PART I: CONTENT UPDATE

SOCIOLOGY AND CULTURE

I. Sociology
A. Definition and History
Sociology – is the scientific study of human societies and social behavior.
• Scientific study: As in other scientific studies, sociological investigations proceed systemically. Like other
scientists, sociologists investigation begin their work by proposing questions of importance to them, and then
designing a research project that will enable them to ascertain the answers to their major research questions.
• As a social science, sociology is a discipline that is organized methodical, and its endeavors are undertaken
for the purpose of enhancing knowledge.
•Human societies: Sociologists examine humans, in particular, groups of humans, in an effort to understand
nature, meaning and significance of human group relationships.
HUMAN SOCITIES AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Human Societies:
•Sociologist is only interested in understanding things relevant to the human experience. They do not examine
nonhuman animal species.
•A distinction between studying individuals and studying groups or the interaction patterns of many groups:
Individuals are not the focus of sociology except when they are in a social context; groups are the focus of
sociology.
Social Behavior: Sociologists examine the things that people do that affect others around them or the things that
people do after they have given thought to how others might respond to their acts, especially when the people
are aggregated into groups. Sociology seeks to understand how groups work, how groups influence one another,
and how groups influence the things that individual do.
THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Sociology – the scientific study of human societies and social behavior.
Perspective – to look through, see clearly, point of view, the capacity to view things in their true relations or
relative importance, mental view.
Sociological perspective:
•Sociological perspective enables you to gain a new vision of social life.
•Stresses the social contexts in which people live. It examines how these contexts influence people’s lives.
•Fundamental question that centers the sociological perspective is, “How groups influence people, especially
how people are influenced by their society?” Sociologists look at social location to find out why people do what
they do.
Society – a group of people who share a culture and a territory.
Social location – the corners in life that people occupy because of where they are located in a society (jobs,
income, education, gender, age, etc.).
AUGUST COMTE AND POSITIVISM:
Founder of Sociology (1798-1857) France
Comte was interested in what holds society together. To answer this question properly, he asserted that it is
necessary to apply scientific method to social life. Applying scientific method would uncover the laws that
underlie society. Therefore he coined the term “positivism.”
Positivism – applying the scientific method to the social world. Comte called this new science “sociology (the
scientific study of society.”
-Comte stressed that this new science not only would discover social principles but also would apply them to
social reform. Sociologist would reform the entire society, making it a better place to live.
-He asserted we must observe and classify human activities in order to uncover society’s fundamental laws.
-Religion of humanity/Great Priest of Humanity
Herbert Spencer and Social Darwinism
Second Founder of Sociology (1820 – 1903) England
-Spencer disagreed with Comte on the purpose of sociology. He believed sociology should not guide social
reform. He asserted that no one should intervene in the evolution of society.
-Spencer thought that societies evolve from lower to higher forms (barbarian to civilize).
-As generations pass, the most capable and intelligent (fittest) members of the society survive, while the less
capable die out (and over time, societies improve).
-Society progress forward and helping the lower classes interferes in this natural process.
-The fittest members will produce a more advanced society
-Spencer coined this principle as “survival of the fittest.”
-Did not actually conduct studies, he just developed ideas about society.
Karl Marx and Class Conflict
1818-1883 Germany
Major theoretical contribution was the concept of class conflict. He proposed that there is a conflict in industrial
societies among two groups, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Marx suggested that society is a composite of
antithetical (oppositional) forces that generate social change by their constant tensions and struggles with one
another.
Class conflict – is the struggle between the owners (bourgeoisie) and the workers (proletariat).
Bourgeoisie – the controlling class of capitalists, those who own the means to produce wealth- capital, land,
factories, and machines.
Emile Durkheim and Social Integration
-Primary goal: to get sociology recognized as a separate academic discipline.
-Received the first academic appointment in sociology.
-Second goal: demonstrate how social forces affect people’s behavior, to do this he conducted rigorous
research.
 Research: Suicide rates –
High incidence of suicide among Protestants, males, & the unmarried
Low incidence of suicide among Catholics, Jews, females & the married
-Concluded suicide is not simply a matter of individuals here and there deciding to take their lives for personal
reasons. Instead, social factors underlie suicide. People with weaker social ties are more likely to commit suicide
-Durkheim identified social integration – the degree to which people are tied to their social group
-Central idea – human behavior is impacted by social forces (external)
Max Weber and the Protestant Ethic
1864 – 1920 Germany
Max Weber disagreed with Marx’s claim that economics is the central force in social change. Rather, religion is
the central force to social change.
Research: compared the extent of capitalism in Roman Catholic and Protestant countries. Capitalism is more
likely to flourish in Protestant countries.
Concluded: religion was the central factor of capitalism.
-Theorized Roman Catholic belief system encouraged Roman Catholics to hold onto traditional ways of life,
while the Protestant belief system encouraged its members to embrace change.
Roman Catholics – church members went to heaven
Protestants – looked for outside “signs” that they were in God’s will.
Financial prosperity became a major sign of God’s approval. Protestants lived frugal lives, saving their money
and investing to make more money.
According to Weber, this brought about the birth of “capitalism.”
Protestant ethic - self-denying approach to life to gain God’s approval through financial success.
Spirit of capitalism – investing capital in order to make more money.
B. Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
-Study how people use symbols to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with
one another.
-Symbols define for us what relationships are. It allow relationships to exist, we couldn’t coordinate our actions
with those of other people.
-Analyze how our behaviors depend on the ways we define ourselves and others.
-With symbols there are expectations
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS
(Functionalism/Structural Functionalism)
-Central idea: society is a whole unit; it is made up of interrelated parts that work together.
-The notion that society is an organism that has parts that must function together is the focal point.
-When all parts of society fulfill their functions, society is in a “normal” state.
-If the parts do not fulfill their functions, society is in an abnormal or pathological state.
-To understand society, look at both structure (how the parts of a society fit together to make the whole) and
function (what each part does, how it contributes to society).
CONFLICT THEORY
-Society is composed of groups that engage in fierce competition for scarce resources. (Struggle for power).
-key to human history is class struggle
-In every society, some small groups control the means of production and exploits those who are not in control.
-In industrialized societies the struggle is between the bourgeoisie (the small group of capitalists who own the
means to produce wealth) and the proletariat (the mass of workers who are exploited by the bourgeoisie
C. Sociological Research - a scientific method in investigating social phenomena
Basic goal- obtain understanding of the observable social world
Two kinds of researches:
Basic Research – concerned with the development of empirically based theory
Applied research – concerned with valuation and action
Levels of analysis in asking and answering question
o Individual level analysis- looks for the role played by the individual
o Group level analysis – looks at the influence of group upon social behavior
o Structural level analysis – examine social settings and its influences on social behavior
Research Process
A. Defining the problem
Social world is made up board and complex phenomena, therefore the scope and breadth of the problem
should be delimited and the phenomena to be focused on should be defined.
Sociological inquiry is guided by the following:
o Concept- refers to all cases of a particular class of objects, events, persons, relationships, processes and
ideas
o Hypothesis- a proposition or assumption stating what is to be resolved. It states relationships between two
or more social phenomena.
o Theory- statement of the logical relationships between facts
o Fact- an observational experience that can be repeated and verified
B. Gathering of the data
Methodological design, techniques and tools to be used
o Experimental Method- involves experimental group and controlled group
o Sample survey – involves a sample which represents a universe or a particular population
o Case study- intense examination of a specific group over a long period of time
o Techniques- may be qualitative or quantitative
o Observation- may be participatory or non-participatory
 o Interviewing- done by the use of questionnaire which may be structured or non structured or directed
interview.
o Participant Observation- where researcher-observer becomes involves in the activities of the group that is
being studied.
C. Analysis of Data- involves testing of hypothesis or answering questions or assumptions with facts that have
been gathered.
D. Verification- further checking and verification of findings
II. Society and culture
A. Society- a system of interacting individuals and interrelated groups sharing a common culture and territory
 a group of people living together in a social system of long established relationships, recognizing and
following a certain way of life

1. Two types of society: non industrial and industrial

2. Social Structure- the patterned and recurrent social relationship among persons in organized collectives
a. Form of Social Structure
1) Primary group structures; families, friendship groups and work groups
2) Purposely organized structures: voluntary organizations and association
3) Territorial structures: city, community, neighborhood
4) Latent structures: sex or racial categories
3. Social groups and social organizations
a. Social Groups
1) Primary group and secondary group
Primary group- family and friendship group are considered the building blocks of the larger society
Secondary groups – groups where interactions among members are impersonal, business like.
Focus of the group is on development of skills and specialized know how.
2) Gemeinschaft and Gessellschaft ( Ferdinand Townies)
Gemeinschaft - a community of intimate private and exclusive living and familism. Maybe likened
to our tribal group, fishing villages, agricultural villages.
Gessellschaft - large secondary group where there is division \of labor, specialization, functional
interdependence.
3) In-group and out-group- based on sense of belonging. These are not actual groups but a kind of
relationship that exist in mind. The use of “we” (in group) and “they” (out-group) defines this
grouping.
4) Informal ad formal – Based on form of organization
Informal group- arises spontaneously out of interaction
Formal group – also called social organization
Formal organizations are necessary in industrialized complex societies.
Goals of formal organizations are for:
1) Profit
2) The spiritual needs of people
3) Education
4) Workers benefit
5) Service to the poor
4. Socialization- process through which a person acquires the skills and behavior necessary for social
living.
a. Elements of socialization
1) child’s culture
2) biological inheritance
3) child’s interaction
b. Family – most important socializing agent
c. School- transmitter of culture
d. Language – an important tool in socialization
e. Social order- means by which people fill their expected role
Status – the position a person occupies in society by virtie of age, birth, marriage,
occupation or achievement
- ascribed status- position assigned to the individual
- achieved status- acquired through competition
5. Agencies of Socialization
a. Family
b. Peer group
c. Church
d. School
e. Mass Media
f. Workplace
6. Social interaction - refers to the various actions and interactions of individuals in a social situation.
7. Social Processes
a. Cooperation – people work together for a common good
1) Assimilation- blending/ fusing two culture
2) Acculturation- adaptation of culture upon contact
3) Amalgation- brought about by intermarriage
b. Competition and Conflict
B. Culture – shared beliefs, norms and values that human acquires through social learning
 1. Components of Culture
a. Non-material culture
1) Social Norms –rules or expectation that define what is acceptable or require in a social situation
a) Folkways- commonly known as customs, traditions and conventions of society
b) Mores- special folkways which are important to the welfare of the people and their cherished
values
c) Laws- formalized forms norms enacted by people who are vested by political and legal authorities
designated by the government
2) Values – abstract standards that persist overtime and serve as guides to what is right and proper for
people in society
3) Knowledge- the total range of what has been learned or perceived a true. This could be natural,
supernatural, and magic knowledge.
b. Material culture (Product of technology )
1) Artifact: simple tools to computer
2. Characteristics of Culture
a. Culture is learned
b. Culture is a group product
c. Culture is transmitted from generation to generation
d. Culture is adaptive
e. Culture is varied
3. Importance of culture in Human Development
a. History of human evolution is a history of culture
b. Through development of culture, man sets aside certain laws of nature to confirm to his bidding
c. Through culture man can overcome his handicaps
4. Issues in Understanding Culture
a. Diversity and Variability
1) Cultural variability – cultures differ because of great variety of solutions. People of different
societies evolve in solving life problems.
2) Cultural integration- when no contradiction exist between people’s beliefs and their behavior,
between institutional goals and means
b. Cultural relativity and Ethnocentrism
1) Cultural relativity- various elements of culture are examined n terms of its relationship to other
elements a part of the total symbolic system of the culture
2) Ethnocentrism- evaluates other culture on basis of familiar and commonly shared ways of thinking
and acting
C. Filipino Society and Culture
1. Development of the Filipino culture
a. Asian or Oriental culture
Malayan as the indigenous core with strains of Aeta, Indonesian, Hindu, Arab and Chinese culture
b. Western or Occidental Culture
a. Spanish- strongly manifested in our religious end cultural orientation
b. American- manifested in Filipino political orientation
2. basic Feature Filipino Society and Culture
a. Kinship group- a system of social relations based on blood, marriage or affinity and ritual or
compadre connection. This is the basic element of Filipino social structure
3. Filipino View of the World
a. Universe- a structural framework where humans live
1. Upper World - gods, angels saints.
2. Lower World - dwelling place of man and environment spirit (with supernatural powers)
Filipinos have personalistic view of the universe.
III.Deviance and Social control
1. Deviance- the process by which those who violate group norms are identified as norm violators
Deviants- are the people who diverges from group norms while Deviates are those who display divergent
behavior but are not identified a norms violates
2. Components of Deviant Behavior:
a.Act or unit of action c. Social situation
b.Actor who exhibit the behavior d. Audience of definers of the act
3. Social control- refers to all those attitudes and behaviors originating in the social environment that have
the effects or directing or restricting the attitude and behavior of an individual or groups
4. Theories on the Causes of Deviance
a.Anomie theory- groups with fewer opportunities to achieve success or goals wile have greater motivation
to violate norms and higher rates of deviance.
b.Subculture theory- the greater motivation to violate norm will result in different patterns of deviance
depending upon the availability of illegitimate opportunities in the neighborhood
c.Differential Association Theory- specific direction of a person’s motivation and action depends upon
frequency and intensity of interaction with others
d.Labeling Theory- assumes that most people commit deviant acts at one time or another.
IV.Structural of Inequality: bases of Conflict
A. Social Stratification – exist when there is a hierarchy of position with differences ion wealth, power and
prestige ad when there is intergenerational transmission of advantage or disadvantage stemming from one’s
location in the hierarchy.
 1. Caste system- made up religiously sanctioned and hierarchically ranked groupings in which membership
is fixed at birth and is permanent. This is found in India where the rank order are:
a. Brahmas b. Ksashtriya c. Vaishyas d. Sudras
Untouchable is considered outcast
2. Social class system- composed of economic groups that are based upon similarities in occupation,
income and wealth. Social mobility is allowed in this system.
B. Nature of formal organization- it is a deliberately constructed social unit with explicit coordinate activities
designed to contribute toward the attainment of a stated goal.
Examples: Bureaucracy- where there is a clearly ordered hierarchy of position or officers; a defined
sphere of competence: activities are recorded; positions are filed ob the basis of
expertise; operation is based upon a system of general rules; and relationship among
people within a bureaucratic organization is impersonal.
C. Gender Inequality
1. Sex and gender : source of differentiation

Sex – refers to biological differences or characteristics that distinguished laes and females
Gender- refers to the social aspects of sex or to socially defined expectation, roles feelings or concepts
associated with sex.
2. Factors that define gender roles
a.Biological- women become pregnant and give birth; men impregnate.
b.Cultural tradition- men and women’s roles depend on cultural context
3. Social Change and the future of gender Roles
a. Rise of women’s movements brought about a change in the role that women play in modern society
D. Racial and Cultural Minorities
1. Ethnic minorities- groups defined by national origin, language and cultural patterns that are different from the
dominant group
2. Problems encountered by minority groups
a.prejudice- an emotional attitude that is unfavorable
b.segregation – setting apart or separating members of minority group from members of the dominant
group in social interactions
c.Expulsion- removal by the dominant group of an undesired population from the area they occupied.
d.Genocide- destruction of one group by another.
3. Means to minimize ethnic problem
1.Accommodation – acceptance of both the minority and dominant groups of their relative
positions in society
2.Cultural pluralism- the co-existence of different ethnic group based on mutual respect for
cultural differences.
V.Institutions: the Bases of Order
A. Institutions- cluster of norms associated with important social activities.
1. Family – basic social unit which is the source of intimate social relationship ad the most effective agent of
transmitting culture
a.Family structure
1. Based on membership: nuclear or extended
2. Based on descent: patrilineal; matrilineal or bilateral
3. Based on residence: patrolocal; matrilocal; avuncolocal; bilocal or neolocal
4. Based on authority: patriarchal ; matriarchal ; egalitarian or matricentric
b.Function of Family
1. Regulates sexual behavior and is the unit of reproduction
2. For biological maintenance
3. Agency for socializing the child
4. Mechanism for social control
5. Gives its members status
6. Performs economic, educational. Recreational, religious and political functions
2. Economic Institution
a.Economic is the actual organization and utilization of natural and human resources by given society at
a given time in accordance with their cultural patterns.
b.Classification of economic system
3.agricultural or industrial
4.subsistence or mechanized
5.underdeveloped or developed
6.capitalistic or communistic
c.Components of Economy: property, technology, division f labor and organization of work
d.Underdeveloped countries are resistant to economic development. The Philippines is in transition from
agricultural to industrial but as transition takes place, adjustments have to be made in value orientation
and social structure
3. Religious institutions
a.Religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to scared things. All religions involve a set
of symbols which arouses feelings of reverence of awe and are linked to rituals or ceremonies such as
church services.
b.Functions of religion
1. gives people peace of mind
2. allays fears and anxieties
 3. gives people anchorage
4. provides guidance
5. serves as means of social control
6. performs welfare and recreational functions
7. maintains and regulates the value system of society
8. integrates and promotes solidarity
c.Religious pluralism exists in the Philippines with Catholicism as the dominant religion. In the Philippines
there is separation of church and state. Folk Catholicism is a special feature of the religious pattern in
the Philippines. Indigenous practices of old folks and their beliefs in spirits and charms remain and have
been interwoven into the Catholic practices.
d.Impact of industrialization and modernization necessitated reforms in the church to adapt to the
changing conditions of the modern world
4. Political Institutions
a.Studio politics by sociologist focuses on the context f political decisions. Political power is a means by
which decisions are made and social reward, are allocated
1. influence- ability to affect the political process in the making of decision
2. authority – the legitimate exercise of power
b.Three types of political systems:
1. totalitarianism;
2. colonialism
3. democracy
c.Political participation involves acts of individuals and groups seeking to influence the political system.
d.Political socialization is the process by which members of a society become acquainted with the political
system and develop political attitudes. Such socialization occurs through the transmission of political
attitudes, norms and values within the culture, family, school and church are fundamental agencies of
socialization.
5. Educational Institutions
a.Social Functions of Education
1. To transmit culture
2. to prepare individuals for position in society
3. to serve as change agent in society
b.Social goals of the school are influenced by the philosophy and policies of government and these are
built into the educational system as a whole
c.Schools are complex social organizations with student and teacher subcultures. Increase in societal
complexity has caused an increase in bureaucratic regulations of schools. Student subcultures often
develop norms that are different from toed formally defined by the school.
d.Challenges to education center on the most fundamental beliefs and values of society.
VI.Developments in Modern Society
A. growth of Urban Areas
1. City is characterized by lack of cultural cohesiveness. Cities are large dense permanently settled territories
whose population engages primarily in non-agricultural pursuits
2. Metropolitan area- an urban area that extends far beyond the legal city limits
B. Urban Lifestyles
1. Complex interaction pattern – city dwellers have the potential for initiating an enormous number of social
relationships.
2. Exposure to unconventional norms- size and diversity of city fosters unconventional behavior patterns
C. Future of the city requires new set of economic and political relationships with the suburbs
D. Population
1. Demographic Perspective
Demography- analysis of a population by size or number of people, territorial distribution and social
characteristics such as occupation and marital status. Birthrates and death rates (mortality) are
components of population’s change.
2. Population growth is influence by 3 democratic processes: fertility, mortality, and migration
3. Population and the future – the larger the size and the higher the rate of human populations, the greater
are the demands for resources and the pressures placed on natural and social environments.
4. Issues arising from Population Problems
a.abortion b. fertility

