Relative Clauses I i

Introduction
The following example was taken from a student’s dissertation:

a) He regards envy as the only crime, whose punishment precedes it.

Unfortunately, the student did not express what his actual thought was, which was this:

b) He regards envy as the only crime whose punishment precedes it.

In a) the student says that envy is the only crime, and gives some extra information about it, viz.
that the punishment comes first. In b) the student says that there are many crimes, but that envy is
the only one where the punishment happens before the crime.

a) is an example of non-defining relative clause.

b) is an example of a defining (also called ‘restrictive’ relative clause)

In which of the following sentences am I expressing that all students appreciate what I do?

c) I like working with students who appreciate what I do.

d) I like working with students, who appreciate what I do.

A comma can make a huge difference. In relative clauses, it indicates that the information that
follows is non-essential, whereas the absence of the comma means that the information is essential,
defining.

1. Non-defining Relative Clauses

These clauses add extra information or descriptive detail to the main clause, and are separated from
it by a comma or commas. The relative clause could be left out without affecting the meaning of the
sentence. This is indicated with square brackets ‘[ ]’ in the examples below.

Task One: Notice how the relative clause is used to combine clauses and avoid repetition in
the following (invented) examples. Highlight the relative pronouns:

a) Newcastle is famous for its coal. Newcastle is a large city in the North of England.
Newcastle [, (which is) a large city in the North of England,] is famous for its coal.
Newcastle [, (which is) famous for its coal,] is a large city in the North of England.

b) My friend Bill wants to meet you. My friend Bill is goodlooking and single.
My friend Bill [, who is goodlooking and single,] wants to meet you.

c) Crude oil has fallen in price recently. Many products are manufactured from crude oil.
1
Crude oil [, from which many products are manufactured,] has fallen in price recently.

In the three examples above, the relative clause qualifies the subject of the main clause , and is
embedded in the main clause. In the following examples, that is not the case.

d) Thank you again for the book. I liked it very much.

Thank you again for the book [, which I liked very much.]

e) This is Mrs. Jane Swain. I mentioned Mrs. Jane Swain yesterday.

This is Mrs. Jane Swain [, who(m) I mentioned yesterday.]
(Note: ‘whom’ is nowadays used in very formal syles, mostly in writing.)

f) She made it out of silver. Silver has antibacterial properties that can be very useful.
It is made out of silver [, whose antibacterial properties can be very useful.]

g) The teacher looked at his class. Many of his class seemed to be falling asleep.
The teacher looked at his class[, many of whom seemed to be falling asleep.]

h) We admire Professor Brown. Professor Brown’s lectures are always clear and interesting.
We admire Professor Brown [, whose lectures are always clear and interesting.]

i) She hid the sweets on the top shelf. The children would not find them on the top shelf.
She hid the sweets on the top shelf [, where the children would not find them.]

j) I first saw Birmingham in 1944. In 1944 there were still trams on the Bristol Road.
I first saw Birmingham in 1944 [, when there were still trams on the Bristol Road.]

k) In the production of instant coffee an important process is freeze-drying. All the water is rapidly
extracted from freshly brewed coffee by means of freeze-drying.
In the production of instant coffee an important process is freeze-drying [, whereby all the
water is rapidly extracted from freshly brewed coffee.]

l) Mr Brown admitted he had made a mistake. The fact that he admitted he had made a mistake
surprised his audience very much.
Mr Brown admitted he had made a mistake [, which surprised his audience very much.]

How many times did you highlight the relative pronoun ‘that’?

2
2. Defining Relative Clauses
Here, the function of the relative clause is to complete the meaning of the main clause by answering
the question “which?” As it is essential for the meaning, it cannot be omitted.
In example ‘n’ below, for example, it answers the question “Which objects produced sounds that
were equally loud in both ears?” and in example ‘p’ “Which drink was the child then allowed to
choose?”. Notice that the defining relative clause is not separated from the main clause by means of
commas.

Whereas ‘that’ cannot be used in non-defining relative clauses, all relative pronouns can be used
here.

Task Two: These examples clauses are taken from Scientific American. Underline them and
highlight the relative pronouns used:

m) The volcanic rocks that form the ridge increase steadily in age with their distance from Hawaii.

n) The objects that were straight ahead produced sounds that were equally loud in both ears.

o) The device has been tested only on one infant who is congenitally blind.

(Notice the change of meaning if the relative clause in o) is made non-defining:

The device has been tested only on one infant, who is congenitally blind. This means that only 1
infant was tested, and we get some additional information: that infant was blind. In the original
sentence other infants may have been tested too, but only one of them was blind.)

p) The child was then allowed to choose the drink she wanted.

q) As an example, one task we gave the infants was a counting problem that involved a form of
conservation.

r) The infant cannot switch on sounds he likes or switch off sounds he dislikes.

s) Of the major types of repetitive processes that I have described, the only type for which I have
offered no explanation is the cognitive repetitions.

t) No earthquake focus has yet been accurately located whose depth is greater than 700 kilometres.

u) Between these two boundary layers is a region where there is little change in temperature from
top to bottom.

v) Students of the human population speak of the “demographic transition” as the process whereby
the population of the world may eventually reach a point at which it remains level.

