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1 GENERAL 175
~ 4 PROGRAMMABILITY 187
~ 5 SUMMARY 188
1 GENERAL
The origins of motion controllers were closely related to With the emergence of computers and microprocessor tech-
textile machine developments. In the very early history of nology, other options became possible and modern motion
such machines the control of position and velocity was controllers were born.
accomplished by elaborate, expensive and time-consuming
solutions comprising cams, gears and shuttles. A position or motion controller can be considered as a
system for providing an outer position or path control at the
The automotive and machine tool industries were among front end of a drive which traditionally may be considered to
those which saw the control of motion as a means of pro- be a speed controller. This can be represented as shown in
viding complex shapes and integrating complex operations. Figure 7.1.
Being able to move heavy materials and process them in a
repeatable and continuous manner added value and increased Although position control is frequently used in single
the productivity of their operations. axes, the generic motion-control system is most frequently
176 GENERAL
A.C. supply
....................................................................................................................................
convet ona0rve 1......[.....I...............
position
controller s0ee0 current' 'vo a0e' I 0over
con,,o,,er "1 con,ro,,er I "1 con,ro,,er I " conver,e,
measured current
L
......................................................................................................
measured speed
(
measured position
speed
.......................................................
i drive 1
i.:~i.i.~l~~'.~ i
demand •
•
p,-,
.... i
measured speed
.~..
measured position
motion
controller
A.C[ supply
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i..1.......
speed drive 2
demand
reasure0spee0
measured position
associated with multiaxis applications. In such systems, the digital) which are fed to a drive (often referred to as an
motion controller is often, but not always, used to coordinate amplifier in motion applications) for controlling some type
the position or velocity of a number of drives. This form of of actuator.
application has been illustrated for a two-axis system in
Sometimes the controllers are designed for specialised
Figure 7.2.
applications such as:
A more precise definition of a motion controller would be -
the application of programmable hardware and software (in • machine tools - computerised numerical controls (CNC)
conjunction with input sensory devices, actuators and other • industrial robots
feedback devices)for the control of one or more linear or • transfer lines
rotary motions. • coordinate measuring systems
• laser welding and cutting
The controller clearly includes a means of entering a set of
instructions or code into its memory. These instructions are In the 1990s general purpose standalone controllers became
translated into a series of electrical signals (analogue and/or popular. This type of controller is typically more flexible
Chapter 7.2 177
2 BASICS OF M O T I O N CONTROL
The requirement for a motion controller is essentially deter- acceleration (a) - velocity/time
mined by the need to control a system or process beyond the
capability of a single device. The control invariably requires = dv/dt (rate of change of velocity)
the profiling of one or more axes within a machine. The
properties to be profiled are usually either velocity (speed)
or position.
j "~. dt (integral of jerk x time)
- [ ~. dt (integral of acceleration x time) The high levels of jerk can be attenuated by changing
J the velocity/time profile. The implementation of a simple
178 BASICS OF MOTION CONTROL
(1)
or,=
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>
position
if)
e-
0
e-
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................. ~ ~I¢ position
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.m ............................................................................. velocity
l-
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maximum
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0
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t_
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target position
t-
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maximum
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4-,
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"~t
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>
%
t-
~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
maximum
acceleration
•v ,L t
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0
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. . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
jerk
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maximum
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>
%
maximum
acceleration
~t
o
O
kj kj
maximum jerk
....~
POSITION LOCK-ELECTRONIC GEARBOX speed. In other words, during the acceleration period it is not
important to maintain lock. Figure 7.9 illustrates the speed
This function is often used to provide a ratio between dif- profile of such an application as well as showing the period
ferent drives. It can be used on machines which historically when digital lock is applied.
had a line shaft providing coordination.
A typical implementation of such a system could be as
Three basic forms exist. shown in Figure 7.10.
Ramped Nonrigid Lock A flying shear (rotary knife) is a good example of a system
requiring this type of control. In this application only after
In applications such as a take-off conveyor, it is only synchronous lock is achieved can the shear, knife or punch
important to maintain lock once the drive has accelerated to be fired. When the shear, knife or punch is withdrawn the
screw tapping
spindle up~down
motion
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..........................................................
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master speed
-(3
/
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master conveyor
A pick and place
slave conveyor
fast
slow
line
speed
"0
¢
| °
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| a
"13
c~
~' J, time
sta
trigger
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locked
digital lock can be deselected and the position ramped back In all these examples of single-axis positioning the essence
to the original datum. Figure 7.12 illustrates the speed pro- of the control system is the counting of pulses derived
file of such an application as well as showing the period from the motor-mounted encoder or process-line-mounted
when digital lock is applied. feedback.