PART II: ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

Direction: Analyze carefully each item. Choose the letter of the best answer in each item and try to justify your choice.
1.The Filipino is a mixture of different cultures. This means that
a. The Filipino has both the Oriental and Western Cultural orientation
b. The Filipino has intermarried with Westerners.
c. The Filipino is Western in his ways rather than oriental
d. The Filipino indigenous core is Malayan
2.Kinship group is the Basic feature of the Filipino Society and Culture. Kinship refers to the system of social
relationship based on blood marriage and ritual. Which social relationship based on ritual is illustrated in this
situation?
a. When your father seeks the help of your uncle to work for your immigration to USA
b. When your father calls up your Ninong Jose to facilitate your transfer as a teacher to your hometown
c. When your father request the mayor whom he help during election o give you a job
 d. When your father gets the help of his BOSS to recommend you for employment in a bank
3.Family is the basic unit of society. A Filipino family is generally extended such that we usually find in such family the
ff.:
a. Father , Mother , Children
b. Father, Mother, Grandmother , Children
c. Father, Mother, Children, helper
d. Father, Mother , Adopted child , Natural Child
4.In the Philippines, Importance is given to one’s status in society. A Filipinos status in society is based on income
such that some Filipinos tend to be “social climbers” Social climbers are best identified in this situation.
a. When affluent people go to parties more often
b. When an individual from the lowest class wears fashionable clothes
c. When an individual from the lowest class borrow money to buy dresses to attend parties in classy hotel.
d. When a not so affluent person attends a class reunion held in a classy hotel
5.Problem in society is often brought about by prejudices or biases. This is experienced especially by minority or
ethnic groups. Which activity can minimize prejudices or biases in class where a group coming from an ethnic
group is enrolled?
a. Have an activity where ethnic group competes with the other groups in the class.
b. Let the ethnic group perform a dance or render a song depicting their culture so that the rest of the class would
be aware that they are really different
c. Let the ethnic group and the other members of the class do an activity where they share ideas about their culture
d. When doing class activities segregate the ethnic group so they can do their own thing
6.Frankness of the American can be considered rude by Filipinos. This assessment of American behavior is attributed
to
a. cultural lag b. cultural relativism c. cultural pluralism d. cultural universality
7.Filipinos are particular about their relations with other people in society, they are very careful about their behavior
such that they are conscious of the means of controlling their behavior. The least effective means of social control
among the following is:
a. ostracism b. public opinion c. gossip d. laws
8.Social mobility is best illustrated in one’s
a. attending social gatherings c. getting older
b. moving from one place to another d. becoming richer
9.The least used research method in Sociology is
a. social survey c. interview
b. participant observation d. controlled experiment
10.Rhea is described as very much like her mother in behavior and attitudes. This is said to be the result o the strong
influence of the family as a
a. peer group b. reference group c. primary group d. secondary group
11.Which among the following is not a non-material culture
a. values b. norms c. language d. tools
12.Language is an important tool in transmitting messages. Which of the following indicates displeasure?
a. pensive look c. tapping of the shoulder
b. nod of the head d. stern look
13.The principal means through which culture is transmitted from generation to generation is
a. language b. action c. diffusion d. education
14.The practice of “pamamanhikan” especially in the rural areas is an illustrating of a Filipino
a. value b. folkways c. mores d. law
15.Philippines politics has been described as “dirty”. This description is best illustrated in one of the following;
a. candidates for the position do not advocate cleanliness for the community
b. candidates do not observe proper decorum
c. candidates employ black propaganda tactics
d. candidates do not resort to white washing of controversial issues
16.The peer group as an agency for socialization provides the individual
a. first experience in love and affection
b. camaraderie that develops stable personal identity
c. incentive or rewards for performance of goal behavior
d. orientation into the culture of the group
17.A nuclear family is that where the members consist of the following:
a. father, mother, son and grandparent c. father, mother, son, daughter and grandparent
b. father, mother , son, daughter d. father, mother, son, and cousins
18.A typical social structure which describes a pattern through which relationships at work are ordered is termed
a. Capitalistic b. Technological c. Communistic d. Bureaucratic
19.Martha was born to parents who were both intellectually smart. At very young age of 2 she already exhibited interest
in reading and she could count numbers 1 to 100. She could also entertain visitors as well by performing either
singing or dancing. Given these talents, it is very clear that Martha had developed her personality and character
similar to that of the parents. This development is accounted to
a. Child’s biological inheritance c. Child’s cultural and social environment
b. Child’s geographical environment d. Child’s experiences
20.Social relationship in Philippine setting is illustrated in the kinship patterns that Filipinos developed. In the kinship
pattern is included the compadrazgo system. This refers to:
a. relationship by blood c. relationship by marriage
b. relationship by ritual d. relationship by contact
21.Which theory of society did Marx clearly adhere to?
 a. Evolutionist theory c. Integrationist theory
b. Conflict theory d. Structural-Functional theory
22.Man is a social being. He is therefore prone to socialization. It is in socialization where man best develop his:
a. physical characteristics c. social status
b. personality d. idiosyncrasies
23.When we say that “education is from womb to tomb” we cater to the idea that:
a. education is forever c. education is acquired following the life-process of man
b. education is ecstasy d. education is best left to the living
24.“No two individuals are the same”. This saying illustrates the principle of
a. individual differences c. cultural relativity
b. social differentiation d. cultural ethnocentrism
25.When society becomes more urbanized, problems become complicated. In such complexity there is a need to
efficiently make things work. In such a situation a hierarchical arrangement of authority, rights and obligations are
drawn. Such arrangement is appropriately termed:
a. social structure c. social organization
b. bureaucracy d. social stratification

PART III: ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

Directions: Answer the following items to enhance your test taking skills.

1. If the school is considered as agent of social and cultural change it should therefore function as
a. Transmitter of culture c. Agent of the state
b. Perpetuator of tradition d. Pioneer of programs
2. Which of the following best exemplifies achieved status
a. inherited real estate properties from parents c. Inherited talents from parents
b. finished law as a working student d. Reached the age of 50
3. Which of the following best describes the goals o sociological inquiry?
a. to control deviant behavior
b. to increase our understanding of ourselves and our groups
c. to improve society
d. to help people who have problems
4. When a person says that “rich people acquired their wealth through foul means” the person is expressing his
a. anger b. discrimination c. inferiority d. prejudice
5. In the study of a political system, sociologist would be most interested in
a. the effect of political institution on other institution in society c. political theory
b. voting behavior d. functions of government
6. purposely organized social structure have the following characteristics except
a. goal direction c. intimated ace to ace associations
b. hierarchy of authority d. impersonal social relationships
7. Which of the following is an example of an issue a sociologist would study?
a. Which political system is the best?
b. Why the rate of abortion rising?
c. What is the interaction between chemicals and behavior?
d. How do police actions influence crowd behavior?
8. Among the Bontoc Igorot in the Philippines, a women reaches “her prime” at age 23, while at 30 she is getting old;
before 45 she is “old” and by 50 she is a mass of wrinkles from foot to forehead. What does this description
speak of in so far biological traits: race, sex and age are concerned?
a. That race defines the characteristics
b. That sex defines the role of a person
c. That age is a universal criterion for assigning expectation sets.
d. That all the biological traits
9. Material culture refers to the tangible and concrete objects produced by man. Which among of the following is not
a material culture?
a. bow and arrow of the Aetas c. ceremonial bench of the Fugue
b. stone tools of the Tasadays d. celebration of Moriones festival
10. Which among the following is considered the “raw material” of personality development?
a. social environment b. training c. heredity d. culture
11. Which among the following is an individual’s consaguineal relation
a. stepsister b. brother-in-aw c. half-brother d. godfather
12. Student protest can be used to uncover features of change reflecting change-inducing movement. This action of
a group is termed
a. Deviant behavior c. Revolutionary movement
b. Collection behavior d. Industrialist movement
13. Contemporary Filipino values had been shaped by
a. our oriental forefathers c. our accepted religion
b. our western colonizer d. influences of oriental and occidental people we got in contact with
14. Man is a social being. This means therefore that
a. Man necessarily relates with other man
b. Man my choose to relate with other man
c. Man has the capacity to adopt to the ways of other people
d. Man should always be happy in the company of other people
 15. The greater the knowledge of a person, the greater is his responsibility. Which among the following situations
best illustrate the given statement
a. The teacher has greater responsibility than the pupil in the classroom
b. The teacher and pupil both assume great responsibility in the classroom
c. The pupil has a greater responsibility because he is the learner
d. The teacher shares the responsibility with the school principal when inside the classroom
16. Prince Charles of England is being accorded great respect because he is the heir to the throne of England. How
did he attain such status?
a. it is an achieved status because he will succeed to the throne of England
b. it is an ascribe status because he will succeed to the throne by virtue of birth/ inheritance
c. it is an accomplishment on his part because he patiently waited for the position
d. it is a blessing for him because he was favored by his mother, the queen
17. Despite the westernization of Filipinos, many still retain our oriental heritage. An example of this is our close-
family ties. Close family ties is usually manifested through:
a. Reunions c. Regular correspondence
b. Recognition programs d. Social gatherings
18. Which situation is a clear indication of one’s expression of bias or prejudice?
a. when one who comes from the Visayas makes a wrong pronunciation of a word in English and you laugh at
his mispronunciation
b. when one corrects the mispronunciation of word said by another person
c. when one simply ignores the mispronunciation of a word said
d. when you emphasize the mispronunciation word
19. In the Philippines there are many religions practiced by Filipinos. Even among Christians, several sects are in
existence. Due to differences in belief and practices some may really notice the unusual practice of some sects.
In fact, the newly formed sects are very aggressive and their members very fanatical. How would you deal with
these people?
a. we will engage them in an argument c. we will tolerate them
b. we will simply ignore them d. we will praise them
20. Everyone has experienced being with a group. As long as one is with a group, a certain kind of behavior is
manifested. This is what we term collective behavior. An example of this behavior is:
a. when you do your job or plowing the field
b. when you pick up pieces of paper because you are conscious about cleanliness
c. when all of you in the audience laugh in a movie house because the scene is funny
d. when you help a person cross the street
21. In which situation below best illustrate Filipino personalism?
a. Marina was reminded by hid officemate about the schedule date of submission of reports but marina reacted
by saying “I know my job.” You do not need to remind me even if I am just your subordinate
b. Sylvia was given an award as outstanding employee. Almost of her officemate were happy for her
c. Nena was observed to have made a habit of coming late. When she was reprimanded she merely said “sorry,
ill try to be punctual
d. When Linda was informed that she has to be replaced in the prestigious position which she was occupying,
she cried.
22. Which among the following is an example of a deviant behavior?
a. going along with the decision of the group
b. opposing the decision of the group
c. when the class went on a field trip you did not go with them
d. when you create mischief’s very often causing frequent disorder in the classroom
23. How would you regard observance of holy week?
a. tradition b. belief c. obligation c. commemoration
24. When is competition a constructive one?
a. when you consider undertaking as a challenge
b. when you really determined to really put down the position
c. when try to get the cooperation of others to vouch for your competence
d. when you mislead the orientation by making it appear you are a born loser
25. What type of family is it where the mother is the head and the domineering personality
a. nuclear b. bilateral c. matriarchal d. extended

EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES IN PHILOSOPHY

Social Philosophy Approach
PHILOSOPHY APPLIED TO EDUCATION
 Authoritarianism – assumes that the inferences that shape
an individual are determined by forces external to him.
Laissez-Faire – assumes that the individual is shaped by
internal forces.
Democracy – assumes that an individual is shaped by both
external and internal forces
Culture – Oriented Approach
PHILOSOPHY
Perrenialism
 Is largely a product of Aristotle’s rationalism and its
treatment by Thomas Aquinas.
 It assumes that man’s basic or essential
characteristic is his ability to reason.
 Only through reason can man understand
existence and how he is required to live
Essentialism
 It is often called traditionalism or conservatism
 Assumes that the values of men are embedded in
the universe, waiting to be discovered and
understood
Progressivism
 It assumes that the world changes, that in the
universe is not particularly conceived with him
 Man can rely only upon his ability to think straight
Reconstructionism
 It assumes that the school has the role to play as
an agent of planned change
Eastern Philosophies
1. The teacher knows the facts, judgments, and
logical organization of subject matter and use them
to create a rigid framework of instruction
2. Ideals must be learned by certain methods and one
interpretation is usually preferred over the other
3. The teacher is placed in the moral and intellectual
center of the classroom and demands that the
students accept him and what he stands for.
1. The role of the teacher is to leave the child alone
and be ready to help when called upon
2. The teacher is more a resource than a guide or
director
3. Subject matter consists of materials connected to
the learner’s immediate concerns
4. It takes place according to privileges that are based
upon the natural response of the learner to what he
wishes to know when he wishes to know it
1. The child is influenced by his culture, but he in turn
learns to exert an influence upon it
2. Students learns to be purposeful by working at his
problem in an actual way
3. The task of a teacher is to help each child
understand what is problems are and the
processes of thinking that defensible conclusions
APPLIED TO EDUCATION
 In education, the task of the teacher is to help the
child rise above nature and more toward the eternal
destiny that awaits him
 The pupil has the free will and can reject the truth
and his teacher’s authority
 He must be prepared to suffer the consequences
that follow the dismissal of unchangeable and
universal truths
 In education, there are some things the child must
learn which tend the curriculum relatively static
 There is a core of essential and traditional subjects;
certain literary classic, language, religion,
mathematics, science and history, and other
materials.
 In education, this means that the child must be
taught to be independent, self-reliant thinker, learn
to discipline himself, be responsible for the
consequences of his behavior
 This is what the teacher must learn and the school
to teach: the skills of group discussions that will
make it possible for men to talk over their
differences until they end with discussion.
1. Indian Philosophies
a. Hinduism
 Emphasizes a commitment to an ideal way
of life called (Dharma), characterized by
honesty, courage,
service, faith, self-control, purity and
non-violence.
 Dharma can be achieved through Yoga
 Believes that one should be able to control
and regulate his desires, not to devote life to
sensual pleasure or worldly success.
 Believes that religion should be practical.
God is to be realized by living in the world.
 God is truth and the best way to seek the
truth is by practicing non-violence (Ahinisa).
 God is an abstraction but a living presence.
b. Buddhism
 Believes that personal gratification is the root
of sufferings in the world
 The teachings of Buddha centered on four
noble truths:
1. All in life is suffering, pain and
misery of dukkha.
2. This suffering has a cause: Selfish
craving and personal desire
3. This suffering can cease.
4. The way to overcome this misery is
through Eight Fold Path such as:
Right understanding/Right speech.
Right conduct, Right vocation/Right
concentration, Right effort, Right
mindfulness, Right thought.
 Holds that the universe is a Samsara, a
stream without end in which the law of karma
operates
 Stressed non-attachment, concern for
humanity, desire to become Buddhalike
and to live in harmony with the natural flow
of the Universe.
3. Japanese Philosophy , 4. Muslim Philosophy
a. Zen Buddhism a. Islam
 Has no savior/s, paradise, faith on God,
no scriptures.
 Proposes to discipline the mind and seeks
the freedom of the mind
 Emphasizes a dependence on oneself rather
than an outside source for answers and
wisdom,
 The Third Eye helps one see things in
addition to what our two eyes show us,
should be attuned to the things around us.
 Emphasizes silent meditation, aiming to
awaken the mind in each person.
 Enlightenment comes through an immediate
and intuitive understanding of reality that
awakens our Buddha nature (through
rational thinking)
2. Chinese Philosophies.
a. Confucianism
 Teaches moral life through devotion to the family, loyalty
to elders, love of learning, brotherhood, civil service, and
universal love and justice
 The concept of a superior individual is one who lives in a
life of rightness, virtues and propriety.
 People are social beings; must interact with society
without necessarily surrendering to it and the moral
individual will attempt to change others to conform to the
moral path.
 Five Constant Virtues: Benevolence, Righteousness,
Propriety, Wisdom, and Sincerity
 Education should build moral, character than merely
teaching skills or information
 Every person should strive for the continual development
of self until excellence is achieved.
b. Taosim -.
 Advocates simplicity, frugality, and the joys of being close
to nature and being in harmony with the whole universe.
 Simplicity is the key to knowledge as patience is to
understanding
 Tranquility is the assurance of the good life
 Wu Wei: Do nothing that is unnatural or not spontaneous;
not strain or strive for anything. Let things come naturally.
 Emphasized a total commitment in faith, obedience, and
trust to one and only God
 Koran, its sacred book is the word of God
 No intermediaries between God and humans. Any person,
no matter how sinful, can bring a plea before God.
 Each person will be tried on the last judgment when Allah
will judge all souls.
 Believes in paradise, an oasis of flowing waters, pleasant
drinks, food and sensual delights.
 Others who have not followed the will of Allah
overt
 Five Pillars of Islam
a. Belief in one God (Allah)
b. Prayer
c. Fasting
d. Almsgiving
e. Pilgrimage
 5. Christian Philosophy
 Believes in the:
a. God is the Creator of all things.
b. Jesus is the Messiah, Christ, son of God
c. The Holy Trinity includes the Father, the Son, and the Spirit
d. The Human being is a sinner who requires redemption.
e. Jesus came down to earth to redeem mankind
f. The soul is immortal
g. The Old Testament and the New Testament are the guides to ideal Christian Life
h. Baptism is necessary for salvation.
i. There is life after death

