Foreword
The use of submersible pumps in sewage and drainage
pumping applications has increased greatly in the last
decades since they entered the market. The introduc-
tion of heavy-duty submersible pumps with motor power
ratings exceeding 600 kW has also made them avail-
able for central municipal pumping duties. The good
service record and high quality standard attained by
these pumps has all but excluded the use of conven-
tional pumps in municipal service.
By the same token, the special characteristics of
submersible pumps have also required the development
of new knowledge on their implementation, such as the
design of pumping stations. This work has been ad-
vanced by both pump manufacturers and municipal e n-
gineers.
The intention of this book is to bring the newest i n-
formation on both submersible pumps and pumping
stations to the use of all concerned professional people
in a concise form. The book is divided into chapters
according to the related topics.
Basic pump theory is described in Chapter 1, provi d-
ing a reference background for the assessment of pump
performance. Submersible pump design and construc-
tion is described in Chapter 2. Pump performance is
dealt with in Chapter 3, offering methods for the calcu-
lation of pump performance in various installations. Fac-
2
tors affecting pump selection are also discussed. Chap-
ter 4 offers comprehensive information on pump testing
and interpretation methods for all common pump test
standards. Basic design of pumping stations is dis-
cussed in Chapter 5, offering design information for both
large and small applications. Chapters 6 and 7 deal
with pumping station monitoring and control, offering
information on wiring and state-of-the-art remote moni-
toring methods. The possibilities of continuous regula-
tion of submersible pumps are described briefly in
Chapter 8.
One objective of the book has been to make the con-
tents easy to read and comprehend. The presentation
is therefore enhanced with a large number of illustra-
tions, providing examples of and complementary infor-
mation on the matter at hand.
The book is compiled by the editor, Mr. Bengt Lind-
qvist, M.Sc., using the combined knowledge of the
technical staff of Oy E. Sarlin Ab. Special thanks for
his contribution is extended to Mr. Hannu Sarvanne for
his numerous articles on submersible pumps and
pumping theory as well as his pioneering work on the
design of pumping stations.
The Editor
Table of contents
1. Pump Theory 5 3.2.4. Electric Current Curve 29
1.1. The Head Equation 5 3.2.5. NPSH Curve 29
1.1.1. Flow With Losses or Addition of 5 3.3. Pipe Losses and Rising Main 29
Energy Characteristic Curves
1.1.2. Fluid Flowing From a Container 5 3.3.1. Friction Losses 29
1.2. The Basic Pump Equation 6 3.3.2. Local Losses 30
1.3. Pump Curve and Losses 7 3.3.3. Rising Main Characteristic Curve 31
1.3.1. The Effect of Finite Number of Vanes 7 3.4. Rising Main Size 31
1.3.2. Friction Losses Hf 7 3.4.1. Economy 31
1.3.3. Discontinuity Losses Hs 7 3.4.2. Free Passage for Solids 32
1.3.4. Leakage Losses Hv 8 3.4.3. Avoiding Settling of Solids and Sludge 32
1.3.5. Other Losses 8 3.4.4. Water Hammer 32
1.4. Affinity Laws 8 3.4.5. Avoiding Water Hammer 33
1.4.1. Calculation of Pump Curves for 9 3.5. Pump Operating Point 34
Different Rotational Speeds 3.5.1. Single Pump Operation 34
1.4.2. Maximum and Minimum Allowable 9 3.5.2. Parallel Operation, Identical Pumps 34
Rotational Speed 3.5.3. Parallel Operation, Different Pumps 34
1.5. Cavitation and NPSH 10 3.5.4. Serial Operation 35
1.5.1. Definition of NPSH 11 3.5.5. True Operation Point 35
1.5.2. Reference Plane 11 3.6. Sludge Pumping 35
1.5.3. Required NPSH 11 4. Testing of Pumps 37
1.5.4. Available NPSH 11 4.1. Testing Arrangements 37
2. Pump Construction 13 4.1.1. Production Testing 37
2.1. General 13 4.1.2. Field Testing 38
2.2. Pump 14 4.2. Acceptance Tests 38
2.2.1. Impellers 14 4.2.1. Test Standard Usage 38
2.2.2. Pump Casings and Details 19 4.2.2. ISO Standard 2548 and 3555 39
2.3. Motors 20 4.2.3. ISO Standard 9906 40
2.3.1. General 20 4.2.4. Hydraulic Institute Standard 41
2.3.2. Explosion-proof Motors 20 4.2.5. DIN Standard 1944 41
2.3.3. Motor Cooling 20 5. Pumping Stations 43
2.3.4. Motor Tightness 21 5.1. Pumping Station Basic Design 43
2.3.5. Bearings 23 5.1.1. Wet Well Volume and Surface Area 43
2.4. Pump Connection 24 5.1.2. Pumping Station Inlet Pipe 43
2.5. Construction Materials, Corrosion and 25 5.1.3. Wet Well Floor Shape 44
Wear 5.1.4. Stop Levels 44
2.5.1. Corrosion Resistance 25 5.1.5. Start Levels 45
2.5.2. Wear Resistance 25 5.1.6. Suction Pipe Dimension and Design 45
2.5.3. Abrasive Liquids 25 5.1.7. Pumping Station Internal Pipework 46
3. Pump Performance 27 5.1.8. Flushing Devices 46
3.1. Pump Head 27 5.1.9. Pumping Station Design Examples 47
3.1.1. Submersible Pumps 27 5.2. Pumping Station Construction 48
3.1.2. Dry-installed pumps 27 5.2.1. Submersible Pumps 49
3.2. Pump Performance Curves 28 5.2.2. Dry-Installed Pumps 49
3.2.1. H Curve 28 5.2.3. Package Pumping Stations 50
3.2.2. Efficiency Curves 28 5.2.4. Indoor Pumping Stations 51
3.2.3. Power Curves 28 5.3. Pumping Station Dimension Selection 51

3
5.3.1. Regular Sewage Pumping Stations 51 8. Pumping Station Flow 66
5.3.2. Stormwater Pumping Stations 52 Regulation
5.3.3. Combined Sewage Pumping Stations 52 8.1. Stepped Regulation 66
5.3.4. Pump Selection Based on Pump 52 8.2. Continuous Regulation 66
Curves Symbols 68
5.3.5. Number of Pumps 52 APPENDIX A 69
5.3.6. Pumping Station Capacity in Relation 53 APPENDIX B 73
to Starting Frequency APPENDIX C 79
5.3.7. Economic Aspects of Pump Selection 53 APPENDIX D 81
6. Pump Motors and Starters 54
6.1. Submersible Motor Design 54
6.2. Motor Safety Devices 54
6.2.1. Short-circuit Protection 54
6.2.2. Overload Protection 54
6.2.3. Thermal Protection 54
6.2.4. Moisture Protection 55
6.3. Motor Connection and Starting 55
6.3.1. Motor Connection 55
6.3.2. Motor Starting 55
6.3.3. Direct on Line (DOL) Starting 55
6.3.4. Star (Wye) Delta (Y/D) Starting 56
6.3.5. Soft Start 56
6.4. Pump Starters and Control Panels 57
6.4.1. Contactors 57
6.4.2. Starter Control 57
6.4.3. Control Panel Construction 59
7. Pumping Station Monitoring 60
and Control
7.1. Local Control 60
7.1.1. Manual Control 60
7.1.2. Relay-Based Control Units 60
7.1.3. Programmable Logic Controllers 60
7.2. Pump Control Units 60
7.2.1. Features 61
7.2.2. Pump Condition Monitoring 61
7.2.3. Parameters and Signals 62
7.2.4. Data Logging and Analysis 62
7.2.5. User Interface 62
7.3. Level Sensors and Other Sensors 62
7.3.1. Pressure Transducers 62
7.3.2. Ultrasonic Devices 62
7.3.3. Capacitive Devices 63
7.3.4. Float Switches 63
7.3.5. Other Sensors 63
7.4. Remote Control and Monitoring 64
7.4.1. Software and Hardware 64
7.4.2. Data Transmission 65
7.4.3. Alarm Transfer 65
7.4.4. System Integration 65

4
1. Pump Theory Fig. 1

This section is a primer of fluid pumping theory and

provides the reader with the theoretical background v
1 p
knowledge essential for deeper understanding of the
1
pumping process.

1.1 The Head Equation v Q

2
h
1
Figure 1 shows part of continuous fluid flow in a duct. p
Between the two observation sections 1 and 2 no en- h 2 2
ergy is transferred to or from the fluid and the flow is 2
assumed to be frictionless. Thus the total energy of the T
fluid relative to a horizontal reference plane T at the two
sections must be equal. The total energy comprises
components for potential energy, pressure energy and Return
kinetic energy, and for a fluid particle with a mass m
the energy at the observation sections is as follows: Section showing flow of liquid through two obser-
vation cross sections. T is a reference plane for the
Section 1 2 potential heads h1 and h2 , p1 and p2 are the prevai-
ling pressures and v1 and v 2 the fluid velocities at
Potential En- mgh1 mgh 2 sections 1 and 2.
ergy
Pressure En- p1 p2
ergy mg mg
ρg ρg
1.1.1 Flow With Losses or Addition of Energy
Kinetic En- 1 2 1 2 If there are losses in the flow between section 1 and
ergy mv 1 mv 2
2 2 section 2 in Figure 1, the head equation 1 can be writ-
ten
where ρ is the fluid density and g the acceleration of
gravity. 2 2
p1 v 1 p v
h1 + + = h2 + 2 + 2 + Hr (2)
ρg 2g ρg 2g
For a flow without losses the total energy in section
1 and 2 will be equal, thus

p1 1 2 p 1 2
where Hr is the head loss.
mgh 1 + mg + mv 1 = mgh 2 + mg 2 + mv 2 .
ρg 2 ρg 2
If energy is added to the flow by placing a pump be-
tween section 1 and section 2 in Figure 1, the equation
Dividing both sides of the equation with the term mg it 2 can be written
is obtained

2 2
p1 v 1 p v p 1 v1
2
p v
2
h1 + + = h2 + 2 + 2 (1) h1 + + + H = h2 + 2 + 2 + Hr (3)
ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg 2g

This equation is called Bernoulli's equation after the where H is the pump total head.
engineer who first derived it. The terms of the equation
are expressed as heads, and the terms are conse-
quently called static head, pressure head and kinetic
1.1.2 Fluid Flowing From a Container
head, respectively.
An example of the application of the Bernoulli equation
The equation is essential for fluid mechanics and can
is the calculation of the flow rate of a fluid flowing freely
be used to account for many hydrodynamic phe-
from an open container.
nomena, such as the decrease in pressure that ac-
Figure 2 shows an open container with an outlet ori-
companies a reduction in a flow cross section area. In
fice near the bottom. For practical purposes the area
this case the fluid velocity increases, and for the total
A1 is assumed much larger than the orifice area A 2 ,
head to remain constant and assuming the potential
and the atmospheric pressure p1 in the container is
head remains unchanged, the pressure term or static
equal to that outside the orifice, p2 .
head, must decrease.

5
 Fig. 2 1.2 The Basic Pump Equation
A p The basic pump equation is used to calculate and de-
1 1
sign geometrical shapes and dimensions of centrifugal
pumps. The basic pump equation is also used to de-
duce the pump Q/H curve.
v A pump impeller vane and its associated velocity vec-
1
h tors are shown in Figure 3.

v = true fluid velocity

v w = velocity relative to the vane
2 u = perimeter velocity
T vu = tangential component of true velocity
vm = radial component of true velocity
A2 p = p
2 1 The relative velocity is parallel to the vane at any given
point.

Also vu1 = v1 cosα1 and vu2 = v2 cosα2

Return
Assuming the flow to be without losses and the number
Section of a fluid container with an outlet orifice near of vanes infinite (∞), the familiar basic equation of pump
the bottom. A1 and A2 are the cross section areas of theory can be derived using the laws of mechanics.
the surface and the outlet orifice, h the height differ- This relationship is known as the Euler equation and is
ence between surface and orifice centre line, v1 sur- expressed as:
face recession velocity and v2 liquid outlet velocity
through the orifice. Ambient pressure is constant. 1
H t∞ = (u 2 v u2 − u 1v u1 ) (8)
g
Choosing the centre line of the orifice as the reference
plane T, the term h2 is equal to zero and h1 equal to h.
where the index t refers to a flow without losses and ∞
Because A1 is much larger than A2 , the
2
refers to the assumption of infinite number of vanes e n-
v1 suring complete fluid direction.
kinetic head can be assumed as zero. Thus the
2g In an actual pump neither of these assumptions can
head equation 1 can be written be satisfied, as friction losses are always present, and
the finite number of vanes will not direct the flow entirely
2 in the direction of the vane.
v2
h= (4) The reduction in head caused by losses in the flow is
2g taken into account by the hydraulic efficiency ηh , and
the reduction due to the deviation of the flow from ideal
whence angles is accounted for by a vane coefficient k. With
these modifications, the Euler equation for an actual
v2 = 2gh (5) pump reads as follows:

For volume flow without losses is obtained ηh

H= (ku 2 v u2 − u 1v u1) (9)
g
q1 = A 2 2gh (6)
It can be shown that both ηh and k are less than unity.
They will not be discussed in further detail here.
To accommodate for losses present, a flow coefficient
Centrifugal pumps are normally designed with α1 =
µ is added to equation 6, whence
90 °, whence vu1 = 0.
Thus the basic pump equation is simplified to
q1 = µA 2 2gh (7)
u 2 v u2
H = k ηh (10)
The flow coefficient µ is dependent on the shape of the g
orifice, and can be obtained from text books on the
subject. If the fluid level in the container is allowed to
recede, the level height h will change, which will have to
be accommodated for in calculations.

6
 Fig. 3
u2

v2

v m2
α2

vu 2
β2 w2

w1
β1

d2
v m1 d1
vu1
α1
v1

u1
Return
Pump impeller vane with the velocity triangles at leading and trailing edges. Fluid true velocity v, relative velocity w,
vane perimeter velocity u, liquid true velocity tangential component vu and radial component vm.

1.3 Pump Curve and Losses 1.3.2 Friction Losses Hf

The ideal head obtained from the Euler equation is i n-
dependent of the volume rate of flow Q. If the Q/H t∞
curve is plotted, H t∞ is indicated by a straight line. The
real Q/H curve is derived from this by subtracting the ef-
fects of the finite number of vanes and various other
losses that occur within the pump. Please refer to Fig-
ure 4.
1.3.1 The Effect of Finite Number of Vanes
As noted earlier, a finite number of vanes decreases the
head by the vane factor k. Taking this into account, the
theoretical head Ht is obtained. It can be written:
H t = kH t ∞ (11)
Ht is not perfectly linear because the vane coefficient is
slightly dependent on the volume rate of flow Q. The
head reduction from Ht∞ to Ht is not caused by flow
losses, but by deviation of the fluid from the ideal flow
angles due to the finite number of vanes.
Friction losses occur as the fluid flows through the
passages of the impeller and the pump casing. They
increase approximately with the square of the flow rate
Q.
1.3.3 Discontinuity Losses Hs
Discontinuity losses are generated in the following ar-
eas:
− At the vane leading edge where the fluid hits the
vane tip. The loss is smallest at the pump design
point, where the fluid contacts the vane at the vane
angle β1 . The losses increase with increasing devi a-
tion of the contact angle from the vane angle β1 , see
Figure 5.
− At the vane trailing edge losses occur due to ed-
dies shed by the vane. These increase approxi-
mately with the square of the flow rate.
− In the pump casing at flow rates other than the de-
sign value, when the flow velocity at the casing dif-
fers from that at the impeller perimeter. The effect is
shown in Figure 6. The velocity differences create

7
 turbulence leading to losses, growing with increas-
ing difference of actual flow from design flow.
The effects of the discontinuity losses are shown in
Figure 4.
Fig. 4
H Reduction of flow, Q,
caused by leakage losses, H v
1.3.5 Other Losses
There are further losses in a centrifugal pump, not af-
fecting the Q/H curve, but that will increase the motor
shaft power requirement. These include:
− friction losses at the impeller outside surface
− shaft seal friction losses
− bearing friction losses
For submersible pumps, the last two items are included
in the motor losses.

Effect of finite number of vanes H t Fig. 6

Velocity in casing
Friction losses H r
Ht ∞
HN Ht Discontinuity losses Hs

H Impeller
perimeter
velocity
Q Q
QN
Resulting Losses
Return Return
True pump Q/H curve (H) reduction from theoretical Effect of the difference of velocities in the pump
pump head Htì by subtracting losses. casing and at the impeller perimeter. Pump casing
dimensions are designed to accommodate nominal
flow at the perimeter speed, leading to losses at
other flow rates.
Fig. 5
losses w1
v1
Q > QN 1.4 Affinity Laws
Q = QN
The affinity laws describe the interdependence of the
Q < QN w1 Q/H and P (Power) curves and the speed of rotation,
provided the efficiency remains unchanged, a fact that
v1 can be readily assumed in practice. Usually the de-
w"1 crease of speed of rotation of as much as 50%, will
v"1 have only marginal effect on efficiency.
β1 Figure 7 shows the velocities u2 , v 2 and w2 at the pe-
rimeter of the impeller at the Q/H point A (Figure 8) and
u1 at the rotational speed n. At a lower rotational speed n'
the corresponding velocities are u 2 ', v2 ' and w 2 ', which
are parallel to the original velocity vectors. It is known
Return that the flow rate Q is directly related to the flow veloc-
Vane leading edge relative velocities (w) and losses ity at an unchanged section. Hence
at various flow rates. Minimum losses occur at the
pump nominal flow when the fluid angle of attack is ′
equal to the vane leading edge angle β1 . Q ′ v2 m
= (12)
Q v 2m

1.3.4 Leakage Losses Hv From the equation of perimeter velocity and uniform
triangles it is deduced
Leakage losses occur at the clearance between impel-
ler and pump casing. Even if the clearance is kept as
′  n′ v ′ 
small as possible, a small backflow passes from the n′ v 2 m 
= = u2  (13)
high pressure area at the impeller rim to the low pres- n v2 m n v u 2 
sure area of the impeller eye. Thus the flow through the 
impeller is slightly larger than the flow out of the pump combining 12 and 13 it is obtained
casing, and the pump head is met with a reduced flow,
the difference being the leakage loss Hv. The effect of Q′ n′ n′
= Q′ = Q (14)
the leakage loss is shown in Figure 4. As the pump Q n n
wears out, this loss will increase the most.

8
The basic pump equation is Fig. 8

u 2 v u2
H = k ηh (10)
g η Characteristic Curve of Pipe

H
When the rotational speed changes, the velocities u2
P Affinity Parabola
and v2 change in direct relation. Thus the head H is T
H A
2 2
H′  n′   n′  T’
=  H ′ = H  (15) H
H n n H’ A’
H’
C’
η η
The power equation is C η

gρQH
P= (16) B P
η P
P’
P’
B’
Q is directly related and H related to the square of rota-
tional speed. Hence the power P is related to the cube 0
of the rotational speed Q’ Q Q
Return
3 3 Pump characteristic curves at two rates of rotational
P ′  n′   n′
=  P ′ = P  (17) speed. At the operating point A the flow is Q, head
P n  n
H, power P (B on the power curve) and efficiency η
(C on the efficiency curve). For other rotational
For all practical purposes speeds these variables are calculated with the affin-
ity laws.
η′ = η (18)

The equations 14, 15, 17 and 18 constitute the Affinity head, power and efficiency are Q, H, P (point B) and η
Laws for centrifugal pumps. (point C), respectively.
According to the affinity laws, at a lower rotational
speed n' the point A moves to A' and point B to B' . If
Fig. 7 the rotational speed is still reduced, the point A will
approach the origin O along the affinity parabola. The
v2 vm2 w2 efficiency η is assumed to remain constant through the
analysis.
v’2 v’m2 w’2 By transforming a number of points on the curves for
rotational speed n, complete curves for H', P' and η',
α2 β2 corresponding to the new rotational speed, n' can be
plotted. In Figure 8 also the characteristic curve of the
u2 u’2 vu2 v’u2 piping is plotted, from which the shift of the operating
point T at the rotational speed n to point T ' at the speed
n' can be calculated. (This procedure is discussed in
more detail in Chapter 3 of this book).
The affinity laws are applied when the pump curves
Return for submersible pumps controlled by frequency convert-
ers are calculated. In this case the rotational speed can
Velocity triangles at vane trailing edge at different
be substituted with the values for frequencies in the
rotational speeds. With unchanged efficiency the
equations. The maximum and minimum speed allowed
vector directions are constant.
for each pump set the limits for the extension of these
curves.

1.4.1 Calculation of Pump Curves for Differ-
ent Rotational Speeds
Figure 8 shows a point A on the characteristic curve
at rotational speed n. At point A the values for flow,
1.4.2 Maximum and Minimum Allowable Rota-
tional speed.
Operation of a pump may need to be restricted at very
small flows due to pump vibration or at large flows due
to the risk of cavitation. The restriction limits typically
follow the paths as presented in Figure 9. The vibration

9
limit is an affinity parabola whereas the cavitation limit
is parabolic for n < nN and vertical for n > nN.
If a pump is considered for operation at rotational
speeds higher than nominal (n > n N), the following fac-
tors must be taken into account:
− Increased pump power requirement on the motor. In
addition, the modulated shape of the alternating cur-
rent from frequency converters may reduce motor
efficiency and further increase the power require-
ment.
− Pump mechanical durability. Pump shaft and bear-
ings will be subject to increased load from larger hy-
drodynamic forces.
− Risk of cavitation. The limit for cavitation will rise
sharply with increasing pump speed.
Fig. 9
H
Vibration Zone
nN
Cavitation
Zone
Affinity
Parabola
Q
Return
Pump operation restriction zones for vibration and
cavitation. For various rotational speeds, the vibra-
tion limit follows the affinity parabola, whereas the
cavitation area limit is parabolic for n < nN and verti-
cal for n > nN.
The pump manufacturer should always be consulted
when pumps are considered for speeds larger than
nominal.
If a pump is considered for operation at rotational
speeds lower than nominal (n < nN), the following fac-
tors must be taken into account:
− Operating point should stay outside the vibration
area.
− Fluid velocity should remain high enough to carry
impurities safely out of the pump and to prevent
sedimentation in the pressure pipe.
1.5. Cavitation and NPSH
Cavitation is caused by the formation and collapse of
vapour bubbles in a liquid. Vapour bubbles form when
the local static pressure in a flowing liquid decreases to
or below the liquid vapour pressure at ambient tempera-
ture. When the bubble, or void, moves with the flow to
an area with a higher pressure, it will rapidly collapse.
10
The implosion causes a transitory, extremely high local
shock wave in the fluid. If the implosion takes place
near a surface, the pressure shock will, if occurring
repeatedly, eventually erode the surface material.
The cavitation phenomenon will typically occur in
centrifugal pumps at a location close to the impeller
vane leading edge, see Figure 10. Cavitation also low-
ers the pump Q/H curve and efficiency. A cavi tating
pump emits a typical rattling noise, like sand being
pumped through the pump. No pump material will
completely withstand cavitation, so care should be ex-
ercised if the pump operating conditions present a risk
of cavitation.
A submersible pump, pumping cold water from an
open container, is unlikely to cavitate if the operating
point is chosen on the allowed section of the Q/H
curve.
Submersible pumps may cavitate in any of the fol-
lowing rare cases:
− Pump inlet is blocked, possibly causing the pres-
sure to fall below vapour saturation pressure behind
the inlet.
− Pumped liquid is other than water, with low vapour
pressure (e.g. Ammonia)
− Vacuum in container.
If the submersible pump is installed dry with a suction
pipe, the installation must be checked for cavitation. In
these cases the concept of NPSH is used.
Fig. 10
β1
v1 ( Q > QN )
Return
Pumped fluid hitting the vane leading edge at an an-
gle different than the vane angle. Eddies and low
pressure zones will form on the other side of the
vane. If the pressure falls below the vapour pressure,
vapour bubbles will form. Moving entrained in the
flow to an area with higher pressure, they will even-
tually implode. The consequent high pressure impact
may lead to pitting and erosion of the adjacent struc-
ture.
 Fig. 11

p min
ρg
HORIZONTAL PUMP VERTICAL PUMP
Hrt

∆h
Minimum Pressure
NPSH v o2
required 2g A
p
b
ρg h
A Reference Plane
A

ht

pb

Dimensions and reference pressures for NPSH calculations. Return

1.5.1 Definition of NPSH through the centre point of the circle described by the
NPSH is the acronym for Net Positive Suction Head. tip of the vane leading edge. For horizontal pumps the
The following pressure heads are used for the calcu- reference plane coincides with the shaft centre line. For
lation of NPSH: vertical pumps the location of the reference plane is
stated by the pump manufacturer.
ht = inlet geodetic head
hA = height difference between reference plane 1.5.3 Required NPSH
and tip of vane leading edge. The required NPSH is obtained from the following equa-
tion:
Hrt = flow losses in inlet pipe
2
v0 2
= pressure drop caused by inlet velocity v0
2g NPSHrequired = h A + + ∆h (19)
2g
∆h = local pressure drop at vane leading edge
pb = ambient pressure at liquid level International testing standards provide rules for the
pmin = minimum static pressure in pump measurement of this value. It can be presented as a
pv = liquid vapour pressure at prevailing function of flow as shown in Figure 13. It is independent
temperature of temperature and type of liquid being pumped. The
pump manufacturer is required to state this value.
The pressure heads are shown in Figure 11.
In order to avoid cavitation, the minimum static pres- 1.5.4 Available NPSH
sure in the pump (pmin) must be larger than the liquid The available NPSH indicates the pressure available for
vapour pressure, or the pump suction under the prevailing conditions.

pmin > pv pb p
NPSH available = − H rt − h t − v (20)
ρg ρg
Figure 12 shows the principle of static liquid pressure
distribution in inlet pipe, pump and pressure pipe of a
The term ht is positive when the reference plane is
dry pump installation.
above the liquid surface and negative if below it. Avail-
able NPSH is determined by the pumping station de-
1.5.2 Reference Plane signer. In order to avoid cavitation,
The reference plane is the plane on which the NPSH
calculations are performed. It is the horizontal plane NPSHavailable > NPSHrequired

11
 Fig. 12

Liquid static pressure

p
b ht

ht

pb
ρg

Lowest pressure in pump

Vapour pressure

p
min p
ρg v Absolute 0 pressure
ρg

Return
Pressure variation in a dry pump installation. Distribution of static liquid pressure in inlet pipe, pump and pressure
pipe.

