A Glimpse Of The Beloved

Faith, Cultures and Sexualities

a pilot study on the impact of Islamic belief, traditions and
customs on Muslim males who have sex with males

A reading of the texts

Naz Foundation International

An internal document
for the International HIV/AIDS Alliance, Brighton, UK
October 2004
Principal Investigator
Arif Jafar

Report Authors
Shivananda Khan
Arif Jafar

Reviewer
Salim Kidwai

Technical Assistance
Naz Foundation International

Project Partners
Bandhu Social Welfare Society, Dhaka
Bharosa, Lucknow
Milan, New Delhi
Mithrudu, Hyderabad
Vision, Lahore

Sponsored by
International HIV/AIDS Alliance

September 2004

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Contents
Preface 4
Introduction 7
Construction of male same-sex behaviours in South Asia 11
Islam and same sex behaviours 15
Jeremy Seabrook
Queer sexuality and identity in the Quran and Hadith 17
Faris Malik
A word from the Investigator 22
Sources of Islamic beliefs 23
Interpretations 26
Gender and gender roles 28
Sex and sexualities 38
Transgression and Fitna 51
The sacred and the profane
Medieval times 58
A dialogue between two believers
Dr. Maartin Schild
Concluding remarks 74
Further reading 77

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Preface
Religion and religious beliefs and practices are complex phenomena arising out of what is perceived as
historical truths, sacred texts, and social practice. In contemporary Christianity, ever since Luther’s and
Calvin’s Reformations, personal meanings and interpretations of sacred texts and a prophet’s sayings have
influenced belief and practice. In that sense the extremely broad church that represents Christianity has
become democratised to a significant extent. But in terms of Islam (and to an extent Hinduism), this
possibility is foreclosed. Tradition and interpretation of sacred texts can only be through those qualified to
do so, the religious scholars and teachers who are given that authority based on their expertise. This is
more true to an extent in the religions of South Asia where belief, culture and tradition con-exist, not as
separated domains but as an interwoven whole, where religion and belief are co-mingled with cultural and
social practices and beliefs.

For example, Bengali Muslims, while having the same faith as Pakistani Muslims, will often have very
different customs and traditions that at times are also sanctified within Islam. This is because of different
languages, different histories, different geographies, and so on. Further, while sometimes these religions are
seen as monolithic, they are not. Islam has several different branches and while all accept the Quran as
central, each has its own traditions and customs, based upon interpretation of the Quran, Hadith and
Sharia, whether they are Sunni, Shia, or Sufi, and so on. Similarly Hinduism is not constructed around a
central person, creed or doctrine, but is a mixture of a broad and eclectic system of beliefs and doctrines.
Sikhism arose from an attempt to unify the beliefs of Islam and Hinduism.

What needs to be clearly understood is that religion and the culture in which it is practised are not separate
from each other but are interwoven in complex dynamics, and it is often extremely difficult to separate the
two, if at all. In other words, religious beliefs and practices are informed and contextualised within specific
cultures. There is no such thing as a pure religion. Thus, while religions will specify and demand particular
social practices, beliefs and attitudes, very often, cultural traditions and customs will outweigh religious
beliefs and statements, while co-existing alongside these beliefs and statements.

This is clearly shown in terms of, for example, Islam and the statements concerning women, particularly
the rights of married women, in the Quran. Cultural practices however are often very different from these
statements. The caste system so deified in current Hinduism does not exist in original Vedic texts, the
foundation stone (if that can be said) of Hindu beliefs. What matters is interpretation, but who does the
interpretation? Where interpretation of religious texts interpenetrate cultural beliefs and customs, then very
often these customs and practices will take on a sanctity that never existed in the original sacred text.

In South Asia it should also be remembered that religion and its practice is very much a public event.
Private behaviour is invisible, and as long as it remains that way it can be denied. Further, for the vast
majority, one is born into a religion. Changing one's religious beliefs becomes an extremely difficult
process within a community-based belief. This is because, in contrast to the way that Christianity is viewed
and practiced in the Europe, where it is very much a matter of personal choice and individual response, the
religions of the sub-continent very much relate to how communities function as a whole. Religious and
secular life centres in the mosque, the temple and the gurdwara (a Sikh temple). Public faith in a specific
system of beliefs, whether Hindu, Islam or Sikh, is not separated from the day to day life of the person, but
is an integral part of community life.

Daily observances, the food a person eats, his or her relationships with each other and the family,
interactions with the community and community structures, various religious celebrations and festivals, are
all interlinked and interdependent.

Thus religious belief, custom, tradition and culture are all woven into a complex tapestry of every day life.
They colour and shape the particular world view of the person and shape his or her response to the world.
Religion to our communities thus becomes an obligation to the community, a duty to the community. Not
to accept this duty brings shame and dishonour to the family and to the community.

Thus religion provides a sense of community solidarity, and becomes a process of self-affirmation while
enhancing community solidarity. It provides a sense of belonging, a context, being part of a community, a

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process of sharing. By participating within this framework, the person feels less marginalised, less alone,
less isolated.

Thus it can be said that participation, more than belief, has a greater relevance. Participation within the
religions of the sub-continent is very much a public performance, not necessarily a private function. It
relates a lot more to what you are seen to do than what you actually do. Participation involves submission
to the daily rituals, customs and traditions that surround a specific religious belief. It is public acceptance
rather than a private knowing.

To step outside this public acknowledgement is also to challenge one's relationship with family and
community and threaten to a large extent those relationships. It often will lead to rejection, isolation and
in some cases, threats.

In the context of a South Asian person's sexuality, when discovering his or her sexual and emotional
desires and feelings, the issues becomes charged with particular risks. By confronting the issue, the person
risks losing community support and participation in community rituals. By hiding feelings and desires, the
person can" pass" within the community and fulfil his or her community obligations.

But such choices can create a compartmentalised state of being, which carries all the psychological risks
that two mutually opposed frameworks of being, of thinking and feeling, can have on a person's mental
health. This also will have an impact on sexual practices and risks.

Because of the community nature of religious affiliation, most people will have strong links with their
religious traditions and celebrations. Thus these celebrations and particular beliefs play a strong role in
their lives.

A key concern arising from socio-cultural frameworks in South Asia is the conflation between the terms
"loneliness" and "aloneness", where no distinction is made between the two. To be separated from one's
family and community is usually experienced as extremely difficult and painful, if not impossible.

There appears to be very little public knowledge about what actually the various religions really have to
say about sexuality and sexual behaviour. There is much focus on admonishments, punishments and
supposed quotes, but much of what is said has no foundation, is based upon mis-interpretations, on a
history of tradition given religious sanction over time.

Neither does there appear to be a great deal of knowledge of the history around sexuality and same-sex
sexual behaviour in South Asia. Who knows that Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire had young male
lovers, or that there are many Hindu temples with erotic same-sex couplings both male and female, or that
Ranjit Singh of the Sikh Empire also had young male lovers.

Nor that the specific civil law against homosexual behaviour (lesbianism not being recognized at all) was
brought into the Indian Penal Code by the British in 1860 (known as Section 377 in India, Bangladesh and
Pakistan). Thus there is evidence, well hidden, that indicates that irrespective of the religion, homosexual
behaviour was well-known in the South Asia long before the Muslim invasions as well as before the British
Raj, while both Mughal and British added to the homosexual history of the region.

Such a lack of knowledge - religious, secular, and political, as well as sensuous - means that much
confusion arises. Such confusion leads to denial, to anger and self-hatred, to deep sense of isolation and
loneliness, and for some in a final resolution to their pain, suicide. Shame and guilt cover their feelings and
desires and will often lead to behaviours that are not particularly healthy. Constant tensions between
release and shame create barriers towards building a successful and affirming life.

The person then loses his or her sense of place, of context, of relationship. Personal identity carries dangers
for the person. "Who am I?", "What am I?" are not resolved.

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I enjoy going to the mosque. It is part of my life. When I do namaz, I feel
connected, a part of something bigger than myself. When I read about Babur,
it was like a great pain was lifted off me. Not that Babur was a hero of mine;
it just was that he has a great respect in the community. A great Muslim. It
made me feel a part of the community again. Of course I can't come and say
that I am kothi, but inside I shout it loud all the time.

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Introduction
In South Asia, Naz Foundation International has done considerable work supporting males who have sex
with males’ networks in a number of localities to address their own sexual health needs through the
provision of technical, institutional and financial support.

The approach has been community building and mobilising where the sense of community affiliation is
based on common understandings and sexual practices, along with shared gendered performances and
beliefs within subaltern masculinities.

A key concern has been how religious beliefs, values and practices impact on the constructions of
sexualities and masculinities and the resultant frameworks of male-to-male sex. Further to this would be
the impact these have on sexual practices, psychological concerns, STI/HIV/AIDS and risks of infection, as
well as issues around care and support for such marginalised and socially excluded populations.

While Bangladesh and Pakistan are predominantly Muslim countries with a small minority of Hindus
(approximately 3- 5%), India is primarily Hindu with a larger Muslim population (11 %). Naz
Foundation International, based on a broad range of social assessments among MSM in South Asia,
believes that much of male-to-male sex is constructed around gender/sex roles and class, rather than
around sexual orientation and identity. This is not to deny that there are gay-identified men (or even
homosexually-identified) in the region, but all the evidence appears to indicate that such sexual
orientation/identity formation is class-based, that is, amongst the educated middle and upper classes,
primarily urban based.

For the majority of those involved in male-to-male sex, gender/sex roles predominate. The penetrator
primarily sees himself as a masculine man and is perceived as such by those males he penetrates. The
penetrated however, constructs himself as a 'not-man', a feminised male, and is perceived as such by those
who penetrate him. This does not deny that other frameworks of male- to-male sex exist in the region that
is diverse and loosely bounded.

Further, religious and cultural values promote a socially compulsory marital system, which means that the
vast majority of males who have sex with males, both penetrated and penetrator will eventually become
married. Evidence exists that marriage does not stop male-to-male sex, which thus indicates potential risks
of a transmission route of male-to-male-to female.

In terms of HIV and sexual health NFI believes that it is these “gendered males” that are most vulnerable.
Vulnerable because of their sexual practice, but also vulnerable because of constructions of penetrative
masculinity and social and cultural values that demean the feminine (both women and feminised males),
and perceive them as sexual objects in cultures that strongly socially polices its females.

Concept
The key question then is "How do religious/cultural beliefs impact on males who have sex with males?"

In the context of gender/sex roles, where the penetrating man believes he is acting as a man, while the
penetrated male often believes he is a "female in a man's body, what does religion have to say, and how do
such individuals integrate their religious beliefs and values into their gendered identities and sexual
practices?

With a lack of knowledge, misinterpretations, and incorrect information regarding what specific religions
have to say about alternate sexualities, many males who have sex with males, particularly those with
gendered/sexual identities, find themselves confused, burdened, with often a strong sense of guilt and a
sense of worthless. Such inner experience deepens their sense of powerlessness and can often lead to an
increase in risky behaviours, if not self-damage and suicidal behaviours.

What does religion say about male-to-male sex? What impact does one's religious values and beliefs have
on one's sexual behaviours and identities? In particular, how do various MSM populations incorporate

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religious identities into their gender/sexual identities, how do they deal with any conflicts between belief
and practice and what are the consequent experiences?

As such, very little appears to be known in this specific context.

The International HIV/AIDS Alliance also does considerable work in South and South-East Asia promoting
risk reduction strategies among a number of differing at-risk populations. It was agreed that a pilot
qualitative study would be conducted exploring the impact of faith upon masculinities and sexualities, and
that this study would initially focus on Islam.

This initial report explores the textual frameworks of Islam, and what it has to say about masculinities and
sexualities with a particular focus on male-to-male sex.

A reading of the texts

This review will explore what the Quran, Hadith and Sharia have to say about gender and gender roles,
sex, sexual behaviours, and sexualities, as well as how transgression is dealt with. Specific texts are
identified and sourced.

Additionally, other texts are included that deal with the socio-cultural frameworks of male-to-male sex in
the region, as well as a post-modernist interpretation of Islam and male-to-male sexualities as an example
how disingenuous such use of modern terms can be.

And finally there is a section regarding Muslims and male-to-male sex in South Asia during medieval times.

Some definitions
Gender

There are some basic biological differences between female and male bodies, linked to their different roles
in reproduction. But beyond these differences, many societies define different roles, rights and
responsibilities for women and men. “Gender” is the term used to refer to these socially-defined differences
between men and women.

Gender differences are based on widely shared beliefs and norms within a society or culture about male
and female characteristics and capacities. These beliefs and norms about gender usually create inequality
between men and women. In most societies, men have more political, economic, and social power than
women. Such gender inequalities have a significant impact on women and men’s sexual health.

Gendered framework

The word gender is a classifying noun and but often when the term gender is used, it is focused on women,
where men are absent as a gender in themselves. The author has used the term gendered as an adjective to
describe a state. In South Asia where there is often fairly strict social policing of gender(ed) boundaries,
and where the primary (and visible) framework of male-to-male sexual behaviours is constructed not
around sexual orientation, but around gender(ed) identities, the term gendered framework is used as a
short-hand description of this state of affairs, i.e. males/men who identified as kothis do not perceive
themselves as males, but as “not-males” or feminised males.

Hierarchical and oppositional framework

NFI uses this phrase in the specific context of gender(ed) relationships between male and female, or
masculinity and femininity, where these genders and their qualities are seen as a hierarchical and in
opposition to each other. In other words, maleness is superior to femaleness and in opposition to it.

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Homosocial and homoaffectionalist culture

In South Asian countries, gender segregation of social spaces is a strong form of social policing of gender
relationships. Primary relations are between the same gender (homosocial). Homoaffectionalism in the
sense that the term is used in this text means social acceptance of the public display of male-to-male or
female-to-female affection. For example, it is common in Bangladesh to see two males holding hands or
arms wrapped around each other as they walk. Often male friends will also share beds when sleeping,
wrapping themselves around each other. (See Hardman: 1993; Also Khan: 1996, where he points out that
the boundary between homoaffectionalism and homosexual behaviours is very “thin” particularly in
shared spaces and “under the blanket.”)

Hijra

A self-identified term used by males who define themselves as “not men/not women” but as a “third
gender.” Hijras cross-dress publicly and privately and are a part of a social, religious, and cultural
community. Ritual castration may be part of the hijra identity, but not all hijras are castrated. Sex with
men is common. They also have their own language, known as ulti.

Kothi

A self-identifying label for those males who feminise their behaviours (either to attract “manly” male
sexual partners and/or as part of their own gender construction and usually in specific situations and
contexts), and who state that they prefer to be sexually penetrated anally and/or orally. Kothi behaviours
have a highly performative quality in social spaces. Self-identified kothis use this term for males who are
sexually penetrated, even when their behaviour is not feminised. This is the primary and most visible
framework of MSM behaviours. Kothis state that they do not have sex with other kothis; however, they
may also be married to women.

In Pakistan, the equivalent term is zenana, while in Nepal it is meti. In Calcutta, India, the term parik is
used. Other terms probably exist in other areas.

Masculinity

Masculinity is interpreted as the predominant and “hegemonic” framework, which defines how a man
should behave and act personally, sexually, socially, and culturally. However, it is also recognised that
there are different constructions of masculinity that vary across cultures, age groups, sexual orientations,
sexual preferences, actual behaviours, gender identifications, economic classes, and religions, and thus we
should speak of masculinities.

MSM

This is usually an acronym for Men Who Have Sex with Men. However, the term men can be problematic
within the context of different cultural definitions of Man, Manliness, and Manhood. In the context of this
study we will be using MSM to mean Males Who Have Sex with Males. In this context, the word Male
specifically refers to biological sex.

Panthis

A kothi label for any “manly male.” Male-to-male sexual behaviours are usually highly gendered in terms
of sexual roles. Most male-to-male sex in South Asia appears to follow this pattern, where a kothi is not
defined as a man, thus enabling the penetrating partner to still see himself as manly. A panthi is by
definition a man who penetrates, whether it is a woman and/or another male. Panthis may also be married
to women. Their occupations vary across the social class spectrum from rickshaw drivers to businessmen.

Parik

A kothi label for the “husband” of a kothi. The parik may also be married to a woman and have sex with
other women as well as males. Note the use of the term parik in Calcutta to mean any “real man”.

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Sex

The word sex is used both in its biological sense, that is the “sex of a person”, i.e. male or female, as well
as a term reflecting an action, i.e. “to do sex” or “to have sex”. However we can also talk about a cultural
definition based on the meanings and significances that sex has which are socially constructed.

Sexual health

The WHO definition of sexual health is considered to be meaningful in this study, that is:
the integration of physical, emotional, intellectual, and social aspects of sexuality in a way that positively
enriches and promotes personality, communication, and love. (1975)

Sexuality

“Sexuality” refers to all aspects of people’s sexual lives: their sexual desires, their sexual behaviours and
their sexual identities. It is important to focus on sexuality in HIV prevention work because it is important
to understand people’s risk behaviours in the context of their sexual desires and sexual identities.

However, contemporary researchers have been discussing the concept of a range of sexualities, expressing
the enormous diversity of cultural interpretations, meanings and significance placed upon sexuality.

Social constructionism

The theory, which underlies this study, is based on the principle of social constructionism, which holds
that masculinities, sexualities, and sexual behaviours (if not sexual desires themselves) are socially
constructed through social and sexual scripting processes.

Vulnerability

The idea of vulnerability is useful in helping us to understand why some people in some places (at some
times) are more likely to get infected with HIV than others. We can identify factors of vulnerability that
influence:
¾ People’s exposure to the risk of HIV infection;
¾ The choices that are available to people to deal with that risk;
¾ The abilities that people have to make safe choices; and
¾ People’s desire to use their abilities to make these choices.

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Construction of male same-sex behaviours in South
Asia
Sexual identities, masculinities and sexualities take shape within psychosocial and historical processes,
which in turn are contextualised by religion, culture and language. Different cultures will often
contextualise similar words and phenomena so as to take on different meanings with inherent subtleties
typical of that culture. This is true of the South Asia region. While consisting of several countries, the
region has a shared history and certain cultural and religious values that enable us to determine some
common denominators within the phenomena of male-to-male sex.