RELEVANT PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION OPERATING IN PARTICULAR

CLASSROOM SITUATIONS

Philosophies of Education Current Educational Classroom Practices

IDEALISM DECS Order No. 13 1998-Revised rules and regulations on the teaching of
religion in public elementary and secondary
schools
SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM/ DECS Order No. 57, s. 1998 - Clarification on the changes in the Social Studies
PROGRESSIVISM program
• Sequencing in Social Studies are as follows:
Old: Third and fourth year students to take up Ekonomiks and
Kasaysayan ng Daigdig respectively
New: Kasaysayan ng Daigdig for the third year and Ekonomiks for fourth
year students

EXISTENTIALISM / SOCIAL DECS Order No. 65, s 1998 - Revised guidelines on the selection of honor
RECONSTRUCTIONSSM students in private and public secondary schools

SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTJONISM DECS Order No. 106, s. 1998 - Revised rules

exemption of Scout^ from Citizen's Army Training (CAT)

PROGRESSIVISM DECS Order No. 91, s. 1998 - changes in the Technology and Home Economics
(THE) program of the New Secondary Education Curriculum (NSEC)

EXISTENTIALISM DECS Order Mo. 70, s. 1998 - Revised system of rating and reporting of student
performance for secondary schools
PROGRESSIVISM DECS Order No. 67. s. 1997 - Implementation of the
Revitalized Homeroom Guidance Program (RHGP)

RECONSTRUCTIONSM Regional School of the Future (SOF)

IDEALISM DECS Order No. 33, s 1996 – Reiterating the implementation of RA 1425
mandating the inclusion of Rizal’s life, works, and writing, teaching and virtues
as a course.

PERENNIALISM/ESSENTIALISM DECS Order No. 40, s. 1995 – Promoting culture and arts in schools.

SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONSM DECS Order No. 54, s. 1995 – War On Waste

ESSENTIALISM DECS Order No. 1, s. 1993 – Increasing the number of elementary school days
and time allotment in the New Elementary School Curriculum (NESC)

C. EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHERS
EDUCATIONAL
PHILOSOPER CONTRIBUTIONS
PLATO  Plato is the earliest important educational thinker. He saw education as the key to
creating and sustaining his Republic.
 He advocated extreme methods: removing children from their mothers' care and raising
them as wards of the state, with great care being taken to differentiate children suitable
to the various castes, the highest receiving the most education, so that they could act as
guardians of the city and care for the less able.
 Education would be holistic, including facts, skills, physical discipline, and music and art,
which he considered the highest form of endeavor.
 Plato's belief that talent was distributed non-genetically and thus must be found in
children born to all classes moves us away from aristocracy, and Plato builds on this by
insisting that those suitably gifted are to be trained by the state so that they may be
qualified to assume the role of a ruling class.

ARISTOTLE  Aristotle considered human nature, habit and reason to be equally important forces to be
cultivated in education.
 Thus, for example, he considered repetition to be a key tool to develop good habits.
 The teacher was to lead the student systematically; this differs, for example, from
Socrates' emphasis on questioning his listeners to bring out their own ideas (though the
comparison is perhaps incongruous since Socrates was dealing with adults).
 Aristotle placed great emphasis on balancing the theoretical and practical aspects of
subjects taught.
 Subjects he explicitly mentions as being important included reading, writing and
mathematics; music; physical education; literature and history; and a wide range of
sciences. He also mentioned the importance of play.
 One of education's primary missions for Aristotle, perhaps it’s most important, was to
produce good and virtuous citizens for the polis. All who have meditated on the art of
governing mankind have been convinced that the fate of empires depends on the
education of youth.

AQUINAS  Perennialism was originally religious in nature, developed first by Thomas Aquinas in the
thirteenth century in his work The Magistro (The Teacher).
 Perennialists believe that one should teach the things that one deems to be of
everlasting importance to all people everywhere. They believe that the most important
topics develop a person.
 Since details of fact change constantly, these cannot be the most important. Therefore,
one should teach principles, not facts.
 Since people are human, one should teach first about humans, not machines or
techniques. Since people are people first, and workers second if at all, one should teach
liberal topics first, not vocational topics.
 Although perennialism may seem similar to essentialism, perennialism focuses first on
personal development, while essentialism focuses first on essential skills. Essentialist
curricula thus tend to be much more vocational and fact-based, and far less liberal and
principle-based.
MILTON  John Milton (December 9, 1608 – November 8, 1674) was an English poet, prose
polemicist, and civil servant for the English Commonwealth.

ROUSSEAU  Rousseau (1712-78), though he paid his respects to Plato's philosophy, rejected it as
impractical due to the decayed state of society.
 Rousseau also had a different theory of human development; where Plato held that
people are born with skills appropriate to different castes (though he did not regard these
skills as being inherited), Rousseau held that there was one developmental process
common to all humans.
 This was an intrinsic, natural process, of which the primary behavioral manifestation was
curiosity. This differed from Locke's tabula rasa in that it was an active process deriving
from the child's nature, which drove the child to learn and adapt to its surroundings.
 Rousseau wrote in his book Emile that all children are perfectly designed organisms,
ready to learn from their surroundings so as to grow into virtuous adults, but due to the
malign influence of corrupt society, they often fail to do so.
 Rousseau advocated an educational method which consisted of removing the child from
society—for example, to a country home—and alternately conditioning him through
changes to environment and setting traps and puzzles for him to solve or overcome.

JOHN DEWEY  (October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist, and
educational reformer, whose thoughts and ideas have been greatly influential in the
United States and around the world.
 He, along with Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, is recognized as one of the
founders of the philosophical school of Pragmatism.
 He is also known as the father of functional psychology; he was a leading representative
of the progressive movement in U.S. schooling during the first half of the 20th century.
RUDOLF STEINER  Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925), a philosopher and writer, created a holistic educational
impulse that has become known as Waldorf Education.
 He emphasizes a balance of developing the intellect (or head), feeling and artistic life (or
heart), and practical skills (or hands).
 The education focuses on producing free individuals, and Steiner expected it to enable a
new, freer social order to arise, through the creative, free human beings that it would
develop. Regrettably, Steiner's methods have not been an unadulterated success.
 Waldorf Education is based on Steiner's philosophy, known as anthroposophy, and
divides education into three discrete developmental stages; these stages predate but
have close similarities to Piaget's stages of child development
 Waldorf education includes a respect for children's physical nature, rhythmic life
(technical term: ether body), consciousness (technical term: astral body) and individuality
(ego).
 Anthroposophy includes teachings about reincarnation and schools often try to foster
awareness that each human being - and thus each child - carries a unique being into this
earthly life.
 As both an independent educational model and a major influence upon other educators
- such as Maria Montessori - Waldorf education is currently both one of the largest and
one of the fastest growing educational movements in the world. Waldorf schools are also
increasingly operating as state-funded (in the U.S.A. charter) schools or even state-run
(in the U.S.A. public) schools.

B.F. SKINNER  One of B.F. Skinner's (1904-90) contributions to education philosophy is his text Walden
Two wherein he details the failings of society and education, as one is intricately and
intrinsically linked to the other.
 The pedagogical methods direct instruction and precision teaching owe much to his
ideas. Behaviorist theories play largely in his proposed ideas of social engineering.
 B.F.Skinner developed the theory of "operant conditioning," the idea that we behave the
way we do because this kind of behavior has had certain consequences in the past

MARIA  Maria Montessori (August 31, 1870 – May 6, 1952) was an Italian physician, educator,
MONTESSORI philosopher, humanitarian and devout Catholic; she is best known for her philosophy and
the Montessori method of education of children from birth to adolescence.
 Her educational method is in use today in a number of public as well as private schools
throughout the world.
 Aside from a new pedagogy, among the premier contributions to educational thought by
Montessori are:
o children as natural learners
o instruction of children in 3-year age groups, corresponding to sensitive periods
of development (example: Birth-3, 3-6, 6-9, and 9-12 year olds with an Erdkinder
(German for "Children of the World") program for early teens
o children as competent beings, encouraged to make maximal decisions
o observation of the child in the environment as the basis for ongoing curriculum
development (presentation of subsequent exercises for skill development and
information accumulation)
o small, child-sized furniture and creation of a small, child-sized environment
(microcosm) in which each can be competent to produce overall a self-running
small children's world
o creation of a scale of sensitive periods of development, which provides a focus
for class work that is appropriate and uniquely stimulating and motivating to the
child (including sensitive periods for language development, sensorial
experimentation and refinement, and various levels of social interaction)
o the importance of the "absorbent mind," the limitless motivation of the young child
to achieve competence over his or her environment and to perfect his or her skills
and understandings as they occur within each sensitive period. The
phenomenon is characterized by the young child's capacity for repetition of
activities within sensitive period categories (Example: exhaustive babbling as
language practice leading to language competence).
o self-correcting "auto-didactic" materials (some based on work of Jean Marc
Gaspard Itard and Edouard Seguin)
JEAN PIAGET  Jean Piaget [ʒɑ̃ pjaʒɛ] (August 9, 1896 – September 16, 1980) was a Swiss philosopher,
natural scientist and developmental psychologist, well known for his work studying
children, his theory of cognitive development and for his epistemological view called
"genetic epistemology".
 He created in 1955 the International Centre for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva and
directed it until 1980. According to Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget is "the great
pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing"[1].
 The four development stages are described in Piaget's theory as
o Sensorimotor stage: from birth to age 2 years (children experience the world
through movement and senses and learn object permanence)
o Preoperational stage: from ages 2 to 7 (acquisition of motor skills)
o Concrete operational stage: from ages 7 to 11 (children begin to think logically
about concrete events)
o Formal operational stage: after age 11 (development of abstract reasoning)
PAULO FREIRE  Paulo Freire (Recife, Brazil September 19, 1921 – São Paulo, Brazil May 2, 1997) was
a Brazilian educator and is a highly influential theorist of education.
 Paulo Freire contributed a philosophy of education that came not only from the more
classical approaches stemming from Plato, but also from modern Marxist and anti-
colonialist thinkers.
 In fact, in many ways his Pedagogy of the Oppressed may be best read as an extension
of, or reply to, Frantz Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth, which emphasized the need to
provide native populations with an education which was simultaneously new and modern
(rather than traditional) and anti-colonial (not simply an extension of the culture of the
colonizer).
 Freire is best-known for his attack on what he called the "banking" concept of education,
in which the student was viewed as an empty account to be filled by the teacher.
 The basic critique was not new — Rousseau's conception of the child as an active learner
was already a step away from tabula rasa (which is basically the same as the "banking
concept"), and thinkers like John Dewey and Alfred North Whitehead were strongly
critical of the transmission of mere "facts" as the goal of education.
 Freire's work, however, updated the concept and placed it in context with current theories
and practices of education, laying the foundation for what is now called critical pedagogy.

NEIL POSTMAN  Neil Postman has been a strong contemporary voice in both methods and philosophy of
education.
 His 1969 book "Teaching as a Subversive Activity" (co-authored with Charles
Weingartner) introduced the concept of a school driven by the inquiry method, the basis
of which is to get the students themselves to ask and answer relevant questions.
 The "teacher" (the two authors disdained the term and thought a new one should be
used) would be limited in the number of declarative sentences he could utter per class,
as well as questions he personally knew the answer to.
 The aim of this type of inquiry would be to provide the conditions for students to build
progressively what they don't know on top of what they do, and for the teacher to
understand, through close listening, what the student knows, from where he/she can
continue to provide the conditions for the learner to progress, and develop their
understanding.
 This may be opposed to methods based on answers and knowing rather than
understanding.
 Postman went on to write several more books on education, notably "Teaching as a
Conserving Activity" and "The End of Education."
 The latter deals with the importance of goals or "gods" to students, and Postman
suggests several "gods" capable of replacing the current ones offered in schools, namely,
Economic Utility and Consumerism.
JEROME BRUNER  Another important contributor to the inquiry method in education is Jerome Bruner.
 His books "The Process of Education" and "Toward a Theory of Instruction" are
landmarks in conceptualizing learning and curriculum development. He argued that any
subject can be taught in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of
development.
 This notion was an underpinning for his concept of the spiral curriculum which posited
the idea that a curriculum should revisit basic ideas, building on them until the student
had grasped the full formal concept.
 He emphasized intuition as a neglected but essential feature of productive thinking.
 He felt that interest in the material being learned was the best stimulis for learning rather
than external motivation such as grades. Bruner developed the concept of discovery
learning which promoted learning as a process of constructing new ideas based on
current or past knowledge.
 Students are encouraged to discover facts and relationships and continually build on
what they already know.
FRANCIS BACON  Francis Bacon (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman,
and essayist. He is also known as a proponent of the scientific revolution.
 His works established and popularized an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry,
often called the Baconian method or simply, the scientific method (Novum Organum).

WOLFGANG RATKE
 Wolfgang Ratke (also Ratchius or Wolfgang Ratich) (18 October 1571–27 April 1635)
was a German educationist.
 His system of education was based upon Francis Bacon's philosophy, the principle being
that of proceeding from things to names, from the particular to the general, and from the
mother tongue to foreign languages.
 Initiated teaching in accordance with child's nature
 Principle of repetition to ensure mastery
John Amos  John Amos Comenius (March 28, 1592 – November 15, 1670) was a Czech teacher,
Comenius scientist, educator, and writer.
 He was a Unity of the Brethren/Moravian Protestant bishop, a religious refugee, and one
of the earliest champions of universal education, a concept eventually set forth in his
book Didactica Magna.
 Comenius became known as the teacher of nations.
 Wrote the 1st picture book, "Orbis Pictus Sensualium" or the World of Sensible Things
Pictured

John Locke  John Locke, (August 29, 1632 – October 28, 1704) was an English philosopher.
 Locke is considered the first of the British Empiricists, but is equally important to social
contract theory.
 His ideas had enormous influence on the development of epistemology and political
philosophy, and he is widely regarded as one of the most influential Enlightenment
thinkers and contributors to liberal theory.
 His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as
well as the American revolutionaries. This influence is reflected in the American
Declaration of Independence.
 Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin for modern conceptions of identity and
"the self", figuring prominently in the later works of philosophers such as David Hume,
Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant.
 Locke was the first philosopher to define the self through a continuity of "consciousness."
He also postulated that the mind was a "blank slate" or "tabula rasa"; that is, contrary to
Cartesian or Christian philosophy, Locke maintained that people are born without innate
ideas.

Richard Mulcaster  Richard Mulcaster (c. 1531, Cumberland – April 15, 1611, Essex), is known best for his
headmasterships and pedagogic writings.
 Richard Mulcaster's writings remain important in the study of humanist education and the
sixteenth century
 Developed teacher-training colleges

Francois Fenelon  François de Salignac de la Mothe-Fénelon, (August 6, 1651–January 7, 1715), was a

French Roman Catholic theologian, poet and writer.
 He today is remembered mostly as one of the main advocates of quietism and as the
author of The Adventures of Telemachus, a scabrous attack on the French monarchy,
first published in 1699.
 Pioneered the education of women.

St. John Baptiste de  Saint Jean-Baptiste de La Salle (John Baptist de La Salle) (born 30 April 1651 in Reims;
la Salle died 7 April 1719 in Saint-Yon, Rouen) was a French priest, educational reformer, and
founder of an international educational movement, who dedicated more than forty years
of his life to the education of the children of the poor.
 In the process, he standardized educational practices throughout France, wrote
inspirational meditations on the ministry of teaching (along with catechisms, politeness
texts, and other resources for teachers and students), and became the catalyst and
resource for many other religious congregations dedicated to education that were
founded in the 18th and 19th centuries.
 In 1685 La Salle founded what is generally considered the first normal school — that is,
a school whose purpose is to train teachers — in Reims.
 He was proclaimed as the Patron Saint of Teachers in 1950 by Pope Pius XII.

