Activities to develop

Each student in the group has to answer the following questions using academic
references to support the research:

1. Explain the concept of loss tangent by means of an example.

The loss tangent allows the analysis of conduction and polarization losses. So it is
the loss of power in the middle. Its importance lies in the ability to determine
whether a material can be a suitable conductor for the low, but the properties of a
dielectric element with a very high frequency.
The tangent is defined as the ratio of the conduction current to the velocity in the
dielectric.
𝜎𝑒𝑓
tan 𝜃 = =
𝜔𝜀´
For example, the wet earth has a dielectric constant 𝜖𝑟 and a conductivity 𝜎 of the
𝑠
order of 10 and 102 (𝑚) respectively. The tangent of losses 𝜎/𝜔𝜀 of the earth is
equal to 1.8𝑥104 a 1 (𝑘ℎ𝑧), so it is a pretty good conductor. However, 𝜎/𝜔𝜀 is
1.8𝑥10−3 to 10(𝑘ℎ𝑧) and the wet earth behaves as an insulator.

2. What kind of information give us the propagation velocity in

electromagnetic waves propagation?
In the practical sense, the speed of propagation of a wave allows knowing the
direction, module and direction of it. The speed of propagation is the distance that
a wave advances in a given time.

To determine it, the following formula is used:

𝜆
𝑣= =𝜆∗𝑓
1/𝑓
Where:
𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑚)
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

In the case of electromagnetic waves when they propagate in a vacuum they have
a constant speed of 299792458 𝑘𝑚 / 𝑠.
Speaking of proportionality between the speed of propagation and the frequency of
the signal, if a wave of wavelength L and frequency 2U will move twice as fast as a
wave of length L but of frequency U. In short, it depends on the propagation speed
of the U frequency. 4. Using the electromagnetic spectrum, explain the practical
application of each type of radiation.

3. Explain how an electromagnetic wave behaves in free space, perfect

dielectrics and good conductors.

The behavior of an electromagnetic wave in free space differs according to optical

effects such as refraction, reflection, diffraction and interference, which in a
common language can be assumed refraction as bending, reflection as rebound,
diffraction as dispersion and interference as shocks.

The free space is a homogeneous medium, which implies that its characteristics
are constant, that is to say that both the permittivity, as permeability and the
conductivity are constant. The free space is also an electrically and magnetically
isotropic medium (equal), which implies that both the permeability and the
permittivity are scalar. On the other hand, in the free space the conductivity is zero
and the permittivity and permeability are equal to those corresponding to the
vacuum.
As can be inferred, the definition of free space coincides with that
corresponding to a perfect dielectric.
Perfect dielectrics and bues conductors

The separation between dielectrics or insulators, and conductors is not very well
defined, and some means, the earth, for example, are considered conductors up to
certain frequencies, and dielectrics with losses for higher frequencies.

The separation between dielectrics or insulators, and conductors is not very well
defined, and some means, the earth, for example, are considered conductors up to
certain frequencies, and dielectrics with losses for higher frequencies.
Taking the Maxwell equation that gives the sources of magnetic field rotational,
modified Ampere Law, and working with fields with sinusoidal variation in time
(phasors), we have:
∇ ∗ 𝐻 = 𝜎 ∗ 𝐸 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝐸

The first summand of the second member is the conduction current density, while
the second member is the displacement current density.
The relation between the modules of the conduction and displacement current
densities, turns out to be:
𝐽𝑐 𝜎
=
𝐽𝑑 𝜔𝜀

It is established as a division between conductive materials and dielectrics, when

the previous relation is equal to 1. This dividing line, as seen from the expression,
varies with frequency.
It is possible to be more specific and classify the media as belonging to three
types, according to the relationship between the density modules of conduction
and displacement currents, namely:

 Dielectrics:
𝜎
< 0,01
𝜔𝜀
 Conductors:
𝜎
> 100
𝜔𝜀

Some authors advance further, partitioning quasi-conductors into dielectrics with

losses and poor conductors. In good conductors, such as metals, the ratio 𝜎 / (𝜔𝜀)
is much higher than the unit over the entire spectrum of radio frequencies. Such is
the case of copper that, up to relatively high frequencies, 30,000 𝑀𝐻𝑧, the value
of this ratio is 3.5 ∗ 109 Also, in good drivers, both 𝜀 and 𝜔 are almost independent
of frequency.

In good dielectrics or insulators, the ratio 𝜎 / (𝜔𝜀) is much less than unity.
Furthermore, for most dielectrics, both 𝜀 and 𝜔 are functions of the frequency,
although the relation 𝜎 / (𝜔𝜀) is practically constant within a certain frequency
range of interest.