In this context, and from the evidence, Euro-American understandings and discourses on "gay identities",
heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality, or even the use of the term "sexual minorities" are misleading,
and actual invisiblises to a significant extent the range and level of male-to-male sexual activities and those
involved in them.

South Asian cultures are supremely patriarchal, gendered and hierarchal, so that the word MAN is defined
not so much by biological age, but by gender roles and performance, religious rituals and family duties and
obligations. Those who fall outside such normative masculinity would not be defined as MAN, but as
NOT-MAN. In this situation, the penetrated sexual partner is seen as NOT-MAN, while the penetrator
perceives himself, and is perceived by others, as MAN.

This perception is further reinforced by socio-cultural realities as the invisibilisation of sexual behaviours,
gender segregation, social policing of women, an acceptability of male homosociability and
homoaffectionalism, male dominance over public space and public discourse, a culture of shame where
family and community respect and honour holds sway, compulsory and arranged marriage, pressure of
reproduction (particularly of male children), an understanding of sex only in its reproductive sense, joint
and extended families, and the negation of the self before the community/family. This behaviour is further
defined by gender roles attributed to males and females within society that are deemed biologically driven,
especially when important defining events in life like assumption of adult-hood are defined by such gender
roles.

Thus in these cultures those males who are sexually penetrated would be perceived as less worthy,
feminised, debased males, and would be highly stigmatised leading to a range of violence and abuses, as
well as sexual accessibility without diminishing the masculinity of the penetrator. The male penetrator is
not deviant and is a part of the general male population. It is the penetrated who is subjected to the
perception of deviancy.

And within a homosocial and homoaffectionalist culture, along with the general invisibility of sexual
behaviours, sexual boundaries between males can be easily crossed in appropriate spaces, at the
appropriate time, "under the blanket", and "in the dark".

What seems to therefore exist are a range of masculinities and gender variance with differing
contextualisation of sexual behaviours, sex partner choices, perceived sexual needs, pleasures and desires.

Thus for some MSM there are frameworks of specific male-to-male desire (based on object choice/gender),
gendered identities and visibility. For others who sexually access these males, often desires are based
around discharge and specific sex acts (and perhaps gendered sexual object choice), perceiving themselves
as 'manly' and 'normal men'. Such males come from the general male population. It could be any 'manly'
male given the right situation and context.

The frameworks of male-to-male sex, often substantially divergent, usually involve males who self- identify
primarily as kothi who are generally penetrated and primarily reflect the visible face of male-to-male sex,
along with the more invisible males who take on the penetrating role in male-to- male sex (known as giryas
and panthis by kothis). Males who are penetrated are usually perceived by giryas and panthis to be "not-
men", which enables a girya or panthi to maintain his sense of manliness and be seen as a part of the
normative male society.

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Male-to-male sex work is also a significant factor in many South Asian cities and towns (and perhaps
villages also). A broad range of frameworks also exists here. Hijras, kothis, massage boys and men, male
youth, and other males will sell sex to other males because of poverty and unemployment. Without a
welfare system, and with significant levels of unemployment or low level incomes, male sex work can be a
way out in terms of supporting the self and family. This is not to imply that males involved in sex work do
not enjoy the sex with other males. Often they will also have a regular male or female partner.

While there are substantial networks of kothis in urban centres, from the very feminised and cross-
dressing ones, to those who have moustaches and dress in shirt and trousers, their sexual partners could
well be any masculine male, who tended to go unnoticed.

Estimation of the numbers of MSM

As discussed above MSM as a category is highly complex, diverse, and for many significantly gendered
which makes it extremely difficult to make any effective size estimation. Simplifying this complex scenario,
it is composed of two or more fairly distinct populations, those that are relatively visible, i.e. public kothis,
and those invisiblised because they are a part of the normative male population, as well as non-public
kothis, males in all male institutions, neighbourhood encounters, and so on.

At the same time, the issue of who is being defined as MSM is extremely pertinent. Do two males who only
mutually masturbate each other defined as MSM? Does a single male-to-male sexual encounter define the
participants as MSM? Indeed, how frequently does a male have to sex with another ~ale to be defined as
MSM? Should risk to HIV infection be taken into account?

Behavioural surveillance studies are often problematic, inadequate and badly designed. Many procedural
and ethical issues are problematic where inappropriate questioning is the norm, poor formatting of studies,
lack of confidentiality, stigmatisation by researchers, or even no mention of same-sex relations. This
poverty in information and knowledge is further enhanced through a lack of understanding of the
dynamics and frameworks of same-sex behaviours in an Indian context.

This leads to a lack of sensitivity to the realities of male-to-male sex and thus inadequate programming,
which can often further socially exclude many MSM from service provision, treatment and care, as well as
significantly underestimate the number of at-risk MSM in any given population along with a lack of
resources to support HIV intervention programmes. The qualitative and quantifying studies regarding
MSM in any given population depends very much on the sensitivity of the methodology used, who
conducts such studies, how they are conducted, and the groups of males being accessed.

Sexual behavioural studies in India have classified homosexual as anything from 1 % of the sexually active
male population to nearly 28% of the 'occasionally homosexually behavioural males'. Quantitative studies
conducted in India include:
• A survey at Patna medical college in India in 1992 revealing that 25% of male medical students and
doctors had had same-sex relationships (H. V. Wyatt, 1993)
• A postal survey of the readership of 'Debonair', an English men's magazine from Mumbai revealing
that of 1500 men who replied, 29.5% had sex with another man, before the age of 20 years in 80% of
the cases (Roy Chan, et aI, 1998)
• A survey of 527 truck drivers in northeast India revealing that 15% had sex with men (S.I.Ahmed,
1993)
• A major study conducted in Pune cities, where only 1.2% of men interviewed said they had
homosexual relations although the authors did add, "we do feel it is extremely difficult to get an
accurate estimation of homosexual experience in a general survey like we did". The researchers agree
that a completely different kind of questionnaire has to be designed to get more information on the
prevalence of homosexual behaviour (Roy Chan et aI, 1998)
• A postal survey of rural and semi-rural men in Tamil Nadu to which 1200 men replied found that 8%
had sex with other men (Shreehar Jaya, 1994)
• According to a report on MSM in developing countries, the prevalence of MSM behaviours in the
Indian male population range from 8 to over 50% (Neil McKenna, 1996)

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• In a study of sexual behaviour among 1600 college students in Chennai, (Hausner D, 2000) it was
found that approximately 20% of male students reported having had sex at least once in their lifetime
and among these, 35% had their first experience with another male.

In Bangladesh, in a study conducted by the International Centre for Diarrhoea Diseases Research,
Bangladesh (ICDDR,B) in 2002 indicated that over 22% rickshaw pullers had sex with other males1.

In Pakistan, AIDS Analysis Asia, reported in July 19962 that:

• 20% of men in one rural area have male-to-male sex
• 40% of men living in a Karachi squatter settlement had male-to-male sex
• 72% of truck drivers in central Karachi had sex with- other males, while 76% had sex with female sex
workers

NFI has conducted a number of surveys among MSM in a range of cities across Asia, where in each site
200 kothi-identified males were interviewed. From these situational assessment reports (which can be
accessed on NFI's website, www.nfi.net) the number of "real" men partners accessed in one month were:

Sylhet, Bangladesh 8800

Hyderabad, India 8100

Similar levels were reported in other cities.

Thus, direct evidence and anecdotal reports from across South Asia suggests that male-to-male is common
and substantive, and that there are a broad range of reasons for this, including gender segregation, social
policing of women, delayed marriage, difficulties accessing females, over- crowing, poverty, unemployment
amongst unmarried males, as well of course, desire for specific sex acts, as much as desire to have sex with
another male.

MSM, Vulnerabili1y and Stigma3

It needs to be recognised that the male being anally penetrated by another male is highly stigmatised, both
by the penetrator, as well as general society, and those who are perceived to be recipients of penetration
are usually treated with contempt. A girya/panthi or any man/male that is sexually penetrated, orally or
anally, will make extensive efforts to hide his practice and/or desire, both from his friends as well as from
kothis/hijras and others in their sexual networks to avoid such stigmatisation. It cannot be assumed that
gendered sex roles are exclusively maintained at all times.

It further needs to be recognised that a similar crossing of "gendered" boundaries exists amongst kothis. It
is also not unknown for some kothi-identified males to penetrate other males. But like the penetrated girya,
this behaviour would also be kept secret from other kothis.

Such stigmatisation around feminisation produces a range of human rights abuses, blackmail, violence, and
male-on-male rape by local men, thugs and local police.

Not only does poverty, class and education levels stigmatise individuals along with the fact of HIV
infection, but also the specific gendered role and identity that some MSM identify with. Thus are doubly
stigmatised because as biological males they are sexually penetrated - and thus not perceived as men. Their
feminisation, their crossing of the gender roles and barriers accepted as social norms, reinforces the
stigmatisation, leading to exclusion and denial of access to services and to the social compact. This often
results in such males who are living with HIV/AIDS to be stigmatised by others who are also living with
HIV/AIDS but whose routes of infection are deemed "normal".

1 nd
Presentation by ICDDR,B at the 2 National Male Sexual and Reproductive Health Consultation Meeting organised
by Bandhu Social Welfare Society, Bangladesh, August 2003
2
Reported in AIDS Analysis, July 1996, Focus on Pakistan, page 6
3
See also NFI Briefing Paper Noi. 7: Social justice, human righgts and MSM, available on the NFI website
(www.nfi.net)

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On the other hand, the masculine partners of kothis easily merge into the general normative male society,
their sense of masculinity maintained because they are the penetrators, not of other men, but of "not-
men".

Power inequality dynamics arising from South Asian constructions of masculinity, social attitudes towards
feminised males and their sexual practices, sexual abuse, assault and rape, stigmatisation and poverty,
discrimination and disempowerment, all configure the lives of most kothis. As' a consequence they playa
significant role in the emotional, sexual, physical and economic exploitation of feminised males, and give
rise to a range of physical, psychological, and emotional problems, which further increase vulnerability
and disempowerment. This disempowerment creates significant levels of suicidal impulses and self-damage,
which are expressions of self-hatred and despair. And this of course leads to significant increases to risks of
STI/HIV as well as impeding successful implementation of risk reduction strategies.

Many kothis not only face harassment, sexual violence and rape from law enforcement agents, but also
from those whom they have called friends in schools and colleges, from those in positions of trust such as
relatives, neighbourhood elders, elder friends, and teachers. Gang rape is not uncommon. And of course
such forced sex is always unsafe and often results in serious physical injury such as a ruptured rectum,
internal haemorrhage and so on.

One of the central issues that have arisen from NFI research and understanding is that often it is
effeminacy and not the factual knowledge of male-to-male sexual behaviour that leads to harassment and
violence. This harassment and sexual violence results from the fact that many kothis do not live up to the
expected normative standards of masculine behaviour. It is this belief that leads to the notion that those
who are feminised can be exploited and abused and that being feminised somehow weakens the person, a
notion often harboured by the kothis themselves.

Accepted notions around effeminacy are therefore one of the major factors that lead to disempowerment
and opens kothis to abuse and assault and to a refusal of service provision. The fact that kothis themselves
have internalised these notions so strongly, means that specific tools will need to be developed for kothi in
order to empower them to start valuing their lives and enhancing their self respect so as to reduce their
risks for HIV infection.

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Islam and same-sex relationships
Same-sex relationships do not regard religious, cultural or legal taboos and prohibitions. They exist in all
societies, at all times. The tolerance extended to such relationships varies, but the most stringent
constraints of the law and the most permissive of societies probably have less influence than is generally
believed upon actually existing humanity and its needs. Much depends on public perception and
declaration.

Whether or not Western versions of identity politics represent the most truly liberating conditions for the
realisation of alternative sexualities is, despite the celebration of diversity, nevertheless questionable. The
categories of Lesbian and gay/bisexual/straight often strike people from other cultures as odd, even
incomprehensible. They will point to the fluidity and absence of definition in same-sex relationships in
other cultures, which accommodate different behaviours, rather than identities.

The idea that homoerotic, emotional or sexual relationships between men (and access by male foreigners to
Islamic society makes it easier for a man to refer to male-male relationships than to those between women)
are un-Islamic, have no place in Islamic culture and are inimical to divine teachings, is disingenuous. After
all, Christianity was until recently scarcely a great friend of homosexuality; and the tolerance extended to
alternative sexual orientation is very new indeed. The McCarthyite purge of homosexuals in the 1950s
USA was no momentary aberration. It has been argued that Western tolerance is not even what it claims to
be, but is, rather, the indifference of an extreme individualistic society, where people, profoundly
preoccupied with their own personal lives, have no time to cast a censorious eye on the behaviour of
others.

It is a question of how such relationships are structured and psychologically integrated into the culture in
which they exist. The discovery of fundamental identities in sexuality in The West is the product of a
specific moment in one particular culture. It does not represent universality, or even necessarily, the
emancipation claimed for it, since even in Western societies, other interdictions are set up in place of the
dissolution of sexual taboos. It is always dangerous to assume that the official version of any society
represents the whole culture, and it would be as mistaken to read into the Western celebration of diversity
an absence of prejudice, violence and even queer-bashing, as it would to read into the proscriptions upon
homosexuality – or even draconian punishments for it - in Saudi Arabia the complete elimination of any
such relationships. The testimony of the sexual abuse of young Pakistani, Bangladeshi and Indian men who
work in the Gulf scarcely suggests that same-sex relationships are unknown. We are well aware of the
discrepancy between theory and practice in our own culture; yet we are not able to see its mirror image in
societies from which we recoil.

In Islam, sexual relationships are bound by the duties of family and kinship, which are all embracing.
However, the observance of conjugal and paternal duties is one thing. Friendships, affective, erotic,
possibly sexual, behaviour outside the hallowed precincts of the joint, extended or nuclear family are not,
on the whole, subject to scrutiny, once the contractual duties to family have been observed.

Human relationships do not follow religious or ideological prescriptions, no matter what penalties are
imposed upon departures from moral orthodoxy – whether the severity of Soviet Russia, where it was
believed that sexual ‘deviancy’ was a relic of capitalist barbarism, or the legacy of the Raj in Section 377 of
the Indian penal code, or indeed, the merciless punishments carried out against gay men in Iran or Saudi
Arabia. In April 2000, nine men involved in cross-dressing and ‘homosexual acts’ in Saudi Arabia were
sentenced to 2,600 lashes and up to six years in prison. The floggings were to be delivered at 15-day
intervals, 48 – 52 lashes at a time. In a much-publicised case in Cairo in 2001, 52 Egyptian men were
arrested on a boat on the Nile and charged with debauchery and contempt of religion. Twenty-three were
sentenced to terms of jail between one and five years. The prosecutor told the court ‘Egypt will not be used
for the defamation of manhood and will not be a hub for gay communities.’ To understand the more
general way in which same-sex relationships function in such societies is, of course, makes such judgements
appear all the more inhumane and unjustifiable.

The point about many such cases is that they are perceived as inspired by, and imitative of, a Western idea
of ‘gay’. The Western inflection given to such relationships is the source of anger. Dr. Abd Al-Hadi
Misbah, a lecturer at Egypt’s Al-Azhar University faculty of medicine, sates ‘We, as men of medicine and

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religion, must base our defence of religion on science, because the West tries to destroy religion and justify
such acts with science.’ An article in Al-Akhbar in February 2002 was titled ‘The West’s Defence of These
Perverts Causes Nausea and Repulsion in Egyptians.’

Generally, however, in Muslim, Hindu and other cultures, how people behave is detached from labels
given by others to that behaviour. Individuals express their feelings of attraction, affection or desire
according to the context.

The western obsession with a self-consciousness that cannot forbear to reflect upon what it is doing and
why, and how it should name and present itself to the world, is an alien sensibility to many other cultures.
That this represents the fullest liberation of human beings animates the contemporary consciousness of
superiority of the West, and it is, in many ways, simply a reformulation of earlier ideologies of dominance.
It is unthinkable that the paradigm which has evolved in the richest and most powerful societies in the
world should not be exported - even to places where it strikes with great violence against other ways of
being, other methods of dealing with the complexities of the most delicate human relationships and
bonding. It is absolutely characteristic that this should be the object of messianic zeal, no less intense than
other beliefs which the West has sought to wish upon the world, many of which they now repudiate with a
zeal similar to that which they once pursued in imposing them – one has only to think of the racism which
characterised their missions of conquest, and which the rulers of the West now disavow so noisily.

To seek to re-arrange patterns of relationships are just such another attempt to control. That it should be
done under the banner of liberation comes as no surprise. After all, those who travelled into the dark
places of the earth in the early colonial period did so in secure possession of the truth, and saw their
‘mission’ as one of enlightenment and emancipation of those in thrall to ancient superstition and
misapprehension of the world. So it is with today’s missionaries of sexual liberation. The trouble is, they
want everyone to be like us; or as much like us as it is possible for them to be, given the disadvantages
under which they labour.

This project gains plausibility from the fact that the Western societies have the wealth, coveted life-styles,
security and space for individual self-expression, which others yearn for. As a corollary of this, surely, all
other aspects of society must change, precisely in the direction of that taken by privilege. A readiness to
acknowledge the superiority of the Western mould in almost everything stems from the economic power of
the west. Whether this power can be replicated, along with the lifestyles, which accompany it, is a question
that has not been fully examined.

The ideology, the convictions, the revelations by which the people of other religious and social faiths live,
are not going to yield to external pressure, even though for the West, projects of conversion now have a
social and economic, rather than religious, basis. The politics of identity strikes at more intractable
characteristics than those ‘fundamental’ attributes of gender, sexual orientation or skin colour, as defined
by the West. The power of religious belief cannot be wished away or washed away even by affluence
beyond imagination: the experience of a country like Saudi Arabia ought to be instructive in this respect.

If Islam embodies a ‘pre-modern’ consciousness, this also leaves large areas of human interaction in
penumbra, where people act, behave, have sexual and emotional relationships, love one another, without
perceiving anything in this which involves definitions of identity. In this context, friendships and
attachments, sexual and emotional relationships exist, free of scrutiny, self-consciousness or self-reproach.
Only when named ‘gay’ or ‘homosexual’, do they become problematic.

A more subtle and reflective evaluation of other cultures would recognise, not only their failings, but also
the inadequacies of the dominant culture, which the people of the West inhabit. But no inadequacies are
admitted in the individualistic, competitive and reductively primitive society, which exports itself globally
with such exuberant and intolerant self-confidence.