Johann Heinrich  Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (January 12, 1746 – February 17, 1827) was a Swiss
Pestalozzi pedagogue and educational reformer.
 Wrote "How Gertrude Teaches Her Children"
 Advocator of: object study with language, education for social regeneration, learning
through observation & experiences, discipline based on love, etc.
Johann Friedrich  Johann Friedrich Herbart (May 4, 1776 - August 11, 1841) was a German philosopher,
Herbart psychologist, and founder of pedagogy as an academic discipline.
 Herbart’s pedagogy emphasized the connection between individual development and the
resulting societal contribution.
 In Platonic tradition, Herbart espoused that only by becoming productive citizens could
people fulfill their true purpose:
 He believed that every child is born with a unique potential, his Individuality, but that this
potential remained unfulfilled until it was analysed and transformed by education in
accordance with what he regarded as the accumulated values of civilization
 Only formalized, rigorous education could, he believed, provide the framework for moral
and intellectual development. The five key ideas which composed his concept of
individual maturation were Inner Freedom, Perfection, Benevolence, Justice, and Equity
or Recompense

Friedrich Wilhelm  Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel (April 21, 1782 – June 21, 1852) laid the foundation
August Froebel for modern education based on the recognition that children have unique needs and
capabilities.
 In 1840 he created the word kindergarten for the Play and Activity Institute he had
founded in 1837 at Bad Blankenburg for young children.
 He designed the educational materials known as Froebel Gifts, or Fröbelgaben, which
included geometric building blocks and pattern activity blocks.
 Activities in the first kindergarten included singing, dancing, gardening and playing with
the Froebel Gifts.

John Henry Newman  The Venerable John Henry Cardinal Newman, C.O. (February 21, 1801 – August 11,
1890) was an Anglican convert to Roman Catholicism, later made a cardinal, and in 1991
proclaimed 'Venerable'. In early life he was a major figure in the Oxford Movement to
bring the Church of England back to its Catholic roots.
 Authored "The Idea of a University" (must offer universal knowledge)
Herbert Spencer  Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903) was an English philosopher;
prominent classical liberal political theorist; and sociological theorist.
 Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive
development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human
culture and societies.
 The lifelong bachelor contributed to a wide range of subjects, including ethics, religion,
politics, philosophy, biology, sociology, and psychology.
 He is best known for coining the term survival of the fittest, which he did in Principles of
Biology (1864), after reading Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species.[
 This term strongly suggests natural selection, yet as Spencer extended evolution into
realms of sociology and ethics he made use of Lamarckism rather than natural selection.
 Defined education as complete living

Pedro Poveda  Pedro Poveda was born in Linares, Spain on December 3, 1874. After he was ordained
priest in Guadix in 1897, he exercised his first apostolic ministry among the poor cave
dwellers (Christian Humanism).
 He organized a livelihood program for adults and established a school for children.
 He gave himself to human and social advancement of the poor and marginalized people.
 Founded the Teresian Association in 1911 (committed to the transformation of the world
through the gospel)

Horace Mann  Horace Mann (May 4, 1796 – August 2, 1859) was an American education reformer and
abolitionist. He was also a member of the U.S. House of Representatives.
 It was not until he was appointed head (1837) of the newly created board of education of
Massachusetts that he began the work which was soon to place him in the foremost rank
of American educationists.
 He held this position, and worked with a remarkable intensity, holding teachers'
conventions, delivering numerous lectures and addresses, carrying on an extensive
correspondence, and introducing numerous reforms.
 He planned and inaugurated the Massachusetts normal school system in Lexington and
Bridgewater, founded and edited The Common School Journal (1838), and began
preparing a series of Annual Reports, which had a wide circulation and are still
considered as being "among the best expositions, if, indeed, they are not the very best
ones, of the practical benefits of a common school education both to the individual and
to the state" (Hinsdale).
 Edward Lee  Edward Lee Thorndike (August 31, 1874 - August 9, 1949) was an American
Thorndike psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia
University.
 His work on animal behavior and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism
and helped lay the scientific foundation for modern educational psychology.
 He also worked on solving industrial problems, such as employee exams and testing.
 Thorndike specified three conditions that maximizes learning:
o The law of effect stated that the likely recurrence of a response is generally
governed by its consequence or effect generally in the form of reward or
punishment.
o The law of recency stated that the most recent response is likely to govern the
recurrence.
o The law of exercise stated that stimulus-response associations are strengthened
through repetition.
 Father of the statistical movement in education

Camilo Osías  Camilo Osías (March 23, 1889 Balaoan, La Union - May 20, 1976 Manila) was a Filipino
politician, twice for a short time President of the Senate of the Philippines.
 He graduated from the Western Illinois State Teachers College at Macomb, Illinois in
1908, and from the Teachers College of Columbia University in New York City in 1910.
He returned to the Philippine Islands and taught school.
 Here he entered education politics, becoming successively the first Filipino
Superintendent of Schools (1915 to 1916), Assistant Director of Education (1917 to
1921), a member of the first Philippine mission to the United States (1919 to 1920), a
lecturer at the University of the Philippines (1919 to 1921), President of the National
University (1921-1936).
 School has an important role in the development of dynamic nationalism and
internationalism in relation to democracy in the education of the youth.
Dean Francisco  The function of our school is neither to fit the individual for the past which is dead and
Benitez gone, nor to prepare him for a remote future which is problematical, rather it is to train
the individual so that he will be a member of the world as it is.

Pedro T. Orata  All Filipinos particularly the out of school and youth adults have the right to education
particularly those living in the far flung areas of the country where school resources
maybe

Salvador Araneta  Education must fight intellectual indolence among students/eradicate moral turpitude,
subject them to the- educational crucible of discipline, disciplining their muscles, their
hearts, their minds, and their character, and crowning their education with the fire of love
for God and nation.

Rafael Palma  "...the diploma is by no means conclusive evidence of one's ability until he has
demonstrated by actual performance that he has fully done the tasks expected of him for
the good of the country..."

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

PART I: CONTENT UPDATE

SOCIO-ANTHROLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS (Relevant Terms & Concepts)
Anthropology
1. Derived from the Greek words anthorope which means man, and logy which means science.
2. Science that studies the origin and development of man. His works and his achievements.
3. Includes the study of physical, intellectual, moral, social, and cultural development of man, including his
customs, mores, folkways, and beliefs.
Culture
1. The shared products of human learning.
2. The sum total skills, beliefs, knowledge’s, and products that are commonly shared by a number of people
and transmitted to their. (Dressler)
3. A fabric of ideas, beliefs, skills, tools, and aesthetic objects, method of thinking, customs and institution
into each member of society is born (Smith, Stanley, and shores).
4. May be material (tangible) on non-material (Intangible) in form
5. A complex whole which includes knowledge’s, beliefs, arts, laws, morals, customs and other capabilities
and habits acquired by man as a member of society (Taylor)
6. Has the following characteristic.
It is learned and can be acquired through conditioning, imitation, formal and informal instruction, or the
media.
It is transmitted / transferable. What one learns can be transmitted to others through the use of language
It is social. It is shared by a learned from the members of a group.
It is adaptive. It selectively accommodates changes that come because of discovery, invention, and
borrowing by making appropriate adjustment.
 It is dynamic. It represents a particular society or group of individual.
It is universal. Societies all over the world have each a culture of their own.
7. A “standards for deciding what is, standards for deciding what can be, standards for deciding how one
feels about it, standards for deciding what to do about it, and standards for deciding how to go about doing
it (Goodenaugh).
Sociology
1. Science of man and society
2. Study of patterns of human behavior.
3. Study of groups and societies and how they affect the people.
Nature of Man
1. Basically a social being who cannot afford to live alone
2. Constantly interacts with others to satisfy most of his needs
3. Develops further as a person as he shares / interacts with others
Society
1. An organized group of population (Kessing) who interrelates and interacts with one another; with common
shared, attitudes, sentiments, aspirations and goals.
2. A social group that occupies territory, recruits its members by intergroup sexual reproduction, and has a
shared comprehensive culture (Bectrand).
3. A group of organized individuals who think of themselves as a distinct group, who have some things in
common, a set of loyalties and sentiments, and a “esprit de corps” which make the individual under certain
circumstances to sacrifice himself for the good of the group (Smith, Stanley, and Shoes).
4. A unit of interacting personalities with an interdependence of roles and status existing between or among
the members (Cole).
Status
6.1 refers to the position assigned by the person in a group or organization
Social Stratification
1. Refer to the classification of group members according to certain criteria which may differ according to the
nature of group.
2. Is influenced by the economic status of an individual
Social process
1. Refers to the patterned and recurrent from of social interaction (reciprocal action or effect)
2. May come in the form of competition, conflict, cooperation, accommodation, assimilation or acculturation)
Socialization
1. A process of adapting or conforming to the common needs and interest of a social groups
2. A process where a member of a group leans and internalizes the norms and standards of the other
member among whom she/he lives.
3. Is carried out through the following agents of socialization
Family – smallest social institution whose members are united by blood, marriage, or adaptation,
constituting a household and carrying a common culture whose functions include
Providing needed socialization of children in terms of their roles and status
Transmission of culture
Providing opportunities for growth and development of personality, self-concept relation to others
School (Education)
 An agency originated by the society for the basic function of teaching and learning and for the
enculturation of its members
 A place where attitudes, behaviors, customs and values are processed and refined
 Is an agent of
- Socialization – prepares students to become worthy members of society
 Is an agent of
- Cultural transmission – intakes the student aware of their cultural heritage as well as
the attitudes, values, and norms of the society through initiation and inculcation for the
continued survival of the society and the maintenance of social order
 As agent of
- Cultural and social change / modernization – serves as source of social and cultural
innovative activities that promote the development of initiative and open-mindedness
among the members of a society
 Integrates into cultural mainstream the various subcultures and identities through a common
language, shared experiences, and aspirations
 Has these other functions
- provides training of minds
- teaches the basics
- develops problem-solving and critical thinking
- accelerates adjustment to society
 has for its main goal to effect changes in the behavior or an individual person and through the
person and through the person all the others with in the group, eventually preparing the
individual for a progressive rebuilding of the social order
Church, government, non-government agencies and institution wherein an individual is a part of
change
Change
 1. Basically denotes a making or becoming distinctly different and implies either a radical transmutation of
character or replacement with something else (New World)
2. Management of change involves the skillful ways of managing, conducting and controlling things to
accomplish a purpose
3. For change to be successfully initiated and managed, 3 important components have to be present
(Fullan, 1991)
Relevance – includes the interaction of need, the practitioners’ understanding of the change or
innovation, and what change offers as benefits
Readiness – involves the capacity of the individual and the organization to deal with the change;
dependent on perceived need, reasons, time and benefits involved)
Resources – all facilities, equipment, materials, and supplies necessary to initiate change should be
available
4. Reactions to change may be:
a. Passive resistance – no verbal resistance but no cooperates shown either
b. Active resistance – verbal concentrate actions present (rallies, position papers, etc.)
c. Passive readiness – follow with question
d. Active – question but cooperates.
5. Involves 3 stages: Unfreezing (readiness); change implementation (actual practice) and refreezing
(becoming a habit)
6. May come in the form of:
a. Cultural change – refers to alterations affecting new trait of trait complexes in the cultures content
and structures.
b. Technological change – revisions that occur in man’s application of his technical knowledge and
skills as he adapts to his environment.
c. Social change – variations and modifications in the patterns of social organization of groups in a
society, or of the entire society
Sociology of Education
Provides a study of the regular pattern of relationship between society and the educational process and the
explanation for such relationships which contributes to the analysis and eventual to problems confronting the
educational system.
Socio – Anthropological Implications to Education
1. Schools need to provides the students with a curriculum that gives them insights into their social
traditions, customs, institution for the perpetuation of the long – established social order
2. Schools together with the community, must teach the young the concepts of social order and social control
for the survival of the society
3. Schools need to have activities that reinforce role and status, expectation and values, which are
necessary in the promotion of harmonious relationship among members of a group / society
4. Schools are a necessity, hence government should see to it that they function as expected and that it
works towards improving the educational system and the lot of the people involved in this system
5. The community and the schools must work very closely to achieve the goals of the society in terms of
having a maximum fir between what the schools produce and the manpower needed by the community
6. To ensure that quality outputs are produced by the schools, the government and TEI’s should have
policies that are strictly enforced regarding the admission, selection, and retention of teacher candidates
7. The government should regularly review the curriculum of basic education and higher learning
institutions to make certain that the educational and societal goals are a achieved.

SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY: Relevant terms and Concepts