The available NPSH must exceed the required NPSH

by a sufficiently large margin, to allow for variations in a Fig. 13
situation where the real conditions may differ from
those theoretically calculated. The suction pipe flow NPSH required
losses may be inaccurately estimated and actual pump
operation point may differ from the theoretical because (m)
of variations in the Q/H curve and inexact pressure pipe
resistance calculations. The required NPSH may also
be affected by the inlet pipe shape.
Centrifugal pump impellers with a small number of
vanes are prone to cavitation earlier than the theoretical
calculation would indicate. The safety margin between
NPSHavailable and NPSHrequired should be considered
on a case by case basis, but it may typically be 1...2,5
QN Q
m, depending on the prevailing operation and installa-
tion conditions, such as point of operation and suction
inlet design. Especially vertically installed dry pumps Return
require that attention is paid to the inlet pipework de- Typical variation of required NPSH with pump flow
sign, and that the safety margin is taken sufficiently rate.
large.

12

2. Pump Construction
This section describes the construction of modern elec-
tric submersible pumps. Various designs and the main
parts of the pumps are discussed as well as topics
concerning pump operation and maintenance. The
study is limited to pumps for municipal sewage, drain-
age and raw water.
2.1 General
The submersible pump is a unit combining a pump and
an electrical motor to an enclosed unit, suitable for
submersible installation in a wet well holding the liquid
to be pumped. The submersible pump may be con-
nected to the pressure piping with a special baseplate
connection at the bottom of the wet well for ease of
installation and removal, or it can be installed con-
nected with a flexible hose or other arrangements with
riser pipes. Power to the unit is fed through one or more
flexible cables, supplied with the pump in lengths suit-
able for the installation.
Many submersible pumps can also be installed dry
like conventional pumps. This type of installation en-
sures uninterrupted operation of the installation in case
of flooding of the dry well.
Fig.14
Return
Section of a SARLIN 3 kW submersible pump
showing details of motor and pump. The pump is
fitted with a guide shoe for use with a submerged
baseplate in the wet well, facilitating easy pump i n-
stallation and removal.
Submersible pumps are available for a number of appli-
cations with different requirements, and different de-
13
signs for various special applications have been de-
vised.
Since submersible pumps find most of their applica-
tions in duties other than continuous processes, they
are designed to allow for intermittent operation, with
relatively few yearly running hours but with frequent
starts and stops. Thus a submersible pump installed as
one of two duty and standby pumps in a sewage
pumping station may run for typically 200... 500 hours
a year but with up to 200...400 starts and stops per
day. Pumps in continuous duty may, on the other
hand, log over 8000 running hours per year, making it
necessary to closely follow the manufacturer's recom-
mendations for service and maintenance in order to
secure trouble-free operation.
Fig. 15
Return
Section of a SARLIN 17 kW submersible pump
showing details of motor and pump. The pump is
fitted with a guide shoe for use with a submerged
baseplate in the wet well, facilitating easy pump i n-
stallation and removal. The pump casing is adjust-
able with set screws for maintenance of impeller
suction clearance.
A submersible pump comprises a waterproof motor and
matching pump components. The pump components
include the impeller, the pump casing and the required
connection parts for different installation alternatives.
These include a guide shoe for submersible installation
onto a matching connecting baseplate, a stand for
portable pumps and the necessary connection flanges
and stand for dry-installed pumps.
The motor is a dry squirrel-cage electric motor
matching a range of pump parts for various duties. Mo-
tor and pump have a common shaft with the bearings
and shaft seals housed in the motor. The motor also
includes watertight cable inlets and a handle for lifting
the unit.
Figure 14 shows a modern small submersible sewage
pump and Figure 15 a medium-sized submersible
sewage pump. Submersible pumps are available with
motors rated from under 1 to over 600 kW for duties
ranging from light portable use to large city sewerage
system main pumping installations. A submersible
pump for dry installation is shown in Figure 16.
Fig. 16
Return
Section andoutline of a SARLIN 160 kW submersible
pump. The pump is intended for horizontal dry instal-
lation and connects with integral flange joints to both
suction and pressure pipework. The submersible de-
sign permits flooding of the installation without risk of
damage to the pump.
2.2 Pump
The pump comprises the impeller and the pump casing
as well as ancillary devices and fittings.
2.2.1 Impellers
Submersible pumps are fitted with different impeller
designs depending on intended use. The various impel-
lers can be classified as
− Impellers for sewage pumps
− Impellers for dewatering pumps
− Impellers for raw and clean water
− Propellers for axial pumps
Impellers can also be classified according to con-
struction as closed, semi-open or open impellers.
These are shown in Figure 18. Semi-open impellers and
open impellers rely on the close clearance between
impeller and pump casing (abt. 0,5 mm) for their func-
tion. The efficiency of these impellers is very sensitive
to wear and will decrease rapidly as the clearance i n-
creases. The open impeller is also susceptible to i m-
purities becoming jammed between impeller and suc-
tion plate, slowing down or completely stopping the
pump.
14
Impellers for Sewage Pumps
In order to avoid pump blockage, or clogging, special
impellers have been developed for sewage pumping.
These include single-channel impellers, double-channel
impellers and vortex impellers. The design principles of
these are shown in Figure 20. For very large sewage
pumps, impellers with a multitude of vanes may also be
used.
Free passage
The concept of free passage is of special relevance to
sewage pumps. It refers to the ability of the pump to let
solids in the pumped liquid pass through. The dimen-
sion of the free passage usually refers to the largest
spherical object that may pass through the impeller and
the casing openings. The dimension is normally given
in millimeters, but also other units may be used.
The ability of a pump to operate without clogging r e-
lates strongly to the free passage, as can be seen in
the diagram in Figure 17. Normally a free passage of 80
mm will be sufficient for unscreened sewage in small
and medium-sized pumps. In larger pumps (flow > 100
l/s) the minimum free passage should be at least 100
mm.
Fig. 17
Clogging probability
40 60 80 100 120
Return Free passage (sphere) [mm]
A diagram showing the relation between probability
of clogging and pump free passage. Good safety
against clogging is achieved with 80 mm free pas-
sage.
Single-channel impellers
A single-channel impeller is shown in Figure 19. The
single vane is designed as long as possible for best
efficiency within the limits set by the requirement of free
passage. The impeller having only one route of passage
for the pumped liquid ensures good inherent character-
istics against clogging. The asymmetric shape requires
the impeller to include integral counterweights for bal-
ance. The single-channel impeller is the standard
choice for small to medium-size sewage pumps. The
design has acceptable to good pumping efficiency.
 Fig. 18

s
s s

a b c
closed semi-open open
Return
Different impeller designs. The closed impeller has integral shrouds on both sides of the vanes, whereas the semi-
open impeller incorporates only one shroud on the back side. An open impeller consists of only a hub and vanes,
relying on close clearances (s) to the pump casing for its function.

Double-channel impellers
A double-channel impeller is shown in Figure 21. A l-
though not as inherently safe against clogging as single Fig. 19
channel impellers, a well-designed double-channel i m-
peller will have good characteristics against clogging.
The risk of clogging will increase if the pumped medium
contains long fibers, that may enter both impeller chan-
nels and become stuck in these. Double-channel impel-
lers offer good pumping efficiency, and are the choice
for most larger pumps.

Vortex impellers.
The principle of the vortex impeller is to induce a strong
vortex in the open pump casing. The pumping action of
the vortex pump is therefore indirect, with the impeller
being situated outside the main liquid flow. Vortex i m-
peller pumps have inherently excellent properties
against clogging and a number of other benefits, such
as good resistance against wear and good balance.
The use of small vortex impeller pumps for sewage is
increasing largely due to improved design and efficiency
Return
in later years. Good properties against wear makes it A SARLIN S-1 single-channel impeller for sewage
possible to use vortex pumps as sand separation use. The impeller is semi-axial in design with one
pumps in sewage treatment plants. A vortex impeller is long continuous vane, ensuring good properties
shown in Figure 22. against clogging. The asymmetric design requires
the casting to include counterweight masses to facili-
The diagram in Figure 23 shows the choice of impeller tate static and dynamic balancing of the impeller.
type as function of pump size.

15
Fig. 20

winglets

Single-channel Double-channel Vortex

Return
Different impeller types for sewage pumps. Single-channel and double-channel impellers are centrifugal pump i m-
pellers for sewage use. In the vortex pump the pumped medium does not pass through the impeller but is pumped
by the dynamic vortex in the pump housing, induced by the impeller.

Fig. 21 Impellers for dewatering pumps

Dewatering pumps for site drainage should be light-
weight for ease of transportation and deployment. The
pumps must be able to withstand wear, since site
drainage or floodwater may contain sand or silt. Dewa-
tering pumps are normally constructed with integral
suction strainers, and the solids passing capacity may
therefore be less than for sewage pumps.
Both closed and semi-open multi-channel centrifugal
impellers as well as vortex impellers are being used.
The use of wear-resistant or hardened impellers in
combination with pump casings lined with rubber is
common in dewatering pumps. Vortex pumps also offer
good wear resistance for most duties.

Impeller auxiliary vanes

Return
A SARLIN S-2 double-channel impeller. Good prop-
erties against clogging are achieved with recessed
vane leading edges and a semi-axial design. The
symmetric design is inherently in balance.
Auxiliary vanes on the outside of the shrouds are an
important feature of sewage pump impellers. The auxil-
iary vanes increase the velocity of the flow of fluid in the
space between the impeller and the pump casing. Fig-
ure 24 shows the location of auxiliary vanes on a sin-
gle-channel semi-axial pump impeller.
Auxiliary vanes assist the pump operation by per-
forming the following functions:

16
− Decrease axial loads on bearings, particularly if Fig. 22
semi-axial impellers are being used
− Reduce impeller and casing wear at the suction
clearance
− Prevent the wedging of fibers in the suction clear-
ance
− Prevent fibers and rags from wrapping around the
pump shaft behind the impeller.
The use of auxiliary vanes extending to the shroud pe-
rimeter is not possible on very large impellers, since at
high flow rates they could cause a pressure drop below
the vapor pressure of the liquid, leading to cavitation.
Large pumps are, however, less prone to jamming be-
cause of high motor torque. Auxiliary vanes are there-
fore not included on the inlet side of large impellers

Suction clearance. Return

The clearance between the impeller and the pump
casing should be as small as possible in order to re-
duce leakage losses. The suction clearance is in the
order of 0,5...1,0 mm for most centrifugal pumps. The
clearance can be designed cylindrical or axial as
shown in Figures 25 and 26.
A SARLIN Supervortex impeller. The design includes
patented vane winglets. The winglets prevent the
formation of secondary eddies over the vane edges,
greatly improving pump efficiency.

Fig. 23

60
Head
H [m]
50
Three-channel
impeller
40
Double-channel
impeller
30
Single-channel Four-channel
impeller impeller
20
Vortex
impeller
10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 100 150 200 300 400 500 1000 1500 2000
Flow Q [l/s]
Return
A diagram showing the usage of impellers in sewage pumps of different size using pump efficiency and reliability
as selection criteria. At small flows the properties against clogging will be a premium, hence vortex pumps will be
used, whereas pump efficiency will be important in larger pumps. Likewise, single-channel impellers are preferred
over double-channel impellers in medium-sized pumps. In very large multichannel impellers the properties against
clogging are ensured with good design and size.

Pump performance and efficiency over time are de-
pendent on the suction clearance being kept within
specified limits. If the suction clearance widens to 2...3
mm for impellers without auxiliary vanes and to 4...5
mm for impellers with auxiliary vanes, it is necessary to
restore the clearance in order to retain pump perform-
ance. If the suction clearance is made adjustable, this
procedure is easily done by service technicians in the
field, whereas a pump with fixed impeller suction clear-
ance will have to be brought to the shop for overhaul, or
worse, scrapped for high costs of spare parts and work.
In pumps with adjustable axial suction clearance
performance can always be guaranteed by checking
and adjusting the suction clearance during routine

17
maintenance. Figure 15 shows a submersible pump Fig. 25
design, where the suction clearance is adjusted with
the help of three set screws.

Fig. 24

Auxiliary
vanes

S
S Return
Cylindrical suction clearance. The design is suscep-
tible to jamming, since fibers that get wedged in the
p’S space between impeller and casing may accumulate
and drag down the pump. In case of wear a wear ring
or the entire suction cover will have to be changed or
pS
re-machined.

Fig. 26
Pressure distribution
with auxiliary vanes

Pressure distribution
without auxiliary vanes

Return
Cross section of a SARLIN S-1 impeller showing S
auxiliary vanes. The effect of the auxiliary vanes on
the suction shroud is a lowered pressure difference
p's over the suction clearance. With less back-flow
the suction clearance will last longer and the risk of
jamming is reduced.

Macerating pumps
Macerating pumps are used for sewage pumping in very
Return
small applications, where piping dimension is kept
small for cost reasons. The pump includes a macerator Axial suction clearance. This improved SARLIN de-
located at the pump intake immediately prior to the sign is less prone to jamming, since drag forces will
impeller, which shreds the solids into particles so small remove wedged material towards the pump suction.
that they can pass through the impeller and pipework. The clearance can be made adjustable for ease of
The performance of macerator pumps deteriorates rap- maintenance and wear compensation.
idly with wear, and they are therefore not suitable for
use with effluents with heavy sand content. Figure 27
shows a macerating pump.

18
 Fig. 27

Return
A SARLIN macerating pump for small flows and high heads. The macerating unit consists of a rotating cutter and a
scalloped stationary ring, mounted outside the pump intake. Solids and fibers are shredded against the sharp
edges of the cutting elements. The macerating unit is made of hardened stainless steel.

2.2.2 Pump Casing and Details the impeller screw. The pump manufacturer issues cor-
Pump casings for submersible pumps are normally d e- rect tightening torque information and possible recom-
signed with volute-shaped flow compartments but also mendation of screw lubricant in each case.
circular shapes may be used. The difference is shown
in Figure 28. Fig. 28
Cross section of the flow passage of a volute-shaped
casing increases almost linearly. The design offers high
efficiency at the optimal point of operation. The cross
section of the flow passage of a circular pump casing is Circular
initially larger than it is in a volute-shaped casing. The casing
resulting more evenly distributed pressure around the
impeller reduces the hydrodynamic radial forces on the
shaft and bearings by 20...50%, resulting in the pump Volute
running quieter. casing
The effect of pump casing design on pump efficiency
is shown in Figure 29.

Impeller attachment
The attachment of the impeller onto the shaft must be
both reliable and easy to dismantle. Removal is neces-
sary for shaft seal maintenance, and for impeller re-
placement if the pump is used for pumping abrasive
materials. The impeller may have either a cylindrical or
tapered fit onto the shaft end.
A shaft joint tapered to an angle of 5...7° is easy to
dismantle. The tapered joint is additionally tightened
with an end nut or screw, which eliminates the risk of
Return
damage to the joint surfaces due to looseness. Different types of pump casings. The cross-section
The joint is normally keyed for a safe transmission of of the volute casing increases linearly towards the
torque, even if tapered joints are tightened to be able to casing outlet. Circular casings are frequently used in
transmit the torque by friction. The use of a key elimi- torque flow pumps for high heads.
nates the risk of joints working loose even if the impel-
ler nut or screw is not tightened exactly to specified
torque.
Solid impeller mounting is a key component in pump
operational reliability, and great care should always be
exercised when the impeller is dismantled. It is good
practice to always use a torque wrench when setting