Most of the materials used, either allow the conduction currents to easily pass or
prevent their circulation, that is, they behave as conductors or as dielectrics or
insulators, except for some exceptions among which it is worth mentioning due to
their practical importance, especially in radio links, to the earth and to fresh or salt
water, which at low frequencies are good conductors and at high frequencies are
good dielectrics.

4. Using the electromagnetic spectrum, explain the practical application of

every type of radiation.

The knowledge that we have today of the electromagnetic spectrum is quite

finished and its applications are many, every time we talk on the cell phone, we
tune to a radio, watch a television program, or feel the heat of the sun, we are
perceiving one or the other form electromagnetic radiation. Visible light is only a
small part of the family of electromagnetic waves that make up the spectrum. Their
applications depend on the type of electromagnetic wave:

Radiofrequency

Radio waves are usually used by antennas of the appropriate size (according to
the principle of resonance), with wavelengths ranging from hundreds of meters to
approximately one millimeter. They are used for data transmission, through
modulation. Television, mobile phones, magnetic resonances, or wireless and
amateur radio networks are some popular uses of radio waves.
Microwave

The super high frequency (SHF) and the extremely high frequency (EHF) of the
microwaves are the following in the frequency scale. Microwaves are waves that
are short enough to use tubular metal waveguides of reasonable diameter.
Microwave energy is produced with klystron tubes and magnetron tubes, and with
solid state diodes such as the Gunn and IMPATT devices. Microwaves are
absorbed by molecules that have a dipole moment in liquids. In a microwave oven,
this effect is used to heat the food. Low intensity microwave radiation is used in Wi-
Fi.
The average microwave oven, when active, is in a nearby range and powerful
enough to cause interference with poorly protected electromagnetic fields, such as
those found in mobile medical devices and cheap electronic devices.

Rays T

The radiation of terahertz (or Rays T) is a region of the spectrum located between
the far infrared and the microwaves. Until recently, this range was very little
studied, since there were hardly any sources for microwave energy at the high end
of the band (submillimeter waves or also called terahertz waves). However,
applications are appearing to show images and communications. Scientists also
seek to apply T-ray technology to the armed forces, where they could be used to
direct them to enemy troops, since high-frequency waves incapacitate electronic
equipment.

Infrared radiation

The infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers the range from
approximately 300 GHz (1 mm) to 400 THz (750 nm). It can be divided into three
parts:

* Far infrared, from 300 𝐺𝐻𝑧 (1 𝑚𝑚) to 30 𝑇𝐻𝑧 (10 𝜇𝑚). The lower part of this
range can also be called a microwave. This radiation is absorbed by the so-called
rotational modes in molecules in the gas phase, by molecular movements in
liquids, and by photons in solids. Water in Earth's atmosphere absorbs this
radiation so strongly that it gives the atmosphere opaque effectiveness. However,
there are certain ranges of wavelengths ("windows") within the opaque range that
allow partial transmission, and they can be used in astronomy. The wavelength
range of approximately 200 𝜇𝑚 to a few mm is often referred to as "submillimeter
radiation" in astronomy, reserving the far infrared for wavelengths below 200 𝜇𝑚.

* Medium infrared, from 30 to 120 𝑇𝐻𝑧 (10 𝑡𝑜 2.5 𝜇𝑚). Hot objects (black body
radiators) can radiate strongly in this range. It is absorbed by molecular vibrations,
that is, when the different atoms in a molecule vibrate around their equilibrium
positions. This range is called, sometimes, fingerprint region, since the average
infrared absorption spectrum of each compound is very specific.
* Near infrared, from 120 to 400 𝑇𝐻𝑧 (2500 𝑡𝑜 750 𝑛𝑚). The physical processes
that are relevant to this range are similar to those of visible light.

Visible radiation (light)

The frequency above infrared is that of visible light. This is the range in which the
Sun and the stars similar to it emit most of their radiation. It is probably not a
coincidence that the human eye is sensitive to the wavelengths that the sun emits
most strongly. Visible light (and near infrared light) are absorbed and emitted by
electrons in molecules and atoms that move from one energy level to another. The
light that we see with our eyes is really a very small part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. A rainbow shows the optical part (visible) of the electromagnetic
spectrum; the infrared (if it could be seen) would be located just below the red side
of the rainbow, while the ultraviolet would be behind the violet.