Philosophy
1. The oldest form of systematic, scholarly inquiry
2. Comes form the Greek word philosophos or one who loves wisdom
3. Other related meanings
The study of the truths or principles underlying all knowledge, being, and reality, including values
meanings and purpose of human life
The study of the principles of a particular branch of knowledge
A system of principles for guidance in practical affairs
Social Philosophy
1. A normative science that
Involves the ideal of justice
Develops arguments that justify political and social institution, whether real or imagined
Inquiries into the meaning of a person’s value experiences and moral questions raised by social order
2. A philosophic critique of social processes, or the interaction of individuals within the social groups and
of social groups upon one another, in terms of the principles that underline structures and functions
Ethics / Moral Philosophy
1. Ethics and Morality are terms both derived from Greek words that mean “custom” or particular behavior
2. Defined as a philosophical science dealing with the morality of human acts
3. Is concerned with questions of human moral judgments – that is judgment of right and wrong with respect
to human actions
4. Come into being when men began to take interest in the values they hold
5. Applies to question involving
Individual cases of conscience and obligation
Moral ends and purposes
Ethical motivation or intuition
 The meaning of life; the purpose of his existence, and the consequences of his actions
Associative values towards which social process is directed
social control in terms of laws, rights, responsibility
sense of justice
6. Relation with other disciplines
 Anthropology investigates the origin of the human and the behavior of the primitive man; ethics
deals with the principles of right conduct as applied to men of all times
 Sociology describes the general structure and attitude of social groups; ethics studies the social
groups with reference to the moral social order
7. Divisions of Ethics
 General ethics discusses the nature of human acts their relation to morality; includes the ultimate
end of man / human acts / morality of human acts / law and conscience / virtue in general
 Special ethics deals with the application of the general principles of morality to the particular actions
of man as an individual and as a member of society includes rights and duties to God / oneself /
others (individual ethics); right to life, property and marriages (social ethics): state and political
authority (political ethics) and professional ethics
Human Acts
1. Actions that man performs knowingly, freely, voluntarily (as controlled by this pwn will, volition, and
powers)
2. May be moral (conforming to norms of morality; immoral (not conforming) and amoral (neither good or
bad)
Morality
1. The concept of morality revolves around the problem of good and evil. In the moral order, human actions
are good when they agree with the standards or norms of morality
2. In a popular sense, morality means a way of thinking and acting in conformity with virtue of goodness,
justice propriety, fairness, prudence, and other standards of behavior expected from individual members
of society; in a strict sense, it is the quality of human acts by which we call them right or wrong, good or
evil.
3. Morality is necessary for the preservation of human dignity and social life. It is the foundation of society
“the whole happiness of man and even this sanity depends on this moral condition … the problems of
society cannot be … solved except in terms of the moral life of individuals “ (Merton)
4. Moral obligation means duty, oughtness; presupposes freedom to do an act or to omit it – that is, man’s
free and deliberate acts are regulated by moral laws. Sanction is any motive, consideration, or promise
which impels one to follow a moral obligation: a good act is worthy of merit and reward; a bad act deserves
punishment
5. Norms of Morality
Standards that’s indicate the rightness or wrongness, the goodness or evilness, the value or disvalue of a
thing
Criteria of judgment about the kind of person one ought to b and the kind of actions she/he ought to perform
Theories of Ethics
1. Consequentialism – maintains that the morality of an action is determine solely by its consequences
Hedonism – views that only pleasure is good as an end
Utilitarianism – believes that the greatest happiness of the greatest number is the test of right or wrong
(Betham; Stuart Mill)
Self realization – holds that the ultimate end is the full development or perfection of the self (Aristotle)
2. Non-consequentialism – claims that the morality of an action depends on its instrinsic nature, or on its
motives, or on its motives, or on its motives, or on its being in accordance with some rules or principles
and either not all or only partly on consequences
3. Divine Command Theory – the morality of an act depends on whether it is an accordance with the will of
God. (St. Augustine)
4. Categorical Imperative Theory – holds that for one’s action to be morally right, he must do for its own
sake and not because of rewards or punishment (kant)
5. Egoism – an action is right only if it is in the interest of the agent (Hobbes)
6. Situation Ethics – the morality of an action depends on the situation’s and not on the application of the
law
7. Intuitionism – claims that one’s knowledge of right and wrong is immediate and self –evident
8. Emotive theory – claims that moral judgment do not state anything that is capable of being true or false
but merely express emotions like oaths or exclamations.
9. Ethical relativism – holds the view that there is no one correct moral code for all times and peoples, that
each group has its own morality relative to its wants and values, and that all moral ideas relative to a
particular culture
Values
1. Generally considered as something – a principle, quality, act, or, entity – that is intrinsically desirable (Hall,
et. Al.)
2. Possess a degree of excellence, some lasting genuine merit that rests on deeper intrinsic worth and more
enduring qualities than mere preference by individual or in consonance with given cultures (Hall, et. Al.)
3. Are interrelated, not isolated; they reflect one another
4. are dynamic; become personal or social goals and thereafter beget the other values which in turn generate
further goals
5. Are positive and negative; function as do’s and as don’ts
 6. May follow certain hierarchy or order; some are of higher order, some lower e.g., heroism has definitely
value that pragmatism
7. Are first subjectively experiences before they are objectively analyzed and interpreted
8. are in a sense contagious, the fact the value system of a people creates a certain national character
Value System
1. a system of established values, norms, or goals existing and shared in a society or group
2. may include, according to Huxley, such primary values are
Individual freedom based in facts of human diversity and genetic uniqueness
Charity and compassion based on the psychiatrically ascertained fact that love is as necessary as food
for human growth, the love element including the valuing of self to develop self concept and
potentials for growth, and the valuing of others which includes trust as a requirement for good
citizenship
Intelligence, without which love becomes impotent and individual freedom, unattainable
Values Clarification (values building) – involves having a clear set of values and realizing the values a person
holds depend on such factors as environment, education, and personality
Value ranking – a conscious, deliberate process by which a mature person arrives at a fairly well-articulated,
thoughtful ranking of his chosen values; here interrelationship of values is explored within any given individual
Value Conflict
1. Conflict and polarization occur when somebody imposes a value ranking on someone else. The highest
possibility then of polarity in a group is when two groups of people have opposite value rankings.
2. May be seen in these situations:
Personal interest vs. public interest
Bayanihan spirit vs. kanya-kanya mentality
Close family ties vs. self-reliance
Personalism vs. group solidarity
Justice
1. Defined as the habit or readiness to give others what is due them; the constant and perpetual disposition
of society to render every man is due
2. The administration of justice is the determination and enforcement of the rights of person according the
low or equity
Law stresses the strict rendition of what is due
Equity emphasizes fairness
3. Justice includes rendering to every man the exact measures of his due without regard to his personal
worth or merits
4. Justice governs the distribution of rewards and punishment as deserved by an individual
5. Justice does not consider all men as equally deserving or equally blameworthy, but discriminates
between them to obtain a just proportion and comparison
6. Just and responsible government
Provides man with structures that guarantee his right to live a decent life and protect him from
exploitation by his fellowmen and / or certain systems
Provides every citizen sufficient opportunity for advancement, growth, and development
Encourages every citizen to help build a just and responsible government, one which promotes growth
and progress of its people
Encourages it people to be vigilant and involved to ensure that they control the government and that it
function effectively for the common good.
Has authority, the legitimate power to command or bind the citizens of the state to the common good of
he society; the power that directs social order for the common welfare of the whole community. This
authority is the result of the social contact between the people and those to whom the people
delegate this power.
Some Views about the Relation of the Individual to Society
1. Individualistic view – holds that the society is made up of individuals who are independent of one
another, believes that the individual as an indestructible entity an society is merely as effect.
2. Socialistic view – the individual is subordinate to the society
3. Dualistic view – recognizes the individual as independent but as he interacts with the others in a society,
sees the need to become a part of a group and conform to its rules
4. Organic view - assumes that the society and the individual see common interest and that the
development of the individual requires social consciousness and involvement, each one needs the other
realizing their own ends but it must be recognized that a moral bond must exist between them so that
their ends may be fulfilled
Freedom, rights and responsibility
1. Freedom in a political context is defined in terms of independence
2. Freedom in a social context is defined in terms of rights.
3. Freedom is not absolute; it is not doing something without restriction or reservations or interference and
influence of others some sort. There are certain restriction or constraints to being free such as laws,
 norms, customs or traditions, or even ignorance, lack of awareness, disabilities, fears, anxieties, and
past experiences
4. The whole moral life revolves around the use of freedom: good use guarantees man the affirmation of
his better self and the achievements of the purpose of the purpose of life: abuse of freedom is the origin
of man’s guilty conduct
5. Right: means in ethics what is just, reasonable, equitable, what ought to be, what is justifiable, something
that is owed or due to others (that is , the object of justice): In a broader sense, right means straight,
something which is unbent, in contrast to wrong, which means crooked or distorted; hence, in ethics,
right actions square with the standards of morality; also means an immunity or privilege protected or
enforced by law.
Natural rights: inherent in the nature of man and are thus above the thus above the law such as life,
liberty, or pursuit of happiness
Political rights: privileges of participating in the affairs of government such as the right to vote
Civil rights: enjoyed by citizens in their private capacity such as the privilege of acquiring property
6. Rights responsibility are correlative; they in pairs. If one wants more rights and freedom, she. He shall
also have to accept more responsibility; thus the precept “To whom much is given, much is required.”
Conversely, one cannot exercise responsibility effectively if she/he is not given freedom to do the job.
 Rights are intended to be used, not abused. A right is abused when it interferes with the rights of
others
 All individual rights and freedom should be conceived in the light of social order and justice.
 The reciprocation of rights and duties is the true foundation of social order
 Duties – refer to those that are due under justice to another individual or collective persons and to
God. I moral obligation embraces one’s responsibilities toward himself, duties are properly directed
to others
 Authority – refers to the right to give commands, enforce laws, take-action, make decisions and exact
obedience, determine or judge
 Accountability – means to be answerable for; emphasizes liability for something or value either
contractually or because of one’s position of authority
 Responsibility – refers to trust worthy performance of fixed duties and consequent awareness of the
penalty for failure to do so; is based on good judgment, and relates to obligation and commitment
7. Sense of nationhood
 May be equated with love of country , in the case of the Philippines, it may be synonymous with
“Pagka-Pilipino” or Filipinism, which is a concept of a community Filipinos
 The sum of worthwhile (Filipino) values essential to the development of a sense of oneness and
identify of interest with the community and a desire to contribute to common life and national well-
being (O.D Corpuz)
 An ideology and commitment: an ideology, for one must know what a nation is what is can be, and
what it ought to be; a commitment, for one must recognize and accept his duty to help develop and
defend his nation as he has no conceived it (De La Costa)
 People’s consciousness of unity based on common ancestry, homeland, custom, culture and destiny,
which drive them to promote their collective interest over those of people of other countries
 Immoderate, exaggerated, or without sense of nationhood contradicts order of reason and the
demands of justice and charity
8. Nationalism
 Central to nationalism is the conception of sovereignty, entirely independent of any legal or moral
authority beyond its own borders.
 Fosters a strong feeling of loyalty to the state and pride in their nationality; hence, education should
be used as a prime means to develop nationalism
 Aims to achieve freedom from foreign oppressors to achieve political self determination
 Is a moral virtue; an aspect of justice and embraces the duties of man towards his countrymen
because he shares with the same homeland, the same government, and common interests

PROFESSIONAL ETHICS FOR TEACHERS

Appropriate ethical standards, values and principles of conduct, as well as the rights and benefits due al teachers
have been set forth and are embodied in such documents as the “Magna Carta for Public School Teachers”
and the “Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers”
Teachers’ Rights and benefits
1. Security of tenure: “Stability in employment and security of tensure shall be assured the teachers as
provided for under existing laws” and “No officer or employee in the Civil service shall be suspended or
dismissed except for cause as provided by law
2. Injury benefits: “teachers shall be protected against the consequences of employment injuries in
accordance with existing laws”
3. Leave benefits
Maternity leave for married women employees
15 – day sick leave and 15 – day vacation leave for those teachers designated for continuous duty
throughout the year
70 – day vacation pay and vacation service credit for teachers not required to render service throughout
the year
 Study leave after seven years of service
Medicare benefits to all teachers regardless of age, sex, means or status
Disability benefits
right to permanent status after having rendered at least 10 years continuous, efficient, and faithful service
right to freely and without previous authorization establish and join organization of one’s own choosing,
subject to limitation .
right to academic freedom – “freedom to investigate and discuss the problem of his science and to express
his conclusion… without inference from political of ecclesiastical authority, or from the administrative
officials .. unless his methods are found … to be clearly incompetent or contrary to professional
ethics.”; includes choice of methods, materials, course requirements
Right to be paid in legal tender without any unlawful deductions
Right to equitable safeguards in disciplinary cases:
Right to be informed of the charges
Right to full access of evidence
Right to defend himself or be defended by a representative of his choice
Right to appeal to designated authorities
Rights emanating from being persons in authority
Ethical principles culled from the “Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers” and the “Magna Carta for Public School
Teachers “
The teacher shall:
o Maintain the nobility and dignity of the teaching profession
o Maintain continuing professional growth t improve efficiency, competency and productivity, nationally and
internationally
o Maintain harmonious and pleasant personal and official relations with other professionals, government
o Transmit to learners cultural and educational heritage of the country; elevate national morality; promote
national morality; promote national pride; cultivate love of country; instill allegiance to the constitution and
respect for all duly constituted authorities, and promote obedience to the laws of the state
o Be imbued with the spirit of professional loyalty, mutual confidence and faith in one another, self-sacrifice for
the common good, and full cooperative with colleagues
o Make an honest effort understand and support the policies of the school administration
o Refrain from transacting any business in illegal manner
o Show professional courtesy, helpfulness, and sympathy to one another, and exhibit cooperative responsibility
to formulate change for the system at all levels
o Be first and foremost concerned with the interest and welfare of the students and deal with students justly
o Establish and maintain cordial relations with parents; inform them of their children’s progress; seek their
cooperation for their children’s guidance and hear their complaints with sympathy understanding
o Maintain good reputation with respect to financial matters
o Maintain a dignified personality whether in school, in the home, or elsewhere so as to serve as a model worthy
of emulation by learners, peers, and all others.
Socio-Philo Implication s to Education
1. Schools should teach students how to respond to the moral problems of the society emphasizing an
authentic concern for the human person.
2. Education should provide opportunities for maximum development and inculcation of ethical, cultural
and moral values.
3. Schools need to provide learning activities to develop in the students a strong sense of right and wrong
4. Schools need community need to work together to develop in the students practical consciousness
about happening in the society and to help them form constructive responses through collaborative
efforts.
5. Education in a democratic society must endeavor to heighten interest and participate in civic-oriented
activities to help create a more equitable and just society.

6. Education should have enough provision other than curricular offerings for strengthening one’s sense
Filipinism and nationhood.

GENERAL EDUCATION: SOCIAL SCIENCE

FOCUS: HUMAN RIGHTS, PEACE AND GLOBAL EDUCATION

LET Competencies:
1. Comprehend basic concepts about right to life, human dignity, physical integrity, extent and limits of state
authority, good name and honor of human person, etc.
2. Manifest knowledge of varied perspectives as a member society whose rights and duties affect him/her in the,
family, in civil, professional and religious society and international relations.
3. Identify global trends and realities and analyze if they facilitate peaceful, just and sustainable world order
4. become familiar with key concepts, skills and values in peace and global education

To address present critical issues, there is a need to revise our teacher education curriculum to make it truly
integrated and holistic in content and approach. To do so, we need to identify 3 important areas of concerns:
  Peace Education- This area affirms personal and global responsibilities for the promotion of peace, cooperation,
disarmament, justice and non-violent resolution of conflict.
 Human Rights Education- Promotes understanding of Human Rights concepts and values to enable learners to
comprehend and transform conditions which give rise to human rights violation.
 Global Education- involves learning about those problems and issues which cut across national boundaries and
about the interconnectedness of system- cultural, ecological, economic, political, and technological. It also includes
citizenship education.
A. PEACE EDUCATION
Objectives of Peace Education
1. Knowledge
a. Peace – students should investigate different concepts and examples of peace on a variety of levels from
personal to global.
b. Conflict and Violence – Students should study the problems of violence
c. Some Peaceful Alternatives
 disarmament
 non-violent conflict resolution
 development based on justice
 human rights respect
 human solidarity
 environmental care
d. Ethical and Practical Rationale – Students should study the ethical and practical basis for the above-cited
peaceful alternatives in order to provide added motivation for learning.
2. Attitudes/Values
a. Self-respect f. Cooperation
b. Respect for others g. Openness/Tolerance
c. Respect for human life/nonviolence h. Social Responsibility
d. Global concern i. Positive Vision
e. Ecological concern
3. Skills
a. Reflection e. Communication
b. Critical thinking f. Conflict Resolution
c. Decision-making g. Group Building
d. Imagination
Six Paths to Peace According to the Office of the President Adviser on Peace Process
Path 1: Reforms to address the root course of the armed conflicts and social unrest.
The first path calls for the vigorous implementation for various socio-economic and political reforms aimed at addressing
the root causes of internal armed conflicts and social unrest.
Path 2: Consensus-building and empowerment for peace.
The second path includes continuing consultations on national and local levels to build consensus for the peace and
development agenda, and the mobilization and facilitation of people’s participation in the peace progress.
Path 3: Peace negotiations with rebel groups.
The third path refers to the conduct of face- to- face negotiations to reach peaceful settlement with the various rebel
groups.
Path 4: Reconciliation, reintegration and rehabilitation.
The fourth path includes programs to address the legal status and security of former rebels, as well as community-based
assistance programs to address to economic, social and psychological rehabilitation needs of formed rebels, demobilized
combatants, and civilian victims or armed conflicts.
Path 5: Conflict management and protection of civilians caught in armed conflict.
The fifth path to peace involves the strict implementation of laws and policy guidelines, and the institution of programs
to ensure the protection of non-combatants and reduce the impact of the armed conflict on the affected communities.
Path 6: Creating a positive climate for peace.
The sixth path includes peace education and advocacy programs and the implementation of various confidence-building
measures.
B. HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION
Human right is defined as the supreme, inherent and alienable right to life, dignity, and self-development. It is
concerned with issues on both areas of civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights founded on
internationally accepted human rights obligations to which the Philippines government is a state party. (Educator’s
Human Rights Handbook, commission on Human Rights).
Did the concept of Human right begin only in 1948?
The concept of human rights did not start with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. Most societies
have had traditions similar to the “golden role” of “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.” The Hindu
Vedas, the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi, the Bible, the Koran, and the Analects of Confucius are five of the oldest
written source which addresses questions of people’s duties, rights, and responsibilities. The Inca and Aztec codes of
conduct and justice and Iroquois constitution were Native American source that existed well before the 18th century. All
societies, whether in oral or written tradition, have had system of propriety and justice as well as ways of tending to the
health and welfare of their members.
What are international human rights standards? What is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights?
One of the milestones in the history of the United Nation is the setting of universally recognized human rights
standards to which all states can subscribe are and to which every human being can aspire. International human rights
standards are a compilation of International laws and treaties defining a broad range of internationally accepted human
rights such as civil, economic, political, and socio-cultural. Rights of women, children, and persons with disabilities,
migrant workers, indigenous people, minorities, refugees, and other vulnerable groups have also been acknowledged.
 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the international covenant on civil-political rights, the
international covenant on socio-economic and cultural rights and their optional protocols are the major human rights
instruments comprising the international bill of rights.
The UDHR is the minimum and common standard of achievement for all peoples. The United nations General
Assembly adopted it on December 10, 1948, the day which continues to be observed internationally as Human Rights
Day. It has 30 articles spelling out basic civil political, economic, and socio-cultural rights. Articles 3 to 21 present the
civil and political rights to which all human beings are entitled. Articles 22 to 27 set forth the economic, social, and
cultural rights to which every person is equally entitled. Articles 28 to 30. “recognize that everyone is entitled to a social
and international order in which the human rights set forth in the declaration may be fully realized; that these rights may
only be limited for the sole purpose of securing recognition and respect of the rights and freedoms of other and of meeting
the requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society; and that each person has
duties to the community in which he or she lives”. The UDHR being merely a declaration of principles does not legally
bind states parties; however, it has evolved as a standard of moral commitment for States, thus, is often used to assess
their actions.
How did the human eights standards evolve?
International Human rights standards emerged at the end of the Second World War in response to the
atrocities and massive violations of human rights witnessed during the conflict.
What are the fundamental principles underlying the human rights standards?
➢ Universality- That every one should enjoy human rights without discrimination as to sex, age, language,
religion, or race. Wherever a person is, whether in a rich or poor country, in a tribe, and whoever the person is
a king/queen or pauper, man or woman, old and young she can claim such rights.
➢ Inviolability- that human rights as an irreducible element of one’s humanity can not be abrogated or violated
unless determined by law and “ Solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights of
other and of meeting the just requirements of the general welfare, morality and public order in a democratic
society”
➢ Interdependence- a person’s well being can not be enjoyed in place meal. Human dignity can not be taken in
increment. This means that certain rights can not be sacrificed in favor of other rights because taken
What are the specific rights in the UDHR?
LETTER HUMAN RIGHTS ARTICLE

A Asylum Art. 14

B Beliefs, Thoughts and Conscience Art. 18

C Culture Art. 27

D Due Process Art. 9, Art. 11

E Equality in Dignity, Rights and Law Art. 1, Art. 2, Art. 7

F Freedom from Slavery, Torture and Degrading Treatment and Punishment Art. 4, Art. 5
G Groups, Association and Assembly Art. 20

H Holdings Art. 17

I Intellectual Property Art. 27

J Justice and Judicial Remedy Art. 8, Art. 10

K Knowledge Art. 26
L Life and Liberty Art. 3

M Marriage and Family Art. 16

N Name and Nationality Art. 15

O Opinion and Expression Art. 19

P Privacy and Protection Art. 12

Q Question Art. 19, Art. 21

R Religion Art. 18

S Social Security Art. 22

T Travel and Movement Art. 13

U Union Art. 23

V Vote and Participation Art. 21

W Work and Well Being Art. 23, Art. 25

X Extra and Special Human Rights Protection Art. 28, Art. 29, Art. 30
 Y Yearn and More Art. 28, Art. 29, Art. 30

Z ZZZZZ. Rest and Leisure Art. 24

What are the different groups of rights?