Jeremy Seabrook, Pukaar January 2003

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Queer sexuality and identity in the Quran and Hadith
The authors of this review have left the contemporary western terms queer, straight, gay, etc., in this text
in order to demonstrate that interpretations of historical texts, situations and cultures can be
problematised through modern and post modern terms that arise from contemporary constructions of
sexualities.

The Quran generally scorns "approaching males in lust", as well as the castration of males, as the sin of
the people of Lut (Quran 7:81, 26:165-166, 27:55, 29:28-29).

7:81: "Indeed you approach males in lust excluding women..."

Arabic: "Innakum lata'toona ar-rijaala shahwatan min doon in-nisaa'i."

26:165-166: "You approach the males of the worlds and forsake those whom your Lord has created for
you for your mates."
Arabic: "Ata'toona adh-dhukraana min al-'aalameena, wa tadharoona ma khalaqa lakum Rabbukum min
azwaajikum."

27:55: "Will you indeed approach males in lust excluding women?"

Arabic: "A 'innakum lata'toona ar-rijaala shahwatan min doon in-nisaa'i?"

29:28-29 "Most surely you are guilty of an indecency which none of the nations has ever done before you.
What! Do you come unto the males and cut the passageways [i.e. vas deferens and/or urethra] and do so in
your private clubs?"
Arabic: "Innakum lata'toona al-faahishata ma sabaqakum biha min ahadin mina al-'aalameena. Innakum
lata'toona ar-rijaala wa taqta'oona as-sabeela wa ta'toona fee naadikumu?"

But the Quran does not prohibit using, as passive sex partners, the ancient category of men who by nature
lacked desire for women, since such men were not considered "male" as a result of their lack of arousal for
women. This kind of man is often known as "gay" in modern times, but in the ancient world he was
identified as an anatomically whole "natural eunuch." Although the Quran never uses the word eunuch
[khasiyy], the hadith and the books of the legal scholars do. Furthermore, the Quran recognizes that some
men are "without the defining skill of males" (24:31: "ghair oolaa il-irbati min ar-rijaali") and so, as
domestic servants, are allowed to see women naked. This is a reference to natural eunuchs, i.e. gay men.

A person had to be indifferent to women's bodies in order to assume the role as a servant in women's
private space. In one case, a servant who had been assumed to be indifferent to women due to his being an
"effeminate" [mukhannath] was evicted by the Prophet because he unexpectedly demonstrated a lascivious
attitude toward a woman:

Bukhari, Authentic Traditions, Book of Marriage, Chapter 114 (162): What is forbidden concerning the
entering upon the wife by those imitating women. [It was narrated] of Umm Salama that the Prophet,
Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny, was at her house, and in the house there was an effeminate
[mukhannath], and the effeminate said to the brother of Umm Salama, Abdullah bin Abi Umayya: If God
makes you all conquer Ta'if tomorrow, I suggest to you the daughter of Ghailan, for surely she approaches
with four and turns her back with eight [?]. Then the Prophet, Blessings of Allah be on him and his
Progeny, said: This one shall not enter upon you (pl.).

Muslim, Collection of Authentic Traditions, Book of Greetings, Chapter 912 (note: as translated into
English by 'Abdul Hamid Siddiqi, who misleadingly uses the word eunuch as the translation for
mukhannath. It is precisely because he was not a eunuch that he got into trouble!):

(5415) Umm Salama reported that she had a eunuch [mukhannath] (as a slave) in her house. Allah's
Messenger (may Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) was once in the house that he (the eunuch)
said to the brother of Umm Salama: 'Abdullah b. Abu Umayya, if Allah grants you victory in Ta'if on the
next day, I will show you the daughter of Ghailan, for she has four folds (upon her body) on the front side

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of her stomach and eight folds on the back. Allah's Messenger (may Blessings of Allah be on him and his
Progeny) heard this and he said: Such (people) should not visit you.

(5416) 'A'isha reported that a eunuch [mukhannath] used to come to the wives of Allah's Apostle (may
Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) and they did not find anything objectionable in his visit,
considering him to be a male without any sexual desire [fakaanoo ya'doonahu min ghair oolaa il-irbah].
Allah's Apostle (may Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) one day came as he was sitting with
some of his wives and he was busy in describing the bodily characteristics of a lady and saying: As she
comes in front four folds appear on her front side and as she turns her back eight folds appear on the back
side. Thereupon Allah's Apostle (may Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) said: I see that he
knows these things; do not, therefore, allow him to enter. She ('A'isha) said: Then they began to observe
veil from him.

Note that in 'A'isha's telling of the story, she states that the women allowed him into their private rooms
because they assumed he "lacked the defining skill" (the translator added the word male and put
"considering him to be a male without any sexual desire," but the Arabic says only that they "deemed him
to lack the defining skill"). 'A'isha actually quotes the Quranic verse about men who "lack the defining
skill of males," demonstrating that his presence in the women's space would have been proper according to
the Quran if only he had in fact "lacked the defining skill." However, the statement of the effeminate man
about the daughter of Ghailan, whatever it meant, indicated to Muhammad that he did not lack the
defining skill of males and that, on the contrary, he had an appreciation of women as sexual objects. This
disqualifies him as an intimate domestic servant according to the Quran as well as the standards of the
day. In a system that depends on household servants to be heterosexually indifferent, the main risk is that
this indifference can be faked. In other words, a heterosexual male can pretend to be an exclusive
homosexual in order to gain free access to the private space of women.

There are other hadiths (Bukhari LXXII 61.773 and 62.774) against cross-dressers in which the Prophet
specifically curses "males" who imitate women and women who imitate "males," and in which the
consequence of their malfeasance is that he "evicts them from the houses." The specification of "males" is
made very explicit:

61.773 The Messenger of God, Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny, cursed female-impersonators
[m.pl.] who are males, and the male-impersonators [f.pl.] who are women.
Arabic: la'ana rasoolullah salla allahu 'alaihi wa sallama al-mutashabbiheena min ar-rijaali bil-nisaa'i wal-
mutashabbihaati min an-nisaa'i bir-rijaali.

62.774 The Prophet, Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny, cursed the effeminates [m.pl.] who are
males, and the male-pretenders [f.pl.] who are women, and he said: Evict them from your houses, and the
Prophet, Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny, evicted such-and-such [m.sg.] and 'Umar evicted
such-and-such [f.sg.].
Arabic: la'ana an-nabiyy salla allahu 'alaihi wa sallama al-mukhannatheena min ar-rijaali wal-
mutarajjilaati min an-nisaa'i wa qaala: akhrijoohum min buyootikum, qaala: fa'akhraja an-nabiyy salla
allahu 'alaihi wa sallama fulaanan wa 'akhraja 'umaru fulaanatan.

The words "males" and "women" are obviously emphatic here because the grammar does not really
require them to be used. Masculine gender is already provided grammatically by the endings on the words
"impersonators" and "effeminates," and feminine gender is already provided in the words
"impersonators" and "male-pretenders." Given the emphasis, the curse is specifically directed only at
"males" and "women," and does not cover non-males who might be female-impersonators (or non-women
who might be male-impersonators, if indeed there was a recognition of "non-women"). It's okay to be a
drag queen as long as you are not a straight man posing to gain access to unsuspecting women, or to the
wives of unsuspecting husbands.

The Quran recognizes that there are some people who are "ineffectual" ['aqeem], thus neither male nor
female:

42:49 "To Allah belongs the dominion over the heavens and the earth. It creates what It wills. It prepares
for whom It wills females, and It prepares for whom It wills males. 50 Or It marries together the males and
the females, and It makes those whom It wills to be ineffectual. Indeed It is the Knowing, the Powerful."

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Arabic: "Lillahi mulku us-samaawaati wal'ardhi. Yakhluqu ma yashaa'u. Yahabu liman yashaa'u inaathan
wa yahabu liman yashaa'u adh-dhukura. Aw yuzawwijuhum dhukraanan wa inaathan; wa yaj'alu man
yashaa'u 'aqeeman: innahu 'Aleemun Qadeerun."

These last two verses (42:49 and 50) are usually interpreted differently in English translations to say that
God bestows daughters or sons on whom It wills and gives some people both sons and daughters. But
there are problems with this interpretation, one of which being that the word for causing to marry or
pairing up [zawwaja] is used in the second verse. When families have boys and girls, the boys and girls do
not usually arrive in pairs! The second problem is that, in Quranic verses mentioning males and females
together, the males are usually mentioned first, and the females second (e.g., 3:195, 4:12, 4:124, 6:143-
144, 16:97, 40:40, 42:50, 49:13, 53:21, 53:45, 75:39, 92:3). This is the only verse in the Quran, as far as I
know, in which the female is mentioned before the male. If these two verses were talking about sons and
daughters, we would expect sons to be mentioned before daughters.

In this case, the "males first" principle would indicate that the lines are referring to females and males not
as offspring, but as counterparts, i.e. objects of desire, for "whom (ever) God wills." The female objects of
desire are mentioned first because they are most typically objects of desire for males. Hence, even this verse
is referring to males first, as the most typical "whom(ever)" for whom God prepares females. Yet the use
of the word "whom(ever)" leaves it open for females to be objects of desires for other females as well,
when God wills, and for males to be love objects for females and other passive non-males. I believe this
verse is very neatly and concisely describing the varieties of sexual orientation and gender, which Allah, the
All-Knowing and All-Powerful, creates as Allah wishes.

The ineffectual can include abstinent women as well as men, and in fact "the abstinent ones among
women, who do not hope for marriage" [wal-qawaa'idu min an-nisaa'i allaati laa yarjoona nikaahan], are
permitted to "put off their cover" in Sura 24:60.

Another intriguing example of a gender variant woman is Jesus’ mother Mary. According to ancient
notions about procreation, males were the only ones capable of producing seed. It would be impossible for
a woman to give birth to a child, let alone a boy, without receiving seed from a male. In Christianity, this
problem is solved by making God the male father of Jesus. According to the Quran, however, God does
not procreate. This means that the seed that became Jesus came from within Mary. If Mary carried viable
seed originating from within her, then by ancient definitions, she was a male, despite appearances to the
contrary. So the Quran says that, when Mary was born, her mother declared that she was a female baby,
but God knew better:

(Quran 3:36) Lord, surely, I have brought it forth a female - and Allah knew best what she brought forth -
and the male is not like the female...
Arabic: Rabb, innee wada'tuha unthaa wa Allah 'a'lamu bimaa wada'at wa laisa adh-dhakaru kal-untha ...

There are other traditions about the gender variance of Mary. I have argued elsewhere that Mary's
"virginity" is not merely the innocent state of a girl who has not yet known a man, but a more permanent
rejection of sex with men, like that of the Vestal virgins in Rome. In Isaiah 7:14, it is predicted that a
"virgin" will conceive bear a son, but the word for virgin used there is not the generic bethulah used
throughout the Hebrew scripture for girls who have not yet had sex. Instead, the word almah is used, a
very rare word in the scriptures, which is the female counterpart to elem, meaning boy. In the other verses
in which it is used, it is compatible with a meaning of tomboy or rebuffer of men (cf. Proverbs 30:18-19, in
which an almah appears to be impermeable to men).

Homosexual activity by straight men

Homosexual activity by homosexuals (eunuchs) is not spoken of in the Quran, which mentions only the
unjust homosexual rape perpetrated by straight men against other straight men. Besides the Lut story,
sexual exploitation of straight males is also alluded to in the assurance that prophet Joseph's slaveholders
"abstained from him" (12:20: "wa kaanuu feehi min az-zaahideen").

But the Quran and hadith also have traces of the permitted homosexual desires of straight men. There is
even a hadith in Bukhari, admittedly giving not the Prophet's opinion but that of Abu Jafar, according to
which a paedophile is prohibited from marrying the mother of his boy-beloved if there is penetration:

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(Bukhari LXII, 25) As for whom(ever) plays with a boy: if he caused him to enter him, then he shall not
marry his mother.
Arabic: feeman yal'abu bis-sabiyy: in 'adkhalahu feehi falaa yatazawwajanna 'ummahu.

(This rule is accompanied in the same chapter by prohibitions against a man marrying both a mother and
her daughter.) Apparently according to this hadith, even sexual penetration of a boy is not considered
sodomy, because if it was, surely the sodomite would have more worries than whether he could marry the
boy's mother! Like whether he preferred to die by fire, stoning, or falling from a high tower! These are
some of the punishments mentioned in the hadith for "doing as the people of Lut did." [A reader wrote in
to say that this hadith would not necessarily imply that penetration of boys was not sodomy, but could be
a recognition of the fact that not all crimes will be discovered and punished and that one who does
penetrate a boy, even if he is not punished for sodomy for whatever reason, should at least know in his
own conscience that the mother of his boyfriend is off limits. In any case, one possible inference from this
hadith is still very interesting: namely, that if a man plays with a boy without penetration, then marrying
the mother is still a possibility!!]

The distinction between pederasty (sex with boys) and sodomy (penetration of "males") was commonly,
albeit not universally maintained throughout the ancient world, and indeed survived throughout most of
the history of Islam until at least the nineteenth century (in spite of the futile objections of some medieval
scholars). Apparently, boy-love was considered okay by many people because, like "natural eunuchs,"
underage boys also lacked the "defining skill of males" (sexual potency with women). The Quran itself
gives support to pederasts in its glimpses of paradise:

52:17-29 And they shall have boys [ghilmaan] circulating among them as if they were hidden pearls.

56:22-23 and dark-eyed ones [hoorun 'eenun], the like of hidden pearls

76:19 And immortal boys [wildaanun mukhalladoona] will circulate among them, when you see them you
will count them as scattered pearls.

2:25 And they shall have immaculate partners [azwaajun mutahharatun] in [the gardens] ...

4:57 And they shall have immaculate partners [azwaajun mutahharatun] in them ...

One of the great male Sufi contemporaries of Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya provided a divine justification for a
pederastic relationship, which was repeated without a hint of disapproval in a 10th century book about
great Sufi women:

One day Rabi'a saw Rabah [al-Qaysi] kissing a young boy ["huwa yuqabbil sabiyyan"]. 'Do you love
him?' she asked. 'Yes,' he said. To which she replied, 'I did not imagine that there was room in your heart
to love anything other than God, the Glorious and Mighty!' Rabah was overcome at this and fainted.
When he awoke, he said, 'On the contrary, this is a mercy that God Most High has put into the hearts of
his slaves.'
(Quoted from as-Sulami, Early Sufi Women = Dhikr an-niswa al-muta 'abbidat as sufiyyat, translated by
Rkia E. Cornell, Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 1999, pp. 78-79.)

Besides boys, straight Muslim men were occasionally interested in grown adults as well, provided they
were not "male." There is a hadith in which the Prophet's companions asked whether they were allowed to
use men (presumably prisoners of war) as "eunuchs" to fulfil their sexual urges, since they were far from
their wives.

Bukhari LXII 6:9 [Narrated by ibn Mas'ud:] "We used to fight [in battle] together with the Prophet,
Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny. There were no women with us. We said: O Messenger, may
we treat some as eunuchs [a laa nastakhsii]? He forbade us to do so."

The version in Bukhari LXII 8:13 says that rather than let the companions "treat [some] as eunuchs" in the
absence of their wives, the Prophet "allowed them to marry corrupted women" [rakhasa lana an nankih

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al-maraa bil-shaub] from the vicinity, and he recited to them from the Quran: "O ye who believe! Make
not unlawful the good things which Allah has made lawful for you, but commit no transgression."

The fact that Muhammad forbade the companions from designating men as eunuchs is not the point here.
Of course, using a straight male as a eunuch was wrong -- that was essentially the sin of the people of Lut.
But what about using a eunuch (i.e. one who permanently lacks arousal with women) as a eunuch? Given
that ibn Mas'ud made reference to the use of eunuchs for sexual gratification, and given that the Prophet
understood what he meant, that indicates that the use of eunuchs for sexual gratification was known in
Arabic society, and was considered a use that was appropriate to eunuchs. Since eunuchs were not
considered male, there was no prohibition against it, not even in the Quran.

Eunuchs were still sex objects for straight men in the Mamluk dynasty, according to David Ayalon in
Eunuchs, Caliphs, and Sultans: A Study in Power Relationships (Jerusalem, 1999). They not only served to
prevent older Mamluks from having sexual access to younger trainees:

The eunuchs seem to have served as a shield against homosexual lust in yet another way. They themselves
formed the target of that lust, thus diverting it from the youngsters. They are described as being womanly
and docile in bed at night and manly and warlike by day in a campaign and in similar circumstances (hum
nisaa' li-mutmainn muqeem wa rijaal in kaanat al-asfaar; li-annahum bin-nahaar fawaaris wa bil-lail
'araa'is). [Arabic quoted by Ayalon from Abu Mansur al-Tha'alibi, Al-Latâ'if wal-Zarâ'if, Cairo
1324/1906-7, p. 79, lines 1-7; and the same quote from Tha'alibi in his Tamthîl wal-Muhâdara, Cairo
1381/1961, p. 224.]

As for the issue of whether Muhammad himself expressly acknowledged that some people by nature
refrain from heterosexuality, thus being natural eunuchs, consider the following hadith. It is related that
one of the Prophet's companions, Abu Huraira, went to the Prophet, saying that he was a "young male"
who "feared torment for his soul," but that he "did not find the wherewithal to marry a woman" [innee
rajulun shaabbun wa ana akhaafu 'alaa nafsee al-'anata wa laa ajidu ma atazawwaju bihi an-nisaa'a]. The
Prophet remained silent, even after Abu Huraira repeated his statement three times. Finally after the fourth
time, Muhammad said: "O Abu Huraira, the pen is dry regarding what is befitting for you. So be a eunuch
for that reason or leave it alone." [ya Abaa Hurairata, jaffa al-qalam bimaa anta laaq fa'akhtasi 'alaa
dhalika au dhar] (Bukhari, LXII 8). (For comparison, consider that when Uthman came to Muhammad
asking if he could be permitted to live a life of abstinence, he was rebuffed.)