Single-axis positioning systems are characterised by the In many applications a slave-drive motion is required to
need to move from one position to another, usually in as follow the master in a nonlinear relationship. To illustrate
short a time as possible and as accurately as possible. Further this, consider the relationship between the slave and
enhancements are often included to allow for position refe- master in the following example of a packaging application
rencing, or homing. Figure 7.13 shows a typical system (Figure 7.15).
where the rotary motion of the motor shaft is translated into a
Such a profile has historically been achieved using a
linear motion v i a a ball screw.
mechanical CAM, but has been substituted using electronic
Alternatively in the case of an indexing application, a controls with the master-slave function embedded in look-up
repetitive action is undertaken after a prescribed duration or tables. The relationships between such tables and mechan-
travel, as in the example shown in Figure 7.14. ical CAMs are of the form shown in Figure 7.16.
~+++i+++++++
I proximity switch i
for home reference
. _ .
t
position and profile reference
pneumatic
knife
unwind
feed rolls
take-off-conveyor
unwind -- --
software index
position
software
reference
proximity
sensor
IP V (slave)
!
! I
_ _
O
constant speed conveyor
(master)
180
225
I
i
270 -I
315
slave axis
45
90
I
135
180
The more CAM coordinates in the table, the smoother the MULTIAXIS POSITIONING
motion between master and slave. This relationship is illu-
strated in Figure 7.17. The power of motion controllers becomes of critical
The granularity/smoothness of motion can be improved importance in multiaxis applications. It is all too easy to
by the use of interpolation techniques within the controller. consider all multiaxis applications as highly demanding.
In essence, interpolation calculates intermediate points This is not the case, indeed perhaps as many as 90 per cent of
between the data given in the table. The simplest form of multiaxis systems demand little more than loose coordina-
interpolation is linear interpolation. Figure 7.18 shows the tion of their respective motion. In such systems single-axis
principle. As the name suggests, a linear motion between controllers can perform admirably with simple referencing
datum points is assumed. between drives. It is in applications with precise contouring,
such as axis drives on a machine tool, that true multiaxis
More complex interpolation algorithms can be found in control is demanded. In these applications it is not adequate
many motion controllers including square interpolation to simply ensure that motion commands are accurately
(Figure 7.19), cosine interpolation (Figure 7.20) through to synchronised, but also that the motion of all drives is
more complex helical and spline interpolation which will closely monitored; the actual position of each drive influ-
not be considered here. ences the trajectory of every drive. It is truly control of a
point in space, and that space can have more than three
It is possible to combine different forms of interpolation to
dimensions!
create very specific profiles. This flexibility allows complex
CAM profiles to be effected with relatively small numbers Multiaxis positioning systems also bring a requirement for
of data points. multiaxis interpolation, which will not be discussed here.
184 TYPICAL MOTION FUNCTIONS" Multiaxis Positioning
reduced
number of
coordinates required
.
c
0
m
profile
(/)
0
Q.
> increased
(/) number of
coordinates
master position
>,,
.
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o
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I
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I ~X
X -y
4 PROGRAMMABILITY
The power and flexibility of motion controllers demands used listing of codes are G codes. Examples of G codes for
powerful, easy to use programming tools. Today many various functions are given in Table 7.1.
proprietary programming tools are available. For general-
purpose controllers WindowsTM-based systems pre-
dominate. IEC 61131-3 provides a standard framework Table 7.1 Examples of G codes for
around which many systems have been successfully devel- CNC controllers
oped.
G 00 rapidtraverse
Many standalone systems include the ability to import data G 01 linearinterpolation
from mechanical CAD packages providing a direct CAD/ G 02 circularinterpolation (clockwise)
CAM link. helical interpolation (clockwise)
G 04 dwell
Text editors are incorporated to ensure good documentation G 06 splineinterpolation
and version control of all software. Further, performance can G 17 planeselect XY
be monitored using features such as oscilloscope functions. G 21 metricprogramming
G 45 tool offset increase
CNC controllers tend to be programmed utilising broadly
G 94 feed per minute
recognised codes for specific functions. The most widely
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Figure 7.21 CAD to motion screen with automatic motion code generation
188 SUMMARY
5 SUMMARY
Position and motion-control systems are not necessarily radical fully distributed control topologies. The growth of
complex. Most applications, when considered carefully, will PC-based programming tools provides great scope for future
involve the requirement for motion coordination rather than development relating to both centralised and distributed
a rigid link. The recognition of this can greatly simplify the solutions.
control system required and introduce the possibility of