Civil and Economic social

Political Rights and Cultural
Rights

Classification of Rights: Rights can be classified according to the following:

1. According to Source:
a. Natural Rights – are God-given rights which are acknowledgment by everybody to be morally good. Examples
are right to life, right to dignity, and right to self-development.
b. Constitutional rights- are those rights which are conferred and protected by the constitution and when can be
encounter or taken away by the law making body.
c. Statutory rights- are those rights which are provided by law, promulgated by the law making body and,
consequently, may be abolished by the same body.
2. According to recipient
a. Individual rights- are those being accorded to individuals
b. Collective rights- are those of the society, those that can be enjoyed only in company with others.
3. According to aspect of life
a. Civil rights- are those rights when the law will enforce at the private individuals for the purpose of securing to
them the enjoyment of their means of happiness. Examples are: Constitutional rights of the accused, rights
against involuntary servitude or liberty of abode.
b. Political Rights – are those rights which enable us to participate in running the affairs of the government either
directly or indirectly. Examples are the right to vote, right to information on matters of public concern and the
right of initiative.
c. Economic and social rights – Are those which the law confers by law upon the people to enable then to achieve
social and economic development, thereby ensuring them their well being happiness and financial security.
Example: are the right to property, education, and promotion of social justice.
d. Cultural Rights- are those rights that ensure the well being of the individual and foster the preservation,
enrichment and dynamic evolution of national culture based on the principle of unity in diversity in a climate of
free artistic and intellectual expression.
What is the Convention on the Rights of the child?
The concept of children’s rights in CRC is premised on the understanding that society has an Obligation to
satisfy the fundamental rights of children and to provide assistance for the development of the child’s personality,
potentialities and abilities. The convention on the rights of the child provides an internationally agreed framework of
minimum standards necessary for the well being of the child and to which every child is entitled. The CRC defines the
child as a person below 18 years old.
“ABC’s of Children’s Rights”
A Adoptation N Name and Nationality

B Best interests O Organization

C Culture P Privacy and Protection

D Development Q Questions
E Equal Treatment R Rehabilitation

F Family and Family Environment S Social Security

G Games T Travel for Family Reunification

H Health U Urgent Action during Crisis

I Identify V Views and Voice

J Juvenile Justice W Well - Being

K Knowledge X Extra Care

L Life and Liberty Y Yearn for More

 M Media for Children Z ZZZZZZZ . . . Rest and Leisure

GLOBAL EDUCATION
Global Education Involves the:
˜ Study of systems ( economic, political, ecological, technological)
˜ Study of Human values ( universal and diverse)
˜ Study persistent problems ( war and peace, human rights, environmental issues)
˜ Study of global history( development of global systems and human values)
We see a Global Citizen as someone who:
˜ Is aware of the wider world and has a sense of their own role as a world citizen;
˜ Respect and values diversity
˜ Has an understanding of how the world works economically, politically, socially culturally, technologically and
environmentally;
˜ Participates in and contributes to the community at range of levels from local to global;
˜ Is willing to act to make the world a more sustainable place
˜ Takes responsibility for their actions

WHAT GLOBAL ISSUES IS RELEVANT TO GLOBAL EDUCATION?

Children’s Rights The Convention on the rights of the child is a universally agreed set of non negotiable standards
and obligation which spells out the basic human rights those children everywhere without
discrimination.
Disasters Reducing human suffering and economic losses caused by natural and technological disaster
comes from preparedness and mitigation through policies, education and strategic and rapid
responses.
Education Investing in education systems helps build human capital and ensures that people can
participate more fully in society
Environment As the world’s population grows there is more and more pressure on the environment produce
enough food and energy without consuming the resource faster that they can be replace.
Food Security Providing for physical, social and economic access by all people at all times to sufficient, safe
and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food which meets their dietary needs
and food preferences for an active and healthy life.

Governance Effective governance means competent management of a country’s resource in a way that is
fair, open, accountable and responsive to peoples needs.
HIV/AIDS The HIV/AIDS pandemic represent one of the greatest challenges facing developing countries.

Health Improving the basic health and the quality services delivery and addressing the health effects if
natural disaster and emergencies are the means of improving the health of people.
Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights sets forth the human rights and fundamental
freedoms of all men and women in all nations, everywhere in the world. Infrastructure the
development and maintenance of essential public services and systems is an important
ingredient for sustained economic growth and poverty reduction.
Micro credit Small scale business development is an important means of helping individuals out of poverty.
Peace building The support structure and processes which strengthen and solidify peace in order to avoid a
relapse

Poverty Alleviation The complex web that keeps people poor is being addressed through economic growth and
improving governance, education and health.
Refugees Forced to flee their homes because of persecution refugees are a significant group who need
international protection as they a durable solution to their plight.

Rice Highlighting the importance of rice as a primary food and income source in many developing
countries.
Rural Development The majority of the world’s poor lives in rural areas; and is disproportionately dependent on
natural resource for their livelihoods, especially resource such as forests and fisheries.

Volunteering Many people give their time and skills without pay to make a contribution to assist others.
Water Water is the source of life- vital for health, food and economic development.
Women Improving the status of women is not just a women’s issue, but a goal that requires the active
participation of both men and women.
WHY IS GLOBAL EDUCATION AN IMPERATIVE?
1. The world we live in a unfair and unequal, and Global Citizenship promotes the challenging and
changing of this.
The 1998 Human Development Repost from the UN stated that the amount people in Europe and
North America spend a year on pet food, cosmetic and perfumed ($ 37 billion) would provide basic
education, water and sanitation, basic health and nutrition to all those without those things, with $ 9bn
left over
2. We live in a diverse society, and Global citizenship gives children the tools to counter ignorance and
intolerance within it.
Ignorance and intolerance take many forms. Attitudes of empathy and respect for diversity, as well as
skills of co-operation and negotiation, are essential to combat the prejudice and discrimination
currently alive and kicking in our society.
3. We live in an interdependent world and Global citizenship is about flexibility and adaptability as well as
about a positive image of the future.
There are many similarities and links between people across the globe, not only in terms of personal
needs and aspirations, but also regarding communications and trade.
4. Global citizenship acknowledges that we have power as individuals: each of us can change things,
and each of us has choices about how we behave.
We can:
˜ Speak up against injustice and discrimination;
˜ Bank with an ethical investor;
˜ Reduce waste- refuse unnecessary packaging, reuse and recycle as much as possible;
˜ Buy fair trade products
˜ Become activists- take encouragement from the genetically modified (GM) foods debate: the Iceland
supermarket chain banned GM foods after investigations prompted by six letters from a church in Black bum.
SOME WORLD FACTS
˜ Global income is more than $ 31 trillion a year, but 1.2 billion people of the world’s population earn less than
$1 a day.
˜ 80% of the global population earns only 20% of global income, and within many countries there is a large gap
between rich and poor
˜ Half the world’s population, nearby three billion people, lives on less than $US2 a day.
˜ Nearby 800 million people do not get enough food and more than 840 million adults are illiterate including 538
million women
˜ In developed countries more than 100 million people live below the poverty line, more than 5 million people are
homeless and 37 million are jobless
˜ The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the poorest 48 nations (i.e. a quarter of the world’s countries) is less
than the wealth of the world’s three richest people combined.
˜ Million children die each year from largely preventable diseases, caused by lack of clean water and
inadequate health care. Through improved access to clean water, food and rates of immunization, the lives of
many children are being saved.
˜ An estimated 250 million children aged 5 to 14 are working around the world.
˜ Close to 2 million children have been killed in armed conflicts during the past decade
˜ More than half the world’s population lives in low-income, food-deficit countries that are unable to produce or
import enough food to feed their people.
˜ More than one third of all children are malnourish and 6 million children a year die of causes related to
malnutrition
˜ Most of the world’s hungry people are found in the developing world, but 34 million are also found in the
developed world.
˜ There is enough food in the world for all people to have sufficient, however it is unevenly distributed.
˜ There are over 860 million people in the world, of whom:
˜ 61% come from Bangladesh, China, India, and Pakistan
˜ 66% are women
˜ There is a world wide shortage of school teachers and, according to the EFA Report 2002,an extra 15-35
million more teachers will be required to achieve universal primary education by 2015.5, 500 children die each
day from diseases linked to pullulated food, air, and water.
˜ The global rate of ice melt has more than doubled since 1988 and could raise ser levels 27 centimeters by
2100.
˜ Around the world 42 million people are living with HIV/AIDS, 39 million of them in developing countries, three
quarters of them are in sub-Saharan Africa, where the rate has almost reached one in ten adults, or more for
some countries.
˜ Tuberculosis remains (along with AIDS) the leading infectious killer of adults, causing up to 2 million deaths a
year.
˜ An estimated 42 million people are living with HIV/AIDS with 95% of global infection in developing countries
˜ 2005 is the United National International Year of Micro credit, and microfinance more broadly, is seen as an
important tool for eradicating poverty and hunger- one of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals-
and empowering poor people.
˜ The World Bank estimated in 2004 that there over 7000 microfinance institutions worldwide, serving over 16
million poor people.
˜ The combined turnover of these institutions was estimated at US $2.5 billion
˜ The experience of microfinance institutions shows that women are a good credit risk, and that they
˜ Invest their income for the wellbeing of their families, at the same time, they benefit from the higher social
status they achieve through being able to provide income
 ˜ Disaster affect the world’s poorest the hardest of the 24,500 people killed in 2002, just 6% lived in countries of
high human development.
˜ Between 1993-2002 famine was by far the deadliest disaster, killing at least 27,000 people (nearly half of all
reported fatalities), although this is probably a gross underestimate. Floods affected more people across the
globe (140 million per year on average) than all other natural or technological disasters put together
˜ Some 75% of the world’s population live in areas affected at least once by earthquake, tropical cyclone, flood
or drought between 1980 and 2000.
˜ Since 1980 almost one half of the worlds least developed countries have suffered from a k\major conflict.
˜ Over 90% of wars now take place within states rather than between them.
˜ During the 1990s alone, wars claimed over 5 million lives worldwide
˜ During the period 1990-2002 there were 56 major, armed conflicts in 44 different locations in the world,
exacerbating poverty and disrupting development efforts
˜ World military expenditures peaked at over $ 1 trillion in 1989, after a period of decline; it has begun to rise,
reaching $ 780 billion in 1999.
˜ More than 90% of the world’s rice is grown and consumed in Asia, where people typically eat rice two or three
times a day
˜ In 2003 the four major rice exporters were Thailand, 8 million tones, Vietnam, 4 million tones, India 3 million
tons and USA, 2.9 million tones.
˜ Australia produces roughly 1.3 million tones of rice a year and exports rice to over 70 countries
˜ In 2000, 53% of the world’s 6.1 billion people lived in rural areas, a figure that is expected to drop to 40% by
2030.
˜ To meet future demands, the world’s farmers will have to produce 40 percent more grain in 2020 then in 1999.
Most of this increase will have to come from yield increases on existing land.
˜ Over 30 million of the world’s 240 million irrigated hectares have been severely damaged by the building up of
salt, and further 80 million tons- bringing stocks to their lowest level in 30 years and allowing for only 59 days
of consumption.
˜ Over 300 million volunteers across 100 countries, many using the internet, participated in the campaign to ban
antipersonnel landmines which led to the Mine ban Treaty signed by 122 states in Ottawa in December 1997.
˜ Ten million people volunteered to support the immunization of 550 million children as part of the Global Polio
Eradication initiative in 2000. The total value of this support was estimated at $ 10 billion, well beyond the
reach of either government or international organizations.
˜ 470 UN volunteers from 70 countries alongside local people as polling officers in the 1999 East Timor election.

GENERAL EDUCATION: SOCIAL SCIENCE

Focus: ECONOMICS AND OTHER RELATED LAWS

LET Competencies:
1. Comprehend the basic concept about economics, taxation, land reform, and cooperatives
2. Appreciate the fundamental precepts of taxation, the laws on land reform and its application.
3. Apply these fundamental precepts to the cooperative movement as viewed within the Philippines context.

PART I: CONTENT UPDATE

I. ECONOMICS
General Principles:
 Is the study that deals with how scarce resources are allocated to maximize the unlimited wants that
individuals and societies want to fulfill. (Hashim Ali)
 Is the study of how societies choose to use the scarce productive resources that have alternative uses, to
produce commodities of various kinds, and to distribute them among different groups. (Samuelson)
Economics is important to the:
(a) Individual (as a consumer who wants to maximize satisfaction and minimize expenditure);
(b) Businessman (as a producer who wants to maximize profits and minimize costs); and
(c) Government (in providing a high standard of living for the people).

WHAT IS ECONOMICS ALL ABOUT?

1. Wants are for both present and future consumption. Human wants are unlimited. We want bungalows, cars, etc.
Some wants are more important than others. Food is more important than toys. Some wants are more easily
satisfied than others, e.g. the demand for erasers and pencils compared to video cameras, personal computers,
etc.
2. Our wants are unlimited but we have the problem to scarcity in:
a. Natural resources c. Monetary Problems or Financial Constraint
b. Time and Energy d. Factors of production (i.e. land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship)
3. As our wants are unlimited and innumerable while our resources for satisfying them are limited and scarce, not
all out wants can be satisfied. Hence, a choice has to be made. We will choose the wants that will satisfy us the
most. In other words, we each have our own scale of preferences.
4. Related to choice is the concept of Opportunity Cost. Opportunity Cost can be defined as the next best alternative
forgone, i.e. something which must be sacrificed in order to obtain something else. For example, between a
basketball championship game and a lecture, the opportunity cost of going for a lecture is a basketball game
and vice versa. Opportunity cost can also be defined as the real cost of the good.
5. Example of opportunity costs for the individual:
 a. Work or Leisure
b. Present consumption or Savings
c. Revising for a test or Playing games
6. Examples of opportunity costs for the producer
a. Labor or capital b. Site A or Site B
7. Examples of opportunity costs for the government
a. Military goods or civilian goods b. Guns or butter

ECONOMICS SYSTEMS
There are Four types of systems:
Traditional economy. Economy dominated by methods and techniques that have strong social support even though
they may be old-fashioned or out of date.
Capitalist system. This is also known as laissez-faire, market economy, free enterprise^ price mechanism, or free
market economy;
Command economy. This is also known as planned economy, communist system, centrally planned economy,
controlled economy, or totalitarian economy;
Mixed economy or regulated market economy.

TYPES OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

Definition Associated Terms Examples in Practice

1) Market economy An economic system in which Free enterprise United States

individuals own and operate the Capitalism Great Britain
factors of production. Japan

2) Command economy An economic system in which Socialism

the government owns and Communism
operates the factors of
production.

3) Traditional economy An economic system based Non-Industrialized Chad

upon customs and traditions. Agrarian societies Haiti
Economy is based upon Rwanda
agriculture and hunting.

4) Mixed economy An economic system that has See note below concerning mixed economies.
features of both market and
command economies.

In reality there are no pure market economies, nor are there any pure command economies. For example, even
in the United States, where free enterprise reigns, the government plays a major role in the economy. Minimum wages,
social security, and regulatory policies are examples of government involvement.
In China, for example, some private ownership of businesses is allowed, however the government still maintains
tight control over the factors of production and prices. While we could say that both the United States and China are
mixed economies because they contain both market and command economic features, to do so would be misleading
because the role that the respective governments play in the economy are quite different.

Three Basic Economic Questions

How each economic system differs from the others!
The problem of scarcity forces each economy to address three basic economic questions:
1. What will be produced?
2. By whom will it be produced?
3. For whom will it be produced?
The chart below shows how each theoretical economic system answers these questions.

How Each Economic System Will Answer the Basic Economic Questions

Centrally Planned Mixed Market

What will be Essentials Essentials/Wants What the people want

produced?

By whom will it be Government Government/ Entrepreneurs

produced? Entrepreneurs

For whom will it be Citizens Citizens/People who People who can afford
produced? can afford it it
FACTORS OF PRODUCTION
1. Land (natural resources)
2. Labor (human factor)
3. Capital (man-made)
4. Entrepreneur (management)

The Concept of Production

Production can be defined as the act of making goods and services to satisfy human wants and to maximize
profits. In economics, production refers to:
1. manufacturing of goods
2. distributing the goods produced
3. providing services
Land
Land includes all resources found in the sea and on land. The range of natural resources will determine the
capability of the economy to produce. In Economics, lands include:
1. raw materials such as copper, timber and rubber
2. landscape such as mountains, valleys and hill
3. pot such as natural harbor
4. climatic conditions such as rain and snow
5. geographical location such as continents and islands
Characteristics
1. Land is said to be immobile
2. Land is limited in supply; however, it can be reclaimed from the sea
3. it is a gift of nature
4. land is subjected to the law of diminishing returns
Labor
In Lyman’s term, labor refers to the unskilled. In Economics, labor can be defined as any king of work, either
mental or manual in nature, which has the sole purpose of receiving rewards. Thus any king of labor which is for pleasure
is not considered as labor in terms of Economics. According to Alfred Marshall, labor can be defined as any exertion that
the mind of body has undergone, either partly or totally, with the view of earning some other good other than pleasure
derived from the work itself.
Capital
Capital can be defined as wealth used for production. It is created not for itself but for what it will eventually
produce. Capital therefore refers to the stock of goods made by the people to help them in the production of goods and
services. It is a means towards an end by itself. Note that all capital is wealth but not all wealth is capital.
The Entrepreneur
The entrepreneur is usually the organizer in a company. He is responsible for arranging how production should
take place. He is also responsible for his subordinates and their welfare. The entrepreneur will solve the three basic
economics problems, i.e. what, how and for whom to produce. He is unique as he coordinates all the factors of production
to produced goods and services. Some economists regard management as the entrepreneur.
DEMAND, SUPPLY AND PRICE DETERMINATION
DEFINITION OF DEMAND
Demand can be defined as the desire to by foods and services with the ability to pay, and the consumer must have the
purchasing power. Simply, demand implies the willingness and the ability to pay for goods and services. Demand in
this context would refer to effective demand.
THE INDIVIDUAL DEMAND SHEDULE
The individual demand schedule refers to a list of quantity demanded at varying prices. It is and indication of individual
preferences. From this schedule, we can plot the individual demand curve.