If Muhammad's answer to Abu Huraira is to make sense, then of course it must bear a relation to the
statement Abu Huraira made. First we have to ask what kind of torment Abu Huraira feared for his soul
[nafs]? Muhammad Muhsin Khan, the translator of Bukhari into English, interpreted it as fear of
committing illicit sexual intercourse. If that interpretation is correct, then we still have to determine what
"illicit sexual intercourse" would mean for Abu Huraira. As a self-described "male," two forms of sexual
activity would be inadmissible and therefore the temptation to them would cause torment for his soul: the
desire to be sexually passive with a man (known as ubnah) or the desire to commit adultery with a female.
Yet, Abu Huraira ["the father of kittens"] seemed to hint at a solution to his dilemma when he said he did
not find (in himself?) what was required for marrying a woman. Now, if that merely meant that he had no
money to support a wife, for instance, and was tempted to commit adultery with a female, then the
Prophet would surely have advised him to fast and be patient in accordance with Sura 24:33 (also Bukhari
LXII 2 and 3), instead of advising him, as he did, to accept his fate and, if appropriate, be a eunuch,
something which he denied as an option to Uthman. On the other hand, if Abu Huraira's statement meant
he lacked potency with women, then obviously he could not be fearing the temptation to adultery with
women. In that case, only passive homosexuality was a danger. However, if he would not ever marry a
woman, due to impotency with women or for any other reason, then he would not be acting as a male, but
rather as a eunuch, in which case passive homosexuality would not be forbidden for him. But Muhammad
cautions him that his identity, either as a eunuch or as a male, has already been determined by his Creator
("the pen is dried"), and he must figure it out which it is and live his life accordingly. If he ever intends to
have sex with a woman (i.e. act as a male), then he must avoid passive homosexuality and get married.

Faris Malik
Source: http://www.well.com/user/aquarius/Qurannotes.htm (downloaded on 30th August 2004)

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A word from the Investigator
Growing up as a Muslim while at the same time recognising one’s own sexual preferences, identity and
gender role, I used to find the two often would be in conflict with each other. Religious interpretations as
read by Maulvis (religious teachers), are found to be condemning of same sex behaviours.

This report is an effort to put forth what the Holy Quran and the Sharia says about sexualities, and not
what the Maulvi, and others who practice Islam, say.

There is often a serious concern in regard to possible misinterpretations of religious texts. Al–Araf, which
has been repeatedly used to condemn same sex behaviour, rather seems to suggest that the people of Lut
(known as Lot in the Bible) were punished for being unjust and for crossing social boundaries. The Quran
refers to people of Lut for indulging in various unspecified criminal and immoral activities. Which activity
was crossing the boundaries? Who, other than Allah, can decide which crime was seen as crossing the
boundaries?

My understanding is that the Quranic verses on sexualities and sexual practices should not be read in
isolation but along with other verses which talk about Allah being the creator of human beings as they are,
and their relationships are decided by Allah only.

References
Actual verses from Quran have been written in capital letters with their transliteration and translation in
upper lower case. The following books have been used as sources:

1. Quran - Sunni Translation and transliteration: Reference: The Holy Quran, Eliaisii Family Book
Service, Charminar, Hyderabad, Transliteration by M. A. Haleem Eliassi, Translation by Muhammad
Marmaduke Pickthall

2. Quran - Sunni Explanations:

Explanation: Source: Tafsirul Quran - Holy Quran Translation and Commentary by Maulana Abdul
Majid Daryabadi Vol. II, Academy of Islamic Research and Publications, Nadwatul Ulema, Lucknow
– 226 007

3. Stories of Prophet: Source: Kassul Ambiya: Mohammad Tayyab, Farid Book Depot, Bazar Chitli
Kabra, New Delhi )

4. Quran – Shia Translation and Transliteration: Reference: The Glorious Quran, with translation and
transliteration by Mohammad Saeed Shakir, Ansaryan Publication, 1998

5. Quran – Shia Commentary: The Holy Quran, Text translation and commentary by Ayatullah Agha
H.M.M. Pooya Yazdi & S.V. Mir Ahmed Ali

6. Isalmic Laws: Taudhihul Masael: According to the fatwa of Ayatullah al Uzama Syed Ali al – Husaini
Seestani Imaan Foundation, Najafi House, Bombay

7. Furoo – e – din Vol. 8

8. Mizanul Hiqmat Vol. 8 Pg 599

9. Usoole Kafi

10. Wayasul Shia Kitabul Hudood

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Sources of Islamic belief
Quran

It is believed by the Muslims that of all the heavenly books revealed to different Prophets throughout
history for the guidance of mankind, the Holy Quran occupies a unique position. It is meant for all times
and climes till the end of the world, because it is the last word of Allah after which no revealed book is to
come. The Holy Quran was revealed to the last Prophet Muhammad (Blessings of Allah be on him and his
Progeny) through Gabriel (A.S.) – the Holy Messenger. Muslims believe that Quran is the eternal, literal
word of God, revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) over a
period of 22 years. The Quran consists of 114 suras (chapters) with a total of 6,236 ayats (verses).

J. Davenport says in his book, “Muhammad and the Quran”:

“The Quran is the general code of the Muslim world; a social, civil, commercial, military, judicial,
criminal, penal and yet a religious code, by it – everything is regulated – from the ceremonies of religion to
those of daily life, from the salvation of the soul to health of the body, from the rights of the general
communities to those of each individual, from the interest of man to those of society, from morality to
crime, from punishment here to that of the life to come.”

The Quran is not a book containing theories but is the Book which always exhorts Muslims to practice
and action. It always extends an invitation to think, to ponder and to contemplate over the mysteries of the
Universe. It is the Book not only to recite but to understand and apply the instructions in one’s own life.

Sunnah

In Islam, the Arabic word Sunnah has come to denote the way Prophet Muhammad (saas-Blessings of
Allah be on him and his Progeny), the Messenger of Allah, lived his life. The Sunnah is the second source
of Islamic jurisprudence, the first being the Quran. Both sources are indispensable; one cannot practice
Islam without consulting both of them.

Ummah

The people who follow the Islam as preached by Prophet Muhammad (Blessings of Allah be on him and
his Progeny) are known as Ummah of Prophet Muhammad (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny).
It is the community of Muslims.

Hadith

The Arabic word hadith (pl. ahadith) is very similar to Sunnah, but not identical. A hadith is a narration
about the life of the Prophet (saas – Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) or what he approved –
as opposed to his life itself, which is the Sunnah as already mentioned.

In M. M. Azami’s Studies in Hadith Methodolgy and Literature, the following precise definition of a
hadith is given,

According to Muhaddithiin [scholars of hadith] it stands for ‘what was transmitted on the authority of the
Prophet, his deeds, sayings, tacit approval, or description of his sifaat (features) meaning his physical
appearance. However, the physical appearance of the Prophet (Blessings of Allah be on him and his
Progeny) is not included in the definition used by the jurists.

Thus hadith literature means the literature which consists of the narrations of the life of the Prophet and
the things approved by him. However, the term was used sometimes in much broader sense to cover the
narrations about the Companions (of the Prophet – Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) and
Successors (to the Companions) as well.

Sharia

The Sharia is the comprehensive Muslim law derived from two sources:

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a) The Quran
b) The Sunnah or traditions of Prophet Muhammad (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny)(the
knowledge on Sunnah depends on different ahadith).

It covers every aspect of daily individual or collective living. The purposes of Islamic laws are protection of
individuals’ basic human rights to include right to life, property, political and religious freedom and
safeguarding the rights of women and minorities.

Apart from the above two, ijma, the consensus of the community was also accepted as a minor source.
Qiyas, reasoning by analogy, was used by the law scholars to deal with the situations where the sources
provided no concrete rules. The practices called Sharia today, however, also have roots in local customs.

USOOL-E -DEEN
Fundamental Principles of Religion (Islam)

There are five fundamental principles

1. Tawheed – Oneness of God
2. Adl – Justice
3. Nubuwat – Prophethood
4. Imamat / Khilafat - Vicegerency of the Prophet
5. Qiyamat – Day of judgement

1. TAWHEED (Oneness of God)

Tawheed means God is one. He has neither a colleague nor a partner. He begets not, nor is He begotten,
there is none like Him.

2. ADL (Justice)

It means that God is just. He will reward or punish any person according to his deeds.

3. NUBUWAT (Prophethood)

A Nabi (Prophet) excels all other persons for whom he is sent by Allah. He is Masoom (sinless). Prophet
Muhammad Mustafa (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) is the last of the Prophets sent by
Him. The Prophets sent by Allah, including our Prophet, are total one lakh twenty four thousand
(124,000).

4. KHILAFAT / IMAMAT (Viceregency of the Prophet)

At this point the Sunnis and Shiite differ. After Prophet Muhammad (Blessings of Allah be on him and his
Progeny) Sunnis believe in Khilafat while Shiites believe in Imamat.

KHILAFAT
After the death of Prophet Muhammad (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) Sunnis have a faith
that the true Islam was with the Four Caliphs who were the true heir of the Prophet known as Khilafate
Rashida. These Caliphs were (in order) Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique, Hazrat Umar, Hazrat Usman and
Hazrat Ali. Only these Caliphs had the right to make any changes in Sharia in accordance with the
principles of Islam. These Caliphs were of the highest order and considered next in excellence to Prophet
Muhammad (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny).

Khilafate Rashida is followed by Khilafate Bani Umaiya, Khilafate Abbasiya, Khalfa-e-undulus and
Usmani Khilafat.

IMAMAT
Shias believe that Nubuwat ended with Prophet Muhammad (Blessings of Allah be on him and his
Progeny). Then Allah deputed Imams to guide. They were Masooms (sinless) and considered next in
excellence to Prophet Muhammad (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny). The Imam has his

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knowledge from God, and his verdict is in conformity with the Quran and Hadith. He deals with every
religious problem in the light of the Quran.

Imams are twelve and they are the only rightful Imams. There is no successor to the Twelfth Imam. He is
alive but invisible in accordance with the Will of Allah and will reappear when He commands, which will
signify the end of the World and be immediately followed by the day of Judgement.

5. QIYAMAT

It means the Day of Judgement.

Schools
The four Sunni schools of thought are called Madhahib. Maddhab is an Islamic term that refers to a school
of thought or religious jurisprudence (fiqh) within Sunni Islam. Each of the Ashaab (Companion) had a
unique school of jurisprudence, but these schools were gradually consolidated or discarded so that there
are currently four recognised schools: Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi’i, Hanbali.

The Hanafi is one of the four schools of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam. It is considered to be the
school most open to modern ideas. Hanafi is predominant among Sunni Muslims in Egypt, Turkey, the
Levant, the Indian subcontinent and parts of West Africa, although students of Islam throughout the world
study and may choose to observe its conclusions about Islamic practice. Hanafi is the largest of the four
schools; it is followed by approximately 30% of the Muslims worldwide.

Maliki is the oldest of the four schools of Fiqh. Maliki is practiced in North Africa and parts of West
Africa. It is the second largest of the four schools, followed by approximately 25% of Muslims.

The Shafi’i is another school practiced in Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines and is the state religion of
Brunei Darussalam and Malaysia. It is followed by approximately 15% of the Muslims worldwide.

The Hanbali School is considered to be the most conservative of the four schools. The school was started
by Imam Hanbal. Hanbali is predominant among Muslims in the Arabian Peninsula, although students of
Islam throughout the world study and may choose to observe its conclusions about Islamic practice.
Hanbali is followed by less than 5% of the world’s Muslim population. The Hanbali school was greatly
supported by Muhammad ibn abd al-Wahhab who used this system of fiqh. It is thus the shool of
jurisprudence used in modern day Saudi Arabia.

The Islamic schools of thought and jurisprudence differ on the issue of homosexuality. Sex between males
is viewed differently by the various legal schools, on the basis of differing interpretation of the traditional
literature. All the legal schools regard sex between males as unlawful, but they differ over the severity of
the punishment.

The Hanifite school (predominant in South Asia and Eastern Asia today) maintains that it (same - gender
sex) does not merit any physical punishment.

The Hanabalites on the other hand (predominant in Arab world) believe that sex between males must be
punished severely.

The Sha’fi school of thought (also predominant in the Arab world) argues that punishment for sodomy can
only be carried out if there are four adult male witnesses who actually see the penetration, “as though the
key is going into the key hole”

Source: http://www.al-fatiha.net/pamphlet.html

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Interpretations
Some verses in Quran have been used by various scholars against homosexual behaviour, but it seems to be
more against adultery than anything else. The verses and their explanations (both Sunni and Shia) are
given here for your reference.

Quran (Sunni Translation)

Chapter 4
NISAAA’
The Women

15:
WALLAA -TII YA’ – TIINAL – FAAHISHATA MIN – NISAAA – ’IKUM FAS – TASH – HIDUU
’ALAYHINNA ’ARBA ‘ATAM – MINKUM: FA- ’IN –SHAHI - DUU FA ’AMSIKUUHUNNA FIL –
BUYUUTI HATTAA YATAWAFFAA HUNNAL – MAW TU ’AW YAJ – ‘ALALLAAHU LAHUNNA
SABIILAA

And as for those of your women who are guilty of lewdness, call to witness four of you against them. And
if they testify (to the truth of the allegation) then confine them to the houses until the death take them or
(until) Allah appoint for them a way (through new legislation).

16:
WALLAZAANI YA’ – TIYAANIHAA MINKUM FA ’AAZUUHUMAA

And as far the two who are guilty thereof, punish them both.

FA ’IN - TAABAA WA ’ASLAHAA FA ’A‘ – RIZUU ‘AN HUMAAA

And if they repent and improve, then let them be.

INNALLAAHA KAANA TAW – WAABAR – RAHIIMAA

Lo! Allah is Relenting, Merciful

Explanation: (Volume I, Page 311)

Verse 15
As for those of your women (duly married wives) who may commit whoredom (in its general significance
is ‘an excess; an enormity; anything exceeding the bounds of rectitude.’ But when particularized, signifies
‘adultery or fornication’ and, in the context, evidently means an act of adultery. The evidence in the case of
adultery must be, according to the law of Islam, ocular, not hearsay or conjectural, known in modern legal
phraseology as ‘circumstantial’. Every possible safeguard is taken against hasty and false accusations. The
witness must be Muslims, not infidels, assuring that they saw with their eyes the actual carnal conjunction.

Verse 16
(Whether men or women, married or unmarried) The enactment here is general. It speaks of any two
persons guilty of the act, in contradistinction to the ‘married women’ of the previous verse. In several
nations, as among the Greeks and in the earlier period of the Roman history, their was no recognition of
the offence of adultery, ‘unless a married woman was the offender.

Quran (Shia Translation)

Chapter 4
AN – NISAAA-A
The Women

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15:
WAL – LAATEE YA – TEENAL – FAAH’ISHATA MIN – NISAAA – IKUM FAS – TASH – HIDOO
A’LAY – HIN – NA AR – BAA’TAM – MINKUM

And as for those who are guilty of an indecency from among your women, call to witnesses against them
four (witnesses) from among you.

FA INSHAHIDOO FA AM – SIKOOHUN – NA FIL – BOYOOTI H’AT – TAA YATAWAF – FAAHUN

– NAL – MAW – TU AW YAJ – A’LAL – LAAHU LAHUN – NA SABEELAA

Then if they bear witness confine them to the houses until death takes them away or Allah opens some way
for them.

16:
WAL – LAD’AANI YA – TIYAANIHAA MINKUM FAAD’OOHUMAA

And as far the two who are guilty of indecency from among you, give them both a punishment.

FA INTAABAA WA AS’ LAH’AA FA AA’ – RIZ”OO A’N HUMAAA

Then if they repent and amend, turn aside from them.

IN – NAL – LAAHA KAANA TAW – WAABAR – RAH’EEMAA

Surely Allah is Oft – returning (to mercy), the Merciful

Explanation (Tafseer)
Verse 15: This verse was revealed to correct a practice prevalent among the early Arabs. They used to
confine their women in their houses – for life – whenever they found them guilty of adultery. The verse
says that may do so, but they should not do it on their own allegations unless their guilt is duly proved by
witnesses of four men. Failing this they can divorce their wives, if they please, and can take no further
action against them.

“Or God opens some way for them.” This refers to the setting up of Islamic government with tribunals of
justice according to the law. There the cases will be investigated with tribunals of justice according to law.
There the cases will be investigated with all rigour and precaution of a judicial enquiry, and if there is a
slightest room for doubt the woman will be acquitted leaving no room for any further way against them.
In short if the case is not tried judicially all that the man can do, if he likes to punish his wife, is what is
contained in this direction. And in the course of her confinement it may be that her ways may be so
mended that the husband may be inclined to take her back to himself that would then be a way opened by
God for them.

The Ahmadi commentator giving the several meanings of the word ‘Al-fahishah’ takes here the meaning of
the words as anything short of fornication i.e. adultery. But the confinement to death suggests the crime to
be not an ordinary immorality. The extraordinary or the extreme limit of immorality is adultery. Hence the
meaning of the word ‘Al-fahishah’ here is adultery. Some commentators hold this verse as superseded by
one dealing directly with adulterer man and adulterer woman. (24:2)

Verse 16: The crime mentioned here is the same as that in the preceding verse. ‘Azahuma’ put them to pain
or worry. Here is made accommodation for the consideration for repentance and amendment on the part
of the convicts.

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Gender and gender roles
This section explores how gender and gender roles and the differences between men and women are
defined.

Men and Marriage

Marriage is prescribed strictly through Hadith and Quran, however, there is a space for those who cannot
afford to have a wife or do not want to get married. But no relation outside marriage is allowed and the
person is suggested to follow abstinence.

Hadith
Sahih – al – Bukhari

Vol. 7
(1) Chapter: 1. (Page 1)
Narrated Anas bin Malik: A group of three men came to the houses of the houses of the wives of the
Prophet (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) asking how the Prophet (Blessings of Allah be on
him and his Progeny) worshipped (Allah), and when they were informed about that, they considered their
worship insufficient and said, “Where are we from the Prophet (Blessings of Allah be on him and his
Progeny) as his past and future sins have been forgiven.” Then one of them said, “I will offer the prayer
throughout the night forever.” The other said, “I will fast throughout the year and will not break my fast.”
The third said, “I will keep away from the women and will not marry forever.” Allah’s Messenger came to
them and said, “Are you the same people who said so – and – so? By Allah, I am more submissive to Allah
and more afraid of Him than you; yet I fast and break my fast, I do sleep and I also marry women. So he
who does not follow my tradition in religion is not from me (not one of my followers).