In some of these examples (p, r) the relative pronoun was omitted. However, when a relative
pronoun is the subject of a relative clause, it cannot be left out.
main clause relative clause together:
I love people people (=subject) tell the truth I love people who tell the truth
I like dogs dogs (=subject) are playful I like dogs that/which are playful
He cannot switch on He likes sounds (=object) He cannot switch on sounds (that) he
sounds likes.

3
Task Three
Where is a comma required in the gaps (shown as [ ]) in the following sentences?

1) Another way [ ] in which Japan is promoting the soyabean [ ] is through tackling the crop’s major enemy,
soyabean cyst nematoda.

2) The evening primrose, O. biennis, also called the sundrop, grows wild in North America and Europe. It is
prized by gardeners for its evening flowers [ ] which have a sweet fragrance.

3) Many flower petals have patterns of pigments [ ] that absorb only in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum.
Thus insects [ ] which have eyes that are sensitive to ultraviolet light [ ] see patterns [ ] that lead the insect to
the source of nectar.

There are more exercises like these in Task 7 below.

Task Four
What are the missing Relative Pronouns in the following extracts?

1) Ferredoxin is a protein _________ active site contains iron and sulphur.

2) The model also indicates a mechanism _________ the parallel chains could be stabilized.

3) Many of us have the idea of Australians, above all, being people _________ call a spade a spade.

4) His family moved to Baghdad, _________ he studied English literature at the capital’s college of fine arts.

5) Mutation is a process by _________ novel variation is formed, and _________ new characters are found in
populations.

6) Some 56 metres of the temple’s walls have been unearthed, of _________ 8 metres still stand to a height of
2 metres.

There are more exercises like these in Task 8 below.

Task Five
What is the missing preposition in the following sentences? To help you, the words the
preposition should correspond to are underlined.

1) The British government has given £100,000, _________ which one third will go on food.
Answer: ‘of’: one third of £100,000.

2) This is an important book _________ which scientists can benefit and which lay people can enjoy.

3) The turnover level _________ which companies are compelled to register for VAT is also to be raised by a
massive 40 per cent, to £35,000 a year.

4) The main conservation achievement _________ which Ian Grimwood will be remembered is his successful
leadership of Operation Oryx in 1962.

5) The society claims that the navy has ignored the effect of radioactivity on deep sea ecology, a subject
_________ which scientific knowledge is still sketchy.

6) Filetab is trying to prevent a firm called Ace Microsystems from selling a computer program on the grounds
that the language _________ which it is written is owned by Filetab.

4
7) Although this instability limits the accuracy _________ which the pressure field can be determined, it does
not affect the accuracy of either the deviatoric stresses or the displacements.

8) The Josephson junction, based on superconducting effects described and explained in work _________
which Cambridge physicist Brian Josephson won a Nobel prize in 1973, is also the subject of much research.

5
 Key

Introduction
c) This is like a definition. It puts a restriction in: I only like working with students who appreciate
what I do.
d) Here I am saying that all students appreciate what I do. I say that I like working with students in
general. Then I pause, and give some extra information about students: they appreciate what I do.
Task 1 relative pronouns: which, who, which, who (m), whose, (from) which, (many of) whom,
whose, where, when, whereby, which.
You did not find ‘that’ as it is never found in non-defining relative clauses.
Task 2
n) that were straight , that were equally loud in both ears.
o) who is congenitally blind.
p) she wanted. [that is omitted]
q) that involved a form of conservation.
r) he likes,he dislikes. [that is omitted]
s) that I have described, for which I have offered no explanation
t) whose depth is greater than 700 kilometres.
u)where there is little change in temperature from top to bottom.
v) whereby the population of the world may eventually reach a level at which it remains level.
Task 3
1) [ ] [ ] (Main clause incomplete: relative clause defines ‘‘way’’)
2) [,] (Relative clause adds information about the flowers)
3) [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] (Commas round the relative clause ““which have eyes ...’’ shows that
all insects have eyes that are sensitive to ultra-violet light. The truth is
that only the eyes of some insects are not sensitive to ultra-violet light,
and so this should actually be a defining clause without commas).
Task 4
1) whose 2) whereby 3) who 4) where 5) which, whereby 6) whichii
Task 5
1. of 2. from 3. at 4. for 5. on (or ‘about’) 6. in 7. with 8. foriii

6
i
Handout written by T. Johns, introduction, some examples, and reorganisation by EVG, 2009.
ii
There may be other options but these were the words that were in the original text.
iii
See endnote ii.