19
 Fig. 29
η joint design and manufacturing tolerances, motor inte-
Volute
Casing
Circular
Casing
QN Q tors.
Return
Effect of pump casing shape on pump efficiency
curve. The volute casing offers higher peak effi-
ciency, whereas the circular casing offers a flatter
efficiency curve with a broader operation range at
good efficiency.
2.3 Motors
2.3.1 General
Submersible pump motors are squirrel-cage electric
motors wound for regular three-phase or single-phase
alternating current supply. Single-phase pump motors
are available only for small pumps (2 kW or less). Mo-
tors are available for 50 or 60 Hz supply and a number
of voltages. The motors are built for submersible opera-
tion, Class IP 68 according to IEC. The electrical fea-
tures of submersible motors are described in detail in
chapter 6 of this book.
The submersible pump is a fixed combination of a
motor and a pump with a common shaft and bearings.
The motor is short-coupled to the pump, and some of
the pump parts, such as the volute cover may be inte-
gral with the motor attachment flange. For best results
the pump and motor are designed together, with one
motor frame fitting a range of pump parts for different
duties and different operational ranges by the same
manufacturer. Motor and pump sections are selected
and designed so as to exclude overloading at any duty
point on the pump curve.
2.3.2 Explosion-proof motors
Submersible pumps are available in explosion-proof
versions for use in environments where the pumped
liquid or ambient atmosphere may contain explosive
gases. This condition may exist, for example, at or
near petrochemical works but a space can also be d e-
fined as explosive elsewhere, if deemed necessary for
safety reasons.
An explosion-proof motor is designed and built ac-
cording to the rules set forth by international governing
20
bodies (for example, Euronorm 50014 and 50018). The
requirements are detailed, involving among others the
selection and gauge of construction materials, casing
rior volume utilization as well as the structure and
strength of fasteners and shaft seals. Certification and
approval of a design is always subject to extensive
tests, where the actual ability to withstand internal ex-
plosions, is determined.
Usually explosion-proof motors are based on the
regular designs of a manufacturer, and form a com-
plement to these. The power characteristics are nor-
mally not altered, and the pump parts are common for
both. The structural requirements on explosion-proof
motors make these more expensive than regular mo-
2.3.3 Motor cooling
Mechanical and electric losses in the motor are con-
verted to heat, which must be dissipated. In a regular
submersible pump motor (see Figure 14) the heat is
transferred from the stator casing to the liquid through
submersion. For cooling purposes it is normally suffi-
cient if the motor is submerged to about half of the mo-
tor depth. The liquid level may be pumped down all the
way for short periods without risk of overheating the
motor.
A motor operating in water this way is in fact very ef-
ficiently cooled, since cooling continues after the motor
has stopped. Thus it is possible to allow frequent starts
and stops of submersible motors, which is beneficial for
the design of pumping installations. It is common to
dimension the motor with an ambient temperature of 40
°C of the pumped liquid. The use of motor components
with high temperature ratings allows high power rating
of the motors.
Submersible Motor Cooling in Dry Installations
Many submersible motors are installed dry for various
reasons. Adequate cooling of these motors must be
ensured, and it can be arranged in a number of ways:
With a cooling water jacket that encases the mo-
tor or parts thereof. Part of the pumped liquid is diverted
through channels from the pump casing and circulated
in the cooling jacket. The water enters the space be-
hind the impeller through the back shroud clearance
and is pumped by the auxiliary vanes on the back of
the shroud around the motor stator housing inside the
jacket. Excess heat is conveyed to the cooling water
through convection, ensuring efficient cooling. The
principle is shown in Figure 30. A cooling jacket is of-
ten optional on small and medium-sized pumps for dry
installations, whereas very large pumps are often
equipped with a cooling jacket as standard regardless
of installation method.
In some cases, where the liquid being pumped is
unsuitable for circulation in the water jacket, external
cooling water may be used. In these cases the pump is
modified with external water connections in the jacket
and by plugging the entrance channels from the pump
casing. A safety circuit including temperature monitors
is necessary to protect the pump from overheating due
to disruption of the external cooling water supply.
Fig. 30
Return
A dry-installed SARLIN submersible pump with mo-
tor cooling jacket. Part of the pumped liquid is circu-
lated in the cooling jacket by the pumping action of
the impeller back shroud auxiliary vanes. Efficient
cooling is provided by heat convection from the sta-
tor through dissipation into the pumped liquid.
With cooling fins on the outside of the stator housing.
Cooling fins increase the heat dissipating area of the
motor, but need the forced draft from a fan to work ef-
fectively. The difficulties of providing a fan, especially in
flood-proof installations, reduce the benefits of cooling
fins, and modern submersible motors are normally de-
signed without them.
With thick stator housing walls. This design, suitable
for small submersible pumps, employs a thickened
stator housing that conveys the heat from the stator to
the pumped liquid. In this construction the stator hous-
ing flange may contact the pumped liquid directly or
through the oil housing cover flange. The flange can be
shaped with a recess or channel for good contact with
the liquid. The stator casing may also be made of alu-
minium in dry-installed pumps to further enhance heat
dissipation. Figure 31 shows the construction.
For dry-installed pumps only a cooling water jacket
offers equal or even superior motor cooling to submer-
21
gence. Other motors may have to be downrated for dry
installations, limiting the selection of pump components
from the matching range.
Fig. 31
Return
A SARLIN submersible pump suitable for dry or
submerged installation. The thick-walled lower sec-
tion of the motor serves as a heat conduit to the
pumped liquid. The stator casing may be made of
aluminium to further enhance the effect.
2.3.4 Motor tightness
Water intrusion in the motor leads invariably to dam-
age, or, if detected by safety devices, at least to pump
outage. The chief requirement and design consideration
of submersible pump motors is therefore complete i n-
tegrity against leakage. Motor tightness is ensured with
good design and continuous quality control during
manufacturing.
All submersible motor joints are machined to fit, and
O-rings are used throughout. The O-rings are renewed
each time a joint is opened for service to ensure tight-
ness.
The electrical cable inlet to the motor must be relia-
bly watertight. A good design uses compressible rubber
grommets that match both cable and the inlet recess.
The grommet is compressed to prescribed tightness by
the shape of the matching parts when assembled. A
cable clamp external to the sealing carries all outside
tensile loads on the cable, preventing pulling at the
seal.
The possibility of water intrusion through the cable is
a reality. If the cable free end is allowed to be sub-
merged, water may travel by capillary action between
the copper strands of the leads to the motor. This ac-
tion is enhanced by the temperature changes of the
motor, and water may this way enter an otherwise un-
damaged motor. The condition can arise in new pumps
that have been stored outdoors prior to installation with
the cable free end unprotected.
Most pump manufacturers deliver their pumps with
protecting sleeves on the cable free ends. Warning l a-
bels are attached to warn the storage and installation
personnel of the risk of submerging the cable free end.
For dewatering pumps that frequently are shifted
from one place to another, methods for cable internal
sealing with resins have been devised. If the original
cable is replaced this feature is usually lost.
Shaft seals
The shaft seal, providing safety against leakage of the
pumped liquid into the motor, is one of the most impor-
tant elements in a submersible pump.
Modern submersible pumps almost exclusively use a
shaft sealing arrangement with double mechanical
seals separated by an oil-filled chamber. The arrange-
ment, developed and refined over the years, provides
adequate protection against leakage and motor damage
in most cases.
Fig. 32
Return
A SARLIN double mechanical seal with fully inde-
pendent primary and secondary seals. Lapped slip
rings of silicon carbide provide wear-resistant contact
surfaces for long service.
Figure 32 shows a mechanical seal arrangement used
in submersible pumps. There is a lower or primary seal
and an upper or secondary seal. The seals, being sepa-
rated by an oil bath, operate under different conditions.
This is reflected in their construction with different m a-
terials and spring systems. Both seals comprise two
contacting slip rings, one stationary and one rotating
with the shaft. The rings are pressed against each other
22
by spring force and, for the primary seal, in addition by
the pump pressure.
Sealing between the slip rings is based on the ex-
tremely smooth and flat contact surfaces of the slip
rings. The surfaces are in such close contact that no or
only a very minute leakage can pass between them.
The flatness and smoothness of the rings are in the
magnitude of 0,0005 mm and the faces are finished by
lapping. The slip rings seal against the stationary seat
or shaft with O-rings, permitting slight movement
caused by wear. The material of the O-rings is selected
to withstand high temperature and the corrosive and
dissolving action of the seal oil and the impurities in the
pumped liquid.
Notches in the stationary slip rings secure them in
the seat against turning. The rotating rings are locked
to the shaft similarly with spring cams or drive pins.
Spring clips or washers keep the stationary rings in
their seats during abnormal pressure situations.
The material of the primary seal faces is normally
hard, because of the abrasive action of the pumped
liquid. The material used today is silicon carbide (SiC),
which has a hardness around 2000 on the Vickers
scale and ranks next to the diamond. The silicon car-
bide rings can be either solid or converted. Converted
carbide rings are sintered to SiC to a depth of approxi-
mately 1 mm, leaving the ring interior unchanged. SiC
also has very good resistance against corrosion, and
can be used in all wastewater and dewatering applica-
tions.
If the secondary seal is oil lubricated, a combination
of materials may be used. A stationary ring of a softer
material with good friction properties in combination
with a hard rotating ring provides for low seal rotation
resistance. The oil lubrication protects the seal against
wear. Frequently, though, also the secondary seal uses
SiC for both slip rings because of the superior proper-
ties of the material.
Modern submersible pumps utilize mechanical seals
custom-designed for the purpose. Good designs have
been developed by most major manufacturers. A pro-
prietary design combining primary and secondary seal
is shown in Figure 33.
All mechanical seals used in submersible pumps
must allow rotation in either direction, since pumps
frequently get started in the wrong direction or may be
turned backwards by back-flowing water in installations
without check valves.
All submersible pumps with double mechanical seals
have an oil space between the seals. The oil serves the
following functions vital to the function of the seals and
the pump:
− Seal lubrication, especially of the secondary seal
− Seal cooling
− Emulsification of possible leakage water, thus ren-
dering it less harmful
− Seal condition monitoring. By checking the seal oil
during maintenance, the rate of seal leakage can be
estimated.
 The flat surfaces of the slip rings may not retain a
liquid film between surfaces at all times. Direct contact
between the materials is normal, and must be reflected
by the choice of surface material
Overfilling of the seal oil chamber should be avoided
in order for the oil to be able to absorb leakage water by
emulsification and to prevent possible overpressure due
to thermal expansion of the oil.
In special applications, where the pumped liquid con-
tains very fine materials, the primary seal may open
due to material build-up on the slip ring faces. In these
cases it may be warranted to arrange for continuous
external flushing of the seal. These installations are
always considered separately for each case by manu-
facturer and customer.
Fig. 33
Return
A SARLIN double mechanical seal with interdepend-
ent primary and secondary seal. The seals are pre-
loaded with a common spring system, protected i n-
side the seal oil chamber. Lapped seal slip rings of
silicon carbide are used throughout.
2.3.5 Bearings
Bearing loads
The submersible pump bearings carry the combined
load of the pump and motor as exerted on the common
shaft. The following forces act on the bearings, either
radially or axially:
− Hydrodynamic radial force
− Hydrodynamic axial force
− Magnetic radial force
− The weight of the rotating parts
The significant forces acting on the bearings are the
hydrodynamic forces.
The hydrodynamic radial force is the resultant of the
pressure distribution at the impeller perimeter in various
relative positions to the pump casing. The radial force is
dependent on a number of design factors as well as on
23
the pump operating point. Volute and circular pump
casings have different radial hydrodynamic force char-
acteristics.
The hydrodynamic axial force is the resultant of the
forces induced by the impeller diverting the flow from
axial suction to radial discharge, and from the pressure
difference between suction and pressure side of the
impeller. The axial force is also strongly related to the
pump flow and operating point. Figure 34 illustrates the
relation between radial and axial forces and the pump
operating point or flow ratio.
Fig. 34
F
r
Fa
F
r
3
1
Fa
Q Q
N
1 Radial force F r volute casing
2 Radial force F r circular casing
3 Axial force Fa
Return
Diagram showing the relation between the radial and
axial forces and pump operating point of a centrifugal
pump. Both radial and axial forces are strongly r e-
lated to the pump operating point, especially in
pumps with volute-shaped pump casing.
Bearings
Rolling bearings are used throughout in submersible
pump motors. Ball bearings are used for their ability to
carry both axial and radial loads. In very large motors a
combination of ball bearings and roller bearings are
used because of the large forces on the components.
 To allow for heat expansion of the shaft and for Fig. 35
manufacturing tolerances, the shaft upper bearing is
allowed axial movement, whereas the lower bearing is
locked axially.
Bearing selection is governed by international stan-
dards with regard to bearing life. A conservative design
policy is to base the bearing selection on the pump
operating continuously at the point with the most unfa-
vorable shaft loads. The bearings will then be overdi-
mensioned in normal use, even when the bearings have
an unfavorable tolerance distribution.
Submersible pump bearings are normally lubricated
for life at the pump factory, using special grease suit-
able for the high operating temperatures allowed in
submersible motors.

2.4. Pump Connection

A submersible pump, when installed submerged, is
connected only to the discharge pipe. For fixed instal-
lations a self-connecting baseplate arrangement is
normally used. Return
A SARLIN submersible baseplate. When seated,
Submersible baseplate the weight of the pump keeps it in firmly in place.
The concept of the submersible baseplate has been Precision-machined connecting surfaces and a rub-
developed over the years for use with submersible ber disk seal ensures tightness. Clearance between
pumps. The arrangement allows for the pump to be the guide shoe and the rails ensures unobstructed
lowered into the pump well and firmly connect to the hoisting of the pump even in fouled conditions.
discharge pipework without the need of the operating
personnel to enter the well. Likewise the pump can
Fig. 36
safely be hoisted from the well for service. The system
includes rails or pipes that guide the pump down onto
the baseplate. A special flange, or guide shoe, on the
pump discharge mates with the joining surfaces of the
baseplate for a firm connection. Well-designed systems
are made to precision and have machined surfaces and
rubber seal rings for a sturdy and tight connection. The
pump is kept in place by its own weight.
Some pump manufacturers offer conversion kits for
the connection of pumps to older baseplates or as re-
placement pumps to some other manufacturer's base-
plate. Thus the upgrading or conversion of existing
pumping stations may be done with a minimum of work
and costs. Figure 35 shows a submersible pump
baseplate and guide rails.

Other connections
Figure 36 shows a connection using a detachable riser
pipe in connection with a pump on a stand. It may be
used in installations where a submersible pump is re-
placing obsolete vertical wet well pumps or when the
pump is installed in a working wet well that cannot be
shut down and emptied for the installation of a sub- Return
mersible baseplate.
Submersible pump on stand with flanged riser pipe
connection. This installation version is used in pump
replacement installations.

24
Figure 37 shows a submersible pump installation with
hose connection. It may be used for temporary installa-
tions or in applications where the pump is shifted
around the wet well for sludge pumping.
Fig. 37
Return
Submersible pump on stand with hose connection.
This installation version is used for temporary or
shifting installations.
2.5 Construction Materials, Cor-
rosion and Wear
2.5.1 Corrosion Resistance.
Cast iron is the main construction material in sub-
mersible sewage pumps, with shaft, fasteners and
hardware made of stainless steel. Where the pump or
baseplate includes fabricated steel parts, these are hot-
dip galvanized. These materials will last for decades in
regular sewerage duty if adequately protected by suit-
able epoxy painting. Only a paint thickness of at least
200 microns will provide protection.
In cases, where the pumped liquid contains industrial
effluents, the corrosion resistance of cast iron may not
be sufficient, especially for parts subject to fast flow
velocities, such as impellers and pump casings. In
these applications the natural corrosion layer, providing
the underlying material with natural protection becomes
scrubbed away, leading to rapid corrosion. The use of
stainless materials for these vulnerable parts may be
warranted.
25
If submersible pumps are used for seawater pump-
ing, the pump parts will have to be made of stainless
steel. Corrosion in seawater is dependent on a number
of factors, such as salinity, oxygen content and pollu-
tion, and the right material selection must be consid-
ered for each case.
The supply cable sheath material must be able to
withstand oils and other pollutants present in sewage.
Suitable materials are Neoprene or Viton. Other rubber
parts, such as O-rings are made of Nitrile or Neoprene
for resistance against sewage, oil and chemicals.
Submersible pumps are also available made entirely
of stainless steel for use in highly corrosive liquids,
such as process industry effluents. The materials for
these pumps are specified separately for each project,
and may include special materials for cables and seals
as well. In difficult applications the pump manufacturer
may not be able to guarantee the corrosion properties
for a specific case, but will cooperate with the client to
find the right solution for the case.
2.5.2 Wear Resistance.
The sand content in sewage is on average between
0,002 and 0,003 % (in volume). The content may peri-
odically, e.g. during heavy rainfall and snow melting be
much higher in areas with combined sewage and
stormwater drain systems. Regular cast iron will last in
most applications for years, but special material may
have to be considered for highly abrasive effluents, such
as sewage treatment plant sand trap pumping.
2.5.3 Abrasive Liquids.
Pump performance in an abrasive liquid is strongly de-
pendent on the content of abrasives in the liquid. The
standard abrasive is common quartz or silicon sand, to
which the following can be applied directly.
The sand content is either expressed as volume or
weight content, which are related as follows:
pm ≈ 3·pv (22)
where pm is weight content and pv is volume content in
%. Thus pv = 5% equals pm =15%.
With increased sand content the density of the liq-
uid/sand mixture increases. Since required pump power
is directly related to the density of the pumped liquid,
required power will have to be checked separately in
each case to ensure pump performance, whenever liq-
uids with high sand content are being pumped.
The density of a mixture water and sand can be writ-
ten
ρ = 1 + 0,007pm (23)
where pm is expressed in %.
Thus, if pm = 15%, ρ = 1,1 kg/l.
The following factors affect the wear of a pump:
− Sand content
− Sand quality
− Pump material
− Pump head
− Type of impeller

Fig. 38

Sand content
Pm [%]
Pump head H0 [m]
20
10

5 5
10
20
1 50

0,5
0,2

0
1 10 100 1000 10000
Pump service life [h]
Return
Pump wear rate as a function of sand content and
pump head. H0 is pump head at Q=0. Wear rate is
expressed as expected service life of a cast iron im-
peller and is strongly dependent of sand content and
pump head. The graph is based on experiments, and
can be used generally.
Figure 38 is a diagram showing the relations between
the pump wear rate and the sand content and pump
head. High sand contents in the liquid will have a dra-
matic effect on pump service life. The effect of the sand
content is exacerbated by high pump head.
Pump wear can be minimized using suitable wear-
resistant materials and through appropriate design. For
best results, materials with a hardness over 500 HB
should be used. The difficult machineability of hard ma-
terials, such as Nihard and some alloyed steels, may
require special impeller and pump casing designs
where machining is minimized.
The use of submersible pumps in abrasive environ-
ments must be considered separately on a case by
case basis and using sound engineering judgment.

26

3. Pump Performance
Pump performance is the result of the interaction be-
tween pump and rising main or pressure pipeline. An
introduction to pump selection and the calculation of
rising main resistance characteristics are presented .
3.1 Pump Head
3.1.1 Submersible Pumps
In the following the concept of head is applied to sub-
mersible pumps. For practical reasons the pressure in
the pump well, or lower well, is assumed to be equal to
the pressure prevailing in the receiving, or upper con-
tainer. Should these containers be under different pres-
sure, the pressure difference would have to be taken
into account. The difference in atmospheric pressure
can also be disregarded in all practical installations,
since the difference in atmospheric pressure between
a receiving container situated, for instance, 100 m
above the pump well is only 0,01 bar or 0,1 m of water.
Fig. 39
Hd
HJ pU
A
H
Hst
pL
Hgeod
v2
Return
Head components in submersible pump installa-
tions.
Figure 39 shows how the head is defined in a submer-
sible pump installation. The following units are used:
H = pump total head (m)
27
Hst = pump static head (m)
Hd = pump dynamic head (m)
Hgeod = geodetic head (m)
HJ = pipeline losses (m)
pL = atmospheric pressure in pump well
pU = atmospheric pressures in upper container
v2 = flow velocity at outlet (m/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (9,81 m/s2)
If an observation pipe is installed at the pump outlet
flange, the pumped liquid will rise in it to a height Hst
from the well level. This height represents the pump
static head. In addition, the liquid has a velocity v2 at
the pump discharge, which can be converted to pres-
sure or dynamic head Hd with the following equation:
2
v2
Hd = (24)
2g
The sum of the static head and the dynamic head is
the pump total head, thus
H = Hst + Hd (25)
According to international agreement (Standard ISO
2548), the total head H according to equation 25 is
used when plotting characteristic curves for submersi-
ble pumps.
The total head H is thus available to pump the liquid
through the rising main. The pressure or head required
to pump a given flow through a pipeline is made up by
the geodetic head and the flow losses. Thus can be
written:
H = Hgeod + HJ (26)
The geodetic head Hgeod is the actual physical differ-
ence in height between the liquid levels in the pump
well and the receiving container. Pipeline flow losses
consist of pipe friction losses, local losses from various
fittings in the pipeline (elbows, valves, etc.) and the
outlet loss at the point of discharge.
Losses due to liquid flow in the well to the pump are
considered as pump losses in submersible pump instal-
lations. If a suction pipe is installed before the pump, it
will have to be taken into account when calculating
pipeline losses.
3.1.2 Dry-installed Pumps
When calculating heads of dry-installed pumps, the
situation before the pump will also have to be consid-
ered. Figure 40 illustrates the situation.
In this case it is assumed that the suction well and
the receiving container are open to the atmosphere and
that the pressure at the liquid surfaces is constant.
Thus the pump head is the sum of the geodetic head
and the flow losses in the suction and pressure pipe-
lines. Thus
H = Hgeod + HJt + HJp (27)
 Fig. 41
where HJt represents flow losses in the suction pipeline
and HJp flow losses in the pressure pipeline. 32
H [m]

Fig. 40 28 η 70
η [%]
ηgr
24 60
η gr [%]

20 I (380 V) 40 50
I [A]
16 32 40
H
Hgeod HJ
12 24 30

Pgr Pgr [kW]

8 16 20
P P [kW]
4 8 10

0 0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

HJ
Return
Pipeline loss components for dry-installed pumps.
3.2 Pump Performance Curves
Centrifugal pump characteristics are normally pre-
sented as a set of curves, where the data has been
established through the testing of the pumps. For sub-
mersible pumps the following important information is
plotted as curves against the flow rate Q:
− H or head curve
− η or efficiency curve(s)
− P or power curves
− I or electrical current curves
3.2.1 H Curve
The head or H curve gives the pump total head as a
function of the flow Q. The curve may contain additional
information on pump usage, such as limits due to cavi-
tation or vibration. Figure 41 shows a typical pump
performance curve sheet with information important for
the user.
3.2.2 Efficiency Curves
Pump efficiency η is also a function of the flow rate Q.
The efficiency can be indicated as a ratio or percent-
age. For submersible pumps both the pump efficiency
η and the overall efficiency ηgr are defined, where ηgr
includes motor losses. It is important to distinguish be-
tween these definitions for efficiency, especially when
comparing pump performance. The losses leading to
the pump efficiency are discussed in Chapter 1 of this
book. Thus it can be written:
ηgr = ηmot · η (28)
where ηmot is motor efficiency.
S1 174 M1 50 Hz
Return
Specimen pump performance curve sheet according
to testing standard ISO 2548 Annex B. The curves
for head (H), pump power input (P), motor power i n-
put (P gr), pump efficiency (η) and overall efficiency
(ηgr) are plotted against pump volume rate of flow
(Q). The curve for motor drawn current (I) may be
plotted as complementary information.
The efficiency can also be marked on the head curve,
with numbers indicating different efficiency values. If
several head curves for various impeller diameters are
plotted in the same graph, these markings can be con-
nected to form isograms, or operating areas with the
same efficiency. The pump performance diagram will
then assume its typical mussel-like appearance as
shown in Figure 42.
3.2.3 Power Curves
The pump required power is also a function of the flow
rate Q. Figure 41 contains both the pump power curve
and the motor power curve. The motor power is the
electric power drawn by the motor and measured at the
cable junction box at the motor. According to interna-
tional standards on pump testing the pump power is
designated P and the power absorbed by the motor Pgr.
The required power can also be calculated using the
formula
ρQgH
P= (29)
η
where
P = power (W)
ρ = liquid density (kg/m³)
Q = volume flow (m³/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (9,81 m/s² )
H = pump head (m)
η = efficiency

28
 Fig. 42 Return 3.3 Pipe Losses and Rising
28 Main Characteristic Curves.
H[m]
45 In the following the theory for calculation of flow losses
24
50
55 in pipelines is presented. Practical calculations can be
60
65
made with the help of the detailed instructions with cal-
20
67
η [%] culation diagrams and nomograms presented in Ap-
pendix A.
16
H Flow velocities used in sewage pumping are high
enough (at least 1 m/s) to ensure uniform turbulent flow
H in the piping. Flow losses therefore increase with the
12 square of the flow velocity. The flow loss of a rising
H
main is the sum of the friction loss of the pipeline con-
8
stituent parts and the local losses from the various
components and fittings.

3.3.1 Friction Losses

0 Pipe friction losses depend on the following factors :
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 − Pipe length
Q [l/s] − Pipe internal diameter
Pump performance sheet with curves for different − Flow velocity
impeller diameters, where the efficiency is indicated − Pipe wall relative roughness
as points directly on the head curves. Impeller s e- − Fluid kinematic viscosity.
lection is facilitated by connecting the points with the
same efficiency. The appearance of the diagram has A dimensionless relation, Reynold's number is intro-
led these pump performance sheets to be called duced:
mussel curves.
vD
Re = (30)
3.2.4 Electric Current Curve. ν
The curve sheet in Figure 41 includes also the electric
power curve for the standard voltage 400 V. Information where
provided by the current curve is useful in the electrical Re = Reynold's number
design stage. It is sometimes used for an estimate of v = flow velocity (m/s)
pump operating point in installations where the current D = pipe internal diameter (m)
is measured. The method is inaccurate at best and ν = kinematic viscosity (m²/s)
should be used with discrimination.
On the other hand, continuous monitoring of the The kinematic viscosity for water is dependent on tem-
pump motor current can, if properly done, offer advance perature:
information of changes in pump operation. The imple-
mentation of this technology is discussed in detail in t °C 0 20 40 60 100
Chapter 7 of this book. ν 10-6 m²/s 1,78 1,00 0,66 0,48 0,30

3.2.5 NPSH Curve The equation for pipeline losses can be written:
Since NPSH calculations are performed only for dry-
installed pumps, the NPSH curve is not usually in-
lv2
cluded on submersible pump data sheets. It will be HJp = λ (31)
D2 g
provided by the manufacturer on request if cavitation is
feared in a dry installation or if otherwise required by
the client. The NPSH curve can be based on either a c- where
tual tests or, more infrequently, on theoretical calcu- HJp = pipeline loss
lations. λ = friction factor
l = pipeline length (m)
Results from tests performed with clean water are ap- v = flow velocity (m/s)
plicable as such on normal municipal sewage and most g = acceleration of gravity (9,81 m/s²)
industrial effluents, since the low solids content in sew- D = pipeline internal diameter (m)
age (less than 0,05%) does not significantly affect
pump performance.

29
Obtaining the friction factor λ from the diagram in Fig- Pipe material k new k old
ure 43, equation 31 can be solved. Surface roughness Plastic 0,01 0,25
values (mm) presented in the following table can be Drawn steel 0,05 1,0
used:
Welded steel 0,10 1,0
Drawn stainless steel 0,05 0,25
Welded stainless steel 0,1 0,25
Cast iron 0,25 1,0
Bituminized cast iron 0,12
Asbestos cement 0,025 0,25
Concrete 0,3...2,0

Fig. 43

Return
Moody diagram for establishing the friction factor λ. The value of λ is obtained using Reynold's number and the
relative roughness number k/D as parameters, where D is pipe internal diameter in mm and k equivalent surface
roughness in mm. Complete turbulence of flow can be assumed in wastewater applications.

The surface of an old pipe material becomes rougher
from erosion. Corrosion and sediment layers forming on
the pipe surface may decrease the pipe diameter, also
leading to higher flow losses.
The effect of pipe diameter change can be calculated
with the following relation:
5
 D′ 
HJp′ ≈ HJp   (32)
D
Thus an increase of pipe diameter from, for instance,
100 mm to 108 mm decreases the flow loss by 30%.
Equation 32 is sufficiently accurate for practical pur-
poses when comparing flow losses in rising mains of
different diameter, particularly since accurate surface
roughness values are seldom available.
Rising main flow losses are frequently calculated
with the help of proprietary computer programs, also
available from some pump manufacturers. These pro-
grams may also suggest a pump selection from the
manufacturer’s range to best suit the purpose.
3.3.2 Local Losses
Changes in pipeline internal diameter and shape,
bends, valves, joints, etc. as included in the rising main
cause additional losses that comprise both a friction
and turbulence component. The following formula is
used to calculate the losses:

30
 v2 characteristic curve will contain the geodetic head and
HJn = ζ (33) the flow losses only. Figure 44 shows the general
2g
shape of the characteristic resistance curve for a pipe-
line. Since the flow is turbulent at the flow velocities in
where
consideration, it can be assumed that the flow loss
HJn = local loss (m)
varies in proportion to the square of the flow rate. Thus,
ζ = local resistance factor
if the flow loss at one flow rate is calculated with the
v = flow velocity (m/s)
method described above, the other points of the curve
g = acceleration of gravity (9,81 m/s²)
are obtained sufficiently exactly with the following for-
mula:
Local resistance factors for different pipeline elements
and fittings are presented in Appendix A. The friction 2
loss of these are not included in the local resistance  Q′ 
H′J = HJ   (35)
factor, but is calculated as part of the rising main fric- Q
tion loss by including their length and internal diameter
when calculating pipeline length.
Pipe expansion discontinuity loss can be calculated
using the Borda formula:
3.4 Rising Main Size
HJn =
( v1 − v2 )2 (34) Rising main size is selected based on the following
2g factors:
− Economy
where − Required internal diameter for the application
HJn = local loss (m) − Required smallest flow velocity for the application.
v1 = flow velocity 1 (m/s)
v2 = flow velocity 2 (m/s) Fig. 45
g = acceleration of gravity (9,81 m/s²)

The final component of pipeline loss is the outlet loss Costs

at the end of the rising main. If no expansion is pro-
4
vided, the loss equals the velocity head or v²/2g.