(2) Chapter: 3 (Page 3)

Narrated ‘Alqama: While I was with ‘Abdullah, ‘Uthman met him at Mina and said, “O Abu ‘Abdur –
Rahman! I have something to say to you,” So both of them went aside and ‘Uthman said, “O Abu ‘Abdur
– Rahamn! Shall we marry you to a virgin who will make you remember your past days?” When ‘Abdullah
felt that he was not in need of that, he beckoned me (to join him) saying, “O ‘Alqama!” Then I heard him
saying (in reply to Uthman), “As you have said that, (I tell you that) the Prophet once said to us, “O young
people! Whoever among you is able to marry, should marry, and whoever is not able to marry, is
recommended to fast, as fasting will diminish his sexual power.”

It is clear from the above hadith that there can be several reasons for not getting married – from not being
able to support a wife to not feeling the need of a wife. Both the reasons are recognised but abstinence is
prescribed.

Quran (Sunni Translation)

Chapter 24
NUUR
Light

33:
AL – YASTA ‘- FIFILLAZIINA LAA YAJIDUUNA NIKAAHAN HATTAA YUGNIYAHUMULLAAHU
MIN – FAZLIH

And let those who cannot find a match keep chaste till Allah give them independence by His grace.

Quran (Shia Translation)

Chapter 24
NUUR
Light

-28-
33:
WAL – YAS- TAA’ – FIFIL - LADEENA LAA YAJIDOONA NIKAAH’AN H’AT- TAA YUGH –
NIYAHUMUL - LAAHU MINFAZ” – LIH

And let those who do not find the means to marry keep chaste until Allah makes them free from want out
of His grace.

Masculinity and Femininity

Shahih Al – Bukhari
Translated by Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan
Islamic University, Madina Al – Munawwara
Kitab Bhavan, New Delhi, 1987

Volume VII

61 (Chapter)
About those men who are in the similitude (assume the manners) of women, and those women are in the
similitude (assume the manners) of men

773:
LA’ANA ROSOOLULLAH SALLA ALLAHU ‘ALAIHI WA SALLAMA AL – MUTASHABBIHEENA
MIN AR – RIJAALI BIL NISAA’I WAL – MUTASHABBIHAATI MIN AN – NISAA’I BIR RIJAALI
Narrated Ibn ‘Abbas Allah’s Messenger cursed those men who are in the similitude (assume the manners)
of women and those women who are in the similitude (assume the manners) of men.

62 (Chapter)
The dismissal of such men are in the similitude (assume the manners) of women, from the houses.

774:
LA’ANA AN – NABIYY SALLA ALLAHU ‘ALAIHI WA SALLAMA AL – MUKHANNATHEENA MIN
AR – RIJAALI WAL – MUTARAJJILAATI MIN AN NISAA’I WA QAALA: AKHRIJOOHUM MIN
BUYOOTIKUM, QAALA: FA’AKHRAJA AN – NABIYY SALLA ALLAHU ‘ALAIHI WA SALLAMA
FULAANAN WA ‘AKHRAJA ‘UMARU FULAANATAN.

Narrated Ibn ‘Abbas: the Prophet (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) cursed effeminate men
[those men who are in the similitude (assume the manners) of women] and those women who assume the
manners of men, and he said, “Turn them out of your houses.” The Prophet (Blessings of Allah be on him
and his Progeny) turned out such – and – such man, and Umar turned out such – and such woman.

Hadith (Shia)

Allah curses those women who wear man’s clothes or make face like (try to look alike) men.

Allah curses those men who wear women’s clothes or make face like (try to look alike) women

Reference: Furoo – e – din Vol 8 Pg 71

Rasullalah (Mohammad) curses those men who wear the clothes of women

Reference: Mizanul Hiqmat Vol. 8 Pg 599

Ed: However there is no mention of cross dressing in Quran but cross dressing is looked down upon in
both Sunni and Shia ahadith.

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Marriage

Hadiths (Sunni)

Wife has a right over you

There are Hadiths which very clearly maintain that the wife has certain rights over her husband and
husband has to devote sometime for his wife.

Sahih Al Bukhari
Vol. 7: 127 Page 97

Narrated ‘Abdullah bin ‘Amr bin Al – As:

Allah’s Apostle (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) said, “Oh ‘Abdullah! Have I not been
informed that you fast all the day and stand in prayer all night? I said, “Yes, O Allah’s Messenger!” He
said, “Do not do that! Observe the fast sometimes and also leave them (the fast) at other times; stand up
for the prayer at night and also sleep at night. Your body has a right over you and your wife has a right
over you.”

The husband should not raise his hand on his wife

The Hadiths point out very distinctly that husband should not do violence on his wife.

Sahih Al Bukhari
Vol. 8:68 Page 42

Narrated ‘Abdullah bin Zam’a:

The Prophet (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) forbade laughing at a person who passes wind,
and said, “How does anyone of you beat his wife as he beats the stallion camel and then he may embrace
(sleep with) her?” And Hisham said, “As he beats his slave”.

The Husband and wives are made from a single soul

The Quranic verses state that the husband and wives are made for each other from a single soul and they
complete each other.

Quran: Sunni Translation

Chapter 7:
‘A- ‘RAAF
The Heights

189:
HUWALLAZII KHALAQAKUMMIN – NAFSINW – WAAHIDATINW – WAJA – ‘ALA MINHAA ZAW
– JAHAA LI YASKUNA ’ILAYHAA

He it is who did create you from a single soul, and there from did make his mate that he might take rest in
her.

Quran: Shia Translation

Chapter 7:
AL A’- RAAF
The Elevated Place

189:
HUWAL – LAD’EE KHALAQAKUM - MIN – NAF – SIN WAAH’IDATIN WAJAA’LA MIN - HAA
ZAW – JAHAA LIYAS - KUNA ILAY - HAA

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He it is who created you from a single being and of the same (kind) did He make his mate, that he might
incline to her

Love and compassion between wife and husband

Quran: Sunni Translation

Chapter 30
RUUM
The Romans
21:
WA MIN ’AAYAATIHIII ’AN KHALAQA – LAKUM – MIN ’ANFUSIKUM ’AZWAAJAL – LITAS –
KUNUUU ’ILAYHAA WA JA – ‘ALA BAYNAKUM – MAWADDATANWWA RAHMAH: ’INNA FII
ZAALIKA LA –’AAYAATIL – LIQAWMINY – YATAFAKKARUUN

And of His signs is this: He created for you helpmates from yourselves that ye might find rest in them, and
He ordained between you love and mercy. Lo, herein indeed are portents for folk who reflect.

Quran: Shia Translation

Chapter 30
AR - ROOM
The Romans

21:
WAMIN AAAYAATIHEEE AN KHALAQA LAKUM – MIN ANFUSIKUM AZ - WAAJAL – LITAS –
KUNOOO ILAY - HAA WAJAA’LA BAY - NAKUM – MAWAD – DATAN WARAH’ MAH
IN- NA FEE D’AALIKA LAAAYAATIL – LIQAW- MIY – YATAFAK- KAROON

And one of His signs is that He created mates for you from yourselves that you may find rest in them, and
He put between you love and compassion.

Most surely there are signs in this for a people who reflect.

Women
Women have been given a special status in Islam. It is unique. Their rights have been assured, sometimes
equal to that of a man and sometimes less than a man. There are enough Hadiths and Quranic verses to
support the unique status of the women.

Man’s rights over women.

There are some Hadiths which point out that the man has the right over the women. After marriage she
has to take her husband’s permission.

Hadith
Sahih Al Bukhari
Vol. 7: Page 55

(46) Chapter
None should ask for the hand of a lady who is already engaged to his brother (Muslim), but one should
wait till the first suitor marries her or leaves her.

73:
Narrated Ibn ‘Umar:
The prophet (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) decreed that one should not try to cancel a
bargain already agreed upon between some other persons (by offering a bigger price). And a man should
not ask for the hand of a lady who is already engaged to his Muslim brother, unless the first suitor gives
her up, or allows him to ask for her hand.

-31-
Sahih Al Bukhari
Vol. 1
824: Page 456
Narrated Ibn ‘Umar:
The Prophet (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) said, “If your women ask permission to go the
mosque at night, allow them.”

Page 459

(84) Chapter

A women should ask her husband’s permission (on wishing) to go to the mosque.

832:
Narrated Salim bin ‘Abdullah:
My father said, “The Prophet (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) said, ‘If the wife of any one
of you asks permission (to go to the mosque) do not forbid her.’ ”

Women as an equal partner

The Quran recognises that women has equal role to play in this world which is not less than that of a man.
The woman plays an important role in the existence of this world. If a man is father then the woman is
mother and both are equally important for this world. She is an equal partner of man.

Quran (Sunni Translation)

Chapter 4
NISAAA’
The Women

1:
YAAA – ’AYYUHAN – NAASUT – TA – QUU RABBAKUMULLAZII KHALAQA – KUM – MIN –
NAFSINW – WAAHIDA – TINW – WA KHALAQA MINHAA ZAW – JAHAA WA BASSA
MINHUMMA RIJAALAN – KASIIRANW – WA NISAAA- ’AA. WATTAQULLAA – HALLAZII TA –
SAAA – ’ALUUNA BIHII WAL – ’ARHAAM: ’INNALLAAHA KAANA’ ‘ALAY – KUM – RAQIIBAA.

O Mankind! Be careful of your duty to your Lord Who created you from a single soul and from it created
its mate and from them twain hath spread abroad a multitude of men and women. Be careful of your duty
toward Allah in Whom ye claim (your rights) of one another, and towards the wombs (that bore you). Lo!
Allah hath been a Watcher over you.

Chapter 9
TAWBAH or BARAAA -’
Repentance

71:
WA – MU’ – MI NUUNA WAL – MU’ – MINAATU BA‘ – ZUHUM – ’AWLI – YAAA –’U BA ‘- Z. YA’ –
MURUUNA BIL – MA‘ RUUFI WA YANHAWNA ‘ANIL – MUNKARI WA YUQII – MUUNAS –
SALAATA WA YU’ TUUNAZ – ZAKATA WA YUTII – ‘UNAL – LAAHA WA RA – SUULAH. ’ULAAA
– ’IKA SA – YARHA – MU – HUMULLAAH; ’INNAL – LAAHA ‘AZIIZUN HAKIIM

And the believers, men and women, are protecting friends one of another; they enjoin the right and forbid
the wrong, and they establish worship and they pay the poor – due, and they obey Allah and His
messenger. As for these Allah will have mercy on them. Lo! Allah is Mighty, Wise.

Quran (Shia Translation)

Chapter 4
AN – NISAAA - A
The Women

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1:
YAAAY - YUHAN – NAASUT – TAQOO RAB – BAKUMUL –LAZD’EE KHALAQAKUM – MIN –
NAF – SIN WWAAH’IDATIN WAKHALAQA MIN - HAA ZAW – JAHAA WABATH - THA MIN -
HUMMA RIJAALAN – KATHEERAN WANISAAA- ’AA.

O people! Be careful of (your duty to) your Lord, Who created you from a single being and created its
mate of the same (kind) and spread from these two, many men and women”
WAT – TAQUL –LAAHAL- LAD’EE TATA SAAA – ALOONA BIHEE WAL – ’AR- H’AAM”

And be careful of (your duty to) Allah, by whom you demand one of another (your rights), and (to) the ties
of relationship”

IN – NAL - LAAHA KAANA A’LAY – KUM – RAQEEBAA.

Surely Allah ever watches over you

Chapter 9
AT - TAWBAH
Repentance

71:
WAL – MU – MI NOONA WAL – MU – MINAATU BAA’ – Z”UHUM AW LIYAAA –U BAA’- Z”

And (as for) the believing men and the believing women, they are guardians of each other”

YA’ – MUROONA BIL – MAA’ ROOFI WAYAN – HAW - NA A’NIL – MUNKARI

WAYUQEEMOONAS’ – S’ALAATA WAYU TOONAZ – ZAKATA
WAYUT’EEO’ONAL – LAAHA WARASOOLAH

They enjoin good and forbid evil and keep up prayer and pay the poor – rate, and obey Allah and His
Apostle

ULAAA – IKA SAYAR – H’AMUHUMUL – LAAH

(As for) these, Allah will show mercy to them

IN - NAL – LAAHA A’ZEEZUN H’AKEEM

Surely Allah is Mighty, Wise

Women is not inferior to man

The Quran does not support or tolerates the discrimination between man and woman. The Quran very
clearly states that man or women is the wish of Allah and only He has the control over it.

Quran (Sunni Translation)

Chapter 42
SHUURAA
Counsel

49:
LILLAHI MULKUS – SAMAA – WAATI WAL –’ARZ. YAKHLUQU MAA YASHAAA’. YAHABU
LIMANYYA – SHAAA –’U ’INAASANWWA YAHABU LIMANY – YASHAAA – ’UZZUKUUR

Unto Allah belongeth the sovereignty of the heavens and the earth. He createth what He will. He
bestoweth female (offspring) upon whom He will, and bestoweth male (offspring) upon whom He will;

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50:
’AW YUZAWWIJUHUM ZUKRAANANWWA ’INAASAA; WA YAJ – ‘ALU MANY – YASHAAA – ’U
‘AQIIMAA: ’INNAHUU ‘ALIIMUN – QADIR

Or He grants them males and females, and He maketh barren whom He will. Lo! He is Knower, Powerful.

Quran (Shia Translation)

Chapter 42
SHUURAA
Counsel

49:
LIL – LAAHI MUL – KUS – SAMAAWAATI WAL –AR – Z”

Allah’s is the kingdom of the heavens and the earth”

YAKH - LUQU MAA YASHAAA”

He creates what he pleases

YAHABU LIMAY - YASHAAA –U INAATHAN WAYAHABU LIMAY – YASHAAA – UD’D’UKOOR

He grants to whom He pleases daughters and grants to whom He pleases sons.

50:
AW YUZAN WIJUHUM D’UK – RAANAN WA INAATHAA
Or He makes them of both sorts, male and female

WAYAJ – A’LU MAY – YASHAAA – U A’QEEMAA”

And He makes whom He pleases barren

INNAHOO A’LEEMUN – QADEER

Surely He is the Knowing, the Powerful

Rights of women are equal but not identical

Islam believes that man has more responsibilities so in terms of property rights man should have a larger
portion.

Quran (Sunni Translation)

Chapter 4
NISAA
The Women

11:
YUUSII – KUMULLAAHU FIII’ AW – LAADIKUM:

Allah chargeth you concerning (the provisions for) your children

LIZZAKARI MISLU HAZZIL – ’UNSA – YAYN

To the male the equivalent of the portion of two females

FA – ’IN – KUNNA NISAAA – ’AN – FAWQAS – NATAYNI FALA – HUNNA SULUSAA MAA TARAK

And if there be women more than two, then theirs is two – thirds of the inheritance

WA ’IN – KAANAT WAAHIDATAN – FALA – HANNISF

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And if there be one (only) then for her is the half

Quran (Shia Translation)

Chapter 4
AN – NISAAA -A
The Women

11:
YOOS’EEKUMUL - LAAHU FEEE AW – LAADIKUM

Allah enjoins you concerning your children

LID’ – D’AKARI MITH - LU H’AZ’-Z’IL – ’UNTHAYAY – N”

The male shall have the equal of the portion of two females

FA INKUN - NA NISAAA – AN – FAW - QATH – NATAY- NI FALAHUN - NA THULUTHAA MAA

TARAK

Then if they are more than two females, they shall have two thirds of what the deceased has left.

WA INKAANAT WAAH’IDATAN – FALAHAN –NIS’ – F”

And if there is one she shall have the half

In witnessing a woman is not equal to a man

A woman is not considered to be an equal witness as man for she is not very much aware of the civil
matters.

Quran (Sunni Translation)

Chapter 2
BAQARAH
The Cow

282:
WASTASH – HIDUU SAHII – DAYNI MIR – RIJAALIKUM: FA – ’ILLAM YA – KUUNAA RAJULAYNI
FA RAJULUNW – WAMRA – ’ATAANI MIMMAN – TARZAWNA MINASH – SHUHADAAA – ’I ’AN
– TAZILLA ’IH – DAAHUMAA FATUZAK – KIRA ’IH – DAAHUMAL –’UKHRAA

And call to witness, from among your men, two witnesses. And if two men be not (at hand) then a man
and two women, of such as ye approve as witnesses, so that if one of the two erreth (through forgetfulness)
the one of them will remind the other.

Quran (Shia Translation)

Chapter 2
BAQARAH
The Cow

282:
WAS - TASH – HIDOO SHAHEEDAY - NI MIR – RIJAALIKUM

And call in to witness from among your men two witnesses

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 FA – IL - LAM YAKOONAA RAJULAY -NI FARAJULUN WAM – RAATAANI MIM –MAN TAR –
Z”AW -NA MINASH – SHUHADAAA – I ANTAZ”IL - LA IH’ – DAAHUMAA FATUD’AK – KIRAIH’
– DAAHUMAL –UKHRAA

But if there are not two men, then one man and two women from among those whom you choose to be
witnesses, so that if one of the two errs, the second of the two may remind the other”

High place as a mother

Woman enjoys high recognition as a mother. Allah gives her great respect and honour.

Quran (Sunni Translation)

Chapter 31:
LUQMAAN
Luqman

14:
WA WAS – SAYNAL – ’INSAANA BIWAALIDAYH: HAMALAT – HU ’UMMUHUU WAHNAN
‘ALAA WAHNINWWA FISAALUHUU FII ‘AAMAYNI ’ANISH – KUR LII WA LI –WAALIDAYK:
’ILAYYAL – MASIIR

And We have enjoined upon man concerning his parents – His mother beareth him in weakness upon
weakness and his weaning is in two years – Give thanks unto Me and unto thy parents. Unto me is the
journeying.