Ultraviolet light

The next frequency in the spectrum is ultraviolet (or UV), which is radiation whose
wavelength is shorter than the violet end of the visible spectrum.

Being very energetic, ultraviolet radiation can break chemical bonds, making the
molecules exceptionally reactive or ionizing them, which changes their behavior.
Sunburn, for example, is caused by the damaging effects of UV radiation on skin
cells, and can even cause skin cancer if radiation damages complex DNA
molecules in cells (UV radiation is a mutagen ). The Sun emits a large amount of
UV radiation, which could quickly turn Earth into a sterile desert if it were not for the
most part absorbed by the ozone layer of the atmosphere before reaching the
surface.

X-rays

After the ultraviolet, X-rays come. Hard X-rays have shorter wavelengths than soft
X-rays. They are generally used to see through some objects, as well as for high-
energy physics and astronomy. The neutron stars and the accretion discs around
the black holes emit X-rays, which allows us to study them.

X-rays pass through most substances, and this makes them useful in medicine and
industry. They are also emitted by the stars, and especially by some types of
nebulae. An x-ray machine works by firing a beam of electrons over an "objective".
If electrons are fired with enough energy, X-rays are produced.

Gamma rays

After the hard X-rays come the gamma rays. They are the most energetic photons,
and the lowest limit of their wavelength is not known. They are useful to
astronomers in the study of objects or regions of high energy, and are useful for
physicists thanks to their penetrating capacity and their production of
radioisotopes. The wavelength of the gamma rays can be measured with great
accuracy by means of Compton scattering.

There is no exactly defined boundary between the bands of the electromagnetic

spectrum. Some types of radiation have a mixture of the properties of radiations
found in the two regions of the spectrum. For example, red light resembles infrared
radiation in that some chemical bonds can resonate.
Taken from: https://www.espectrometria.com/espectro_electromagntico

5. What is the refraction index and what kind of information give us about the
electromagnetic waves behavior?

The refractive index of a substance is the ratio between the speed of light in
vacuum and the phase velocity of an electromagnetic signal in a specific medium.
It is represented by the letter 𝑛.
𝑐𝑜
𝑛=
𝑣𝑝

Because the phase velocity in any medium is less than the speed of light in
vacuum, the refractive index of a substance is always an amount greater than or
equal to 1.

In a vacuum, the light propagates at a velocity of 𝐶 = 3 ∗ 108 while in any other

medium, it propagates more slowly. The relationship between "𝐶" and the speed of
light in any other medium is called the refractive index of that material.

6. What is a plane wave and a non-plane wave and where are they used?
What is a magnetic and a nonmagnetic medium and where are they used?

plane wave: a plane wave or also called a one-dimensional wave, is a wave of

constant frequency whose wave fronts (surfaces with constant phase) are parallel
planes of constant amplitude normal to the vector phase velocity. That is to say,
they are those waves that propagate in a single direction throughout the space, like
for example the waves in the springs or in the cords. If the wave propagates in a
single direction, its wave fronts are plane and parallel.
By extension, the term is also used to describe waves that are approximately plane
in a localized region of space. For example, a source of electromagnetic waves
such as an antenna produces a field that is approximately planos in a far field
region. That is, at a distance far from the source, the waves emitted are
approximately plana and can be considered as such.
Taken from https://lasondas.webnode.es/ondas-planas/

Non-plane waves: A non-plane wave (spherical or circular) in physics is that

three-dimensional wave, that is, it propagates at the same speed in all directions. It
is called a non-plane wave because its wave fronts are concentric spheres, whose
centers coincide with the position of the disturbance source.
Sound waves are non-flat waves when they propagate through a homogeneous
medium, such as air or water at rest. Light also propagates in the form of non-flat
waves in air, water, or through vacuum.
Taken from: http://padeerudea.blogspot.com/2010/05/conceptos-claves-tematica-
ondas.html

Magnetic field: The magnetic field B is a vector quantity. It can be produced by a

point load in motion or by a set of moving charges, that is, by an electric current.

The magnetic field unit in the International System is the tesla (T). A tesla is
defined as the magnetic field that exerts a force of 1 N (newton) on a charge of 1 C
(coulomb) that moves at a speed of 1 m / s within the field and perpendicular to the
field lines.

The tesla is a very large unit, so sometimes the magnetic field unit is the gauss (G)
which, although it does not belong to the International System but to the CGS
system, has a value more in accordance with the order of magnitude of the
magnetic fields that are usually handled.
Taken from:
http://www2.montes.upm.es/dptos/digfa/cfisica/magnet/campomag.html

Choose one of the following problems, solve it and share the solution in the
forum. Perform a critical analysis on the group members’ contributions and
reply this in the forum.