Loss coefficients for different valves are provided by the 1

manufacturers. Guide values for the most common
valves used in sewage installations are presented in
Appendix A. 2

3
Fig. 44 Pipe size

Flow velocity
H’ J
H
Pipe losses 1. Procurement Cost of Rising Main
(friction and 2. Procurement Cost of Pumping Station
HJ local resistance) 3. Cost of Energy
4. Total Cost
Return
Hgeo
The relation of key cost components for a pumping
d
installation as related to rising main size. With costs
having opposite relations to pipeline size and flow
Q’ Q Q velocity, an optimum can be found.

Return
Characteristic resistance curve for a pipeline. Pipe
losses (HJ) are plotted against flow rate (Q) and
added to the geodetic head, which is constant.
3.3.3 Rising Main Characteristic Curve
In sewage installations the pump sump and the delivery
well are open to the atmosphere, and the rising main
3.4.1 Economy
The economy of an installation is made up by both pro-
curement costs and operational costs during its life-
time. A number of installation and operational costs are
directly dependent on rising main size, and will react to
changes in pipeline size as follows:
With decreased pipeline diameter

31
− Piping and pipework component procurement prices Fig. 47
will decrease. ζ = 0,6
− Pumping station procurement cost will increase due
to increased flow losses with consequent require- ζ = 0,3
ment for larger pumps and control equipment. Costs ζ = 0,2
for increased electrical supply systems, such as ζ = 2,0
substations may increase significantly.
− Operating costs will increase due to higher energy ζ = 0,4

costs because of pipeline losses.

Tot ζ = 3,5
With different costs having opposite relations to ris-
ing main size, an optimal pipeline size may be found.
DN 100 DN 150 DN 200 DN 250
Figure 45 shows the relation. The selection of an opti- 4

mal pipeline diameter may be based on Figure 46, HJs [m]

DN 300
which shows the optimum flow velocity for different i n- 3

stallations, and is based on several studies.

2

Fig. 46
1

2,0
v (m/s) 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Intermittent operation
1,8 DN DN DN DN DN QI [l/s]
< 1000 h / year 100 150 200 250 300
Size Recommendation
1,6
Return
1,4 Flow loss in the internal pipework in a pumping sta-
Continuous tion for each of two submersible pumps in duty-
1,2 standby operation as a function of flow. Each indi-
operation
1,0
vidual pipe installation includes a baseplate with
bend, valves, an upper bend and a branch pipe.
0,8

0,6
0,4
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Q (l/s)
Return
Guideline values for economically optimal flow ve-
locities for submersible pump installations. The fig-
ure is based on a study of submersible pump instal-
lations using geodetic head, pipeline length, yearly
operation hours and energy cost as parameters.
Where possible, a more detailed study can, and
should, be conducted.
Pumping station internal piping should be selected
so as to minimize component costs without unduly
increasing the flow losses in the station. Figure 47
shows the flow loss in the internal pipework in a pump-
ing station with two pumps in duty-standby operation.
3.4.2 Free Passage for Solids
For untreated municipal sewage the smallest allowable
free passage of the rising main is generally 100 mm in
order to allow passage of solids without clogging. In
pumping stations with small flows the internal pipework
may have a free passage of 80 mm, especially when
the pump free passage is also 80 mm or less.
3.4.3 Avoiding Settling of Solids and Sludge.
If the flow velocity in a rising main is too low, sand or
sludge may have time to settle, which increases the
risk of clogging. Settled sludge may harden and form a
crust on the pipeline wall that permanently decreases
the diameter, leading to increased flow losses. Larger
sludge clots moving with the flow may block bends or
other fittings in the rising main.
For municipal sewage a minimum flow velocity of 0,7
m/s is recommended. Where only domestic sewage is
pumped, the minimum flow velocity may be as low as
0,5 m/s, but if sand is found in the sewage, this lower
value is not endorsed. In installations with varying flow,
e.g. where frequency converters are used, the flow ve-
locity may temporarily be lower.
Where settling is known to occur, flushing out of the
system with all pumps running simultaneously at inter-
vals is recommended. The shape of the pipeline is also
important, and sedimentation is likely to occur in rising
mains having a pronounced low, such as pipelines laid
underneath waterways, e.g. a river. In these cases it is
recommended to select a higher flow velocity.
3.4.4. Water Hammer
Oscillating pressure waves are generated in a liquid
being pumped through a pipeline during starting and
stopping of the pumps. This phenomenon is called w a-
ter hammering, and, if severe, may lead to pipeline and
equipment damage. The severity of the phenomenon is

32
dependent on a number of variables, such as change of
velocity during the reflection cycle, pipe material char- where
acteristics as well as liquid characteristics. ∆h = pressure change (m)
When the liquid is accelerated or decelerated, a a = pressure wave velocity (m/s)
transitory pressure wave oscillates back and forth until ∆v = flow velocity change (m/s) during one reflec-
dampened by friction. The oscillating frequency can be tion cycle
calculated with the following formula: g = acceleration of gravity (9,81 m/s²)

2L Since it is difficult to establish the change in flow veloc-

µ= (36)
a ity induced by a valve or pump, exact calculations of
the pressure transient cannot be easily performed. Only
where if, for example, a valve closes within the reflection c y-
µ = reflection cycle duration, during which the cle, and the flow velocity change ∆v is equal to the flow
pressure wave oscillates back and forth velocity v, can the pressure change be accurately cal-
once culated. In all other cases the pressure change is
L = pipeline length (m) smaller than this maximum value. Since the pressure
a = pressure wave velocity (m/s) change also can be negative, the risk of buckling of the
pipe from vacuum or cavitation must be considered.
Pressure wave velocities in clean water in pipes of dif- Cavitation may also lead to voids in the liquid, filling
ferent materials can be obtained from the following t a- up with vapor. When these suddenly disappear, the
ble: consequent pressure surge may be extremely high,
with resulting damages to the pipeline or its structures.
The risk of damage is especially high in the following
Pipe material Velocity (m/s)
cases:
Steel 900...1300 − Long rising mains where the reflection cycle is long
Cast iron 1000...1200 − In installations with fast shut-off or check valves
Reinforced concrete 1000...1200 − At high flow velocities
Plastic 300...500 − In pipelines with siphoning bends.
Another form of water hammer may occur in check
As an example, for a steel pipeline with a length of valves that allow the pumped liquid to back-flow before
1000 m (a = 1000 m/s), the cycle duration is closing, and then rapidly close when the water changes
flow direction. In this case the water hammer can be
2 ⋅ 1000 prevented with change or modification of the valves.
µ= = 2s
1000
3.4.5 Avoiding Water Hammer
Water hammer and the consequences thereof may be
Sewage and sludge often contain insoluble air or gas,
prevented with different design and construction meas-
which has a significant effect on the pressure wave ve-
ures. These include
locity, as can be seen from the following table, where
− The use of dampened or actively slowly operating
the pressure wave velocity is expressed as a function of
valves with operating times at least 20 times longer
the quantity of insoluble air in the liquid:
than the reflection cycle
− Connection of an air vessel to the pipeline with a
Head = 15 m
volume approximately 2% of the pipeline volume
Quantity of insoluble Velocity ratio of − The use of soft start equipment with which the
air as volumetric ratio pressure wave starting and stopping cycle of the pump can be
0 1,0 prolonged with several seconds by altering the volt-
10-6 1,0 age during starting and stopping. Normally a cen-
10-5 0,96 trifugal pump starts and stops within 0,1...0,3 sec-
onds.
10-4 0,73
− The use of a frequency converter with which the
10-3 0,32 starting and stopping cycle of the pump can be con-
10-2 0,11 trolled and set to desired duration by controlling the
frequency.
Dissolved air has no practical effect on pressure wave − The use of heavier pipes and components that will
velocity. withstand moderate water hammer in use. It should
The pressure transient resulting from a change in the be noted that the pressure drop may be more criti-
flow velocity within a reflection cycle can be calculated cal for the pipeline than the pressure surge.
with the following formula: In large pumping stations, where several pumps may
be running in parallel with a common rising main, the
a ⋅ ∆v pressure surge from the stopping of the pumps may be
∆h = ± (37)
g reduced by stopping the pumps in several steps, allow-

33
ing the flow to gradually slow down before complete
stop.
3.5 Pump Operating Point
3.5.1 Single Pump Operation
By adding the geodetic head (Hgeod ) and the piping
loss (HJ), the pump head is obtained. The geodetic
head is a constant independent of the flow, whereas the
losses increase with approximately the square of the
flow rate Q (see Figure 44). If a pump head curve drawn
to the same scale is overlaid or plotted on the rising
main characteristic curve, the point of operation will be
the intersection of the curves. At this point the pump
head equals the head required by the rising main. The
pump flow rate Q can then be read directly off the dia-
gram as illustrated in Figure 48.
Fig. 48
Pump H curve
H
Rising main curve
D
HJ
Hgeod
Q sumed. The following method for obtaining the points of
Return
Pump point of operation (D) obtained by plotting
pump head curve onto the rising main characteristic
curve. Total head is the sum of the geodetic head
(Hgeod ) and the pipeline loss (HJ).
3.5.2 Parallel Operation, Identical Pumps
Parallel operation is the situation where the combined
flow of two or more pumps is directed into the same
rising main. The shape of the characteristic curve for
the rising main will change slightly with the different
numbers of pumps operating, since each pump has its
own discharge line up to the common point, and the
rising main constitution varies therefore.
Assuming two identical pumps with identical sepa-
rate pipework combined by a branch or header to the
34
rising main operating in parallel, we obtain the charac-
teristic rising main curve as illustrated in Figure 49. The
point of operation for both pumps is obtained by plotting
the sum of two pump head curves at constant head
onto the characteristic rising main curve for two pumps.
Fig. 49
Pump H curve
H
a a
Rising main curve
two pumps running
D
A
HD
B
C
Combined
Rising main curve
one pump running
H curve
two pumps
QD Q
Return
Operating points for two identical pumps operating
singly (B) or in parallel (D). Since the pipeline resis-
tance increases with the flow rate, the combined
output of two pumps (QD) is always less than two
times the output of a single pump. For practical pur-
poses a single pump can be assumed to have the
operating point C.
3.5.3 Parallel Operation, Different Pumps
When calculating the point of operation for two different
pumps operating in parallel, different characteristics for
the separate pipework up to the header should be as-
operation can be used.
The losses for each pump in their separate pipework
before the common header is checked first. These can
be plotted in the graph as reductions of the heads, re-
ducing the pump curves. The combination of these re-
duced curves at constant head gives the combined
head curve for the pumps. The intersection of this curve
and the rising main characteristic curve is the com-
bined point of operation. By drawing backwards from
this point at constant head to the reduced pump
curves, the individual pump operating points can be
read at the original pump curves straight above these
intersections. Likewise, the individual operation points
with the pumps running singly are obtained by reading
from the head curves above the intersection of the rising
main curve and the reduced pump curves. The method
is illustrated in Figure 50.
 Fig. 50
Combined H curve less losses
H in individual pipework
Pump H curves
a a
B
A E
D Pump published
C
Hgeod
Losses in individual pipework
Q Q
Return
Operating points for two different pumps discharging
into a common rising main. Losses in the individual
pipework are reduced from the pump head curves
plotted to scale in the graph. The combined output
curve is obtained using the reduced head curves,
giving the combined operating point D. The individual
operating points are A and B. For the pumps operat-
ing singly, the points of operation will be C and E,
respectively.
3.5.4 Serial Operation
It is possible to connect a number of pumps in series in
order to increase head. The combined head is obtained
by adding the individual heads at constant flow. The
complexity of the arrangement makes it warranted only
in rare instances, and it is nearly always advisable to
use one larger pump from the manufacturer’s range that
can do the job alone.
Submersible pumps can be connected in series only
if the boosting pumps are installed dry, thus making
them different from the lead pump. The benefit of inter-
changeability of pumps is therefore lost, giving further
reason to advise against such a solution.
Another risk involving pumps connected in series is
the possible failure of the lead pump, which may lead to
cavitation in the booster pump due to increased suction
losses or loss of suction head.
3.5.5 True Operating Point
The true pump operating point will almost always differ
from calculated. The reason for this is the inaccuracies
in all numeric methods for calculation of rising main
losses, as well as the tolerances allowed in the pub-
lished pump performance curves. Furthermore, the
properties of the pump will change with use due to
wear, and corrosion or sedimentation will change the
rising main with age. Figure 51 shows the relation be-
tween performance tolerances. Pump inherent perform-
ance tolerances are discussed in detail in Chapter 4 of
this book.
Fig. 51
Operating point Calculated Calculated rising
tolerance range operating point main curve
External rising
main losses
H curve
Rising main
Pump H curve
curve error range
tolerance range
Flow tolerance
range
Return
Tolerance area for the duty point. The true duty point
for an installation may lie within the shaded area lim-
ited by the allowed tolerance zones for pump head
curve and rising main characteristic curve. Pump
output Q may vary largely.
3.6 Sludge Pumping
Sludge of varying consistence is frequently being
pumped by submersible pumps in sewage treatment
plant duty. With increasing solids content in the
sludge, the rising main flow losses will increase while
pump performance decreases. When selecting a pump
for sludge duty these two factors must be considered.
The effect is illustrated in principle in Figure 52.
The situation is complicated by the fact that not
enough is known about the behavior of sludge in cen-
trifugal pumps. Treatment plant sludge may have a high
gas content, either dissolved or entrained, and this will
have a profound effect on centrifugal pumps. As a rule,
a sludge with high solids content also has a high con-
tent of gas, which will lower pump performance signifi-
cantly. In extreme cases the pump will stop pumping
when the separated gas accumulates in the impeller
eye, preventing it from developing the necessary cen-
trifugal force.
As a precaution when pumping dense sludge, the
pump should be placed as low as possible, to ensure
positive suction head. The use of long suction pipes
should also be avoided, since the pressure drop in
these is also increased by the solids content.
Sewage pump impellers with wide channels are gen-
erally best suitable for sludge pumping. For denser
sludge (solids content over 2%), a pump with higher
head curve should be chosen, so as to ensure desired
performance. Sewage treatment plant sludge is not
always uniform, and it is therefore warranted to select a
pump with an oversize motor to compensate for surges
in solids content and consequent power requirement.
35
Fig. 52

Pump H curves
3%
H 2%

1%
0%

0%
1%
Rising main curves 2%

3%

Q3% Q2% Q1% Q 0% Q

Return
The effect of solids content in sludge on pump head
curve and rising main characteristic curve. The graph
shows the principle only, and cannot be used for
numeric evaluations.

36
 as not to slow down the production process. Figure 53
4. Testing of Pumps shows the principle of a submersible pump testing
facility. The test rig includes the necessary pipework
Actual pump performance is established or confirmed and instruments for pressure and flow rate measure-
through testing. Tests may be conducted for a number ment. The testing facility may also include various
of different reasons and at various locations. In order to measurement recording devices as well as computing
reach unambiguous results, testing standards have equipment for the processing and presentation of the
been developed and agreed upon. The standards measured data. For pump head the total head, includ-
require controlled and calibrated testing circumstances ing both the static and dynamic component is used.
and are therefore generally not applicable for field or Pump total head was established in equation 25 and
site testing. can be written:
A pump manufacturer tests his pumps at the works
for both production development purposes and quality p2 v 2
control. Corroborated tests may be required to confirm H= + Z2 + 2
ρg 2g
pump performance according to the terms of purchase
or to settle performance disputes. (38)
Field testing of pumps in actual installations will not
yield exact data on pump performance, but provides where
useful information on pumps and pumping stations, and
may be used for pumping station monitoring, if per- p2
= pressure gauge reading changed to head
formed periodically or if suitably automated. ρg
Testing standards are conventions that are agreed for
use as a gauge for pump performance evaluation. The
Z1.2 = pressure gauge height above water level
presentation below offers methods for their interpreta-
tion. It has been kept brief for clarity, and therefore it
can and should be used with the appropriate standard v2 2
= pump dynamic head at pressure measure-
text as immediate reference. 2g
ment point
4.1 Testing Arrangements 4⋅ Q
v2 =
4.1.1 Production Testing π ⋅ D2 2
Testing of submersible pumps under controlled cir-
cumstances requires a testing facility built and cali- For a given flow rate the dynamic head can be obtained
brated to the standards governing the testing. Testing from the nomogram for local loss in Appendix A, using
facilities in a production line should also be designed 1 for ζ.
for efficient handling and connection of the pumps so

Fig. 53
Pressure gauge
Flow meter Control valve

H [m]

Z1.2
Q [l/s]

Return
Principle of a submersible production pump testing facility, where water is circulated. All pipework is designed to
provide ideal and known operating conditions for the pressure gauge and flow meter for unambiguous readings.
Obtained data are fed into computer for speedy results and evaluation service.

37
4.1.2 Field Testing
Testing of pumps in actual installations is useful when
information on pump performance with reasonable
accuracy is required, or when pumping station perfor-
mance over time is monitored.
The pump flow rate can be accurately estimated with
the volumetric method, where the change of wet well
level in a pumping station with known dimensions is
measured against time. If the incoming flow in the
pumping station cannot be stemmed for the duration of
the measurements, the effect of this must be checked
separately with the pumps stopped. The pump flow rate
can then readily be calculated.
Pump static pressure is measured with a pressure
gauge connected to the submersible pump near the
outlet flange. The pump total head can then be calcu-
lated using equation 38. The test arrangement is shown
in Figure 54.
Fig. 54
Pressure Gauge
Z2
Hose
D2
Return
Field testing of a submersible pump. The pressure
gauge is connected to the pump pressure flange with
a flexible hose. The height of the gauge above the
water level in the well during the event, Z2 , is re-
corded. Pump outlet diameter D2 is used for calcula-
tion of dynamic head if flow rate is known.
If an accurate head curve for the pump is available,
the pump operating point can be determined without an
estimation of the flow rate. The sum of the static head
and the gauge height Z2 is measured onto the H axis of
the pump head curve sheet. The function of the dy-
namic head against a number of flow rates is then
plotted onto the sheet. Pump operating point will be in
the intersection of this curve and pump head curve. The
principle is shown in Figure 55.
38
Site conditions rarely or ever fulfill the testing rig
requirements of the testing standards. The results can
therefore not be used for pump acceptance tests.
Fig. 55
v 22
H
2g
Pump H curve
v 22
H
D D 2g
v 22
2g
z2
P2
ρg
Q Q
D
Return
Using a pump head curve sheet for operating point
estimation. Measured static head and dynamic head
function against flow rate are plotted. Pump operat-
ing point D is obtained graphically.
4.2 Acceptance Tests
Pump acceptance testing is the procedure with which a
pump is confirmed to have the properties set out in the
manufacturer’s sales literature or contract specifi-
cations. Acceptance tests can be routinely carried out
by the manufacturer as part of the manufacturing pro-
cess or may be executed in the presence of the
customer or his representative.
Several standards have been established for use as
reference when testing pump performance. The most
common standards in use for submersible pumps are:
− ISO 2548, issued 1973
− ISO 3555, issued 1977
− Hydraulic Institute Standard 1.6, issued 1988
− DIN 1944, issued 1968.
Of these, the ISO 2548 is the most commonly referred
to and the subject of numerous studies on its inter-
pretation. This standard is scheduled for replacement
with a new standard, ISO 9906, to be issued in 1995 or
1996. Other standards for pump testing, not relevant for
submersible pumps, are outside the scope of this book.
4.2.1 Test Standard Usage
The ISO 2548 has been adopted by all countries
affiliated with the international ISO organisation. In
some countries national equivalents to the standard
have been issued, exactly reproducing the content of
the ISO 2548. Most major manufacturers of submersi-
ble pumps issue their pump specifications and data
sheets with reference to Annex B of this standard, and
most contracts for submersible pumps are done with
reference to it.
The use of ISO 3555 is restricted to special cases
where there is a need to have pump performance very
precisely defined. In submersible pump applications for
sewage and raw water, there is normally no need for
the higher precision of this standard, because of the
intermittent operation schedule of the pumps. Minute
start and stop level irregularities, always to be reckoned
with in sewage installations, cause variations of the flow
rate larger than allowed by the exacting tolerance
requirements of the ISO 3555, rendering the standard
irrelevant for most submersible pump installations.
Common for all these standards is that evaluation of
test results can be based on a
− graphical procedure, and
− calculations.
The ISO and DIN standards have instructions with
figures for the graphical procedure. They show how the
measured results should be plotted on a diagram. The
Hydraulic Institute standard does not mention dia-
grams, although a graphical method can be assumed
for the measured H value "at rated capacity". The result
of the calculations is either a percentage or a formula
for the allowable deviation of actual performance from
the guaranteed value.
All standards give instructions for the evaluation of
test results. It lies in the interest of the pump manufac-
turer and customer to be able to work out the accept-
able performance limits for a pump under evaluation for
its ability to meet the contractual requirements. These
requirements can either be as a single point of opera-
tion or the manufacturer's published performance
curves.
In the following a method is presented for the nu-
merical determination of acceptable minimum and
maximum performance for a tested pump. The method
was developed out of a need to interpret the ISO
standards, but it is possible to also apply the method
on the other standards, and it will unambiguously define
tolerance limits based on the different standards.
The upper limit Hmax and the lower limit Hmin for
head at a chosen point QGHG of a printed curve can
then always be found, as shown in Figure 56, when we
assume the same slope for the printed curve and the
limit curves.
Tolerance factors for head and flow, t H and t Q, are
introduced to facilitate the calculations if not provided
by the standard. The method is described for the
evaluation of the tolerances for the head (H) curve only,
but is also applicable as such on the evaluation of the
tolerances for the power (P) curve, for which the
standards usually specify the same requirements.
39
Fig. 56
HG
Hmax
Hmin
QG
Return
A general system for the presentation of tolerance
limits based on any pump test standard. Hmax =
maximum allowable head, Hmin = minimum allowable
head at guaranteed flow rate QG. H G is guaranteed
head at the same point.
4.2.2 ISO Standards 2548 and 3555
The essence of ISO 2548 is an elliptic tolerance zone,
for which the center point is the chosen point of ope-
ration (QG HG). The guaranteed performance has been
met if at least one point of a straight line parallel to the
measured pump head curve lies within an ellipse with
the semi-axes defined by the expressions QG XQ and
HG XH. Values for the tolerance factors XQ and XH are
given in the standard, and for mass-produced sub-
mersible pumps with standard performance curves,
these factors are found in Annex B. These factors are
referred to as tolerances in the ISO standard, but are in
reality factors and do not directly represent the size of
the tolerance.
The elliptic tolerance zone is shown in Figure 57.
The semi-axes of the ellipse are QG XQ and HG XH. A
straight line can be drawn as a tangent to the ellipse.
The tangent will then intersect the horizontal line H G at
a distance ∆Q from the center of the ellipse and the
vertical line Q G at a distance ∆H from the center. The
relation between these distances can be expressed as
follows:
2 2
 H G XH  Q X 
  + G Q =1 (39)
 ∆H   ∆Q 
With the expression in equation 39 the tolerances for a
given duty point can be determined without having to
graphically plot measured performance values or elliptic
tolerance zones. It can also be used to find the upper
and lower limits of tolerance for any point along a
published pump curve. The result is a tolerance zone of
nearly uniform width at both sides of the curve.
To numerically determine the acceptable tolerance
limits for a given duty point of a published pump curve,
the slope value of the tangent to the curve at the
guaranteed point is used.
 Figure 58 shows how to evaluate the limit values for Fig. 58
head at a chosen flow rate QG according to ISO 2548 Return
and ISO 3555. The slope of the printed curve at a given
point is defined graphically using elementary curve
analysis.
If the printed curve is created using a computer, it is
possible to get a numeric value for the slope using
statistical methods such as regression analysis.
HG

Fig. 57 Hmax

Hmin
∆Q QGXQ

QG
H HGXH Tolerance limits according to ISO 2548 and ISO
HG 3555. The slope S of the head curve at the guaran-
∆H teed point can be determined S = H0 /Q0 .