Quran (Shia Translation)

Chapter 31:
LUQMAAN
Luqman

14:
WA WAS’ – SAY - NAL – INSAANA BIWAALIDAY -HI H’AMALAT – HOOO UM- MUHOO WAH -
NAN A’LAA WAH – NIN WAFIS’ AALUHOO FEE A’AMAY - NI ANISH – KUR LEE
WALIWAALIDAY -KA ILAY - YAL – MAS’EER

And We have enjoined man in respect of his parents – his mother bears him with faintings upon faintings
and his weaning takes two years – saying: Be grateful to Me and to both your parents; to Me is the
eventual coming

Authors’ Remarks

Islam, like Christianity and Judaism, can be deemed a patriarchal religion which holds that gender and
gender roles are strictly divided and biological (or God-given). Men are men, and women are women.

While Christianity and Judaism have a hierarchal and oppositional framework for gender roles – men are
superior to women, Islam seems to hold two differing viewpoints within its tenets.

a. Men and women are equal and complimentary

b. Men and women are not equal but different and in a hierarchal system, with men being
superior to women.

Both of these beliefs are within the Quran in different sections.

This is clearly demonstrated in Suras dealing with the rights of women, and those dealing with restrictions
placed on women. On the one hand women are assured equal rights with man but when it comes to the
issue of Witnessing, the Witness of one man is equal to the Witness of two women. Further the wife is
supposed to take the permission of her husband before doing specific tasks. Along with this, women do

-36-
not have equal rights in terms of inheritance. However women have been given a high place of honour as a
mother, but role of both the parents is equally recognised as important.

These gender roles arise from the biological fact of being a male or female. One has to be one of the other,
and a great deal of attention is paid by the person delivering a baby of the child’s genital sex. The crossing
of gender lines, whether a man or a woman is considered very bad and worth condemnation. It is believed
to act out the behaviours and role of the other gender is to bring about fitna – or social chaos.

Such beliefs are supported by both Sunni and Shiite Hadiths, but there are no Quranic verses to support
them. The Quran is silent on gender crossing.

Much of what is said about gender and gender roles, the apparent weakness of women, the need for
women to be subservient to men, that a woman should be policed firstly by her father, then by her brother,
and followed by her son, are not mentioned in the Quran, but come from a range of Hadith. Similarly the
specific roles of men and women are more defined in the Hadith than in the Quran itself.

-37-
Sex and sexuality
There are different verses in the Quran which talk about different sexualities and sexual practices, which
are also mentioned in the Sharia and Hadith.

In Shia translations of the Quran it seems to be that the people of Lut were destroyed because of crossing
certain limits. However what these limits were depends on the translations and interpretations. Suffice to
note that they were punished because they acted ignorantly and were unjust. Note, transgression will be
dealt with in a separate chapter.

In the Sunni translations of the Quran it seems that the people of Lut were destroyed because they were
mischievous and wrong doers - which can be interpreted either way.

Quran (Sunni Translation)

Reference: The Holy Quran, Eliaisii Family Book Service, Charminar, Hyderabad, Transliteration by M.
A. Haleem Eliassi, Translation by Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall

Part 8
Chapter 7
AL – ARAF (The Heights)

Part 8: 80
WA LUU TAN ’IZ QAALA LIQAW- MIHIII ’ATA’-TUUNAL-FAAHISHATA MAA SABAQA - KUM -
BIHAA MIN ’AHADIM-MINAL-‘AALAMIIN
And Lut! (Remember) when he said unto his folk: Will ye commit abomination such as no creature ever
did before you?

Part 8 (7): 81
’INNA - KUM LATA’-TUUNAR – RI - JAALA SHAH-WATAM-MIN - DUUNIN-NISAAA’ BAL
’ANTUM QAW-MUM-MUSRIFUUN
Lo! Ye come with lust unto men instead of women. Nay, but ye are wanton folk.

Part 19
Chapter 26
SHU – ‘ARAAA (The Poets)

165:
’ATA-TUUNAZ’-ZUKRAANA MINAL-’AALAMIIN
What! Of all the creatures do you come unto the males.

166:
WA TAZARUUNA MAA KHALAQA LAKUM RABBUKUM – MIN
’AZWAAJIKUM?
And leave the wives your Lord created for you.

BAL ’ANTUM QAW – MUN ’AADUUN!

Nay, but ye are forward folk!

Part 19
Chapter 27
NAML (The Ant)

54:
WA LUUTAN ’IZ’QAALA LI QAWMIHIII ’ATA’- TUUNAL – FAA - HISHATA WA ’ANTUM
TUBSIRUUN ?
And Lot! When he said unto his folk: will ye commit abomination knowingly?

-38-
55:
’A –’ INNAKUM LATA’ – TUUNAR - RIJAALA SHAHWATAM – MIN - DUUNIN – NIS – AAA’?
Must ye needs lust after men instead of women?

BAL ’ANTUM QAW – MUN TAJHALUUN

Nay, but ye are folk who act senselessly!

56:
FAMAA KAANA JAWAABA QAW – MIHIII ’ILLAAA ’AN QAALUUU AKH – RIJUUU ’AAALA
LUUTIM – MIN QARYATIKUM
But the answer of his folk was naught save that they said: Expel the household of Lot from your township.

’INNAHUM ’UNAA SUNY – YATA – TAH – HARUUN!

For they (forsooth) are folk who would keep clean.

Part 20
Chapter 29:
‘ANKABUUT (The Spider)

28:
WA LUUTAN ’IZ QAALA LI – QAWMIHIII ’INNAKUM LATA’ – TUUNAL – FAAHISHATA MAA
SABAQAKUM BIHAA MIN ’AHADIM – MINAL – ‘AALAMIIN
And Lut! (Remember) when he said unto his folk: Lo! Ye commit lewdness such as no creature did before
you.

29:
’A – IN NAKUM LATA’ – TUUNAR – RIJAALA WA TAQTA ‘UUNAS-SABIIL? WA TA’ – TUUNA FII
NADIIKUMUL – MUNKAR
For come ye not in unto males, and cut ye not the road (for travellers), and commit ye not abomination in
your meetings?

FAMAA KAANA JAWAABA QAWMIHIII ’ILLAAA ’ANQAALU’ – TINAA BI – ‘AZ’AABILLAAHI IN -

KUNTA MINAS SAADIQIIN
But the answer of his folk was only that they said: Bring Allah’s doom upon us if thou art a truth – teller!

30:
QAALA RABBINSURNII ‘ALAL – QAWMIL – MUFSIDIIN!
He said: My Lord! Give me victory over folk who work corruption.

31:
WA LAMMAA JAAA – ’AT RUSULUNAAA ’IBRAAHIIMA BIL – BUSHRAA QAALUUU ’INNAA
MUHLIKUUU ’AHLI HAAZIHIL – QARYAH
And when Our messengers brought Abraham the good news, they said: Lo we are about to destroy the
people of that township,

’INNA ’AHLAHAA KAANUU ZAALIMIIN

For its people are wrong - doers

32:
(Lot and Abraham were related to each other and were contemporaries)
QAALA ’INNA FIIHAA LUUTAA
He said: Lo Lot is there.

QAALUU NAHNU ’A‘ – LAMU BIMAN FIIHAA

They said: We are best aware of who is there.

LANU NAJJIYANNAHUU WA ’AHLAHUUU ’ILLAMRA ’ATAHUU KAANAT MINAL – GAABIRIIN

We are to deliver him and his household, all save his wife; who is those who stay behind.

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33:
WA LAMMAAA ’AN - JAAA – ’AT RUSULUNAA LUUTAN SIII ’A BIHIM WA ZAAQA BIHIM ZAR –
‘ANWWA QAALUU LAA TAKHAF WALAA TAHZAN:
And when our messengers came unto Lut, he was troubled upon their account, for he could not protect
them, but they said: Fear not, nor grieve!

’INNAA MUNAJJUUKA WA ’AHLAKA ’ILLAAMRA ’ATAKA KAANAT MINAL – GAABIREEN

Lo! We are to deliver thee and thy household, (all) save thy wife, who is of those who stay behind.

34:
’INNAA MUNZILUUNA ’ALAAA ’AHLI HAZIHIL – QARYATI RIZAM – MINAS – SAMAAA –
’IBIMAA KAANUU YAFSUQUUN
Lo! We are about to bring down upon folk of this township a fury from the sky because they are evil –
livers.

Explanation: Source: Tafsirul Quran - Holy Quran Translation and Commentary by Maulana Abdul
Majid Daryabadi Vol. II, Academy of Islamic Research and Publications, Nadwatul Ulema, Lucknow –
226 007 Pg 126

AL – ARAF (The Heights)

80: And We sent Lût (561), when he said to his people: (562) do you commit an indecency with which
none has preceded you in the worlds (563).

81: Verily you go in lustfully to men instead of women! (564) Aye! You are a people extravagant (565).

82: Naught was the answer of his people save that they said:(566) drive them (567) forth from your city;
indeed they are a people who would be pure! (568)

83: Then We delivered him and his family (569) save his wife, (570) she was among the lingerers (571).

561. Lut of the Bible. (Ge. 19:1 – 38) The story is biblical, ‘but freed from some shameful features which
are a blot on the biblical narrative’ (AYA)

562. i.e., the people whom he was sent to reclaim, not his kindred. Hence the omission of the usual form,
‘unto …..their brother Lut.’ This people lived in the region of Kikkar in the Jordan valley, an extremely
fertile land and full of exuberant vegetation.

563. Mark the implication of the word ‘preceded.’ Of course, there have been nations and nations since
the time of Lot, not before it, revelling in sodomy, and calling it euphemistically ‘homosexual practices.’
That ‘in Greek society of the fifth and the fourth century homosexualism, was frankly recognised’ (ESS. I
p.25), that among the ancient Greeks ‘it was idealised not merely in association with military virtues but
with intellectual, aesthetic, and even ethical qualities’; (Ellis, Psychology of Sex, p.219); that in the Middle
Ages it ‘flourished not only in camps but also in cloisters’ (p.220); and that it plays a conspicuous part in
the modern civilised world are almost truisms.

564. They ‘were wicked and sinners before the Lord exceedingly’ (Ge.13:13), ‘They were proverbial for
wickedness.’ (EBr. XXV, p. 342, 11th Ed.). ‘The wickedness of the Sodomites appears to have been so
heinous and debasing as to have become proverbial. The term “Sodomite” is used in Scripture to describe
offences against the laws of nature which were frequently connected with idolatrous practices.’ (DB. IV,
p.559). ‘The Sodomites grew proud, on account of their riches and great wealth ….and abused themselves
with Sodomitical practices’ (“Ant.” I, 11:1).

565. i.e., given to the transgression. The crime of the Sodomites was not due to any sporadic outburst of
passion, but was the result of confirmed habit – perversion almost congenital.

566. (to one another)

567. i.e., Lot and his followers.

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568. (and consider us impure!) ‘This one fellow came in to sojourn, and he will needs be a judge’ (Ge.
19:9)

569. (from common destruction).

570. (who was an infidel).

571. ‘But his wife looked back from behind him, and she became a pillar of salt’ (Ge. 19 : 26)

Explanation (Source: Kassul Ambiya: Mohammad Tayyab, Farid Book Depot, Bazar Chitli Kabra, New
Delhi )Pg 55

Hazrat Lut was sent to the people who were very happy. Their areas were well developed but these people
were engaged and lots of misdeeds. They used to worship idols instead of Allah. They were engaged in
Batmari and the biggest bad habit was that instead of women they used to do bad work with boys.

It is said that this bad deed was due to Satan. When he wanted this bad deed to flourish in these people, he
adopted a unique technique. Iblees, in the form of a beautiful boy, used to go to an orchard and used to
destroy its fruits and flowers. The owner of the orchard tried to catch him but he used to escape. When the
orchard was considerably destroyed, the owner of the orchard was quite disturbed. Then one day Iblees
said that if you don’t want me to come to the orchard, then do this (bad deed) with me and be assured
about your orchard.

The owner of the orchard said, “This is very good” and then he got engaged in this bad deed. This is how
Satan made this bad deed prevalent in these people.

On behalf of Allah Hazrat Lut stopped them from this bad deed and showed them the fear of Allah and
said, “If you do not mend your way then Allah’s wrath would fall on you.” But they were shameless
people and said, “Fatina Beazabillahe In Kunt Minnassadiqiin” (Bring on us the wrath of Allah if you are
truthful)

Hazrat Lut still kept on telling them the right path and inviting them towards Allah. Like his Uncle
Ibraheem Alahaissalam Hazrat Lut was also a great host and used to serve the guest well and give them
respect. When the bad deeds of these people crossed the limits, Allah decided to destroy these people.

Some angels came in the form of extremely beautiful boys to Hazrat Lut. Hazrat Lut was greatly disturbed.
As he was aware of the bad deeds of his people, that is why he was sad on the arrival of his guests. He
gave the shelter to the guests in his house and asked his wife not to tell about the guests to anybody.

But non believer wife went and told the people that there are guests in Loot’s house whose beauty is
beyond comparison. Hearing this, these bad people reached Hazrat Lut.

Hazrat Lut said, “Why do you insult me in front of my guests. Keep away from bad deeds. If you want
take my daughters and marry them but do not disturb my guests.

The non – believers said, “We have nothing to do with your daughters. O Lot, you know what do we
desire?”

When the angels saw that Hazrat Lut is disturbed then quietly they told him, “Be fearless. We are the
angels of Allah. These people can do no harm to us.

Hazrat Jibreel (Gabriel) came out of the door and fanned some air on their eyes with his wings. They got
blind and rushed towards their homes.

Hazrat Lut was instructed to leave the place and not to look behind.

-41-
Allah saved Hazrat Lut Alaihissalam from the wrath. The wife of Hazrat Lut and non-believer peoples
were destroyed. Allah got the land upside down. Allah rained stones on these people and there was
nothing left of these people.

Hazrat Lut Alahisssalam went to his uncle Hazrat Ibraheem Alahissalam.

Quran (Shia Translation)

Reference:
1. The Glorious Quran, with translation and transliteration by Mohammad Saeed Shakir, Ansaryan
Publication, 1998
2. The Holy Quran, Text translation and commentary by Ayatullah Agha H.M.M. Pooya Yazdi & S.V.
Mir Ahmed Ali

Part 8
Chapter 7
AL – ARAF (The Elevated Places)
Section 10: The Ministries of Saleh and Lot

Part 8: 80
WALOOT’AN ID’ QAALA LIQAW- MIHEE ATA-TOONAL-FAAH’ISHATA MAA SABAQAKUM
BIHAA MIN AH’ADIM-MINAL-A’ALAMEEN
And (We sent) Lut when he said to his people: What! Do you commit an indecency which any one in the
world has not done before you?

Part 8: 81
IN-NAKUM LATA-TOONARRIJAALA SHAH-WATAM-MINDOONIN-NISAAA” BAL ANTUM
QAW-MUM-MUSRIFOON
Most surely you come to males in lust besides females” Nay, you are an extravagant people.

Part 19
Chapter 26
ASH-SHOA’RAA (The Poets)
Section 9: Lot admonishes his people

165:
ATA-TOONAD’-D-UK-RAANA MINAL-A’ALAMEEN
What! Do you come to the males from among the creatures

166:
WATAD’AROONA MAA KHALAQ LAKUM RABBUKUM – MIN AZ – WAJIKUM
And leave what your Lord has created for you of your wives?

BAL – ANTUM QAW – MUN A’ADOON

Nay, you are people exceeding limits

Part 19
Chapter 27
AN – NAML (The Ant)
Section 4: Saleh and Lot

54:
WALOOT’AN ID’QAALA LIQAW- MIHEE ATA- TOONAL – FAAH’ISHATA WA ANTUM TUB –
S’IROON
And (we sent) Lut, when he said to his people: What! Do you commit indecency (filthiness) while you see?

55:
A – IN – NAKUM LATA – TOONAR - RIJAALA SHAH – WATAM – MINDOONIN – NISAAA
What do you indeed approach men lustfully rather than women?”

-42-
BAL – ANTUM QAW – MUN TAJ – HALOON
Nay, you are a people who act ignorantly

56:
FAMAA KAANA JAWAABA QAW – MIHEE IL – LAAA ANQAALOOO AKH – RIJOOO AAALA
LOOT’IM – MINQAR – YATIKUM
But the answer of his people was no other that they except said: Turn out Lut’s followers from your town

IN – NAHUM UNAASUY – YATAT’AH – HAROON

Surely they are people who would keep pure.
Part 20
Chapter 29:
AL A’ANKABOOT (The Spider)
Section 3: Abraham and Lot

28:
WALOOT’AN ID’ QAALA LIQAW – MIHEE IN – NAKUM LATA – TOONAL – FAAH’ISHATA MAA
SABAQAKUM BIHAA MIN AH’ADIM – MINAL – A’ ALAMEEN
And (We sent) Lut when he said to his people: Most surely you are guilty of an indecency which none of
the nations has ever done before you

29:
A – IN – NAKUM LATA – TOONAR – RIJAALA WATAQ – T’AO’ONAS-SABEELA WATA – TOONA
FEE NADEEKUMUL – MUNKAR
What! Do you come to the males and commit robbery on the highway, and you commit evil deeds in your
assemblies?

FAMAA KAANA JAWAABA QAW – MIHEE IL – LAAA ANQAALU – TINAA BI – A’D’AABIL –

LAAHI INKUNTA MINAS’ S’AADIQEEN
But nothing was the answer of his people except that they said: Bring on us Allah’s punishment, if you are
one of the truthful

30:
QAALA RAB – BINS’UR – NEE A’LAL – QAW – MIL – MUF – SIDEEN
He said: My Lord! Help me against the mischievous people

Section 4: The mission of Abraham, Lot, Shu’aib and Moses

31:
WALAM – MAA JAAA – AT RUSULUNAAA IB – RAAHEEMA BIL – BUSH – RAA QAALOOO IN –
NAA MUH – LIKOO AH – LI HAD’IHIL – QAR – YAH
And when Our messengers came to Ibraheem with the good news, they said: Surely we are going to destroy
the people of this town

IN – NA AH – LAHAA KAANOO Z’AALIMEEN

For its people are unjust

32:
(Lot and Abraham were related to each other and were contemporaries)
QAALA IN – NA FEEHAA LOOT’AA
He said: Surely in it is Lut

QAALOO NAH’ – NU AA’ – LAMU BIMANFEEHAA

They said: We know well who is in it

LANUNAJ – JIYAN – NAHOO WA AH – LAHOOO IL – LAM – RAATAHOOO KAANAT MINAL –

GHAABIREEN
We shall certainly deliver him and his followers, except his wife; she shall be of those who remain behind

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33:
WALAM – MAAA ANJAAA – AT RUSULUNAAA LOOT’AN SEEEA BIHIM WAZ”AAQA BIHIM
D’AR – A’W – WAQAALOO LAA TAKHAF WALAA TAH’ – ZAA
And when Our messengers came to Lut he was grieved on account of them, and he felt powerless (to
protect) them; and they said: Fear not, nor grieve

IN – NAA MUNAJ – JOOKA WA AH – LAKA IL – LAAM – RAATAKA KAANAT MINAL –

GHAABIREEN
Surely we will deliver you and your followers, except your wife, she shall be of those who remain behind

34:
IN – NAA MUNZILOONA A’LAAA AH – LI HAD’IHIL – QARYATI RIJ – ZAM – MINAS – SAMAAA
– I BIMAA KAANOO YAF – SUQOON
Surely We will cause to come down upon the people of this town a punishment from heaven, because they
transgressed.

