96kmph. Note that there is a 25.4mm column
of oil on the water in the manometer.
(b) Determine the difference between the stagnation pressure
on the front of the automobile and the pressure in the test section.
Example#4
 Water flows through the pipe contraction shown in Fig. For
the given 0.2-m difference in the manometer level, determine
the flow rate as a function of the diameter of the small pipe, D.
 Reynolds Transport Theorem

 The laws of physics are basically stated for a particle or a control

mass system.
 Therefore the classical statements for the conservation of mass
momentum and energy are referred to a control mass or closed
system
 A study of fluid flow by the Eulerian approach requires a
mathematical modeling for a control volume either in differential or
in integral form.
 Therefore the physical statements of the principle of conservation of
mass, momentum and energy with reference to a control volume
become necessary.
 This is done by invoking a theorem known as the Reynolds transport
theorem which relates the control volume concept with that of a
control mass system in terms of a general property of the system.
 The theorem states that “The time rate of increase of property N
within a control mass system is equal to the time rate of increase of
property N within the control volume plus the net rate of efflux of
the property N across the control surface”.

(4)

In this equation
 N - flow property which is transported

 η - intensive value of the flow property

 This theorem in its analytical form, ie. Eqn. (4), is used converting
the statement of basic laws of physics as referred to a control mass
system to a statement with reference to a control volume.
Application of the Reynolds Transport Theorem to
Conservation of Mass
 Conservation of mass The constancy of mass is inherent in the
definition of a control mass system and therefore we can write
(5)

 To develop the analytical statement for the conservation of mass of

a control volume, the RTE (Eqn. (4)) is used with N = m (mass) and
η = 1 along with the Eqn. (5), we get

(6)

 This is the integral form of the continuity equation

 At steady state, the rst term on the left hand side of Eq. (6) is zero.
Hence, it becomes
Conservation of Momentum or Momentum Theorem

 In Newtonian mechanics, the conservation of momentum is defined

by Newton’s second law of motion.
 If a force acts on the body ,linear momentum is implied and If a
torque (moment) acts on the body, angular momentum is implied.
 The principle of conservation of momentum as applied to a control
volume is usually referred to as the momentum theorem
 The first step in deriving the analytical statement of linear
momentum theorem is to write the RTE for the property N as the
linear – momentum( ) and accordingly η as the velocity . Then
it becomes
 The velocity defining the linear momentum in Eq. is described in an
inertial frame of reference
 Therefore we can substitute the left hand side of Eq. by the external
forces on the control mass system or on the coinciding control
volume by the direct application of Newton’s law of motion.

 This Equation is the analytical statement of linear momentum

theorem.
 At steady state it becomes
Application of momentum theorem

 Forces acting due to internal ows through expanding or

reducing pipe bends.
 Forces on stationary and moving vanes due to impingement of
fluid jets.
 Jet propulsion of ship and aircraft moving with uniform
velocity.
Forces due to Flow Through Expanding or Reducing
Pipe Bends

 For the solution of this type of problem, a control volume is chosen

to coincide with the interior of the expander as shown in Fig.
 The external forces on the fluid over areas 2-3 and 1-4 arise due to
net efflux of linear momentum through the interior surface of the
expander. Let these forces be Fx and Fy.
 Since the control volume 1234 is stationary and at a steady state we
can apply the eqn.
 Where is mass flow rate through the expander.
 Analytically it can be expressed as
Example #5
 A 45º reducing pipe bend in a horizontal plane, tapers from
600mm diameter at the inlet to 300 mm diameter at the outlet.
The pressure at the inlet is 140 kPa gauge and the rate of flow
of water through the bend is 0.425 m3/s. Neglecting friction,
calculate the net resultant horizontal force exerted by the water
on the bend. Assume uniform conditions with straight and
parallel streamlines at inlet and outlet and the fluid to be
frictionless.
Example#6
 A pipe of 300mm diameter conveying 0.30 m3/s of
water has a right angles bend in a horizontal plane.
Find the resultant force exerted on the bend if the
pressure at inlet and outlet of the bend are 24.525
N/cm2 and 23.544 N/cm2
Moment of momentum theorem

 It can be derived from RTE in consideration of the property N as the

angular momentum and accordingly η as the angular momentum per
unit mass.
Solution
Example#
Solution