4.2.3 ISO Standard 9906

QG
Return
Pump duty point HGQG with ISO 2548 elliptic tole-
rance zone. The semi-axes QGXQ and H GXH deter-
mine the area and shape of the tolerance zone. A
tangent to the ellipse in the direction of the pump
curve H is drawn, having the offsets ∆H and ∆Q from
the duty point along the flow rate and head lines. The
lowest acceptable performance curve intersects the
tangent at these offset points.
Figure 59 shows the evaluation of the limit values
according to ISO 9906.
This standard offers two alternatives to be consid-
ered. Depending on the curve slope at the duty point
the upper limit curve is either at the vertical distance
tHHG or at the horizontal distance t QQG from the guar-
anteed point QGHG. Both values, ∆HT and ∆HT' are
calculated, whereafter the larger is chosen.
It is not necessary to plot these diagrams. With the
value for the slope S, the values H max and H min can be
calculated. The formulas can easily be applied in a
computer program. The following tolerance factors are
obtained from the standard:

Grade 1 Grade 2 Annex D

The following tolerance factors are obtained from the
tQ 0,045 0,08 0,09
standards:
tH 0,03 0,05 0,07
ISO 2548 ISO 3555
Two values for the allowable head deviation, ∆HT and
9.4.1 Annex B 9.4.1
∆HT' can be calculated, as well as a value for ∆QT
XQ 0,07 0,08 0,04
XH 0,04 0,06 0,02 ∆HT = tH ⋅ HG (41)

The allowable head deviation ∆HT can be calculated ∆QT = tQ ⋅ QG (42)

using the expression
∆HT' = |S| ⋅ ∆QT (43)
∆HT = (HG ⋅ XH ) + ( QG ⋅ X Q ⋅ S)
2 2
(40)
where
tH = head tolerance factor
where tQ = flow rate tolerance factor
HG = guaranteed head HG = guaranteed head
XH = standard head tolerance factor QG = guaranteed flow rate
QG = guaranteed flow rate S = curve slope
XQ = standard flow rate tolerance factor
S = curve slope The larger of ∆HT and ∆HT' is selected and called
∆HT. The limits for total head can then be calculated:
The limits for total head can then be obtained:
Hmax = HG + ∆HT
Hmax = HG + ∆HT Hmin = HG - ∆HT.
Hmin = HG - ∆HT.

40
 Fig. 59 Hmax = HG + ∆HT
Hmin = HG.

For pumps Level B, HG up to 152 m the tolerance

tHHG ∆HT tHHG ∆HT' factors tH and tQ are obtained from the table:

tQQG LH(Q) tQQ G LH(Q)

HG Hmax Hmin
tH 0,05 0,03
QG QG
tQ 0,05 0,05

and then the limits for total head:

Return Hmax = HG + ∆HT

Tolerance limits according to ISO 9906 or Hydraulic Hmin = HG - ∆HT.
institute 1.6 1988. S is the slope of the head curve
at the guaranteed point. ∆HT may assume different values for Hma x and Hmin .

4.2.4 Hydraulic Institute Standard 1.6 (1988) 4.2.5 DIN Standard 1944
Figure 59 shows the principle for calculation of the First the criterion for the curve slope according to the
tolerance limit values according to the Hydraulic formula in § 3.2.3.1 of the standard is determined.
Institute standard 1.6 (1988). Two alternatives should The symbols t H, tQ, QG, HG, familiar from the ISO
be considered. Depending on the curve slope, the upper standards, are here used for convenience of interpre-
limit curve is either at the vertical distance tHHG or at tation, although they do not appear in the DIN standard
the horizontal distance tQQG from the guaranteed point 1944.
QGHG. Two values for the allowable head deviation, QN dH
If the value for ⋅ is > 0,2 the evaluation pro-
∆HT and ∆HT' are calculated, of which the larger value HN dQ
is used in the further steps. ceeds according to Figure 60.
In the following the symbols tH, tQ, QG, HG, familiar Next the value for measurement uncertainty can be
from the ISO standards, are used for convenience of calculated with the following formula:
interpretation, although they do not appear in the
Hydraulic Institute Standard.
MQ = (QN ⋅ fQ )2 + (HN ⋅ fH / S)2 (47)
Two values for the allowable head deviation ∆HT and
∆HT' can be calculated for Level A and Level B pumps
where
∆HT = tH ⋅ HG (44) S = curve slope =
dH
dQ
∆QT = tQ ⋅ QG (45) MQ = flow measurement uncertainty
QN = nominal flow rate
∆HT' = |S| ⋅ ∆QT (46) HN = nominal head
fQ = flow measurement uncertainty factor
where fH = head measurement uncertainty factor
tH = head tolerance factor
tQ = flow rate tolerance factor and the tolerance deviations
HG = guaranteed head
QG = guaranteed flow rate ∆QU = t Q ⋅ QN + MQ (48)
S = curve slope
∆QT = allowable flow rate deviation ∆QL = 0,05 ⋅ QN + MQ (49)

The larger of ∆HT and ∆HT' is selected and called ∆HT. where tQ is obtained from the table
For pumps Level A, HG up to 152 m the tolerance
factors tH and tQ are obtained from the table:
Stufe III Stufe II Stufe I
Range of H and Q tH tQ tQ 0,15 0,10 0,05

HG < 61 m, QG < 189 l/s 0,08 0,1 Using the slope value S the deviations for head are
HG < 61 m, QG > 189 l/s 0,05 0,1 obtained:
61 m ≤ HG ≥ 152 m, any Q 0,05 0,1
and then the limits for total head: ∆HU = |S| ⋅ ∆QU (50)

41
∆HL = |S| ⋅ ∆QL (51) HN = nominal head
fQ = flow measurement uncertainty factor
and then the limits for total head: fH = head measurement uncertainty factor

Hmax = HN + ∆HU ∆HU = t H ⋅ HN + MH (53)

Hmin = HN - ∆HL .
∆HL = 0,01 ⋅ HN + MH (54)
QN dH
If the value for ⋅ is ≤ 0,2 the measurement
HN dQ where tH is obtained from the table
uncertainty is calculated according to § 3.2.3.2 of the
standard as follows: Stufe III Stufe II Stufe I
tH 0,03 0,02 0,01
MH = ( QN ⋅ fQ ⋅ S)2 + (HN ⋅ fH )2 (52)
and the limits for total head:
where
S = MH = head measurement uncertainty Hmax = HN + ∆HU
dQ Hmin = HN - ∆HL .
QN = nominal flow rate

Fig. 60

H [m]

UL
PC

∆Q L
LL Hmax
0,05 Q N
∆H U
MQ

MH

tQ QN
HN
∆H L MQ
∆Q U

Q min
Hmin Qmax

Q [l/s]
QN

Tolerance limits according to DIN 1944. The following parameters are used:
PC Performance curve QN Guaranteed flow rate
HN Guaranteed total head UL Upper limit curve for PC
LL Lower limit curve for PC ∆QL Lower deviation for Q
∆QU Upper deviation for Q ∆HU Upper deviation for H
∆HL Lower deviation for H MQ Measurement uncertainty for flow
MH Measurement uncertainty for head Qmin Min. limit value for Q at head HN
Qmax Max. limit value for Q at head HN Hmin Min. limit value for total H at flow QN
Return
Hmax Max. limit value for total H at flow QN

42

5. Pumping Stations
The working environment for submersible pumps, re-
gardless of size, is the pumping station. Pumping sta-
tion design and construction is decisive for the perform-
ance of the pumps, and care and diligence should
therefore be exercised whenever specifying them. The
following is a primer of pumping station design offering
hints and advice for the design engineer and the opera-
tor of pumping stations.
5.1 Pumping Station Basic De-
sign
The decisive factor for pumping station operation is a
good hydrodynamic design. A bad pumping station de-
sign may lead to pump malfunction, uneconomical
pumping and frequent needs for pumping station service
and cleanout.
Modern sewage pumping stations are designed for
pumping of unscreened sewage, and the design criteria
for these differs from those for clean water. In the follow-
ing the design and special requirements of sewage and
stormwater pumping stations are discussed.
5.1.1 Wet Well Volume And Surface Area.
The wet well effective volume should be of correct size.
Too large a volume may lead to accumulation of sludge
in the well, whereas too small a volume leads to too
frequent starting and stopping of the pumps. The use of
modern submersible pumps, with high allowable start-
ing frequency, leads to smaller and more efficient
pumping station designs.
The effective sump volume is the volume between
pump start and stop levels, and it can be determined
with the use of nomograms as a function of allowed
starting frequency. A method for the calculation of the
effective sump volume is presented in Appendix B of
this book.
In reality the incoming volume in a pumping station
varies greatly over time, and the mean starting frequen-
cy will therefore be lower than theoretical.
In a good design the start and stop levels should be
relatively close to each other for the following reasons:
− The variation of geodetic head should be as small as
possible during the pumping cycle, in order to keep
the pump duty point as stable as possible,
− Pumping station inlet should stay low relative to the
liquid level in the wet well.
A guideline maximum value for the effective volume
height in small pumping stations is approx. 1 m and 2
m in larger pumping stations.
The effective volume can be substituted with the wet
well surface area using the following equation:
Q Flow velocity at the inlet should not exceed 1,2 m/s
AW = (55)
20
43
where
AW = Wet well surface area in m²
Q = Pumping station total flow rate, l/s
For small pumping station flow rates, however, the sur-
face area will be limited by the physical dimensions of
the pumps when submersible pumps are used. The
surface area will then be larger than obtained with
equation 55. Recommended pump installation dimen-
sions are shown in Figure 61.
Fig. 61
D
B C
B = 1,5 * D
C = 0,8 * D
Return
Recommended pump installation dimensions for
submersible pumps.
5.1.2 Pumping Station Inlet Pipe
Location and size of the pumping station inlet pipe is
important for the function of the pumping station. Prob-
lems encountered in operation of the pumps are fre-
quently caused by bad inlet pipe design.
An inlet pipe located too high relative to the liquid
surface or with a high flow velocity may cause entrain-
ment of air and the formation of eddies in the water
when splashing into the well. Air mixed into sewage
water has a tendency to remain because of the possi-
bility of air bubbles to adhere to the solid particles pre-
sent. A separate calming chamber may therefore not
alleviate the situation at all.
Figure 62 shows the splash velocity of water as a
function of the fall height. The fall height should always
be minimized and should not exceed 1 m with the wa-
ter level down, regardless if the pumping station has a
separate calming chamber or not. The effect of a high
inlet fall height cannot be effectively alleviated with baf-
fles.
Location of the inlet pipe should be as remote as
possible from the pump inlets. Figure 63 shows de-
signs to be avoided.
so as to avoid the formation of eddies in the wet well.
 Fig. 62 of flotsam on the surface. The following principles
should be recognized in a good bottom design:
All corners should be benched to a minimum bench
2,0
angle of 45°. The angle may be smaller, if the section is
s [m]
flushed by a strong flow.
1,5
Bottom area should be minimized and liquid volume
v below pump stop level should be kept to a minimum.
1,0 s Minimizing the bottom area and the residual volume,
the flow velocities near the inlets will increase, flushing
0,5 out possibly settled sludge. A surface area decreasing
with the falling water level leads to less accumulation of
0 surface debris.
0 2 4 6 8
v [m/s]
Fig. 64

Return
Inlet splash velocity as a function of inlet height
above the liquid surface in the wet well.
K

Fig. 63
hs2
hs1
E

hs1 = E + a
a = 100 - 300 mm
hs2 = E + K/2
Return
Recommended stop levels at the design stage. hs1 =
stop level for two submersible pumps in duty-
standby operation or pumps with cooling independent
of motor submergence. hs2 = stop level for mul-
tipump installations with motors cooled by submer-
gence. Final stop level settings should be deter-
mined during commission trials.

5.1.4 Stop levels

Return
Inlet locations to be avoided. Too high an inlet fall
height may lead to entrained air reaching the pump
inlet directly or along the bench surface, with conse-
quent operational problems in the pumps.
5.1.3 Wet well floor shape
The shape of the wet well floor is important for the func-
tioning of a sewage pumping station. A good design
prevents bottom sedimentation, but may also assist in
the prevention of scum formation and the accumulation
The start and stop levels are specified at the design
stage. They should always be checked for function and
possibly altered at commissioning in order to secure
good operation.
The stop level should be as low as possible, so that
the flow velocity increases toward the end of the work-
ing cycle. Limits for the stop level are set by the re-
quired motor cooling submergence or by the level when
air becomes sucked into the pump intake. The latter
level cannot always be foreseen, but must be confirmed
at trials during pumping station commission.
In pumping stations with two submersible pumps in
duty-standby configuration the stop level can normally
be set below the motor even if the motor is cooled
chiefly by submergence, see Figure 64. The identical
pumps are selected so as to be able to cope with the

44
pumping station flow alone, and the risk of the liquid
level remaining for long near the stop level is slight.
In pumping stations with a multitude of submersible
pumps running under varying conditions, the stop level
must be set so that the pump motors always have
enough submergence for adequate cooling. Pumps with
cooling water jackets or other means of heat dissipa-
tion independent of submergence are preferred in such
installations.
The stop level setting for dry-installed pumps is de-
pendent on the suction pipe inlet height, shape and flow
velocity. 200 mm above the suction pipe inlet is a good
rule-of-thumb for this height, and useful for the designer.
The shape of the suction pipe inlet is important, and
good designs are shown in Figures 64 and 65. For this
inlet shape a provisional pump stop level height can be
calculated using the following formula:
h s = 0,04 Q + 0,2 (56)
where
hs = stop level height, m
Q = pump flow rate, l/s
In pumping stations with several different stop levels,
such as in frequency-controlled installations, it is m
i -
portant to program the control sequence to pump down
to lowest stop level at least once per day to clean out
the bottom.
Fig. 65
D2
G Design and dimensioning of the suction pipe is impor-
0.2m
D1 Dp
L R
hs 45 ° Reducing
bend
F Recommended suction pipe inlet designs are shown
Return
Recommended installation dimensions for vertical
dry-installed submersible pumps. F = 0,5 · D1 , vmax
= 2,0 m/s, G = Dp , L ≥ D1 + 100 mm, R ≈ L.
5.1.5 Start Levels
If the wet well surface area AW is dimensioned using
equation 55, the first start level in a pumping station
with two submersible pumps in duty-standby configura-
tion can be set 1 m above the stop level. Where small
inflows are encountered, the start level may be lower.
The second start level, can be set 0,2...0,3 m above the
first.
45
In pumping stations with several identical submersi-
ble pumps the start levels can be set so as to divide
the height of the effective volume into equal sections.
In pumping stations with dry-installed pumps the
starting levels have to be set above the pump casing in
order to ensure that the casings fill up and the pumps
start pumping. For vertical pumps, this height may be
considerable and should be set with a margin according
to Figure 65.
Horizontal pumps do not normally require special
considerations for the start levels, if the suction pipe is
designed to prevent air pockets from forming, see Fig-
ure 66.
Fig. 66
D2
0.2m
D1
hs 45°
F
Excentric
reducer
Return
Recommended installation dimensions for horizontal
dry-installed submersible pumps. F = 0,5 · D1 , vmax
= 2,5 m/s.
5.1.6 Suction Pipe Dimension and Design
tant, with bad designs possibly causing vibrations,
lowered pump efficiency and risk of cavitation.
The suction pipe should be dimensioned so that the
flow velocity does not exceed 2,0 m/s for vertical
pumps and 2,5 m/s for horizontal pumps.
in Figures 64 and 65. The downward suction exerts a
cleansing flow on the pumping station floor, and is less
prone to suck air from the surface.
In vertical pumps the suction pipe will have to turn
90° to reach the pump suction cover. A bend before the
pump suction lowers pump efficiency because the flow
around the perimeter of the impeller eye will be uneven.
If the pump inlet dimension is smaller than the suction
pipe, a reducing bend is recommended. The increasing
flow velocity in the reducing bend will alleviate the dis-
advantage of the bend and the pump will run more
smoothly.
The contraction of the straight inlet pipe to a horizon-
tal pump should be eccentric so as to avoid air from
collecting and possibly blocking the impeller.
An inlet design with unfavourable flow characteristics
may cause a pressure drop large enough to spend the
available NPSH and lead to pump cavitation. The rec-
ommended NPSH margin should be observed in instal-
lations where the suction pipe geometry gives reason to
concern. The concept of cavitation and NPSH is ex-
plained in detail in chapter 1 of this book.
5.1.7 Pumping Station Internal Pipework
The internal pressure pipework in a pumping station
should be selected for a flow velocity of 2...3 m/s. The
pressure pipework should have a dimension of at least
100 mm but can be 80 mm in small pumping stations,
provided that the pump free passage is 80 mm or less.
The use of flexible joints in the internal pipework is
not recommended, since most pipe vibrations are pres-
sure-induced by the flowing liquid, and cannot be
avoided by the use of flexible joints.
In multipump installations the pump pressure pipes
should be joined by a branch designed to prevent set-
tling of solids during pump stoppage into the individual
pipes, which may lead to valve blockage. Good branch
designs are shown in Figure 67.
Fig. 67
Return
Pressure pipework branch designs. The design
should emphasize smooth transition and prevent
rising main sludge from settling on valves in pump
risers when the pumps are stopped.
46
5.1.8 Flushing Devices
In installations with settling problems the use of flush-
ing devices may be considered. These consist of a re-
mote-controlled by-pass valve mounted on the sub-
mersible pump before the connection to the pipework.
When the valve is opened, the pump flow is directed
back into the wet well, agitating the liquid and causing
settled sludge and scum to disperse. The suspended
matter will then be pumped out with the liquid when the
flushing valve is closed.
The flushing valve should be of the normally closed
type (e.g. a spring-loaded pneumatic device) so that in
the case of a malfunction the pumping action will be
able to proceed.
Fig. 68
Return
Pumping station design for submersible pumps and
relatively small flows (Q = 4...50 l/s). The preferred
cross section of small pumping stations is circular,
which minimizes liquid surface area and avoids cor-
ners where sludge could accumulate. Minimum di-
ameter 1,5..2 m to facilitate service workovers.
5.1.9 Pumping Station Design Examples liquid is at stop level. The dimension D can be calcu-
Wet well design will depend on pumping station size lated using the relation
and flow volume. Figures 68...71 show principles for wet
well design for various cases and pumping station Q
D= (57)
sizes. 1000 ⋅ v D ⋅ C
A pumping station with submersible pumps for large where
flows can be designed according to Figure 70. If the Q = Pumping station flow rate, l/s
pumps require it, the stop level can be set at height hs2. vD = Flow velocity in expanding section, 0,1...0,3
The flow velocity vD in the expanding section of the wet m/s
well must be high enough to avoid sludge settling. A D, C = Pumping station dimensions, m
suitable value for v D is 0,1...0,3 m/s when the

Fig. 69

Return
Pumping station design for two submersible pumps and moderate flows (Q = 50...2000 l/s). The elongated wet well
shape is an important feature that places the inlet pipe away from the pumps and prevents the build-up of sludge
on the wet well floor.

47
 Fig. 70

stop
v max =1,2 m/s
D vo
hs
2
~30° 0-5°

30°

Return
Pumping station design for several submersible pumps and large flows. If the pumps are depending on submer-
gence for cooling, the stop level hs2 is chosen accordingly.

(wet well-dry well), or according to construction method

5.2 Pumping Station Construc- into site-built or prefabricated GRP pumping stations.
tion Selection of a suitable construction for a given case
is affected by a number of parameters, and must be
Sewage pumping stations are almost exclusively in- carefully considered by the owner and design engineer.
stalled underground to connect with incoming and out-
going sewer lines. Pumping stations can be classified
according to configuration into pumping stations with
submersible pumps (wet well) or dry-installed pumps

48
5.2.1 Submersible Pumps
Figures 67 and 68 show typical pumping station out-
lines for submersible pumps. The pumps are lowered
and hoisted along guide rails and connect automatically
to baseplates located on the pumping station floor. The
joint between the pump and the pipework may be
sealed with a rubber seal. The pumps are kept in place
by their own weight. Access to the pumping station is
provided through hatches on the top.
The conventional submersible pump pumping station
is compact and affordable, and is installed for municipal
and estate pumping where small or moderate capacity
is needed.
Fig. 71
B M
stop
vo
Wet well design for a pumping station with multiple dry-installed pumps. Flow velocity across the suction bends vo
= 0,3...0,4 m/s with the liquid at stop level. Pump internal distance B can be selected as for submersible pumps,
whereas the distance M should be selected according to inlet fall height, and should ensure an even flow at the
suction inlets.
5.2.2 Dry-Installed Pumps
Figure 72 shows outlines of pumping stations with dry-
installed pumps. The pumps are mounted on pedestals
or baseplates in the dry chamber next to the wet well.
The suction pipe extends through the wall into the wet
well and connects tightly to the pump suction cover.
Hatch covers provide access to both wet and dry wells.
Advantages of the wet well-dry well pumping station
as compared to the conventional submersible pump
pumping station are added safety for the operating per-
49
Small to moderate-size pumping stations can either
be delivered as a ready-made package or built using
concrete rings or form casting on site. Large pump sta-
tions are always built on site and may show greater
variety in shape and lay-out as required by the sur-
rounding topography or existing structures.
If required, the submersible pump pumping station
can be provided with a superstructure on top to facili-
tate pump withdrawal and service and for safe housing
of the controls.
v max =1,2 m/s
Return
sonnel and ease of pump inspection and service. An-
other advantage is the safe location of the pumping
station controls out of way and away from possible
vandalism.
The inherently higher cost of the wet well-dry well
pumping station over conventional pumping stations
has successfully been offset by the obvious advantages
they offer and the growing use of prefabricated package
pumping stations, further reducing installation costs.
 The buoyancy of the pumping station when empty
Fig. 72 requires it to be anchored to a foundation or concrete
slab, which also may be prefabricated and matched to
the pumping station foundation bolts. The concrete
slab mass can be calculated using the following equa-
tion:

MB = 2000·VG (58)

where
MB = Concrete mass (kg)
VG = Volume of pumping station below water ta-
ble (m³)

The pumping station must be vented to prevent the

build-up of toxic or explosive gases. If there is risk of
freezing, the upper part of the pumping station can be
insulated.
Packaged pumping stations are fitted with access
A covers that may be made of aluminum or galvanized
steel and molded into the structure. The internal pipe-
work can be either cast iron or thin-walled stainless
steel with fabricated bends and branches. Valves
should be cast iron and suitable for use in either hori-
zontal or vertical position. Figures 73 and 74 show typi-
cal package pumping station arrangements.

Fig. 73

B
Return
Wet well-dry well pumping station outlines. Pumps
can be installed vertically (A) or horizontally (B).
Submersible pump construction is protected against
accidental flooding of the dry chamber. A separate
sump pump is provided in the dry well for drainage of
leakage water. The pumping station control panel
can be installed on the top or in the dry well space
above flood level.

5.2.3 Package pumping stations

Package pumping stations are made ready at a factory
for installation on site. The material used is glass-fiber
reinforced plastic (GRP) or, for smaller pumping sta-
tions, Polyethene (PE), and the stations are made
complete with all internal pipework and other compo-
nents in place. Thus the installation is reduced to the Return
excavation of the site, laying of a foundation and con-
necting the station to the incoming sewer and rising A package pumping station provided with a top shed
main, and connection of the control panel to the power for pump and valve control and overhaul. Lockable
supply and possible telemetry connections. and sturdy housing makes pumping station secure
against illegal entry and vandalism.