3. An open medium has the following electromagnetic characteristics:

𝑬𝒓 = 𝟗
𝝁𝒓 = 𝟏, 𝟔
𝝈 = 𝟏, 𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑺/𝒎

Find the power transmitted by a 120𝑀𝐻𝑧 signal with a maximum electric field of
200𝑉/𝑚 and find the skin depth of the signal.

Solution:

The tangent of losses is calculated to discriminate the medium:

𝑇𝑎𝑛(𝛿) ≥ 10 => 𝐺𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑇𝑎𝑛(𝛿) < 0,01 => 𝐺𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
0,01 < 𝑇𝑎𝑛(𝛿) < 10 => 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑇𝑎𝑛(𝛿) = 0 => 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
𝑇𝑎𝑛(𝛿) → ∞ => 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝜎
Tan(δ) =
𝜔𝜀
 𝑆
1,2𝑥 10−5 𝑚
Tan(δ) =
𝑟𝑎𝑑 1
2𝜋 ∗ 108 𝑠𝑒𝑔 ∗ 9 ∗ 36𝜋 ∗ 10−9 𝐹/𝑚

𝑆 𝑆
1,2𝑥 10−5 𝑚 1,2 ∗ 10−5 𝑚
Tan(δ) = =
1 5
(2𝜋)(3 ∗ 108 ) (9 ∗ ∗ 10−9 )
36 𝜋

Tan(δ) = 2,4 ∗ 10−5 = 0,000024

we can see that the tangent of loss is less than 0.1. We conclude then that it is a
dielectric with low losses and good insulation. for this reason, we have:

𝐻
𝜇 1.6 ∗ 4𝜋 ∗ 10−7
n= √ = √ 𝑚
𝜀 1 𝐹
9𝑥 ∗ 10−9
36 𝑥 𝜋 𝑚

2,010619298 ∗ 10−5 𝐻/𝑚

n=√
7,957747155 ∗ 10−10

n = √25266,18726
n = 158,95 Ω ≈ 159 Ω

The initial power transmitted to the medium is (x = 0);

|𝐸 2 𝑥𝜊|
𝑃0 =
|𝑛|

Replacing:
𝑉 2
|200 𝑚|
𝑃0 =
|158.95|Ω

Solving:
𝑃0 = 251.65 𝑊/𝑚2

In group solve the following practical exercise

In an excel document make the following actions:

1. In a sheet put the following table, assigning an average frequency for every
type of radiation.
 Acronym Meaning Selected frequency

ELF Extra Low Frequency entre los 30 y los 300 Hz

SLF Super Low Frequency 30 Hz a 300 Hz

ULF Ultra Low Frequency 300Hz a 3KHz

VLF Very Low Frequency 3KHz a 30KHz

LF Low Frequency 30KHz a 300KHz

MF Medium Frequency 300KHz a 3MHz

HF High Frequency 3MHz a 30MHz

VHF Very High Frequency 30MHz a 300MHz

UHF Ultra High Frequency 300MHz a 3GHz

SHF Super High Frequency 3GHz a 30GHz

EHF Extra High Frequency 30GHz a 300GHz

In another sheet define 9 different mediums with their electromagnetic

characteristics and let the user to select the medium and automatically graph the
lost tangent for the selected medium.
Medium

σ(s/m) Electric conductivity

Ɛᵣ Constant dielectric

Medium σ(s/m) Ɛᵣ

Aluminio 3820000 1

Cobre 5800000 1

Agua de Mar 4 80

Suelo vegetal 0,01 14

Suelo seco 0,0001 3

Agua dulce 0,001 80

Aceite dieléctrico 0,55 4,5

Mica 1,00E-11 5,7

Suelo húmedo 0,01 10

lost tangent

Medium σ(s/m) Ɛᵣ Ɛo
Suelo
Vegetal 0,01 14 8,85E-12

Frequency lost tangent

16,5 779220,779
165 77922,0779
1650 7792,20779
16500 779,220779
165000 77,9220779
1650000 7,79220779
16500000 0,77922078
165000000 0,07792208
1650000000 0,00779221
16500000000 0,00077922
1,65E+11 7,79E-05

Electromagnetic characteristics of vegetable soil

180000000000.00
160000000000.00
140000000000.00
120000000000.00
Frequency

100000000000.00
80000000000.00
60000000000.00
40000000000.00
20000000000.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Lost tangent

Series1 Series2