Explanation: Translation and Commentary by Ayatullah Agha H.M.M. Pooya Yazdi, & S.V. Mir Ahmed
Ali, Pg 588

The homosexual indecency committed by the people was sodomy. The object of co-habitation has to be
healthy procreation and the sustenance of the human generation and never the unhealthy, wasteful
enjoyment merely for the carnal desire of the brute in man.

Lut was the cousin of Abraham, i.e., Abraham’s maternal aunt’s son, and Lot’s own sister Sara was the
first wife of Abraham. Lot has been deputed by God for the guidance of the people of ‘Motifikat’ which
consisted of five towns, the biggest of which was Sodom. These people flourished besides the Trunk Road
running between Egypt and Syria. They were a very stingy and miserly people. Being located beside the
Trunk Road, the travellers used to seek shelter under their roofs which they hated. Besides their stinginess
they were also awfully wicked given up to terrible indecency in character. In addition to what he had
already done with the people, it is reported that Satan one day appeared to them in a seemingly human
form and told them that if they wanted to be relieved of the guests they frequently got, they should commit
sodomy with him. The people agreed and behaved in the terrible way first with him (Satan). Gradually the
people got accustomed to the most detestable conduct.

However much Lut warned the people against indecency but it was of no avail. They behaved in this
indecent way with those who happened to come to them for shelter and consequently the poor travellers
had to suffer their misbehaviour or to forego any shelter on their way. Most such travellers used to go to
Lut who was extremely hospitable but the people did not like Lut’s giving shelter to the poor wayfarers
and not sending such newcomers to them for their satanic enjoyment. At last the decree of the Lord was
passed and some Angels along with the Messenger Angel Gabriel in the form of the human beings in the
guise of travellers came to Abraham who prepared a rich dinner for them but the heavenly visitors
introduced themselves to the Abraham and informed him of their mission and said that what he had
prepared was not their food. The Angels in the form of wayfarers departed towards Sodom. When they
appeared in Sodom, Lot was watering the fields and taking them to be ordinary travellers warned them
against the abominable conduct of the people and took them home as his own guests. His wife was a
wicked women by nature and was in league with the loathsome characters of the place and she used to
inform them of the guests visiting Lut. Lut warned her not to inform anyone of the arrival of the guests in
the house but she as it was usual with her, gave the signal to the wicked people who rushed to the
residence of Lut and surrounded it shouting to Lut to surrender his guests to them. Gabriel by a waving of
his arm effected them to be blindfolded and asked Lot to at once, leave the place along with those of his
fellowship (in faith). The word used for Lot’s fellow believers is ‘Ahl’, i.e., those of Lot’s fellowship in the
virtuous life. When Lut with a few virtuous ones had left the place, the angels caused the earth under the
feet of the people to be turned upside down and thus did not leave any trace, even of the people’s
habitation to remain on earth and those who had been out of the place were destroyed by stones rained
upon them from heaven. Hence the punishment in Islam for sodomy is either to cause both the individuals
crushed by bringing them under a wall and affecting it to fall upon them or stone them to death or slay
them.

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Once a slave was brought to the First Holy Imam Ali Ibne Abi Taleb (Alaihis Salam) with the charge of
murdering his master – Ali (A.S.) asked the slave as to what he had to say about the charge against him.
The slave confessed and said that he could not help doing what he had done for his master wanted to
commit sodomy with him and when he did not agree his master committed the loathsome act by force. Ali
(A.S.) asked if he had any witness in the support of his statement. The slave replied that “where could
there be a witness when he and his master were in the house and the act was committed in the midnight at
which he decided to murder him and he did murder him. Ali (A.S.) asked if the master at receiving the
wound repented and sought the pardon of God. The slave replied ‘No’. Ali (A.S.) hearing this exclaimed:
‘Allah – ho – Akbar’ and said that the slave was uttering the truth but ordered the people to go and open
the grave of the slain master of the slave and if the body is there in the grave the slave shall be punished
and if not the slave shall be acquitted. People went and found the grave empty. Ali (A.S.) decreed that the
slave be let off.
(NOTE: Both the instances are of FORCED ACTS)

Hadith

Sunni

Shahih Al – Bukhari
Translated by Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan
Islamic University, Madina Al – Munawwara
Kitab Bhavan, New Delhi, 1987

Volume VII

25 (Chapter)
What women are lawful for one to marry and what are unlawful.

WA ABI JAFARI FIMAN YAL ABO BIS SABIHIN AD KHALAHO FIHE FALA YASTAJO WAH
JANNAH UMMAHOO
Narrated Abu Ja’far, “If a person commits homosexuality with a boy, then the mother of that boy is
unlawful for him to marry”.

Shia

Islamic Laws

Taudhihul Masael
According to the fatwa of
Ayatullah al Uzama Syed Ali al – Husaini Seestani
Imaan Foundation, Najafi House, Bombay

2414. If a baligh (adult) person commits sodomy with a boy, the mother, sister and daughter of the boy
become haraam (forbidden) for him. And the same law applies when the person on whom sodomy is
committed is an adult male, or when the person committing sodomy is na – baligh(Minor). But if one
suspects or doubts whether penetration occurred or not, then the said women would not become haraam.

2415. If a person marries the mother or sister of a boy, and commits the sodomy with the boy after the
marriage, as a precaution, they will become haraam for him.

357. If (God forbid!) a person has a sexual intercourse with an animal and ejaculates, Ghusl (bath) alone
will be sufficient for him, and if he does not ejaculates and he has with wudhu at the time of committing
the unnatural act even then the Ghusl will be sufficient for him. However, if he was not with wudhu at
that time, the obligatory precaution is that he should do Ghusl and also perform wudhu. And the same
order applies if one commits sodomy.

379. If a person who entered the state of Janabat (dirty/unclean after intercourse) due to an unlawful act
takes a bath with warm water, the Ghusl will be valid even though one may perspire at that time. But the
recommended precaution is that such a person should do Ghusl with cold water.

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Men who are not attracted to women
There are references in Hadith that one gender should not take up the role of other gender; however Quran
does not seem to mention it. However on the other hand there seems to be acceptance for those men who
are not attracted to women. There is not a strong supportive statement, but their existence is accepted.

Quran (Sunni Translation)

Part 18
Ch 24
NUUR
(Light)

31:
WA QUL – LIL – MU’ – MINAATI YAGZUZNA MIN ’ABSAARIHINNA WA YAHFAZUZNA
FURUUJAHUNNA WA LAA YUBDIINA ZIINATAHUNNA ’ILLAA MAA ZAHARA MINHAA WAL –
YAZ – RIBNA BI – KHUMURIHINNA ‘ALAA JUYUUBIHINN; WA LAA YUBDIINA ZINATAHUNNA
’ILLAA LIBU – ’UULA – TIHINNA ’AW ’AABAAA – ’ BU – ‘UULATI - HINNA ’AW ’ABAAA –
’IHINNA ’AW’AABAAA I BU ‘ U – NAAA – ’IBU – ‘UULATIHINNA ’AW ’IKHWAANIHINNA ’AW
BANIII ’AKHA – WAANIHINNA ’AW NISAAA – ’IHINNA ’AW MAA MALAKAT ’AYMAANU –
HUNNA ’AWITTAABI – ‘IINA GAYRI ’ULIL – ’IRBATI MINARRIJAALI ’AWIT – TIFILLAZIINA LAM
YAZHARUU ‘ALAA ‘AWRAATIN – NISAAA’; WA LAA YAZ – RIBNA BI – ’ARJULIHINNA LIYU‘ –
LAMA MAA YUKHFIINA MIN – ZIINATIHINN. WA TUBUUU ’ILALLAAHI JAMII – ‘AN
’AYYUHAL – MU’ – MINUUNA LA ‘ALLAKUM TUFIHUUN.
And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and be modest, and to display of their adornment only
that which is apparent, and to draw their veils over their bosoms, and not to reveal their adornment save
to their husbands or fathers or husband’s fathers, or their sons or their husband’s sons, or their brothers’
sons or sisters’ sons or their women, or slaves, or male attendants who lack vigour, or children who know
naught of women’s nakedness. And let them not stamp their feet so as to reveal what they hide of their
adornment. And turn unto Allah together, O believers, in order that ye may succeed.

Quran (Shia Translation)

Part 18
AL – MU’MINUN
Ch 24
NUUR
(Light)

31:
WAQUL – LIL – MU – MINAATI YAGH Z”UZ” - NA MIN ABS’AARIHIN - NA WAYAH’- FAZ’ NA
FUROOJAHUN - NA WALAA YUB - DEENA ZEENATAHUN - NA IL - LAA MAA Z’AHARA MIN -
HAA
WAL – YAZ” – RIB - NA BIKHUMURIHIN - NA A’LAA JUYOOBIHIN
WALAA YUB - DEENA ZEENATAHUN - NA IL - LAA LIBUO’OLATIHIN - NA AW AAABAAAIHIN
– NA AW AAABAAA – I – ’ BUO’OLATIHINNA ’AW ’AB- NAAA – ’IHIN - NA AW AB – NAAA – I
BUO’OLATIHIN - NA AW IKH – WAANIHIN - NA AW BANEE IKH – WAANIHIN - NA AW
BANEEE AKHAWAATIHINN – NA AW NISAAA – IHIN - NA AW MAA MALAKAT AY –
MAANUHUN - NA ’AWITTAABIE’ENA GHAYRI ULIL – IR - BATI MINAR - RIJAALI AWIT’ – T’IF
LIL-LAD’EENA LAM YAZ’ HAROO A’LAA A’W-RAATIN – NISAAA’;
WALAA YAZ” – RIB - NA BI – AR – JULIHIN - NA LIYUA’ – LAMA MAA YUKH -FEENA
MINZEENATIHINN”
WA TOOBOOO ILAL - LAAHI JAMEEA’NAAA AY - YUHAL – MU – MINOONA LAA’L - LAKUM
TUF – LIH’OON.
And say to the believing women that they cast down their looks and guard their private parts and do not
display their ornaments except what appears thereof

And let them wear their head – coverings over their bosoms

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And not display their ornaments except to their husbands or their fathers, or the fathers of their husbands,
or their sons, or the sons of their husbands, or their brothers, or their brother’s sons, or their sister’s sons,
or their women, or those whom their right hands possess, or the male servants not having need of women,
or the children who have not attained the knowledge of what is hidden of women

And let them not strike their feet so what they hide of their ornaments may be known”

And turn to Allah all of you, O believers! so that you may be successful

Men (boys) would be provided as a reward for your good deeds

There seems to be mention of the boys being provided in heaven (after death) as a reward of your good
deeds. However the interpretations by Islamic scholars do say it but there has been argument that they are
provided for general services, however the reference of the boys in the verse is suggestive of use as objects
of desire.

Quran (Sunni translation)

Part 27
Ch 52
TURR
(The Mount)
Revealed at Mecca

24:
WA YUTUUFU ‘ALAYHIM GIL – MAANUL – LUHUMKA –’ANNAHUM LU’ – LU –’UM –
MAKNUUN
And there go round, waiting on them, men – servants of their own, as they were hidden pearls.

Ch 56
WAAQI – ‘AH
(The Event)
Revealed at Mecca

12:
FII JANNAATIN – NA – ‘IIM:
In gardens of delight;

13:
SULLATUM – MINAL – ’AWWALIIN,
A multitude of those of old

14:
WA QALIILUM – MINAL – ’AAKHIRIIN
And few of those of later time

15:
‘ALAA SURURIM – MAW – ZUUNAH,
On lined couches

16:
MUTTAKI – ’IINA ‘ALAY – HAA MUTAQAABILIIN
Reclining there in face to face

17:
YATUUFU ‘ALAY – HIM WAILDAANUM – MUKHALLA – DUUN
There wait on them immortal youths.

18:
BI – ’AKWAABINW – WA ’ABAARIIQA, WA KA’ – SIM – MIM – MA –‘IIN:

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With bowls and ewers and a cup from a pure spring

Quran (Shia translation)

Part 27
Ch 52
TURR
(The Mount)
Revealed at Mecca

24:
WAYAT’OOFU A’LAY - HIM GHIL – MAANUL – LAAHUM KA –AN - NAHUM LU – LU –UM –
MAK - NOON
And round them shall go boys of theirs as they were hidden pearls.

Ch 56
AL - WAAQI – ‘AH
(The Great Event)
Revealed at Mecca

12:
FEE JAN - NAATIN – NAE’EM:
In the gardens of bliss;

13:
THUL - LATUM – MINAL – AWWALEEN,
A numerous company from among the first

14:
WA QALEELUM – MINAL – AAAKHIREEN
And a few from among the latter

15:
A’LAA SURURIM – MAW – Z”OONAH,
On thrones decorated

16:
MUT - TAKI – EENA A’LAY – HAA MUTAQAABILEEN
Reclining on them facing one another

17:
YAT’OOFU A’LAY – HIM WILDAANUM – MUKHAL - LADOON
Round about them shall go youths never altering in age.

18:
BI AK - WAABIN – WA ABAAREEQA, WA KA – SIM – MIM – MAE’EN:
With goblets and ewers and a cup of pure drink

Shia Hadith
Gunhane Kabeera Vol.1 Edition 1996
Author: Shaheede Mehrab Ayatulazma Syed Abdul Hussain Dustaeghaib
Publisher: Najafi House, Bombay
Page 428

• In Wasaylus Shia Kitabe Nikah Chapter 127 Page 130 some ulemas have said that sleeping of two
men naked in the same sheet or quilt is worth punishment from Shariah. This is a bigger sin.
(Islam recognises sins in two categories – bigger and smaller sin – Gunahe Kabeera and Sagheera)
Other than husband and wife two adult people who are able to make distinction between good

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 and bad should not sleep together. If they sleep on same mattress the sheet and the quilt should be
separate. This is applicable for real brothers and sisters too.
• In Furuye Kafi Kitabe Nikah, Hazrat Ali (A.S.) states, “ALLEVATO YA DOONAD DUBURO
HOWAL KUFRO”. Anal Sex with a boy is a bigger sin for which punishment is prescribed. If a
man mounts on any man, the intercourse takes place or not, is a sin of non – believer.
• In Wasaylus Shia, Imam Jafar Sadiq (A.S.) states that, “FAQALA MA BAINAL FURWAZAIN
QAALA ZALEQAL KUFRO BEMA ANZALLAHO ALA NABI YEHI”. Pressing of shameful part
(meaning penis) between two thighs in haram way, and that person who enters in the anus, such a
person is a non – believer and refuses to accept Quran which came on the Prophet (Blessings of
Allah be on him and his Progeny).
• In Faqhurraza, Hazrat Imam Ali Raza (A.S.) states that, “WA TAQATTIZ ZINA WALLEWAAT
WA HOOAA ASHADDO MINAZZENA WA HUMA YURSANE SAHABEHUMA ISNAINE
WA SABAINA DAUNN FID DUNIYA WAL AAKHERATE”. Keep away from adultery and anal
sex with a boy. And anal sex with a boy is worse than adultery and both these sins result in 72
times pain both in this world and at the end.
• In Usoole Kafi, it is stated that, “MAN KABBALA GHULAMAN BE SHEHWATIN AL
JAMAHULLAHO NAALA BE LEZAMIM MIN NAAR”. The person who kisses a young boy
with lust, Allah would put bridle of fire in his mouth.
• It is stated from Hazrat Ali (A.S.) that such a person (who does anal sex with a boy) should be
murdered and then burnt.
• The person who does anal sex should be murdered by sword, stones should be thrown to him till
he dies, his hand and legs should be tied and thrown from a high place like mountain, or burnt in
fire. The method of killing would be decided by the judge.
• The sin of anal sex can be established by two ways only.
One way is that one of the two persons who have done anal sex, himself accepts four times in
front of the judge. If he accepts less than four times Shariah is not applicable on him.
Second way is that four adult male should have witnessed the act through their own eyes. If there
are less than four witness, the person is not punished and the witnesses would be guilty.

Authors’ Remarks

There appears to be no direct reference to the people of Lut (the story of Sodom and Gomorrah in Bible)
being destroyed due to their male-to-male sexual activities. Both the Sunni and Shia interpretations seem to
suggest so, but the text translations in both Shia and Sunni sects only talk about crossing boundaries and
acting mischievously. These boundaries have not been mentioned though. The mischievous acts, as it
appears in the text, can be anything from robbery to being corrupt.

The Sharia appears to recognise that male-to-male sex occurs and there seems to be no condemnation
where these references are made. Both Sahih Bukhari in Sunni as well as Taudhihul Masael in Shia appear
to recognise the existence of male-to-male sexual activity, but in all these references it is suggestive of
sexual relationship between older men and boys. The word boy is suggestive of the young age of the other
partner. In cases where anal sex (sodomy) takes place, no punishment is prescribed and only a bath in a
specific manner has been prescribed. The severe punishments have been prescribed in some of the Hadiths
but without any Quranic references.

Further the Quran also recognises that there are men who do not feel any attraction to women. In Sunni
translations they have been mentioned as “male attendants who lack vigour” and in Shia translations as
“male servants not having need of women” They were given permission to enter a female abode (area)
where purdah is observed, just as any other female.

Where same-sex activities are strictly proscribed and the death sentence for acts of commission defined -
such as stoning to death, being thrown from a cliff, or being crushed under a wall - these arise from the
Hadith.