50
5.2.4 Indoor Pumping Stations
Pumping stations for very small capacities can be i n-
stalled indoors, for instance in basements of buildings
close to the source of the effluent. These may be de-
signed as containers with the pumps integrated or
mounted externally. Figure 75 shows a typical ar-
rangement.
Fig. 74
Return
A package wet well-dry well pumping station. Round
wet well shape adds strength and facilitates manu-
facturing. Dry-installed submersible pumps are safe
against flooding and are easy and clean to maintain.
Intermediate platform offers access to control panel,
mounted above flood level.
5.3 Pumping Station Dimension
Selection
Pumping station dimensioning is based on the ex-
pected incoming flow, which usually must be estimated
without the use of collected data. Guidance values
cannot always be applied, since flow rates depend on a
great number of variables. Figures are available from the
sewerage systems designers or, less accessible, from
technical literature on the subject. The possibility of
51
sewerage system future expansions must also be
considered as reserve capacity or flexibility in pump
size installation. Sewage pumping station incoming
flow is also typically greatly varying with time, both in
short and long cycle.
Incoming flow estimation always starts with the
analysis of the possible constituent parts. These are
normally classified as
− Residential sewage
− Industrial effluent
− Stormwater (rain and melting snow)
− Leakage water
Of these leakage water is water entering the sewer-
age system from ground water leaks, leaking water
mains or stormwater inadvertently entering a separate
sewage system through manholes or other entrances,
such as worksite excavations.
To correctly dimension a pumping station, the type
of use must be known. Sewerage systems are classi-
fied as
− Sewers for regular sewage, receiving domestic
and/or industrial effluents only
− Stormwater sewers, handling stormwater only
− Combined sewers, handling both regular sewage
and stormwater in various proportions.
Fig. 75
Return
Pumping station for small flows. The pump may be
integrated into the structure of the container and can
easily be removed. Air-tight construction is suitable
for indoor installation, and the unit can be installed
near the effluent source.
5.3.1 Regular Sewage Pumping Stations
Flow rate estimation of residential sewage is normally
based on population numbers. The flow rate varies in
daily and weekly cycles, the variation being in the
range of 0,5...1,5 times average flow. Industrial effluent
must be estimated on a case by case basis, depending
on the plant type in question. The amount of leakage
water present depends on a number of variables, such
as water table level, local rainfall and soil characteris-
tics and general condition of the subterranean pipe-
work. It can be estimated as units per pipeline length
unit, e.g. kilometer or as a ratio related to quantity of
the sewage.
The possibility of flooding at the pumping station with
consequent environmental damage must be taken into
account. For this reason sewage pumping stations
have two pumps in duty-standby configuration, with
each pump capable of handling peak flow. Thus flooding
will not occur in situations when one pump is out of
order or being shut down for service. If pumping station
capacity is based on two pumps operating in parallel, a
third pump should be provided as standby. Estate or
other private pumping stations may be equipped with a
single pump, since the incoming sewage flow can eas-
ily be controlled by restricting the usage of facilities.
5.3.2 Stormwater Pumping Stations
Rain water flow rates are considerably larger than other
stormwater sources, such as melting snow. Dimension-
ing of the system is based on the largest anticipated
amount that will reach the pumping station. This
amount may not necessarily be the most severe tor-
rent, for stormwater sewers are allowed to flood under
heavy rain circumstances because of the relative
harmlessness of rainwater. The design values are also
affected by flood tolerance of the area and the type of
urban environment in question. Leakage water addition
must also be considered.
Controlled flooding at the pumping station is ar-
ranged with overflow weirs, discharging in a suitable
direction, such as a ditch or canal.
Stormwater pumping stations do not have the same
required reliability factor as sewage pumping stations,
and they can be designed to handle the maximum flow
with all pumps running in parallel duty.
5.3.3 Combined Sewage Pumping Stations
The dimensioning flow rate for combined sewage
pumping stations is the sum of the estimated sewage,
stormwater and leakage water flow rates. Reliability
requirement is the same as for sewage pumping sta-
tions, making it necessary to dimension them with at
least one pump as standby. Combined sewage pump-
ing stations combine in an unfavorable way the proper-
ties of regular sewage and stormwater pumping sta-
tions, and their use is therefore discouraged.
5.3.4 Pump Selection Based on Pump Curves
The pumps for a pumping station project are initially
selected using the methods described in Chapter 3 of
this book. It is good practice to consider a number of
pumps from a manufacturer's range that have curves
passing near the desired operation point.
Pumps having curves both above and below the initial
requirement should be included, because other consid-
52
erations, such as pump efficiency, size and weight may
be economically decisive factors.
The intermittent character of sewage pumping station
operation allows a wide margin for the pump selection,
giving the designer freedom of choice beyond a fixed
nominal point of operation. Theoretically calculated op-
erating points are uncertain in any case, since actual
head may vary due to changing start and stop levels
brought forth by programmed level control, pump wear
and tolerances in pipeline and pump characteristic
curves.
For instance, a pump with a head curve higher than
originally desired may offer better overall economy, e s-
pecially if the pipeline characteristic curve is flat or the
dynamic losses are small compared to geodetic head.
The pumping station designer is therefore well ad-
vised to select a pump from the manufacturer's stan-
dard range and to refrain from requesting exactly tuned
pumps. The use of standard pumps will also simplify
pump spare part service and later pump replacement, if
needed.
Finally, the pump selection should be checked so as
to make sure that the operating point does not fall out-
side allowable range of the pump curve. Operating
range restrictions can be imposed for a number of rea-
sons such as risk of cavitation or vibration, or overload-
ing. The operating point should be checked using the
combined effect of all known tolerances in the worst
direction.
The pump choice is also affected by the cost of an-
cillary equipment for each alternative. Ancillary equip-
ment, depending on pump type, are baseplates, ac-
cess covers, guide rails and control equipment. Thus a
nominally more expensive pump may be more eco-
nomical because of its lower overall costs.
5.3.5 Number of Pumps
Sewage pumping station pumps are selected so that at
least one pump always is on standby. Especially in
larger pumping stations, the number of pumps should
be selected so as to optimize pump usage and invest-
ment cost. The cost of pumping capacity, or pump
power in kW, decreases with increased pump unit size.
On the other hand, the requirement of one standby unit
will increase the cost of redundancy if few very large
units are used. Installation costs are therefore almost
constant for a given capacity, regardless of number of
pumps used to meet the requirement, at least within a
reasonable range. Likewise, the energy cost will remain
almost constant, if the pumps considered can run near
the optimal operating point.
Factors affecting pump number selection may also
be the requirement of even or continuous output and
energy usage, which is easier to accomplish with a
large number pumps.
Unless special requirements are put forth, the opti-
mal number of pumps for most small to medium size
pumping stations is two.
5.3.6 Pumping Station Capacity in Relation to
Starting Frequency
As stated earlier, the holding volumes of a pumping
station must be suitable with regard to the operation of
both the pumps and the pumping station. Water vol-
umes must not be too large or too small. Sump vol-
umes and pump starting frequency are, of course,
functions of each other and for all practical purposes
the volume is determined after selection of the pump
operating frequency. A method for the selection of
starting frequencies and pumping station volume is pre-
sented in Appendix B.
Appendix C offers a method for determining the
combined output of two pumping stations discharging
at different points into a common rising main.

5.3.7 Economic Aspects on Pump Selection

Pump selection for a pumping station is part of the
overall design process. Designing is often described as
a spiral, where design and specifications become more
precise and the equipment selection narrows down in
the course of the process.
With the long life and depreciation periods of infra-
structure investments, the running and maintenance
costs of a sewage pumping station are likely to be eco-
nomically decisive. The pump selection offers possi-
bilities for cost optimization, and all aspects should
therefore be considered. It can be shown that operation
cost optimization for small pumps means that reliability
is the premium aspect, whereas pump efficiency be-
comes more important for large and medium-sized i n-
stallations.
The range of pumps offered by many manufacturers
today is large and diverse, so that a standard pump
with optimum qualities can likely be found.

53

6. Pump Motors and
Starters
6.1. Submersible Motor Design
The submersible motor is in essence a regular three-
phase squirrel-cage, asynchronous electric motor
designed for use submerged in the pumped liquid. Typi-
cally the submersible motor is proprietarily designed by
the pump manufacturer to match a range of pump parts
and to form a single unit with the pump. The motor
design comprises the following special features:
− Motor casing and sealing arrangements are
designed waterproof to class IP 68.
− Motor bearings and shaft are designed to carry all
loads induced by the short-coupled pump impeller.
− The motor is dimensioned for cooling submergence
in the pumped liquid. For dry installation, cooling is
provided by liquid circulation in a cooling jacket or
by other means of heat transfer into the pumped
liquid.
− Power to the motor is supplied by one or several
flexible cable(s) that connect to the motor through a
sealed inlet or connection box. The cable is
supplied to specified length by the manufacturer so
as to avoid any extensions between pump and
control box. The cables contain a sufficient number
of leads for motor start and operation as well as for
control impulse transmission.
6.2. Motor Safety Devices
The submersible pump motor can be fitted with various
electro-mechanical or electronic safety devices that
either warn or stop operation in case of an operational
problem such as overload, water intrusion, overheat or
bearing or shaft seal failure. Pump specifications
frequently call for one or several of these options to be
installed.
6.2.1 Short-circuit Protection
Protection against short-circuit is accomplished by the
means of fuses, circuit breakers or electronic motor
protectors. Fuses and circuit breakers should be dim-
ensioned to withstand the motor starting current, but
the rating must not exceed that of the supply cable or
switchgear. Where fuses are used, these should be of
the slow type.
6.2.2 Overload Protection
Overload protection is required in a sudden overload
situation, such as when the impeller develops opera-
tional difficulties or gets jammed, when the pump
54
becomes clogged or during loss of phase in the mains
supply. Overload protection is frequently provided by
overload relays coupled to the motor contactors. These
consist of ambient temperature-compensated bimetal
elements, that trip the current to the contactor coils in
case the current exceeds the set specified value.
Overload relays provide good protection against loss of
phase in the supply. The overload relay should be set
according to the motor nominal current. When star
delta start is used, the current through the overload
relay is reduced by the factor 0,58 (1/√3), which must
be taken into account when setting the relay. Figure 76
shows an overload relay.
Electronic motor protectors provide accurate and
versatile motor protection. The device measures the
actual motor drawn current and calculates the winding
temperature, taking into account stand-by time, running
time and starting frequency. The electronic motor
protector may include functions for detection of and
protection against short-circuit, two-phase operation,
motor jamming, wrong phase sequence and low cur-
rent. Figure 77 shows an electronic motor protector.
Fig. 76
Return
Thermal overload relay. The relay connects to the
motor contactor and breaks the current in case of
the electric load exceeding the set value.
6.2.3. Thermal Protection
Full protection against overheating, such as resulting
from inadequate motor cooling or dry running, requires
thermal sensors in the motor windings. These are often
miniature bimetal switches that open if the temperature
reaches the switch rating. Thermal switches are
connected, sometimes in series with some other pro-
tecting device, to a circuit that disconnects the contac-
tor coil and stops the motor. Figure 78 shows a thermal
switch.
Thermal protection may also be provided similarly by
thermistors. Thermistors are thermal elements, whose
resistance rapidly changes with the temperature. They
are connected to a circuit that detects changes in the
resistance and breaks the current in case of overheat.
The trip temperature can be set at the circuit control
unit and can thus be chosen freely.
6.2.4. Moisture Protection.
Water intrusion into the sealed motor can be checked
with a moisture switch that reacts to excess moisture.
The moisture switch is connected, sometimes in series
with the winding thermal switches, to a circuit that,
when actuated, disconnects the contactor coil and
stops the motor. Figure 79 shows a moisture switch.
Water intrusion into the shaft seal oil housing may
be monitored by an oil conductivity probe. The probe is
normally connected to a separate circuitry that issues
an alarm if excess water is found in the oil. This
indicates that shaft seal service is required, or, if the
condition occurs within prescribed service intervals, that
the seal oil should be changed.
Fig. 77 Return
Electronic motor protector. The unit protects the mo-
tor against overload and short-circuit by electronic
current monitoring.
Fig. 78 Return
Thermal switch. The unit consists of a miniature
bimetal switch that opens according to the switch
temperature rating. The switch is connected in the
control panel to break the current in case the motor
is overheating.
6.3 Motor Connection and
Starting
6.3.1 Motor Connection
Submersible motors are designed and built for a spe-
cified voltage, and the motor windings are connected to
the mains in either star (Wye) or delta configuration.
55
The principle of these is shown in Figure 80. Small
motors (eg. 3 kW and less) can be built at the factory
to run connected in either star or delta, and with a
supply cable with only three phase leads, allowing only
direct on line starting. In larger motors all the armature
winding ends are connected to a cable with six phase
leads, permitting choice of voltage or star-delta start.
Fig. 79
Return
A SARLIN moisture switch. The unit consists of a
number of moisture-sensitive disks stacked onto an
actuating rod, and a micro switch. The hygroscopic
disks expand upon contact with excess moisture,
pulling the actuating rod. A cam at the rod end trips
the micro switch and breaks the circuit. The unit is
non-reversing and must be replaced after use.
6.3.2 Motor Starting
An electric motor is started by connecting it to the
mains supply. This can be done in a number of ways,
depending on motor size, mains supply and other con-
siderations. The methods in use today are direct on line
(across line) start (DOL), star-delta start (Y/D) and soft
start. The selection of a suitable method for a given in-
stallation is based on several considerations on usage
and mains supply conditions.
Starting of a motor leads invariably to a momentary
drop of the voltage of the mains supply. The magnitude
of the voltage drop depends on the starting method and
supply network durability, and it must not exceed
prescribed limits and maximum values allowed by the
switchgear itself. Frequently, the power supplier sets
the limits, and all larger motor installations are subject
to approval by the local utility company.
6.3.3 Direct on Line (DOL) Starting
Direct on line or across the line starting is the simplest
way of starting a squirrel-cage motor. The mains is
simply connected directly in the configuration for conti-
nuous running. The starting currency in DOL starting is
normally 5...7 times that of the nominal running current
of the motor. The duration of the peak current is,
however, brief (normally less than 1 second), due to the
low inertia of a short-coupled pump. DOL is the best
starting method from the motor’s point of view, but
limitations in the mains supply may require some other
method of starting.
 Fig. 80
Star connection Delta connection

I = I ph I = Il

Iph Uph Iph Iph

Ul Ul Ul Ul

Ul Ul

Il = line current Ul = line voltage

Iph = phase current = 0,58 x Il Uph = phase voltage = 0,58 x Ul
Return
Diagram of star and delta connections. For a given motor the line voltage in star connection is 1,73 times that of
the line voltage in delta connection. This makes it possible, for example, to utilize the same motor for 230 V and
400 V supply by alternating the way it is connected. If Y/D starting is required, the motor will be started in star and
run in delta, not permitting the utilizing of the motor for two voltages.

6.3.4 Star (Wye) Delta (Y/D) Starting Fig. 81

In star-delta start, the motor is initially connected to the
mains with the motor windings in star configuration. 7
When the motor speed approaches nominal, the mains I/IN
are disconnected and reconnected across the line. This 6
way the initial starting current is abt 30% and the
starting torque abt 25% of those values in DOL starting. 5
The low starting torque may prevent some applications
from starting at all, but the low initial drag in 4
submersible pumps allows them to be started this way.
3
During the time lag between star and delta connec-
tions, when the motor for a short while (abt 0,1 s) is
2
disconnected from the mains, the windings retain a
residual voltage. The result is a braking torque, which 1
together with the pump drag slows down the motor.
Consequently, the motor is effectively re-started when
reconnected in delta configuration, with a transitory t
Soft Start
current surge of almost the same magnitude with that Star Delta Start
experienced during DOL starting. The benefits of Y/D Direct-On-Line Start
starting are thus questionable in submersible pump Return
applications, and caution has to be exercised whenever Motor current during start-up. The primary current
specifying it. surge in DOL start and the secondary current surge
in Y/D start are almost equal in magnitude, and must
6.3.5 Soft Start be considered when sizing supply lines and main
Soft start is the electronic modulation of the mains fuses. Soft start gives an even current and speed
supply to achieve a soft and even acceleration of the increase, without transitory current surges.
motor speed. The mains voltage is regulated from zero
to nominal by solid-state thyristors during start-up. By
The motor rotational speed increases evenly during
regulating the voltage increase during the starting
startup from zero to nominal. Using the thyristor unit
cycle, the current remains below set limits. The
also for motor shutdown, the motor will stop smoothly
regulating unit is connected over parallel contactors to
as well. This feature of the soft start unit can be used in
the motor and consists of a thyristor bridge with
applications where there is risk of water hammer in the
automatic electronic control and connection.
pressure pipeline.

56
 With motor starting gear dimensioned for DOL start, box door. Figure 86 shows a pump control panel for two
the extended starting process of the soft start unit will pumps.
not cause harm to the equipment, because the current
is considerably less than in DOL starting. The regulated Fig. 82
(chopped) supply causes, however, the motor to heat,
so repeated and unduly prolonged start-ups should be L1
avoided. L2
The effects of the different starting methods on the
L3
motor current are shown graphically in Figure 81.
N
PE

6.4 Pump Starters and Control F1

Panels

A pump motor starter is the apparatus with which the

pump motor is connected to the electric supply net-
work. The heart of the starter is the contactor, which
may be manually or automatically engaged by the 1 3 5
pump control unit. In a DOL starter one contactor is
K1
used, whereas a Y/D starter uses three different con-
tactors for the starting sequence. A soft starter uses 2 4 6
normally one contactor, but may be equipped with a
second bypass contactor. The different diagrams for F2
DOL, Y/D and soft start are presented in Figures 82, 83 2 4 6 P P
and 84. 1 2

6.4.1 Contactors
The contactor is selected according to the pump motor
size and voltage. The selection criterion for an appro-
priate contactor from a manufacturer’s range provides
for no less than a million connections and breaks under
nominal load. Under normal circumstances this means
more than eight years of operation, if the contactor is
operated fifteen times per hour on average. A contactor
is shown in Figure 85.

6.4.2 Starter Control

The pump starter is controlled automatically by the
pump control unit, or manually from the pump starter
panel. This is accomplished with a three-way switch U1 V1 W1
with AUTO, OFF and MANUAL positions. With the
switch in the MANUAL position, the pump is running M1 P1
until the switch is turned to OFF. In order to avoid the FM
motor to be accidentally left running, the switch may be P2
spring-loaded to return to the OFF position when 3 ∼
released. With the switch in the OFF position, the
pumps will not start. Another arrangement with sepa- U2 V2 W2
rate START and STOP buttons allows the pumps to be
started manually and still be controlled by the pump
control unit when running.
The Y/D starter also comprises a time relay for the Direct-On-Line
change between star and delta connections. The starter Return
may also include pump running hour meters, if this A DOL starter diagram. The motor is started by clo-
function is not provided by the control unit. The pump sing the contactor K1. If the motor is wired for both
starter is normally built integrated with the pump control star and delta connection with six power leads in the
unit, forming a control panel with the necessary cable, these are connected U1-W2, V1-U2 and W1-
controls, instruments, and lights mounted on the panel V2. P1-P2 is the motor protection circuit.

57
Fig. 83 Fig. 84

L1 L1
L2 L2
L3 L3
N N
PE PE

F1 F1

1 3 5
K1
2 4 6
1 3 5 1 3 5 1 3 5
K1 K2 K3 F2
2 4 6
2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6

F2
2 4 6
1 3 5
K2 G1
U V W P P U V W
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 4 6

U V W U V W P P
1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2

U1 V1 W1 U1 V1 W1

M1 P1 M1 P1
FM FM
P2 P2
3∼ 3∼
U2 V2 W2 U2 V2 W2

Star-Delta Soft Start

Return
A Y/D starter diagram. Initially contactors K1 and K3
close to connect the stator in star configuration.
While switching, contactor K3 opens and a moment
later contactor K2 closes to connect the motor stator
in delta. Contactors K1 and K2 have the same rating,
whereas contactor K3 is smaller. P1-P2 is the motor
protection circuit.
Return
A soft start diagram. The motor is started by closing
contactor K1. The soft start unit G1 regulates the
voltage during the starting cycle from set initial to
nominal. After completed starting cycle, the parallel
contactor K2 engages, removing any residual load
from the soft start unit, thus minimizing thermal
wear. P1-P2 is the motor protection circuit.

58
 Fig. 85 control panel also serves as the pumping station main
electric panel, it will have to include mains supply fuses
and provisions for energy measuring. A main electric
panel will also include fuses for wall sockets and
pumping station lighting. A comprehensive pumping
station main electric panel is shown in Figure 87.

Fig. 86

Return
A motor starter contactor. An overload relay or
electronic motor protector (Fig. 75 and 76) from the
same manufacturer and range mounts directly onto
the contactor. The contactor connects the three
Return
phases of the current to the pump. Spring-loaded
contacts close when actuated by the control current A SARLIN pump starter and control panel. The fully
in magnetic coils. enclosed unit contains the relay-based control unit
and the starter as well as fuses. Switches, meters
and lights mounted on the cabinet doors provide the
operator with control of and information on the
6.4.3 Control Panel Construction pumps.
A complete control panel includes a pump starter, a
control unit, control circuit fuses or circuit breakers,
main fuses or circuit breakers, and main switch. If the

Fig. 87

Return
A pumping station main electric panel. The panel includes all the pump control functions as well as mains supply
switch and fuses, energy metering, three-phase and single phase power sockets and the pumping station lighting
panel.

59
 operational flexibility is required. Lack of operational
7. Pumping Station flexibility and monitoring capabilities has, however,
often rendered relay-based control units obsolescent in
Monitoring and Control demanding applications. Figure 88 shows a relay-based
pump control unit.

Fig. 88
All sewage pumping stations, either working singly or
as part of a larger sewage pumping system comprising
several stations, should be reliably controlled in order to
provide safe and efficient operation. New electronic
control technology offers possibilities to design and
build versatile control systems that reduce operating
costs and increase reliability.

Malfunctioning sewage pumping stations represent an

ecological and economic risk in the form of wastewater
flowing into the envi ronment or basements of buildings.
Reliability is therefore the prime concern when
designing wastewater pumping station control units.
The information in this chapter describes control
methods based on modern, state-of-the-art control
technology, with solutions for both small and large
installations.
7.1 Local Control
Local control is always needed to control pumps. The
local control unit can be executed at three different
technical levels according to need and type of instal-
lation. There are manual control units, automatic relay-
based control units as well as fully electronic units
based on programmable logical circuits (PLCs).
7.1.1. Manual Control
Manual control is the simplest control method. It con-
sists merely of a switch with the necessary relays and
contactors to start and stop the pumps. Manual control
is normally not used alone but as a backup in case the
regular control unit gets damaged or shut down. Manual
control is also used during maintenance to check pump
operation.
Return
A relay-based pump control unit by SARLIN. The
control unit is for two pumps with pump alternation
and includes pump starter, fuse board and ancillary
contacts. The pumps are operated with switches that
can be set in the positions OFF, ON and MANUAL.
The pumps are controlled automatically with float
switches in the wet well. Lamps indicate pumps
running and pump failure. The unit is equipped with
pump running hour counters.
7.1.3. Programmable Logic Controllers
Pump controls based on programmable logical con-
trollers (PLCs) offer extensive possibilities for pump
monitoring, data logging and analysis and pump con-
trol. Designing of a good pump control unit from a
PLC is demanding, requiring solid knowledge of the
operation and requirements of sewage pumping sta-
tions, as well as programming skills. Selection of input
and output signals, pump and pumping station analysis
and choice of level measurement sensors are among
the things that will have to be considered.