Table showing individual demand schedule

Prices (P) Quantity demanded (units)

1.00 2
0.80 4 D
0.60 5
0.40 8
0.20 10

THE LAW OF DEMAND

The law of demand states that when price increases, the amount demanded will fall and when price decreases, the
amount demanded will rise. From this, we can say that there is an inverse relationship between the amount demanded
between the amount demanded and the price of the commodity concerned.
THE MARKET DEMAND SCHEDULE
Price (P) Costumer Costumer Costumer Total quantity
A B C demanded
 1.00 2 1 1 4
0.80 4 2 2 14
0.60 6 3 3 18
0.40 10 4 4 22
0.20 11 5 5 26

Note: The market demand curve can be obtained by adding all the quantities demanded by adding all consumers in the
market for product though a process called horizontal summation
FACTORS AFFECTING DEMAND

1. Fashion, taste and climate. The effect of fashion on demand can be clearly seen in the changing demand for
ladies’ fashion apparel. For instance, ‘hot pants’ were very popular at one time until they were replaced by
another fad. Taste refers to the general preference of a population or a particular individual. One example of a
change in taste is the change towards fast food. Climate also influences demand, for example, in hot weather,
the demand for ice cream will increase.
2. Changes in income. This affects both the individual as well as national levels. Generally, the higher the
individual income, the higher would be the demand for goods and services. A rich persons will have more cars
than one who is not rich. At the national level, the higher the national income of the county (e.g. the United States
as opposed to India of the Philippines as opposed to Sri Lanka), the higher will be the market demand. Changes
in the distribution of income will also affect demand. If there is greater income inequality, the poor will increase
their demand and total demand will rise.
3. Changes in Population. In terms of size, and increase in total population would generally lead to in increase in
demand especially in developed economies such as the United States, Switzerland and Japan, In the case to
the Philippines, with the population increasing, there id a greater demand for housing, sports facilities, schools,
etc. in terms of population structure, the different age groups influence demand differently. The young will
demand more educational toys, book, etc., while the older population will demand a different list of goods and
services.
4. Changes in the price of related goods: there are two groups
 Complementary Goods, e.g. video cassette recorder (VCR) and video tapes, pen and ink, bread and butter,
calculator and batteries, etc… Here, an increase in the price of one (e.g. the video cassette recorder (VCR)
will bring about a fall in the demand for the other (e.g. video tapes).
 Substitute Goods. E.g. spectacles vs. contact lenses, peanut butter vs. matamis na bao, ordinary pencil
vs. mechanical pencil, tea vs. coffee, etc. Here, an increase in the price of coffee will lead to an increase in
the demand for tea since coffee is more expensive than tea.
5. Advertisements. Advertisements goods generally have a higher demand. Designer jeans have high demand
partly because of the constant drill of status consciousness in the minds of the consumer by the advertisers.
6. Introduction of new products with extensive and intensive research and development done in the business
word, new products and innovative products keep entering the market. Products like compact discs, cordless
irons, cellular phones with camera, wide screen flat television, and many other modem gadgets have increased
the demand for such products.
7. Social and economic conditions. In times of war, the demand for food and weaponry will increase. Such social
conditions will influence demand. When there is recession in the economy (e.g. Philippines in 1997), the market
demand for goods and services will fall.
8. Festive seasons. Different products will be demanded at the different festive seasons. A Christmas, products
such as Christmas trees, novelty gifts and other goods and services that have something to do with Christmas,
will be highly demanded: in the Philippines the traditional puto-bumbong and binbingka will be in great demand.
Similarly, the Chinese will demand mandarin oranges, pussy willows, melon seeds and other products to
heighten the Chinese New Year Spirit.
9. Speculation. Speculation will also influence demand. If one speculates that the price of rice will increase in the
very near future, then he will buy more rice now to avoid paying more for the good later. This factor plays a vital
role in the stick-market.
10. Price of the product itself. According to the low of demand, the higher the prices, the lower will be the quantity
demanded and the lower the price, the higher will be the quantity demanded.

THE EXCEPTIONAL DEMAND CURVE

1. The normal demand curve shows that when price increases, the amount or quantity demanded would fall and
when price decreases, the quantity demanded will rise.
2. However, there is and exception to this law. This occurs when a price increase leads to an increase in the
quantity demanded and similarly when the price decreases, the quantity demanded will also fall.

P2
EXCEPTIONAL DEMAND
P1 CURVE
 Q1 Q2

Condition under which the exceptions demand would work

1. Giffen goods are normally poor quality and they constitute a large part of the poor man’s expenditure. Examples
of Giffen goods are potatoes, salted fish, and broken rice.
2. During festive seasons, the prices of goods will increase as the demand for them also increases because it is
part of the traditional celebrations.
3. Goods with snob appeal or ostentatious goods like expensive jewelry items and Rolls Royce cars are goods of
conspicuous consumption where price is accepted as and index of quality and social status. The more expensive
they are, the higher is the demand for them. When their prices fall, they will also fall and vice versa. Other
examples would include vintage cars, antiques and paintings.
4. When we relate price to quality, we generally have a common notion that expensive goods are of better quality.
These goods include designer jeans, shirts and textiles. When prices are higher, the quantity demanded will rice
because consumers feel that they are paying for better quality and that it is worth the price paid. Such actions
will bring about the exceptional demand. This effect is known as the Veblen effect. Its phenomena where as the
price of a good falls, some consumers construe this as a reduction in the quality of the good.
5. In an emergency situation, prices of goods, especially basic necessities, will rise but the demand for them will
also increase. This is because survival is at stake. No matter how expensive these goods are, there will be
demand for them. These goods include canned food, salt, rice and sugar.
6. In speculation, one ma buy more of a good when the price begins to rice because of the belief that it will rise
further in the near future. A consumer may turn price speculator. For instance, recently in Malaysia, when the
prices of rice and sugar rose slightly, housewives increased their demand and purchases to store them for the
day when their price could be expected to be much higher. This situation thus brings about the exceptional
demand. Speculators in the stock exchange market also follow the rules of exceptional demand.
7. Inflation can be simply defined as a situation where there is a large quantity of money chasing after too few
goods, i.e. it is a situation of inordinate, sustained increase in the general price level. Owing to the shortage of
goods, their prices will rise but the demand for them will also rise because people have the money to pay for
them. The situation is reversed in times of deflation.

SUPPLY
Supply can be defined as the quantity of any good and service offered for sale at a given price over a period of time in
a given market
LAW OF SUPPLY
The law of supply states that as price increases, the quantity supplied will also increase and conversely, when price falls,
the quantity supplied will fall.
The individual supply schedule S

Price (P) Quantity Supplied (units)

0.20 20
0.40 40
0.60 60
0.80 80
1.00 100

The supply schedule shows the amount supplied at different prices. The supply curve is upward sloping and the
relationship between the quantity supplied and the price of the commodity is positive, i.e. when price increases, the
quantity supplied also rises. The market supply curve can be derived by adding up the individual supply curve in a given
market through a process called horizontal summation.
FACTORS AFFECTING SUPPLY
1. Climatic conditions, especially in the agricultural and mining industry, and fishing industry. When there is a
storm, rain, flood, etc., the supply of goods will be directly affected.
2. Cost of production. For example, when wages of workers increase, the cost of production will increase and
thus supply will decrease.
3. Technological advancement. When machinery is employed like computers, laser beams, i.e., higher
technology, supply will increase
4. Government polices
a. Taxes. When goods are taxed, the supply will fall. Taxes act as disincentives to producers because part
of their profits is eroded.
b. Subsidies. When the government subsidizes production, supply of that good will increase. With
subsidies, cost of production will be cheaper and this in turn will generate more profits. Being motivated
by profits, the producers will supply more goods and services.
5. Time period. For example, the rubber trees take about seven years to a mature and cotton takes about five
years. The time period therefore affects supply.
6. Price of related goods:
a. Competitive supply. When price of gas increases, the supply of electricity will fall (because the supply
of gas increases).
b. Joint supply. When the supply of meat increase, the supply of hide will also increase.
 7. Price of good itself. When the price of good increases, the amount supplied will increase similarly, when the
price of the good falls the quantity supplied will also fall.
8. Related Supply
a) Joint supply. The supply of one good will automatically increase the supply of another good, e.g. hide and
mutton.
b) Competitive supply. An increase in the supply of one product will bring about a reduction in the supply of
another good. For example, if heat is supplied by gas, then the supply of coal will fall.

SUPPLY AND DEMAND TOGETHER

 Equilibrium refers to a situation in which the price has reached the level where quantity supplied equals
quantity demanded
Equilibrium Price vs. Equilibrium Quantity
 Equilibrium Price
- The price that balance quantity supplied and quantity demanded
- On the graph, it is the prices at which the supply and demand curve intersects.
 Equilibrium Quantity
- The quantity supplied and the quantity demanded at the equilibrium price
- On the graph, it is the quantity at which the supply and demand curves intersect.
Surplus
 When price > equilibrium price, then quantity supplied > quantity demand.
 There is excess supply or a surplus
 Suppliers will lower the price to increase sales, thereby moving toward equilibrium
Shortage
 When the price < equilibrium price, then quantity demanded > the quantity supplied.
 There is excess demand or a shortage.
 Suppliers will raise the price due to too many buyers chasing too few goods, thereby moving toward
equilibrium.
MARKET STRUCTURES

Broadly, the types of market structures can be classified according to the number of firms in the industry and the types
of product produced. Markets with homogenous products are called perfect markets and those with differentiated
products are called imperfect markets.

PERFECT COMPETITION
Characteristics
1. There are many buyers in the market but they cannot control prices. Price is fixed in the market through the
forces of demand and supply, i.e. buyers and sellers acting in concert. No matter how much has been purchased,
price is always constant buyers are said to be price takers.
2. There are many sellers in the market. Like the buyers, they too cannot control price. They are also price takers.
The sellers are usually small firms. Price is determined at say, Php10, where goods will be bought. If the seller
offers a lower price, then he will incur a loss, if he sells at a higher price, there will be no demand. In other words,
he is powerless in determining price but he can set the quantity he wants to sell.
3. The goods are homogenous and not differentiated. They are identical. The consumer cannot differentiate
whether the good comes from producer A or B or C. Advertising is totally absent in this market.
4. There must be free entry to and exit from the market. If the industry is making profits, then new firms will enter
the market. If the industry is making profits, then new firms will enter the market. No restriction is imposed. All
the four characteristics represent pure competition but for perfect competition to exist, five other characteristics
must be present.
5. Both the consumers and the producers have perfect knowledge about the market situation, i.e. they know the
prevailing prices in all markets.
6. There must be mobility of factors of production. This means that factors or production are mobile. There are no
barriers to mobility. As for land, it must have alternative uses.
7. There must be no transport costs. It is assumed that all firms are situated close to one another and are very
close to the market.
8. There must be independence in decision making. There will be no external forces that will influence the decision
of buyers and seller, i.e. they make own decisions.
9. There is no preferential treatment. All buyers and sellers are treated equally.

Monopoly Oligopoly Monopolistic Perfect

Competition Competition
(one seller) (few sellers) ( many sellers) (numerous sellers)

Monopoly
Characteristics
1. There is only one single seller but two types of monopoly.
a. Natural monopoly, e.g. Philippine National Railways (PNR), National Power Corporation (NAPOCOR)
b. Private monopoly, e.g. MERALCO
2. Many buyers are available.
3. There are barriers to entry.
 4. The product does not have close substitutes. For example, there is presently no close substitute for China Post,
the only Chinese Newspapers in Philippines.
5. An important assumption is that the monopolist can only control price or quantity but not both, i.e. price may
increase of decrease but quantity is constant. This is an important theoretical assumption.
BARRIERS TO ENTRY
These refer to the restrictions imposed by the existing firms in the industry in blocking the entry of new rival firms. These
restrictions place the entrants at a cost disadvantage relative to established firms.
1. “Cut throat competition”. The monopolist will undercut price so that the rival firm will not be able to compete
at all. The new firm will not be able to lower its price as otherwise it will be running at a loss.
2. Existence of patent and copyright. Through legislation whereby the rights of the products have to be
protected, e.g. book publishers and record producers. They would have the right to produce these goods.
Infringement of the law is an offense. Examples would include IBM computers, Microsoft Products, etc.
3. Control of Marketing channels. If the monopolist controls the distribution agents, then rival firms would have
difficulty in trying to reach the consumers, e.g. newspaper vendors, retailers, etc.
4. Granting of special license and franchise. Special privileges are granted to certain firms to carry out certain
activities, e.g. timber license to certain companies whose business primary raw material is wood, franchising of
certain food chains kike Jollibee, McDonalds, Wendy’s etc.
5. Economies of Scale. For some industries, there is room for the production of one single firm only. This usually
relates to the firm where the fixed cost is very high, e.g. Manila Electric Company (MERALCO), Philippine Long
Distance Company (PLDT) during the Marcos era, North and South Luzon Expressways (NLEX and SLEX),
Metro Rail Transit (MRT) if a number of rival firms provide these services, their will be unnecessary wastage and
duplication.
6. High initial cost. To set up a large firm, a substantial amount of money is needed, and not many people would
have the money. It is also difficult to borrow such large sum from banks of financial agents because of the high
risks involved, e.g. setting up a newspaper with a worldwide distribution, setting up a mass transportation
system.
7. Legal prohibition. In some countries, competition I not allowed and this is set by the government through a
certain set of regulations.
8. Ownership of certain raw material. The monopolist my own all the deposits of some mineral resources or
control all or part of the country’s or regions mineral deposits. Examples of companies with such monopolistic
nature are the International Nickel Company and diamond producer, De Beers of South Africa, which owns a
large portion of diamond deposits there.
9. Climatic conditions. Certain climatic conditions favor certain types of agricultural products and not other. This
leads to monopolistic power, e.g., Malaysia for rubber and palm oil; Ghana cocoa; Brazil for coffee, etc.
10. Government Intervention. Marketing boards with the help of the government could be the sole seller of a
particular product like LTFRB (Land Transportation and Franchising Regulatory Board), PRC (Philippine
Regulations Commission, etc.

MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION,
Characteristics
1. There are many buyer.
2. There are may seller but not as many in perfect competition.
3. Products are differential either physically of psychological or both. There are brand names such as Tide, Surf
and Breeze.
4. There is ease of entry and exit, but not as easy as in perfect competition.
5. None-price competition like advertisements sales promotions, free gifts, services rendered, packaging, price
leadership and collusion(agreement) exits.
6. No perfect knowledge is assumed.
7. One producer can lower his price without affecting other firms.
OLIGOPOLY
Characteristics
1. There are many buyers in the market
2. ‘Oligos” is a Greek word meaning ‘few’. Therefore oligopoly means few sellers. Take for example, petroleum
companies, namely, Petron, Shell, Caltex, etc. in the case where there are only two sellers, it is termed duopoly.
3. The products sold can be homogenous in the case of pure oligopoly or differentiated as in the case of imperfect
oligopoly.
4. Barriers to entry exist but these are not as restrictive as in monopoly.
5. One very distinct characteristic of oligopoly is interdependency. The pricing and output policy of one firm is
dependent on the pricing and output policies of other firms.
6. There are several ways in which price can be determined:
a. Price leadership, e.g. among the petroleum companies, Shell is the leader and the other firms will
follow suit;
b. Dominant firm, e.g. Robinson is the most dominant firm among all the major retail store here;
c. Collusion – this refers to an agreement (formal and informal) among the producers to decide the price
and output level, both of which are fixed. This is sometimes called as tacit agreement;
d. Cartel, e.g. OPEC, whereby the organization fixes the minimum and maximum price so as to avoid
unnecessary competition.
7. The oligopolistic firm is faced with kinked demand curve. The average revenue or demand curve of the
oligopolies is said to be kinked. This is because the oligopolist will sell at output Q. Rival firms will not match the
increase in price because the fall in quantity demanded will be greater then the increase in price.
Any reduction in the price of the oligopolist will be matched by reductions by other firms. For example,
the price reduction Shell has taken will lead to Caltex, Petron, Unioil, etc. reducing their prices correspondingly.
 Hence, the demand is inelastic. The fall in price will be accompanied by only a slight increase in the quantity
demanded.
The kinked demand curve will lead to price rigidity. This explains why price usually remains unchanged
for a long period time. Because of the unusual average revenue curve, the marginal revenue curve will be
discontinuous line and even though marginal cost may increase or decrease. A marginal cost is still equal to
marginal revenue at the same level of output.