7.1.2. Relay-based Control Units

In cases where pump monitoring is not required, auto-
matic relay-based control units for local control pur-
poses can be used. Relay-based controls are fre-
7.2. Pump Control Units
quently simple units with fixed or adjustable start and
A modern and versatile pump control unit is based on
stop levels. They may include sequencing of multiple
the use of microprocessors and control software. The
pumps, or this may be accomplished with outside
unit is likely to be a PLC with a built-in computer pro-
pump sequencing units.
gram for pump control and monitoring. The user inter-
If continuous level measurement is used, these
faces with the unit to access necessary control para-
control units may have freely adjustable start and stop
meters, such as start and stop levels, that can easily
levels and local level display. In most cases, however,
be checked and adjusted. The complete control unit
relay-based control units use preset or manually
consists of the electronic controller and an array of
adjustable level switches, such as float switches.
auxiliary equipment, such as level sensor, current
Relay-based control units are both easy to use and
transformers, phase voltage relays, etc., forming an
reliable due to simplicity of design. They are suitable for
small or secondary pumping stations where little or no

60
integrated package. Figure 89 shows an electronic
pump control unit.
Fig. 89
Return
A SARLIN PumpManager electronic pump control
unit. The unit controls all pumping station functions
with software stored in a PLC circuitry. Operational
parameters are set using the keypad and the LCD
display of the unit. Pumping station data logged and
calculated by the unit are readable on the display by
entering codes on the keypad. A scanning function
allows the operator to get all important data with a
minimum of keystrokes.
7.2.1. Features
The main parameter to measure is the liquid level in the
pumping station. A continuous level indicator is always
used in this type of control unit. Several types of
sensors are available, such as sealed pressure trans-
ducers for use in the liquid, and ultrasonic devices.
The pump control sequence is normally quite simple.
In a regular duty-standby application, the preset ope-
ration levels are stop level, start level and second start
level. The duty pump starts when the liquid in the well
reaches the start level, and stops when the level is
pumped down to the stop level. The duty pump is alter-
nated at each cycle in order to ensure even distribution
of usage and wear between the pumps. The standby
pump starts at the second start level in a situation
where the incoming flow is larger than the capacity of
one pump. If more than one standby pump is installed,
these may be started at the same level at preset or
adjustable intervals.
The pumps are stopped when the level reaches the
stop level. If more than one pump is running, these can
be stopped at given intervals if required. In some
multipump installations all pumps may have different
start and stop levels. This, however, makes pump
condition monitoring calculations more complicated and
less reliable.
In some cases a separate overflow pump with diffe-
rent characteristics may be installed to handle large
flows. This pump does not participate in the sequencing
and should be controlled by a separate unit inde-
pendently from the other pumps.
61
Flow measurement is possible without a flow
meter installed. It is done with the volumetric method,
where the changes of levels in a wet well of known
dimensions are measured against time. The unit
software calculates both incoming and pumped flows
with the same accuracy as that of a magnetic flow
meter.
In case of an overflow of a pumping station, it
should be possible to estimate the volume accurately
and unambiguously in order for the operator to handle
possible claims of damage. When the incoming flow at
the time and the duration of overflow is known, the
volume can be calculated by the unit software for
presentation at any time.
Pump motor current measuring is necessary for
protection and condition monitoring purposes. With
adjustable over and under current limit values, the unit
is set to protect the pump motor in abnormal situations.
The pump is stopped should the current rise to levels
where a burnout of the motor is risked due to pump
failure or clogging. Together with thermal relays or
electronic motor protectors in the pump motor starter
this offers reliable motor protection. An abnormally low
drawn current indicates that the pump is not pumping
normally, which may be due to pump impeller wear or
failure or gas entrapment.
Pump running hours and number of starts are
information needed for scheduling of pump mainte-
nance.
All these features are available in the pump control
unit, and readable from the interface display. Thus the
motor control panel can be simple without separate am-
meters, hour counters and sequencing relays, features
which are all incorporated in the PLC.
With the pumps entirely controlled by software, it is
simple to embed special features in the program. Thus
it is possible, for example, to let the pumping station
pump down to pump snoring levels (controlled dry
running) at intervals to prevent sludge accumulation and
cake formation in the wet well. In this manner possible
pump blockages can be avoided with savings in
unscheduled maintenance costs. Another possible
advantageous operational feature is to let the pump
starting level intentionally fluctuate around its setting,
so as to prevent a sludge rim from forming on the wet
well wall at the start level.
The pump control unit is also programmed to
indicate all operation failures in the station, such as
alarms for high level, low level, pump outage, and other
alarms based on settings of parameter limits.
7.2.2. Pump Condition Monitoring
The pump control unit can perform automatic pump
condition monitoring based on the parameters
logged and analyzed. When the rate at which the liquid
level in the wet well rises and falls during the pumping
cycle is monitored, the pumping rate of each pump can
be calculated. The unit then compares these values to
the pump nominal performance data stored in the
memory of the unit and releases an alarm if the
performance is outside set tolerance limits.
 The benefit of such a system lies in its capability to all necessary parameters and read logged and calcu-
give early warning for slowly developing defects that lated data. Normally some helpful feature, like an auto-
ultimately could lead to sudden and unexpected pump matic scanning function, makes the routine checking of
failure and consequent environmental damage. Also the pumps easy and fast. Separate LED lights are used
developing pressure pipework problems can be de- for indicating alarms and pump status.
tected by closely analyzing pump performance. An-
other benefit of such a system is the economy of
operation, where maintenance procedures can be
planned and executed according to need as opposed to
the calendar, or worse, after equipment failure.
7.3. Level Sensors and Other
7.2.3. Parameters and Signals Sensors
The pump control unit needs a number of parameters in
order to operate as required. The parameters are The pump control unit is not capable of controlling and
entered into the unit based on actual dimensions and monitoring the pumps alone. Sensors are needed for
units taken from the pumping station plans or mea- indicating pump sump level, measuring pump motor
sured at site. For calibration of the measurements electric current, indicating loss of voltage, and so forth.
either actual dimensions or percentages of reference
values can be used. Values to be entered are various 7.3.1. Pressure Transducers
levels such as start and stop levels, alarm and overflow Experience shows, that the use of pressure trans-
levels. Other parameters needed are pump sump ducers is the most reliable and economic way of mea-
dimensions, reference values for pump motor electric suring levels in sewage applications. Especially piezo-
current values and pump performance values. These resistive pressure sensors integrated into a sealed
parameters are available on the pump data sheets. liquid-filled rubber construction is excellent when used
Several signals are necessary for the pump control in wastewater. Pressure transducers are sensitive to
to operate. Signals are either digital or analogous. Di- sedimentation, but that situation is easily avoided with
gital signals are either input or output signals and indi- careful pumping station design. Figure 90 shows a
cate an ON or OFF status. Necessary digital input sig- pressure transducer.
nals are pump running or standby indication from the
contactors and ON and OFF signals from the phase Fig. 90
voltage relays and the energy meter when installed. Di-
gital output signals are needed for starting and stopping
the pumps.
Analogous input signals from outside sensors are
used for continuous measurement. These are supplied
by the level sensors and the motor current meters,
providing necessary information for control and
monitoring purposes. Optional analogous signals are for
example pump motor winding and bearing temperature
measurements or pump sealing house oil conductivity
measurements when specified. The use of these
signals may need additional input cards and processing
software in the control unit.

7.2.4. Data Logging and Analysis

The pump control unit has sufficient memory capacity
to log and analyze data over a certain period of time.
The unit has to log at least the hours run, number of
pump starts and incidents of abnormal pump motor
current. The unit has to analyze and calculate flow,
pump capacity and overflow from the logged data. The
logged data can be collected and further analyzed by
downloading the data at intervals to a portable PC with
suitable software, or continuously by remote, if an auto-
matic remote control system is connected.
7.2.5. User Interface
To access data and enter parameters, the operator
needs an interface to the pump control unit. The inter-
face can be a small LCD display and a keypad. Using
function keys or codes the user has to be able to enter
Return
A pressure transducer for use in wastewater wet
wells by SARLIN. The completely sealed unit is sus-
pended in the wet well and its piezo-resistive element
transmits the level signal to the control unit. The
pressure transducer is used with electronic pump
control units, and provides continuous level reading.
7.3.2. Ultrasonic Devices
Ultrasonic devices are the only choice if the level
sensors cannot be in contact with the liquid. Modern
ultrasonic sensors have built-in programmable functions
for various operating conditions and ranges. They are

62
normally accurate and reliable. Foam and steam on the
liquid surface may cause level indication errors or,
worse, loss of echo, which can lead to interrupted level
monitoring. Problems arising from such situations can
be avoided with the installation of backup devices for
the most vital functions, such as high level alarm float
switches. Figure 91 shows an ultrasonic level sensor.
Fig. 91
Return
An ultrasonic level sensor. The transceiver is con-
trolled by the unit transmitter that includes control
software for various operating conditions. The unit
provides continuos level reading.
7.3.3. Capacitive Devices
Some earlier level sensors are based on capacitive
measuring. These sensors are installed in the wet well
and consist of a rubber or plastic bladder connected to
a vertical pipe and containing a reference liquid. A wire
is suspended in the pipe and connected to a signal
transmitter. The level of the reference liquid in the pipe
rises and falls with the level of the content in the wet
well. The capacitance of the wire-pipe element changes
accordingly and the signal is transformed in the trans-
mitter to a suitable signal for the pump control unit.
Capacitive devices are normally reliable but exposed to
malfunctioning due to accumulation of sediments on
the bladder at the bottom of the wet well. The device
also needs careful installation and more service than
newer units. Figure 92 shows a capacitive level control
unit.
63
Fig. 92
Return
A capacitive level control unit by SARLIN. The unit
contains a reference liquid and is installed with the
bladder at the bottom of the wet well. Inside the pipe
a wire forms an element with the pipe and the internal
liquid, with an electric capacity changing with the
liquid level. A transmitter mounted on top of the unit
transmits the signal to the control unit, providing
continuous level reading.
7.3.4. Float Switches
Float switches have been used for level control in
wastewater pumping applications for many years. They
provide a simple means for level control at fixed levels,
but do not provide a possibility for continuous level
control. Float switches, together with a relay-based
control unit, are used today mainly in small
installations. They are also installed as a backup or
emergency level control system in larger units, to
provide emergency operation in case of equipment
failure. Figure 93 shows a float switch.
7.3.5. Other Sensors
Important protective sensors needed in pump control
units are current transformers and phase voltage relays.
Pump current transformers measure the pump motor
electric current and convert it to a signal suitable for the
control unit. Phase voltage relays indicate if one or
more phases are missing from the power supply or if
the phases are in the wrong order. In such a case it is
important to stop operation of the pumps in order to
prevent damage.

Fig. 93
Return
A SARLIN float switch. The float switch turns when it
contacts the water level. The weight of the unit
keeps the float submerged, preventing it from
floating about in the wet well. The unit does not
contain mercury or other substances harmful to the
environment.
Fig. 94
The SARLIN SystemManager remote control system. The pumping station local control unit is connected via
telephone, leased line or radio to the central control station. The pumping station control unit can also be accessed
by portable or remote computer, and alarms can be transferred to the operating personnel over standard telephone,
mobile phone or paging device.
7.4. Remote Control and
Monitoring
Wastewater pumping stations are designed to incor-
porate extra capacity in case of too large an inflow or a
pump failure. This reserve volume does not, however,
prevent overflow if the fault goes unnoticed for a longer
period. Scheduled maintenance visits alone cannot
prevent all contingencies possible in pumping stations,
so systems for remote control and alarm have been
devised.
The pumping station outside visible and audible alarms
of earlier years have developed into the sophisticated
and decentralized remote control systems that are
installed today. These latest systems are based on
PLCs connected to a central computer and used to
control and monitor the local processes in the pumping
stations. The PLCs also function as telemetry
outstations and alarm transfer units, and can be re-
programmed and controlled by the central station.
7.4.1. Software and Hardware
The central control station consists of a standard PC
workstation, a printer and specially designed software.
The user interface is menu-driven and flexible for ease
of use. Depending on system configuration, up to 100
pump control units can be controlled and monitored by
a single control station.
Return
64
The central control station performs remote monitoring, 7.4.4. System Integration
by which real time conditions at the pumping stations A wastewater pumping control system can be inte-
can be viewed at all times. This feature largely grated into some other control system, such as a
substitutes for site visits by the operating personnel. treatment plant control system, or an integrated water
Pumps can be started and stopped, levels and other company control system, if combined control is pre-
parameters can be changed, and so forth. The system ferred.
is capable of storing pump and flow data for years for Integration does not mean that all systems run in the
further analysis if desired. The software also generates same computer and with the same software. It is
numeric and graphic reports on flows, pump data, normally useful to pick the best system for each appli-
alarms and other parameters. Figure 94 shows a cation and to combine them at a suitable level. This
remote control arrangement. could mean common software for alarm transfer and
reporting. To make integration possible, the systems
7.4.2. Data Transmission should be designed using standard procedures such as
Transmission of data is crucial for remote control sys- PC operating systems, standard data transmission and
tems to work. The time needed for data transfer can be signal input and output protocols.
decreased if the pump control unit performs data
analysis locally and stores the results to memory. Then
only the calculated results instead of all logged data
need to be transferred to the central control station.
These results can be stored at the outstation for some
period of time, usually one week, before it is
automatically sent as a package.
Data transmission can be configured to suit
individual needs, and can be carried over public
switched telephone network, leased line, private wire or
radio. A modem is needed to modulate the data for
transfer. The choice between the different transfer
methods depends on availability and cost. Radio and
private wire can be used over short distances, and do
not require third party lines. If connected with the public
telephone network, the pumping station and the central
control station can be situated at a practically unlimited
distance from each other. The public telephone network
also makes it possible to authorize third parties, such
as equipment vendors and service companies, to
access a pumping station for special purposes.

7.4.3. Alarm Transfer

Alarms activated at an outstation are transferred to the
central control station, where incoming alarms are
printed out and stored in the alarm record file for later
analysis. Outside office hours, or when the alarm goes
unacknowledged, critical alarms are transferred directly
to the duty operator.
A common way to transfer alarms outside the
system is by pager. The central control station writes a
text report of the alarm and contacts the pager operator
and sends the message to be displayed on the pager.
Typically the message contains coded information on
the station identity and type of alarm issued.
If so equipped, the central control station can also
transfer alarms via voice message. A text corre-
sponding to the alarm and stored vocally on the com-
puter hard disk, is retrieved by the software and used
for transmission over telephone to the operator. The
control station can be programmed to call different
numbers, until the alarm is acknowledged by an
operator.
Another alarm transfer possibility is by connecting to
another control station or printer.

65

8. Pumping Station Flow
Regulation
Pumping stations in a sewage collecting network work
in an environment where flow is irregular and inter-
mittent by nature. Normally the pumping stations have
ample storage capacity to buffer incoming flow, and will
transfer the content to the next node in the network
when filling up to preset levels, and at a given constant
rate.
In some cases, however, there is need to have a
continuous output that may be regulated by the in-
coming flow, or by the desire to keep an even level in
the wet well or in the receiving reservoir. Such a
situation prevails, for example, at the last pumping step
before a treatment plant, where the sewage enters the
continuos settling and purification process.
8.1 Stepped Regulation
A stepped flow regulation operation is possible in a
pumping station equipped with a multitude of pumps,
and where the pressure pipework resistance curve is
flat, allowing a significant volume flow increase when
the pumping output is increased. This method of flow
regulation is suited for applications where a pumping
station output roughly proportional to the incoming flow
is desired. For practical reasons the pumps are pre-
ferred to be identical, so as to allow duty alternation
and simplified service procedures.
Control of the pumps in a stepped operation is by an
electronic control unit. The control unit software may be
written to keep the level in the sump between set limits.
With increasing inflow, the control unit calls additional
pumps into service. The operational step width will be
the increment in flow achieved by the additional pump
as determined against pipeline characteristics.
8.2 Continuous Regulation
Continuous flow regulation is possible with speed
control of the pump motor. Since the output of the
pump is relative to the pump speed according to the
affinity laws, the flow is readily regulated with the use of
a frequency converter. The frequency converter changes
the mains supply from the standard 50 or 60 Hz to a
desired frequency changing the speed of the pump
accordingly. In single pump installations the pump
speed is regulated downward only. In these cases a
standard pump can normally be used, because modern
frequency converters, operating near the nominal
frequency, cause very little loss of motor efficiency,
rendering impeller trimming unnecessary. Sewage
treatment plant return sludge pumping is a common
application where several parallel operating pumps are
regulated with operating frequencies below nominal
only.
In multipump installations, where the combined
output of unregulated and speed controlled pumps is
needed, the frequency will have to be converted above
66
nominal, in order to secure a smooth operational
sequence. In these installations only one pump is
speed-controlled (this pump being rotated among the
pumps), and the others are started and stopped when
the regulation range of the speed-controlled pump is
exceeded. Great care must be exercised when
designing this kind of pumping installation, and
consultations with the pump manufacturer is highly
recommended.
With frequency regulation, the pump efficiency is
lowered, since the pump operation point is likely to
move to a lower point on the efficiency curve. The
efficiency of the frequency converter and the pump
motor is also reduced progressively with lower
frequencies, which may warrant pump or motor
modifications in such installations.
When the desired output fluctuates near the capacity
of one or more pumps running at nominal speed, the
situation, where a pump running at nominal speed
repeatedly is being started and stopped, should be
avoided. Therefore the speed-regulated pump is run
beyond the nominal speed, so as to achieve a regu-
lating margin. The regulating margin should be ex-
tended so, that the maximum output is equal to the
combined output of one pump at nominal speed and the
speed-controlled pump running at the chosen minimum
frequency. The minimum speed of the pump should be
selected so that the pump operates without vibration
and with an output large enough to carry sand and
other sediments safely out of the pump. The principle is
shown in Figure 95.
Fig. 95
fN fmax f min
H
HJpipe
H2
η
η(fN)
η(fmin)
Q1 Q2 Q
Return
Parallel operation of speed-controlled pumps. Only
one pump is speed-regulated at the time. Q1 =
Nominal output of one pump, Q 2 = Regulated output
of one pump at minimum speed. Regulated output of
one pump is extended to Q1 + Q2, preventing
repeated starting and stopping of pumps at full
speed. fN = Nominal frequency (50 or 60 Hz), fmax =
Maximum frequency, fmin = Minimum frequency, η =
efficiency.
The minimum speed of a pump maysafely be chosen to
correspond to a flow that is, for example, 25% of the
nominal pump performance. Since pump speed is
roughly proportional to the pump output, it can be
calculated that the required frequency for maximum
performance in this case is 54 Hz if the nominal fre-
quency is 50 Hz. With such a small variation of ope-
rating speed, the pump efficiency will remain un-
changed. Hence, the power requirement will be roughly
equal to the cube of the relation between the frequen-
cies, resulting in this case in a power requirement
approximately 25% higher than for the nominal speed.
With a margin for frequency converter and motor los-
ses, the additional power requirement of the motor will
be approximately 30%. This is likely to require a pump
motor of higher power rating to be used. Alternatively, a
larger pump from the manufacturer’s range, with the
impeller trimmed to suit the requirements, may be
used.

67
Symbols

A area Q volume rate of flow

AW wet well surface area Q0 volume rate of flow at zero head
a pressure wave velocity QI volume rate of flow, one pump
D pipe internal diameter QII volume rate of flow, two pumps
Fa axial force Qin incoming flow
Fr radial force QN pump nominal flow rate
fH head measurement uncertainty factor q volume flow
fmax maximum frequency Re Reynold’s number
fmin minimum frequency S curve slope
fN nominal frequency T cycle duration
fQ flow rate measurement uncertainty factor t pump running time
g acceleration of gravity, 9,81 m/s² tH head tolerance factor
H pump total head tQ flow rate tolerance factor
H0 head at zero flow rate Ul line voltage
Hd dynamic head Uph phase voltage
Hf head friction losses u perimeter velocity
HG guaranteed head V volume
Hgeodgeodetic head VG pumping station volume below water table, m3
HJ head loss in pipeline VH effective wet well volume
HJn local head loss Vh effective wet well volume
HJp head loss in pressure pipeline v true fluid velocity
HJt head loss in suction pipeline v2 flow velocity at pump outlet
Hmax maximum allowable head vm radial component of true velocity
Hmin minimum allowable head vu tangential component of true velocity
Hr head loss w velocity relative to the vane
Hrt head losses in inlet pipe XH head tolerance factor
Hs head discontinuity losses XQ flow rate tolerance factor
Hst static head Z starting frequency
Ht theoretical head Z1.2 pressure gage height above water level
Ht∞ ideal head ZImax maximum pump starting frequency
Hv head leakage losses ZIImax maximum pump starting frequency
h height Zmax maximum pump starting frequency
hA height difference between reference plane β vane edge angle
and tip of vane leading edge ∆h local pressure drop at vane leading edge
hs pump stop level ∆h pressure (head) change
ht inlet geodetic head ∆HL lower allowable head deviation
I electric current ∆HT allowable head deviation
Il line current ∆HU upper allowable head deviation
Iph phase current ∆QL lower allowable flow rate deviation
k coefficient ∆QT allowable flow rate deviation
L length ∆QU upper allowable flow rate deviation
l length ∆v flow velocity change
MB concrete mass, kg ζ local resistance factor
MH head measurement uncertainty η pump efficiency
MQ flow rate measurement uncertainty ηgr overall efficiency
m mass ηh hydraulic efficiency
NPSH net positive suction head ηmot motor efficiency
n rotational speed λ friction factor
nN nominal rotational speed µ reflection cycle duration
P pump power input ν kinematic viscosity
Pgr motor power input ρ fluid density
p pressure
pb ambient pressure at liquid level
pL atmospheric pressure in pump well
pm sand content by weight
pmin minimum static pressure in pump
pU atmospheric pressure in receiving well
pv liquid vapor pressure, sand content by volume

68
APPENDIX A 4. Local resistance factors

Nomograms and diagrams for the calculation of losses 4.1 Branches

in pumping station pipework and rising main.
Q v
1. Pipeline Friction Loss. h h
To calculate losses in pipelines, the following pipeline
data are used:
− Pipeline length L (m)
− Pipeline internal diameter D (mm) α
− Pipeline surface roughness factor k (mm)
− Flow rate Q (l/s) Qs Q
The surface roughness factor k, although expressed
as a dimension in mm, cannot be readily measured vs v
from existing pipe surfaces, but is available as tabu-
lated values for different pipe materials. Tabulated val-
ues are available for both old and new pipes.
The enclosed pipeline loss nomogram includes val- Diverging flows
ues for k for most pipe materials used in water and Qh /Q α = 90° α = 45°
sewage applications. ζh ζs ζh ζs
A typical submersible pumping station installation 0,0 0,95 0,04 0,90 0,04
will include internal pipework as well as the rising main.
0,2 0,88 -0,08 0,68 -0,06
The pipeline loss for these should be calculated sepa-
rately and then added for the total. Likewise, if the ris- 0,4 0,89 -0,05 0,50 -0,04
ing main comprises sections of different dimension or 0,6 0,95 0,07 0,38 0,07
material, the loss in each section should be checked 0,8 1,10 0,21 0,35 0,20
separately and then added. 1,0 1,28 0,35 0,48 0,33
With the input of the data above, the loss can be
read from the nomogram. The loss is given as specific
head per length unit of pipeline (m/100 m), and by mul-
tiplying by actual pipeline length, the absolute loss
value is obtained.

2. Local Loss
To calculate the local loss in pipeline bends and fit-
Q v
h h
tings, the following data for each item are used:
− Pipeline inner diameter D (mm)
− Local resistance factor ζ
− Flow rate Q (l/s) α
The local resistance factor ζ is different for different
pipe fittings, and may vary with installation parameters,
such as flow direction. Values for ζ for the most com- Q Q
mon pipe fittings used in sewage and water pipelines
s
are presented below and on the enclosed local loss v v
nomogram. Whenever special fittings are used, the e x- s
act values for ζ are available from the manufacturer.
With the input of the data above, the loss can be
read from the nomogram. The loss is given as absolute Merging flows
head for each fitting. Qh /Q α = 90° α = 45°
ζh ζs ζh ζs
3. Combined Loss 0,0 -1,00 0,04 -0,90 0,04
The total head loss for an installation is calculated by
0,2 -0,40 0,17 -0,38 0,17
combining the losses obtained for each part of the
pipeline with the losses for all the various fittings ni- 0,4 0,08 0,30 0,00 0,19
stalled. The final component of the flow losses in a ris- 0,6 0,47 0,41 0,22 0,09
ing main is the discharge loss, which is read from the 0,8 0,72 0,51 0,37 -0,17
nomogram in the same way as the other local losses. 1,0 0,91 0,60 0,37 -0,54

69
 4.2 Bends
Qh v h

45° D

Qs Q R
vs v

D
Qh /Q Merging flows
ζh ζs

D = 15
, ; ζ = 0,4
0,0 -0,82 0,06
0,2 -0,30 0,24
R
0,4 0,17 0,41
0,6 0,60 0,56
0,8 1,04 0,80
1,0 1,38 1,13

Qh v h D

R
45°

Qs Q
vs v

D
Qh /Q Diverging flows
ζh ζs
0,0 0,92 0,06
0,2 0,97 -0,06

D = 15
0,4 1,12 0,00
R , ; ζ = 0,7
0,6 1,31 0,09
0,8 1,50 0,20
1,0 0,30

70
 4.3 Expansions and Contractions
D

R v1 v2
90°

R/D 1 2 3 4 6
ζ 0,36 0,19 0,16 0,15 0,21 ( v1 − v2 )2
R/D 8 10 12 16 20 HJn =
ζ 0,27 0,32 0,35 0,39 0,41
2g

A2
A1
D v1 v2
α β
R

ζ
2
α R/D v12  A 
1 2 4 HJn =ζ ζ = k  1− 1 
20° 0,07 0,03 0,03 2g  A2 
40° 0,13 0,06 0,06
60° 0,20 0,10 0,09 β° k β° k β° k
80° 0,27 0,13 0,12 5 0,13 45 0,93 100 1,06
90° 0,32 0,15 0,13 10 0,17 50 1,05 120 1,05
120° 0,39 0,19 0,17 15 0,26 60 1,12 140 1,04
140° 0,46 0,23 0,20 20 0,41 70 1,13 160 1,02
160° 0,52 0,26 0,23 30 0,71 80 1,10
180° 0,60 0,30 0,26 40 0,90 90 1,07

α 20° 40° 50° 70° 80°

ζ 0,03 0,12 0,24 0,54 0,74
α 90° 120° 140° 180° HJn ≈ 0
ζ 1,00 1,86 2,43 3,00 Friction drag not included

71
 4.4 Bend Combinations
A1
A2
v1 v2

v 22
HJn =ζ
2g ζ = 2 × ζ90°
A2 /A1 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4
ζ2 0,50 0,46 0,41 0,36 0,30
A2 /A1 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9
ζ2 0,24 0,18 0,12 0,06 0,02

v1<<v 2 v2

ζ = 3 × ζ90°

v 22
HJn = 0,5
2g

v1 v2<<v1

v12 ζ = 4 × ζ90 °
HJn =
2g
72
APPENDIX B Starting frequency is the inverse value of T, hence:
Pumping station starting frequency and pumping capac-
ity. QinQ − Q in2
Z=
VhQ
In a pumping station the water volume comprises the (B7)
volume below the lowest pump stop level and the
pumpable volume above this level, fluctuating with pump The starting frequency Z is a function of the ratio Q in /Q
usage and water incoming flow rate. The starting fre- and is shown in Figure B1.
quency of the pumps depends on the available pumpa-
ble volume and the incoming flow rate.
Fig. B1
Return
The following different cases are investigated: Z max
− Single pump pumping station 100
− Pumping station with two pumps in duty-standby Z [%]
80
operation
− Pumping station with more than two pumps 60

40

Single pump station 20

Incoming water during one unit of time (cycle) can be
expressed as: 0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0
Qin/Q
V = Qin ⋅T (B1)
Starting frequency curve Z for a single pump pump-
where
ing station as a function of the ratio between incom-
Qin = Incoming flow rate ing flow rate Qin and pump capacity Q.
T = Duration of cycle

The same volume must be removed by the pump during Differentiating the equation B7 over Qin is obtained:
the cycle, whence
dZ Q − 2Q in
= (B8)
V = Q⋅t (B2) dQin VhQ

where Equation B8 equals 0 when Qin = ½Q

Q = Pump capacity
t = pump running time
Substituting Qin = ½Q to equation B7:
Combining equations B1 and B2 is obtained
Q
Zmax = (B9)
Q T 4 ⋅ Vh
t = in (B3)
Q
From this the pumping station capacity Vh is obtained:
When the pump is stopped, the volume between the
start and stop levels Vh fills up during the time T - t, Q
Vh = (B10)
whence 4 ⋅ Zmax

Vh = Qin ⋅(T -t) = Qin ⋅T - Qin ⋅t (B4) The solution to equation B10 is shown graphically in
Figure B2.
Substituting with the expression B3 for t in equation
B4: In practice there may be situations where the incoming
flow to a pumping station is very small and only mo-
Q in T mentary, for instance in pumping stations serving a few
Vh = Q in T − Q in (B5)
Q households only. In such cases the selected pump
capacity should be selected much larger, in order to
Solving equation B5 for T is obtained: attain high enough a flow velocity in the rising main to
prevent sedimentation. In this situation the Qin /Q ratio
VhQ remains small, and the Zmax value is not reached at all
T= (B6) or very seldom only.
QinQ − Q in2

73
 Fig. B2 Fig. B3

1000

3
QI or QII
V h [m ]

100 Q in

Start level 2

Start level 1
Z max 2/h
H
10 4
h
6
10
15 Stop level
20
30

A B
1

Return
Pumping station with two pumps in alternating duty.
0,1
2 10 100 1000 2000
The lead pump starts when the water level rises to
Q [l/s] start level 1. If the incoming flow exceeds the capac-
ity of one pump, the lag pump will start at start level
2. Pumps alternate between lead and lag positions
Return with each running cycle.
Q = Pump capacity, l/s
Zmax = Maximum starting frequency, 1/h
Vh = Effective wet well volume, m³ Fig. B4

Nomogram for the determination of the effective wet T

well volume Vh for axsingle pump pumping station.
t Qin / QI < 1

Two Pumps in Duty-Standby Configuration A A

The principle of operating a pumping station with two
B
identical pumps is shown in Figure B3. The pumps a s- t
sume alternately the positions of duty (lead) and
standby (lag) pump with each running cycle. When the t
water level in the wet well reaches the first start level
the duty pump starts. The water level is pumped down
to the stop level, and the pump stops, allowing the w a-
T
ter level to rise again to the first start level, completing
the cycle. t1 Qin / QI > 1
The duty pump alone is able to handle most regular
incoming flow situations, and the standby pump will
start only if the incoming flow rate (Qin ) is larger than A A
the capacity of one pump (QI), in which case the water B B
level continues to rise to the second start level, starting t
t2
the standby pump. If the combined capacity of two
pumps (QII) is larger than the incoming flow, all pumps
stop when the water reaches the stop level. Return
Figure B4 shows a time diagram of the running cycle
of two pumps in alternating duty, further explaining the Operation time diagram of the duty and standby
principle. pumps in a pumping station for an incoming flow
(Qin ) both smaller and larger than the capacity of one
pump (QI).

74
Qin < QI QI
Equations B9 and B10 can be used in the situation ZIm ax = (B11)
8 ⋅ Vh
where the incoming flow is smaller than the capacity
of one pump for the calculation of starting frequency
QI
for each pump. With two pumps starting alternately, Vh = (B12)
the expressions are divided by two, whence 8 ⋅ ZIm ax

The solution to equations B11 and B12 are shown

graphically in Figure B5.

Fig. B5
ZImax
1/h
1000
ZIImax 1/h
2
Vh 2
3 3 4
[m ] 7
5 10
15
7 20
100 10 30
40
15
60
20 80
30 100

ZImax 1,0
1/h 1,1
10 2
3 1,2
5
7 1,3 Q
10 II
15
20
Vh /VH 1,4 QI
30
1,5
1,0 0,8 0,6 0,4
0,95 1,6
1,0 0,9
1,7
1,8
1,9
2,0

0,1
2 10 100 QI [l/s] 1000

Qin / QI < 1 Qin / QI > 1

Qin = Incoming flow rate, l/s

QI = Pumping capacity, one pump, l/s
QII = Pumping capacity, two pumps, l/s
ZImax = Maximum pump starting frequency for Qin < QI, 1/h
ZIImax = Maximum pump starting frequency for Qin > QI, 1/h
Vh = Effective wet well volume to start level 1, m³
VH = Effective wet well volume to start level 2, m³ Return
Nomogram for the determination of the effective wet well volume Vh and the starting frequency Z for a pumping
station with two pumps in duty-standby configuration.

Qin > QI
In the case when the incoming flow is larger than the
capacity of one pump, two additional factors must be
considered. These are the ratio of the pumping station
75
capacity to the first start level, Vh, and the second
start level, VH, and the combined capacity of the
pumps QII. The following equation for the starting fre-
quency can then be derived:
 −1
 Q ( V − Vh ) QIIVH 
ZII =  I 2 H + 2
(B13) Pumping Station Capacities and Starting Fre-
 Qin − QI Qin Qin QII − Qin  quencies
With several pumps installed in a pumping station, the
The expression for ZIImax can be solved by differentia- starting frequency changes dramatically with variations
tion, but the expression is very complex. A graphic in the incoming flow. The starting frequency will vary
presentation of the solution is presented in Figure B5. between zero and peak values, of which there are sev-
Figure B6 shows the relation between starting fre- eral.
quency and the Qin /QI ratio. The starting frequency
rises sharply at conditions requiring parallel duty. The Fig. B7
diagram shows a marked peak value ZIImax.
Vh/VH =1,0
Fig B6
Vh/VH = 0,4
ZIImax
Z
0,8
0,6 0,6

Z 0,8 0,4
[%] ZImax 1,0
100

80

60
40

20

0 0 1,0 1,6
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
Qin /QI Q in / QI
QI Q II
Q in / QI < 1 Qin / QI > 1 Return
Starting frequency curves for different Vh /VH ratios
Return with constant VH and a Q II /QI ratio of 1,6.
Starting frequency curve Z for one pump and two
pumps in pumping station with two pumps in duty-
Fig. B8
standby configuration as function of the ratio be-
tween incoming flow rate Qin and pump capacity QI.

The diagram in Figure B7 shows the effect of the ratio

Vh /VH on Z for constant VH and varying Vh . In this case Z Q II/Q=
the ratio QII/QI is 1,6. The conclusion from Figure B7
is, that Z IImax is reduced and Z Imax increased with lower
2,0
start level 1.
1,8
The diagram in Figure B8 shows the effect of the ra- 1,6
tio Q II/QI on Z for a constant Vh /VH ratio of 0,8. Increas- 1,4
ing rising main losses, decreasing QII/QI also de- 1,2
creases ZIImax.
If the pumps are selected so that one pump can 0 1,0 Q in/QI
handle all incoming flows, Z IImax loses significance.
Return
Pumping Stations With More Than Two
Starting frequency curves for different QII/QI ratios
Pumps. and a Vh /VH ratio of 0,8.
Pumping stations with a multitude of pumps can be
divided into the following two design categories:
Great flow fluctuations are typical for sewage pumping,
− Stations with common stop level for all pumps
and it becomes impossible and also rather unneces-
− Stations with different or stepped stop levels for
sary to numerically calculate starting frequencies for
each pump
each pump. With the aid of design nomograms total
The starting cycle of the pumps are normally alternated
pumping capacities and average starting frequencies,
between the pumps in order to ensure even distribution
on which pumping station further design in all practical
of wear.
cases can be based, can be determined.
For the different design categories the following no-
mograms can be used.

76
 Fig. B9

10000

3
VH [m ] Pump Pump Pump Pump
1 2 3 4
Start
1000
V4

Start

V3
Z 1/h
100 2 Start
3 VH
5
7
10
15 V2
20
30
Start

10
V1

Stop

For similar pumps:

V1 ≈ V2 ≈ V3 ≈ etc.
1
20 100 1000
Qoverall [l/s] 10000

Qoverall = Flow rate, l/s

Z = Approx. average starting frequency of pump, 1/h
VH = Pumping volume to top start level, m³ Return
Starting frequency nomogram for pumping station with more than two pumps and common stop level.

Common stop level

Figure B9 shows a diagram from which VH or Z can
beselected as functions of overall flow rate Qoverall.
For both of these categories it is good practice to d i-
vide the total pumping volume (V H) by the starting levels
at approximately equal intervals if all the pumps are
identical. If the pumps have different capacities, the
pumping volume may be divided into intervals propor-
tional to the pump capacities. The use of modern elec-
tronic level control equipment facilitates the optimiza-
tion of the start levels either manually or automatically.

77
 Fig. B10

10000

3
VH [m ] Pump Pump Pump Pump
1 2 3 4
Start
1000
V4

Start Stop

V3
Z 2/h
100 4 Start Stop
6 VH
10
15
20
30 V2

Start Stop

10

V1
Stop

For similar pumps:

V1 ≈ V 2 ≈ V3 ≈ etc.
1
20 100 1000 10000
Qoverall [l/s]

Qoverall = Flow rate, l/s

Z = Approx. average starting frequency of pump, 1/h
VH = Pumping volume to top start level, m³ Return
Starting frequency nomogram for a pumping station with more than two pumps and stepped stop levels.

Stepped Stop Levels. recommendations. The following guidelines for mean

Figure B10 shows a diagram from which VH or Z can be allowable starting frequencies for submersible pumps
selected as functions of overall flow rate Qoverall . may be used:

Recommended Starting Frequencies

Pump and control equipment operation and wear is Pump power Allowable Z
significantly related to the number of starts and stops
0...5 kW 25 1/h
over the a long period, such as a year, since very high
5...20 kW 20 1/h
starting frequencies can be allowed in the short term. If
peak starting frequencies are used for dimensioning, 20...100 kW 15 1/h
the occurrence of these must be investigated. As 100...400 kW 10 1/h
shown earlier, the peak starting frequency for one pump
Z Imax may never be attained in reality. Likewise, the
peak starting frequency for two pumps in parallel op-
eration Z IImax is usually much higher (1,5...2 times)
than the Z Imax value and only occurs occasionally.
Starting frequencies selection should be checked
against pump and control equipment manufacturers'

78
APPENDIX C
Fig. C2
A graphical method for determining the combined out-
put of two or more pumping stations discharging at dif-
ferent points into the same common rising main. H2
H
Figure C1 presents graphically the situation where two
pumping stations operate in parallel discharging into a
common rising main. When both pumping stations are
H J2-3
operating, the pump operating points are governed by H1
the pressure at the junction point 3, where the outputs
of the pumping stations merge in the common rising
main. The total heads for the individual pumping sta- H J1-3
tions can be separated into components as is shown in
Figure C2. The heads comprise the following compo-
nents:
Hgeod 2
Fig. C1
Hgeod 1
Common pipeline Discharge
4
Separate pipelines
3

HJ3-4

1 Station 1 Station 2
H geod 1

H geod 2
2

Head components. Return

The combined output of two pumping stations is

graphically determined by following the steps of the
procedure shown in Figure C3:

1. The geodetic head Hgeod and the pipe loss in the

Return separate portion HJ are subtracted from each of the
Pumping stations in parallel operation. Definitions pumping station H curves. The H curve is taken for
and heads. one pump or two pumps operating, as the case may
be. The pipe loss HJ is also determined accordingly.
HJ 3-4 = Pipe loss in the common main between 2. The head loss curve HJ 3-4 for the common main is
sections 3 and 4 plotted
Hgeod 1 = Geodetic head for pumping station 1 3. The reduced H curves 1 and 2 obtained in step 1 are
Hgeod 2 = Geodetic head for pumping station 2 plotted onto the head loss curve both combined and
HJ 1-3 = Pipe loss in separate portion of rising main separately (1+2).
between points 1 and 3 4. The intersection point A between the combined
HJ 2-3 = Pipe loss in separate portion of rising main pumping stations H curve 1+2 and the head loss
between points 2 and 3 curve HJ 3-4 represents the combined output Q1+2 at
the discharge point.
The loss in the common main HJ is equal for both 5. A horizontal line is plotted through point A, inter-
3-4
pumping stations. secting the separate head curves 1 and 2 in points
C and B respectively. The corresponding flow rates

79
 at these points, Q 1 and Q 2 , represent the pumping
station individual outputs.
6. Plotting the individual outputs Q1 and Q 2 onto the
individual head curves for each pumping station, the
operating point for each pump is obtained as the in-
tersection points T1 and T2.
The operating points for the pumping stations working
singly are the intersection points C’ and B’ of the re-
duced individual head curves 1 and 2 and the head loss
curve HJ 3-4 as plotted in step 3 above.
The procedure can be extended for installations with
even more pumping stations in a common main.
Working out the various operating points becomes,
however, an arduous task. Large sewerage systems
comprise collection wells and gravity sewer sections,
breaking the network into separate pressurised sec-
tions that each can be determined exactly. It is there-
fore unlikely that very complex combined calculations
will have to be performed.

Fig. C3

H H curve of pumps H H curve of pumps

Hgeod 1 Hgeod 2
1 T2
H2
H1 T1
HJ 1-3 H J 2-3
2

H-curve
in Point 3 H-curve
in Point 3

Q1 Q Q2 Q
Station 1 Station 2

H
1

1 + 2

B C A
HJ 3-4
C'
B'

Q2 Q'2 Q 1 Q'1 Q1+2

Establishing operating points for pumping stations discharging into a common rising main.
Return

80
APPENDIX D
Conversion table for engineering measurement units.

81
Conversion of measuring units.

Length Metre Inch Foot Yard Statute mile Nautical mile

m in. ft. yd.
1m 1 39,37008 3,28084 1,09361 6,21371·10-4 5,39422·10-4
-3 -5
1 in. 25,4·10 1 1/12 1/36 1,57828·10 1,37013·10-5
1 ft. 0,30480 12 1 1/3 1,89394·10-4 1,64416·10-4
1 yd. 0,91440 36 3 1 5,68182·10-4 4,93248·10-4
1 stat. mile 1609,344 6,33600·104 5280 1760 1 0,86812
4
1 nautical mile 1853,836 7,29856·10 6082,14 2027,37 1,15192 1

Area Square metre Square inch Square foot Square yard

m2 sq. in. sq. ft. sq. yd.
1 m2 1 1550,003 10,76391 1,19599
-4
1 sq. in. 6,45160·10 1 1/144 1/1296
-2
1 sq. ft. 9,29030·10 144 1 1/9
1 sq. yd. 0,83613 1296 9 1

Volume Cubic metre Litre Cubic inch Cubic foot Cubic yard U.S. gallon Brit. gallon
m3 l cu. in. cu. ft. cu. yd. U.S. gal. Imp. gal.
1 m3 1 1000 6,10237·104 35,31467 1,30795 264,177 219,975
1l 1·10-3 1 61,0237 3,53147·10-2 1,30795·10-3 0,264177 0,219975
1 cu. in. 1,63871·10-5 1,63871·10-2 1 1/1728 2,14335·10-5 4,32909·10-3 3,60475·10-3
1 cu. ft. 2,83168·10-2 28,3168 1728 1 1/27 7,48067 6,22901
1 cu. yd. 0,764555 764,555 4,6656·10 4
27 1 201,978 168,183
1 U.S. gal. 3,78543·10 -3
3,78543 230,995 0,133678 4,95103·10 -3
1 0,83268
1 Imp. gal 4,54596·10 -3
4,54596 277,412 0,160539 5,94589·10 -3
1,20094 1

82
 Mass kg kps 2/m Ounce mass Pound mass Short ton Long ton
oz. lb. mass (U.S.) mass (G.B.)
1 kg 1 0,101972 35,27396 2,20462 1,10231·10-3 9,84206·10-4
2 -2
1 kps /m 9,80665 1 345,919 21,61996 1,08099·10 9,65177·10-3
1 oz. 2,83495·10-2 2,89085·10-3 1 1/16 1/32000 2,79018·10-5
1 lb. 0,453592 4,62536·10-2 16 1 1/2000 4,46429·10-4
1 short ton 907,18487 92,50711 32000 2000 1 0,89286
1 long ton 1016,0471 103,60797 35840 2240 1,12 1

Force Newton Dyn Kilopond Pound force

N dyn kp lb.f.
1N 1 105 0,101972 0,22481
-5 -5
1 dyn 10 1 0,10197·10 0,22481·10-5
1 kp 9,80665 9,80665·105 1 2,20462
5
1 lb.f. 4,44822 4,44822·10 0,45359 1

Pressure bar=105 N/m2 kp/cm2 Torr=mmHg 1 atm.= lb./sq.ft. lb./sq.in.

(=105 Pa) 760 torr (p.s.i.)
1 bar 1 1,01972 750,062 0,986924 2088,55 14,5038
1 kp/cm2 0,980665 1 735,55956 0,967842 2048,17 14,22337
1 torr 1,33322·10-3 1,35951·10-3 1 1,31579·10-3 2,78450 1,93368·10-2
1 atm. 1,01325 1,03323 760 1 2116,22 14,69597
-4 -4 -4
1 lb./sq.ft. 4,78802·10 4,88242·10 0,359131 4,72541·10 1 1/144
-2 -2 -2
1 lb./sq.in. 6,89474·10 7,03068·10 51,71486 6,80459·10 144 1

83
 Temperature conversion Temperature Change Temperature Level

5 5
Temperature Celsius tC ∆t C = ∆t F tC = ( tF − 32 )
9 9
9 9
Temperature Fahrenheit tF ∆t F = ∆t C tF = t C + 32
5 5

Energy J=Nm=Ws kWh kpm kcal PSh BTU H.P.-hr. ft.lb.

1J 1 2,77778·10-7 0,101972 2,38846·10-4 3,77637·10-7 9,47817·10-4 3,72506·10-7 0,737561

-6 5
1 kWh 3,6·10 1 3,67098·10 859,845 1,35962 3412,14 1,34102 2,65522·106
1 kpm 9,80665 2,72407·10-6 1 2,34228·10-3 3,70370·10-3 9,29491·10-2 3,65303·10-6 7,23300
-3 -4 -3
1 kcal 4186,8 1,16300·10 426,935 1 1,58124·10 3,96832 1,55961·10 3088,02
-6 5
1 PSh 2,64780·10 0,735499 2,7·10 632,415 1 2509,63 0,986319 1,95291·106
1 BTU. 1055,06 2,93071·10-4 107,586 0,251996 3,98466·10-4 1 3,93014·10-4 778,168
-6 5
1 H.P.-hr. 2,68542·10 0,745701 2,73745·10 641,187 1,01387 2544,44 1 1,98000·104
1 ft.lb. 1,35582 3,76617·10-7 0,138255 3,23832·10-4 5,12056·10-7 1,28507·10-3 5,05051·10-7 1

Power W=J/s=Nm/s kpm/s PS kcal/h kcal/s H.P. ft.lb./sec. BTU/hr BTU/sec.

1W 1 0,101972 1,35962·10-3 0,859845 2,3884610-4 1,34102·10-3 0,737561 3,41214 9,47817·10-4

-3 -2
1 kpm/s 9,80665 1 1/75 8,43220 2,34228·10 1,31509·10 7,23300 33,46167 9,29491·10-3
1 PS 735,499 75 1 632,415 0,175671 0,986319 542,475 2509,63 0,697118
-3 -3
1 kcal/h 1,16300 0,118593 1,58124·10 1 1/3600 1,55961·10 0,857783 3,96832 1,10231·10-3
1 kcal/s 4186,60 426,935 5,69246 3600 1 5,61458 3088,02 14285,95 3,96832
1 H.P. 745,701 76,04034 1,01387 641,187 0,178108 1 550 2544,44 0,706788
-3 -4 -3
1 ft.lb./sec. 1,35582 0,138255 1,84340·10 1,16580 3,23832·10 1,81818·10 1 4,62625 1,28507·10-3
1 BTU/hr. 0,293071 2,98849·10-2 3,98466·10-4 0,251996 6,99988·10-5 3,93014·10-4 0,216158 1 1/3600
1 BTU/sec. 1055,06 107,586 1,43448 907,185 0,251996 1,41485 778,168 3600 1

84