II. TAXATION
Importance of taxation
Of the three inherent power underlying existence, namely: police power (power inherent in a government to
enact laws, within constitutional limits, to promote the order, safety, health, moral, and general welfare of society),
eminent domain (the right of the stat, as a sovereign to take or expropriate private property for public use upon the
payment of just compensation), and taxation, taxation is of primary importance to the state for the reason that before
police power and eminent domain can be effectively and permanently exercised, it is necessary to have a government
to which the people render habitual obedience. Without taxation, the state cannot raise revenue to pa for governmental
expenses. Hence, there would be no government.
Meaning
 It is an inherent power of the state to impose and collect revenues to defray the necessary expenses of the
government.
 It is a compulsory contribution imposed by a public authority irrespective of the amount of services rendered to
the payer in return. (Dalton)
 It is a compulsory levy on private individuals and organizations by the government to raise revenue to finance
expenditure on public goods and services. (Pearce)
Limitations on the power of taxation
1. The inherent limitations; those which by their nature are intrinsic thereto or inseparable therewith and
2. The constitutional limitations; are those expressly stated in the 1987 constitution.
Inherent Limitations on Taxation
1. The tax must be for a public purpose
2. Either the person, property, or interest taxed must be within the jurisdiction of the taxing authority
3. The rule or taxation must be uniform;
4. In the assessment and collection of certain kind of taxes, certain guaranties against injustice to individuals,
especially by the way of notice and opportunity for hearing, must be provided.
Constitutional Limitations on Taxation
1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of the law, nor shall any person be
denied the equal protection of the law.
2. No person shall be imprisoned for debt or non-payment of a poll tax.
3. The rule of taxation shall be uniform and equitable. The Congress evolves a progressive system of taxation.
4. The Congress may by law authorize the President to fix within specified limit, and subject to such limitations and
restrictions as it may impose, tariff rates, import and export quotas, tonnage and wharf age dues, and other
duties or imposts; within the forward of the National Development progress of the government.
5. Charitable institutions, churches, parsonages, or convents appurtenant thereto, mosques, and not-profit
cemeteries, and all lands, buildings; and improvements actually, directly, and exclusively used for religious or
charitable purposes shall be exempted from taxation.
6. No law granting any tax exemption shall be passed without the concurrence of a majority of all the Members of
Congress.
7. Each local government unit shall have the powers to create its own sources of revenue and to levy taxes, subject
to such limitations Congress may provide consistent with the basic policy of local autonomy.
8. All money collected on a tax for a special purpose shall be treated as a special fund and paid for such purpose
only.
Purpose of Taxation
1. To collect revenue for the government.
2. To redistribute income
3. To combat Inflation
4. To correct an adverse balance of payments
5. To check consumption of goods which are considered undesirable
6. To protect local/infant industries
7. To influence population trends
8. To improve unfavorable terms of trade
9. To reallocate resources
10. To create a sense of identity
Sources and Origin of Taxation
1. The constitution
2. Statutes or Presidential decrees
3. Bureau of Internal Revenue regulations
4. Judicial Decisions
5. Provincial, City, Municipal and Barrio Ordinances
6. Observance of International Agreements
7. Administrative Rulings and Opinions
Objects of Taxation
1. Persons – whether natural or judicial
2. Property of any kind
3. Transactions, interest and privileges
Classification of Tax System
1. Progressive Income Tax – the higher the income, the higher the tax rate.
2. Proportional Tax – the tax rate is constant and unaffected by the level of income
3. Regressive Tax – the higher the income, the lower the tax rate.
Classification of Taxes
1. As to subject matter
a. Personal, capitation or poll tax – a tax of fixed amount upon all persons residing within a specified
territory without regard to their property or the occupations in which they may be engage.
b. Property tax – is one assessed on all property located within a certain territory on a specified date in
proportion to its value. The obligation to pay which is absolute and unavoidable and is not based upon
any voluntary action of the person assessed.
c. Excise tax – is any which does not fall within the classification of a poll tax or a property tax and embraces
every form of burden not laid directly upon person or property.
2. As to who bears the burden
a. Direct – is one which is demanded from a person who is intended or desired shall pay it.
b. Indirect – is a tax paid primarily by a person who can shift the burden upon someone else, or who are
under no legal obligation to pay them
3. As to determination of amount
a. Specific – is a fixed or determinate sum imposed by the head or number or by some standard of weight
or measurement and which requires no assessment beyond a listing and classification of the object to
be taxed.
b. Ad Valorem – is a tax of a fixed proportion of the value of the property with respect to which the tax is
assessed, and requires the intervention of assessors or appraisers to estimate the value of such
property before the amount due from each taxpayer can be determined.
4. As to purpose
a. General – is one levied for a general public purpose
b. Special – is one levied for particular or specific purpose
5. As to scope
a. National – a tax that is imposed by the state itself and is effective within the entire jurisdiction thereof
b. Local – is that imposed by a political subdivision of the state and is effective only within the territorial
boundaries thereof.
INCOME TAXATION FOR INDIVIDUALS
Income – means all wealth which flows into the taxpayer other than as a mere return of capital. It includes the
forms of income specifically described as gains, profits, including gains derived from the sale or other dispositions of
capital assets.
HOW TO DETERMINE INCOME TAX PAYABLE BY INDIVIDUALS
Formula:
1. GI – D = NI
2. NI – E = NTI
3. NTI x R = ATP
4. ATP – TW or TC = AITSP or AITR
Where:
GI = Gross Income D = Deductions NI = Net Income E = Exemptions
NTI = Net Taxable Income R = Rates under Sec. 21 of the NIRC
ATP = Amount of Tax Payable TW = Tax Withheld
TC = Tax Credit ATSP = Amount of Income Tax Still Payable
ATR = Amount of Income Tax Refundable

➢ Deductions such as: SSS, GSIS, Pag-Ibig & PHIC Contributions, & Union Dues
➢ In addition, individuals who are either earning compensation income, engaged in business or deriving income
from the practice of profession are entitled to personal and additional exemptions as follows:
Personal Exemptions (under the new Tax Law):
For single individual or married individual judicially decreed as P 50,000.00
legally separated with no qualified dependents

For head of family P 50,000.00

For each married individual* P 50,000.00

Additional exemption for each qualified dependent/child P 25, 000.00

➢ In the case of married individuals where only one of the spouses is deriving gross income, only such spouse
shall be allowed the personal exemption.
➢ An additional exemption of P25, 000.00 shall be allowed for each qualified dependent child, not exceeding four
(4). The additional exemption for dependents shall be claimed by the husband, who is deemed the head of
the family unless he explicitly waives his right in favor of his wife.
➢ In the case of legally separated spouses, additional exemption may be claimed only by the spouse who has
custody of the child or children; provided that the total amount of additional exemptions that may be claimed by
both shall not exceed the maximum additional exemptions allowed by the Tax Code.
➢ Under the New Tax Law, Minimum Wage Earners are exempted from paying the Annual Income Tax.
Characteristic of Sound Tax System
 1. Efficiency – must generate revenues greater than the amount of money the government must spend to collect
taxes.
2. Equity – individuals and groups belonging to the same income bracket must be taxed equally while those
belonging to different income groups must be taxed differently.
3. Convenience – to set up measures and procedures that will make it more convenient for taxpayers to pay.
4. Stability – tax system must not be too often or it will encourage taxpayers to withhold tax payments until a more
preferred system is put in place.

III. Land Reform

Evolution of Land Problem in the Philippines
 Began when early Filipinos, long before the coming of the Spaniards in 1521, saw the need of fencing off plots
of land for cultivation. It became worse when the string forced the weak to acknowledge his right over land and
employ the latter as tenant. Thus the oppression was known as caciquism or landlordism.
 Later, the ruling class (chief or rajah, sultan or datu) accumulated more and more land for itself. The land
accumulated were administered and cultivated by a number of intermediaries, the nobles or maharlikas, serfs
or timawas and the slaves.
 Land problem trebled when the Spaniards arrived. From 1565 up to the opening of the 17th century, when Miguel
Lopez de Legazpi established the first Spanish settlement in Cebu. Land in the Philippines can be acquired only
by means of encomienda. Based on the universal feudal theory that “no title to land can be acquired by any
person except by grant of the King.”
 The term encomienda means the right conceded by royal bounty to well-deserving persons in the Indies to
receive and enjoy for themselves the tributes of the natives who should be assigned to them.
 The encomienderos were allowed to collect taxes. Whatever is collected over and above their quota belongs to
them. It was subsequently abolished because of the abuse to the system
 The encomienda system was then replaced by the Royal Cedula as a form of land acquisition in the Philippines
from October 1854. Under this law, the viceroys and presidents of the courts were empowered to appoint sub
delegate ministers to take charge of the sale or adjustment, confirmation of imperfect title and prescription of
public lands.
 The Royal Decree of 1880 prescribed the rules governing the grant of lands by adjustment proceedings. A
landmark in modern Spanish legislation. This was supplemented by the Royal Decree of December 26, 1884
which classifies land which could be the subject of sale and adjustment proceedings and later replaced by the
Spanish Mortgage Law.
 The most important law governing the disposal of public lands is the Royal Decree of February 13, 1894 which
abolishes the juntas provinciales compociciones
 When the Americans came in 1898, the landlords were able to safeguard their fortunes, particularly their large
landholdings. The laws were directly enacted by them thus, their properties increased and multiplied. The Land
Registration Law which introduces the Torrens Systems made this possible.
 Under the Torrens System, by simply filing an application for land registration of choice lands on the bare pretext
that they were there since time immemorial, they were able to gobble more lands
 Valid titles of 300 years were destroyed and burdens were imposed upon helpless people thus, paralyzing the
value of such lands
 Governor-General William Howard Taft negotiated with Pope Leo XIII for the purchase of friar estates consisting
of 161,600 hectares. The land were supposed to be conveyed at cost to bonifide occupants, the safe or transfer
at cost did not took place because of manipulation of the rich who wanted to acquire such lands for themselves.
 In 1902, the Americans enacted the Public Land Act. Under this law, private individuals could acquire any tract
of public agricultural land not exceeding 124 hectares. Private corporations could not acquire more than 1,204
hectares. Dummies were used by rich people to be able to avail of the provision of that law.
 The Tangulan incident happened in 1933 when armed peasants stormed their municipal hall and destroyed all
land records on file. This prompted GG Theodore Roosevelt to initiate passage of the Rice Tenancy Act.
 President Quezon ordered the enactment of Commonwealth Act No. 178 which provided for the amelioration of
the conditions of tenants. The landlords however, countered with large scale dismissal every time the tenants
claimed their rights under the law
 After Philippine independence on July 4, 1946, many laws were passed to solve the land problems here. The
Rice and Corn Production Administration(RCPA) was organized on March 24, 1949
 In 1950, Pres. Quirino issued E.O. No. 355 creating the Land Settlement and Development Corporation
(LASEDECO) in which the purpose is to give land to the landless in order to arrest the increasing intensity of the
HUK rebellion.
 Pres. Ramon Magsaysay abolished LASEDECO thru Republic Act No. 1160 which created the National
Resettlement and Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA). This law enabled the government to pursue more
vigorously the land resettlement program of the state.
 On August 8, 1963, Pres. Diosdado Macapagal signed the Agricultural Land Reform Code which abolishes
NARRA
 On September 21, 1971, Pres. Ferdinand Marcos singed Republic Act No. 6389 which abolishes the Land
Authority and created the Department of Agrarian Reform to take over its functions.
 After the declaration of Martial Law on September 21, 1972, the most notable decree is the Presidential Decree
No. 27. provided for the farmer tenants to be amortizing owners. This decree was to private agricultural lands
primarily devoted to rice and corn under the system of share crop or lease tenancy. It conveyed ownership to
the tenant farmer with a family size farm of 5 hectares of un-irrigated land 3 hectares if irrigated.
 In any case, the land owner may retain an area of not more than 7 hectares if such land owner is cultivating
such area will start cultivation it. For purposes of valuation, multiply the average harvest of 3 normal crop years
 immediately preceding the promulgation of the decree, and the total cost of the land was with 6% annual interest
rate, to be paid 15 years or 15-equal amortization.
 The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL) of 1988 or Republic Act No. 6657 and the Comprehensive
Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) which was signed into law by Pres. Corazon Aquino for a dozen of years now
has been the basic laws being implemented by the government to solve the inequitable distribution of land
problem and alleviate the economic conditions of landless in our country.
Principles of Agrarian Reform
The policy of the state to pursue a Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) to:
1. To promote social justice
2. To move the nation toward sound rural development and industrialization
3. To establish owner – cultivator ship of economic sized farms as basis of Philippine Agriculture.
Coverage of CARP
1. All alienable and disposable lands of the public domain devoted to or suitable for agriculture.
2. All lands of the public domain in excess of the specific limits as determined by the congress.
3. All other lands owned by the government devoted to or suitable for agriculture
4. All private lands devoted to or suitable for agriculture regardless of the agricultural products raised or that can
be raised.
Retention Limits
1. Five hectares for land owner
2. Three hectares to be awarded to each child of the land owner subject to the following qualifications:
a. At least 15 years old
b. Actually tilling the soil or directly managing the farm
Beneficiaries
1. agricultural lessees and share tenants
2. regular farm workers
3. seasonal farm workers
4. other farm workers
5. actual tillers or occupants of public lands
6. collectives or cooperatives
7. other directly working on the land
Salient Features of CARP
1. CARP covers all agriculture lands and not only those devoted to rice and corn.
2. CARP covers not only those privately owned tenanted lands but also that of agricultural lands owned by
Multinational Corporations and commercial farms.
3. Lower retention limits of three hectares.
4. Rights of indigenous communities, to their ancestral lands are protected to ensure their economic, social and
cultural well being.
5. In determining just compensation, the cost of acquisition of the land, the current value of like properties, its
nature, actual use and income, the sworn valuation of the owner, the tax declarations and the assessment made
by the government assessors shall be considered.
6. Lands awarded to beneficiaries shall be paid to the Land Bank of the Philippines in 30 - annual amortization at
6% interest per annum.

IV. COOPERATIVES
History of Cooperative Laws in the Philippines
 Act No. 2508, The Rural Agricultural Cooperative Law was the first cooperative law in the Philippine which took
effect on December 9, 1927
 Act No. 3895 created the Rural Credit Association superseded Act No. 2508
 Act No 3425 created the Farmers Cooperative Marketing Association (FACOMAS) which was registered under
the Corporation Law. It took effect on December 9, 1927 until it was superseded by Republic Act No. 2023 in
1957
 Republic Act No. 821, which called for the establishment of an Agricultural Credit Cooperative Financing System
 Republic Act No. 2023, The General Basic Cooperative Law was enacted to govern the organization and conduct
of cooperatives until it was repealed by Presidential Decree No. 175 on April 14, 1973. Four Principles were
enumerated to govern the conduct of cooperatives, namely (1) Open Membership; (2) Democratic Control; (3)
Limited Interest to Capital; and (4) Patronage Refund.
 Other cooperative decrees were promulgated during the martial law namely: (1) P.D. No. 269, The Electric
Cooperative Law; (2) P.D. No. 775, The Sugar Cooperative Law; (3) P.D. No. 898, The Transport Cooperative
Law
 All the aforementioned laws were repealed; superseded or modified upon effectivity of the Cooperative Code of
the Philippines, Republic Act No. 6938 and the Cooperative Development Authority Law, Republic Act No. 6939
on March 30, 1990
Definition
Under the Law, a cooperative is defined as:
➢ A free association of persons voluntarily joined together
➢ With common bond of interest
➢ Legally constituted
➢ Purpose of conducting an economic enterprise
➢ Owned, controlled and administered democratically
➢ Making equitable contributions to the capital required
➢ Accepting a fair share of the risks and benefits
➢ Organized in accordance with generally accepted principles
Universal Principles of Cooperativism
1. Open and Voluntary Membership
 No artificial discrimination against individuals because of their race, creed or political affiliations, freedom
of entry and exit of any member of the cooperative
2. Democratic Control
 In order for members to gain entry to the cooperative, they must purchase shares of the cooperative,
obtain the right to govern the organization, voting rights of the owners are on the basis of one person,
one vote.
3. Limited Interest on capital
 Capital in a cooperative is like a loan because the owners of capital can expect to receive a rate of return
not exceeding that of the prevailing market interest rates on investing

4. Division of Net Surplus

 net saving should be distributed as follows:
ITEM % ALLOCATION

General Reserve Fund At least 10%

Education/Training Fund At least 10%

Optional Fund At least 10%

Dividend/Patronage Refund Remaining balance of saving

 General reserve fund – cover loses in operations
 Education/Training Fund – for members and management trainings
 Optional Fund – discretion of cooperatives for purposes of acquiring land construction of building or
community development
 Dividend/Patronage Refund – the volume of transaction that members have with the cooperative
5. Continuing Membership Education
 pre-membership education seminar as required for entry to the cooperative
 special trainings for the cooperative leadership and members
6. Cooperation Among Cooperatives
 Inter-lending and pooling of funds
Typologies of Cooperatives
1. According to level of Cooperatives
a. Primary – members of which are natural persons;
b. Secondary – members of which are primaries;
c. Tertiary – members of which are secondary upward to one or more apex organizations.
2. According to Services Rendered
a. Credit – is one which promotes thrift among its members and creates funds in order to grant loans for
productive and provident purposes;
b. Consumer – is one wherein the primary purpose is to procure and distribute commodities to members
and non-members.
c. Producer – is one which undertakes joint production whether agricultural or industrial
d. Marketing Cooperative - is one which engages in the supply of production inputs to members and in
turn market their products;
e. Service – is one which engages in medical and dental care, hospitalization, transportation, insurance,
housing, housing labor, electricity, communications and other services
f. Multi-purpose – is one which combines two or more activities of these different types of cooperatives.
3. According to Scope of Membership
a. Institutional – members are employees of a specific institution or corporation
b. Association – Members are those who have their own enterprises and belong to specific sector or
organization
c. Community level – members are based on a defined geographical area
New Cooperative Law
a. Cooperative Code of the Philippines (RA 6938)
b. Cooperative Development Authority (RA 6939)
c. Executive order 95 and 96 were issued by Pres. Fidel Ramos in June 1993, providing for implementation
guidelines for some of the provisions of the two laws cited.
Cooperative values
1. self-help 6. equity

2. self-responsibility 7. honesty
3. democracy 8. openness

4. equality 9. social responsibility

5.solidarity 10. caring for others