The Hadith is supposedly a collection of the sayings, behaviour, and doings of the Prophet and his
Companions. Imam al- Bukhari (born 9th century Christian calendar and died in 870AD, 194-256 of the
Hijira) was supposed to have generated a specific way of verifying a Hadith through a chain of

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transmission as authentic or not. In collecting some 600,000 Hadith after interviewing 1080 persons, and
following his methodology of authenticating was able to reduce this to 7,257 authentic Hadith - if after the
repetitions, which number 4000, are eliminated (Mernissi, p44).

Fatima Mernisi in her book The Veil and the Male Elite (p44) states that “…if at the time of al-Bukhari –
that is less than two centuries after the death of the Prophet – there were already 596, 725 false Hadith in
circulation, it is easy to imagine how many there are today.”

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Transgression and fitna
Interpretation of transgression – crossing limits / boundaries depends on the scholars and interpreters.
Fitna, or chaos, arises from transgression which leads to social disorder, which leads to chaos.

Quran (Sunni Translation)

Chapter 2
AL – BAQARAH
The Cow

60:
KULUU WASHRABUU MIR - RIZQILLAAHI WA LAA TA SAW FIL – ’AR – Z”I MUFSIDIIN
Eat and drink of that which Allah hath provided and do not act corruptly, making mischief in the earth.

Chapter 5
MAAA – ’IDAH
The Table spread

64:
WAYAS – ’AWNA FIL –’ARZI FASAADAA
WALLAAHU LAA YUHIBBUL – MUF – SIDEEN
Their effort is for corruption in the land, and Allah loveth not corrupters

Chapter 28
QASAS
The Story

77:
WA LAA TANSA NAS’IIBAKA MINAD – DUNYAA
WA ’AHSIN KAMAAA ’AHSANALLAAHU ILAYKA
And neglect not thy portion of the world
And be thou kind even as Allah hath been kind to thee

WALAA TABGIL – FASAADA FIL – ARZ:

’INNALLAAHA LAA YUHIBBUL – MUFSIDIIN
And seek not corruption in the earth
lo! Allah loveth not corrupters

Quran (Shia Translation)

Chapter 2
AL – BAQARAH
The Cow

60:
KULOO WASH – RABOO MIRRIZ – QIL – LAAHI WALAA TAA’ THAW FIL – AR – Z”I
MUFSIDEEN
Eat and drink of the provisions of Allah and do not act corruptly in the land, making mischief.

Chapter 5
AL – MAAA – IDA
The Food

64:
WAYAS – A’W – NA – FIL – AR – Z”I FASAADAA”
WAL – LAAHU LAA YUH’IBBUL – MUF – SIDEEN
And they strive to make mischief in the land”

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And Allah does not love the mischief – makers

Chapter 28
AL – QAS’AS’
The Narrative

77:
WALAA TANSA NAS’EEBAKA MINAD – DUN – YAA
WA AH’ – SINKAMAAA AH’- SANAL – LAAHU ILAY – K
And do not neglect your portion of this world
And do good (to others) as Allah has done to you

WALAA TAB – GHIL – FASAADA FIL – AR- Z”

IN – NAL – LAAHA LAA YUH’IBBUL – MUF – SIDEEN

And do not seek to make mischief in the land
Surely Allah does not love the mischief makers

Allah

Allah is all powerful full of characteristics which make Him distinct.

Creator

Allah is the creator of all human beings and He has given them emotions whatever they have. If any person
is different from others, Allah has made him so. It is beyond man’s control

He is the creator

Chapter 25
AL – FUR – QAAN
The Criterion (Distinction)

54:
WA HUWAL – LAD’EE KHALAQA MINAL – MAAA – I BASHARAN FAJAA’LAHOO NASABAN
WAS’IH – RAA

WAKAANA RAB- BUKA QADEERAA

And He it is Who has created man from the water, then He has made for him blood relationship and
marriage relationship

And your Lord is powerful

Chapter 55
AR – RAH’MAAN
The Beneficent

1: AR – RAH’ – MAAN
The Beneficent God

3: KHALAQAL – INSAAN
He created man

4: A’L – LAMAHUL – BAYAAN

Taught him the mode of expression

14: KHALAQAL – INSAANA MINS’AL – S’AALIN KAL – FAKH – KHAAR

He created man from dry clay like earthen vessels.

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Chapter 95
AT – TEEN
The Fig

4: LAQAD KHALAQ – NAL – INSAANA FEEE AH’ – SANI TAQ – WEEM

Certainly We created man in the best make

Forgiving

There is nobody between Allah and the people, only He can judge and is the Decision maker. He, only He
would decide about the deeds of the people and He can forgive people if they ask for it.

Forgiving
Chapter 4
AN – NISAAA – A
The Women

17:
IN – NAMAT – TAW – BATU A’LALLAHI LIL – LAD’EENA YAA’ – MALOONAS – SOOO – A
BIJAHAALATIN THUM – MA YATOOBOONA MINQAREEBIN FA ULA – IKA YATOOBUL –
LAAHU A’LAYHIM
WAKAANAL – LAAHU A’LEEMAN H’AKEEMAA

Repentance with Allah is only for those who do evil in ignorance, then turn (to Allah) soon, so these it is
to whom Allah turns (mercifully)

And Allah is ever Knowing Wise

99:
FA ULA – IKA A’SAL – LAAHU AY – YAA’ FUWA A’N – HUM

WAKAANAL – LAAHU A’FUN WAN GHAFOORA

So these, it may be, Allah will pardon them”

And Allah is Pardoning, Forgiving

Only He is the judge

Chapter 22
AL – HAJ
The Pilgrimage

56:
AL – MUL – KU YAW – MA – ID’ILLIL – LAAHI YAH’ – KUMU BAY – NAHUM”

The kingdom on that day shall be Allah’s; He will judge between them”

69:
AL – LAAHU YAH’ – KUMU BAYNAKUM YAW – MAL – QIYAAMATI FEEMAA KUNTUM FEEHI
TAKH – TALIFOON

Allah will judge between you on the Day of Resurrection respecting that in which you differ.

Your act should not be public nuisance

The verses on witness are very clear. There should be minimum of four witnesses who should have seen the
act by their own eyes. It can mean that a private consensual sex is not seen as a nuisance. The witness faces
the risk of execution if a sufficient number of witnesses are not produced.

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Insufficient / False Witness

Quran (Sunni Translation)

Chapter 24
NUUR
Light

4:
WALLAZIINA YARMUUNAL – MUH – SANAATI SUMMA LAM YA’ TUU BI – ’ARBA – ‘ATI
SHUHADAAA – ’A FAJLI – DUUHUM SAMAANIINA JALDA – TANW – WA LAA TAQBALUU
LAHUM SHAHAA – DATAN ’ABADAA: WA ’UL – AAA – ’IKA HUMUL – FAASIQUUN;

And those who accuse honourable women but bring not four witnesses, scourge them (with) eighty stripes
and never (afterward) accept their testimony – They indeed are evildoers –

Quran (Shia Translation)

Chapter 24
AN - NOOR
The Light

4:
WAL – LAZD’EENA YAR - MOONAL – MUH’ – S’ANAATI THUM - MA LAM YA - TOO BI – AR –
BAA’TI SHUHADAAA – A FAJ - LIDOOHUM THAMAANEENA JAL – DATAN WALAA TAQ -
BALOO LAHUM SHAHAADATAN ABADAA” WA ULAAA – IKA HUMUL – FAASIQOON;

And those who accuse free women then do not bring four witnesses, flog them, (giving) eighty stripes, and
do not admit any evidence from them ever”

And these it is that are the transgressors

Shia Hadith

1. Imam Jafar Sadiq (A.S.) states that when a false witness is produced, the witness is not been able to
move a step from his place even, the hell becomes compulsory on him. (Source: Usoole Kafi)

2. Prophet Muhammad(Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) states that if a person gives a false
witness before the ruler, even before his witness is done, he gets a place is in Hell. (Source: Usoole
Kafi)

3. Imam Muhammad Baqar (A.S.) states that if a person accuses other falsely, Allah at once removes the
person from the list of pious souls (Momineen). (Source: Wayasul Shia Kitabul Hudood)

4. Prophet Muhammad (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) states that if some body accuses a
pious soul of illegitimate relationships, Allah will, at once, seize all his good deeds and angels will flog
him on the day of judgement till he is thrown in Hell. (Source: Wayasul Shia Kitabul Hudood)

Fitna
Hadith

(Reference: Biharul Anwar, Volume 75, Page 336)

Prophet Muhammad (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) has said, “If two persons of my
ummat (people/ followers) become righteous my whole ummat will become righteous, and if these two
persons become nuisance to the social order, the whole ummat will become so.”

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People asked who these two persons are. Prophet (Blessings of Allah be on him and his Progeny) said one
those who have knowledge (ulema) and those who have money. (It is recognised that social order is
disrupted either by wrong knowledge or through misuse of money)

Quran
Sunni translations

Chapter 2
BAQRAH
The Cow

11:
WA ’IZAA QIILA LAHUM LAA TUF – SIDUU FIL – ’ARZI QAALUUU ’INNAMAA NAHNU
MUSLIHUUN

And when it is said unto them: Make not mischief in the earth, they say: We are peace – makers only.

Chapter 7
’A‘- RAAF
The Heights

84:
WA ’AMTARNAA ‘ALAY – HIM – MATARAA: FANZUR KAYFAKAANA ‘AA – QIBATUL –
MUJRIMIIN!

And We rained a rain upon them. See now the nature of the consequence for evil – doers!

Chapter 11
HUUD
Hud

85:
WA – YAA – QAWMI’AWFUL – MIK – YAALA WAL – MII – ZAANA BILQISTI WA LAA TAB –
KHASUN – NAASA ’ASH – YAAA –’AHUM WA LAA TA‘- SAW FIL – ‘ARZI MUF – SIDIIN

O my people ! Give full measure and full weight in justice, and wrong not people in respect of their goods.
And do not evil in the earth, causing corruption.

Chapter 26
SHU – ‘ARAAA’
The Poets

151:
WA LAA TUTII – ‘UUU ’AMRAL – MUSRIFIIN, --

And obey not the command of the prodigal,

152:
’ALLAZIINA YUFSIDUUNA FIL – ’ARZI WA LAA YUSLIHUUN

Who spread corruption in the earth, and reform not.

Quran
Shia translations

Chapter 2
AL - BAQRAH
The Cow

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11:
WA ID’AA QEELA LAHUM LAA TUF – SIDOO FIL – AR – Z”I QAALOOO IN - NAMAA NAH’ - NU
MUS’LIH’OON

And when it is said to them: Do not make mischief in the land, they say: We are but peace – makers!

Chapter 7
AL A’-RAAF
The Elevated Places

84:
WA AM – T’AR- NAA A’LAY – HIM – MAT’ARAA

And We rained upon them a rain.

FANZ’UR KAY- FA KAANA A’AQIBATUL – MUJ - RIMEEN!

Consider then what was the end of the guilty.

Chapter 11
HOOD
Hood

85:
WAYAA QAW – MI AW - FUL – MIK – YAALA WAL – MEEZAANA BIL – QIS – T’

And, O my people! give full measure and weight fairly,

WALAA TAB – KHASUN – NAASA ASH – YAAA –AHUM WALAA TAA’- THAW FIL – AR – Z”I
MUF – SIDEEN

And defraud not men their things, and do not act corruptly in the land, making mischief.

Chapter 26
ASH - SHOA’RAAA
The Poets

151:
WA LAA TUT’EEO’ OOO AMRAL – MUSRIFEEN, --

And do not obey the bidding of the extravagant,

152:
AL – LAD’EENA YUF - SIDOONA FIL – AR – Z”I WA LAA YUS’- LIH’OON

Who make mischief in the land and do not act aright

Authors’ Remarks

Allah does not appreciate those who disturb the social fabric of the community of Muslims. One is
supposed to adhere to all the social rules and regulations. As outlined in the Quran. The disruption of the
social order, even if it is by being extravagant is considered to be fitna. Transgression is referred in terms of
the disturbance caused to the social fabric of the society caused by crossing certain boundaries, and while
it is not to cross one’s boundaries there is a strong indication that only Allah can judge this. It should be
noted that Muslims when they pray speak of All as the all-compassionate, the all-merciful, the all-
forgiving.

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The crossing of boundaries has not been explained very clearly in the text. What boundaries? Under what
conditions? Definition thus it would very much be dependant on interpretation.

However, these social rules and regulations to maintain order in the community has been greatly expanded
through the Hadith, and subsequently codified in the Sharia.

It is mandatory (Quran) to produce four witnesses in case of any act of nuisance who must have been
present at the time of the act otherwise the possibility exists of false witnessing, a reprehensible act which
leads to social disorder. As such those who bear false witness must be punished. False witnesses are
condemned by Hadiths too.

Fitna has been referred in terms of disturbing the social fabric, however it has not been very clear what is
referred to be disturbing social fabric and social order. Being extravagant is also referred as Fitna.

Islam is a community based religion and not based on individualism. Your deeds should adhere to the
fabric of the society. But there appears to be contradiction when it comes to judgement and forgiveness it is
between oneself and Allah. Only Allah will judge one on the day of judgement and there would be none
between one and Allah and Allah alone can forgive you.

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The sacred and the profane

Introduction
Sufism, the mystical tradition within Islam, was formed in the 13th century AD by Jalal-al-Din Rumi, who
believed that one could develop a personal and mystical relationship with Allah through meditation and
trance.

As a branch of Islam which had a range of practices that involved Muslim saints, music and dance (which
was believed to produce trance-like conditions which would bring this closer mystical relationship with
Allah), and at times the smoking of narcotic drugs to produce such a trance-like condition, was very much
against orthodox traditions.

Further, Sufi poetry which celebrated the relationship between the believer and Allah as a relationship
between the beloved and the worshipper as a sacred love was also seen as the profane love of the beloved,
who was always “a beautiful male youth” – the divine equated with this love.

Thus Sufism also had a reputation of being open to different forms of love, both sacred and profane as a
celebration of the divine, particularly same-sex desire and relationships. In fact much of Rumi’s poetry
speaks of what is seen as his beloved Shams, who was older to Rumi. This reputation and lived experience
created spaces for alternate sexualities and genders, while still holding onto Islamic beliefs and traditions
and the belief in the sacredness of the Quran.

Sufism spread rapidly in India following the Muslim invasions of the 13th century AD, and became the
lived experience of many uneducated peoples rather than the orthodox teachings which were transmitted
through literacy.

Through Sufism, Islam was shared in the vernacular languages and with celebration of a range of rituals
and performances. Pirs, special religious teachers who were seen as being very close to Allah, were
celebrated as saints after their deaths. Their burial sites were built as tombs to which many Muslims still
go to seek the pir’s intercession with Allah. Known as darghas or mazars, these sites are usually filled with
worshippers and others on a Thursday evening, where songs, dance and the smoking of narcotics are
commonly experienced. It is at these sites, on this particularly evening, that one can find many feminised
males seeking sexual partners.

Sufism
The substance of Sufism is the Truth and the definition of Sufism is the selfless experiencing and
actualization of the Truth. The practice of Sufism is the intention to go towards the Truth, by means of
love and devotion. This is called the Tariqat, the Spiritual Path or way towards God. The Sufi is one who
is a lover of Truth, who by means of love and devotion moves towards the Truth, towards the perfection
which all are truly seeking. As necessitated by Love’s jealousy the Sufi is taken away from all except the
Truth – Reality. For this reason, in Sufism it is said that, “Those who are inclined towards the hereafter
can not pay attention to the material world. Likewise, those who are involved in the material world can
not concern themselves with the hereafter. But the Sufi (because of Love’s jealousy) is unable to attend to
either of these worlds.”

Sufism is a branch of Islam that is about the actualisation of divine ethics. It involves an enlightened inner
being, not intellectual proof, revelation and witnessing, not logic. By divine ethics, we are referring to
ethics which transcend mere social convention; a way of being which is the actualisation of the attributes
of God.

In Sufism each spiritual aspirant has to be accepted as a murid (disciple) by a pir. The pir is the link
between the murid and the divine. For attaining divine murid has to submit himself selflessly to the murid.
He has to be fully devoted to the pir he has opted for. To attain God he has to love his pir and through pir
only he can attain God.

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Sufis do not follow any set prescribed pattern of prayer, but do prayers through the description of that
divine being. Love is the essence of Sufism. In Sufi literature the relationship between divine and human
was often expressed in homoerotic metaphors.

The pir establishments were all-male fraternities for, according to the Chisti saint Jamaluddin Hanswi
(died 1260), “He who seeks Lord is male…….” The Quran criticised monasticism (52:27) and made
marriage incumbent on adult Muslims. Although the early Sufis obeyed the Quranic injunction and got
married, many later Sufis remained celibate, following the example of the celebrated Chisti saint
Nizamuddin and his successor, Nasiruddin Chiragh-i Dihli. The beloved in much Indian Sufi poetry can be
identified as the pir, the agent without whose love the seeker would be lost. In Khusro’s Hindvi (early form
of Urdu) poetry his pir, Shaikh Nizamuddin, is named as the beloved.

The Sufis preferred to teach in the indigenous Indian languages, which they found more emotive than the
Persian. Indian Sufi poetry was thus influenced by ancient Indian poetics and traditions such as the Radha
– Krishna tradition of mystical love poetry. One indicator of the latter influence is the adoption of female
persona as the poem’s speaker.

No description of Sufism would be complete without the description of Rumi who was the founder of this
order. Rumi’s life throws light on male to male bonding and spiritualism.

Jalal al - Din Rumi

The “whirling dervish” order of Sufis, begun by Jalal al-Din Rumi following the disappearance of his
beloved friend Shams al – Din, continues to whirl after more than seven centuries, and the love poem Rumi
wrote for and about Shams are still recited and praised throughout Persia and much of the Islamic world.

Born in 1207, near Balkh (Afghanistan), Rumi lived most of his life in Konya (Turkey). He was a Sufi
teacher. In October 1244, at the age of thirty four, he met sixty year old Shams al – Din of Tabriz. A close
spiritual bond was established between the two men soon after this meeting. They would disappear in a
house for months at a time which was the reason of great resentment among other followers of Rumi.
There were many attempts made to send Shams out of Konya but all were futile.

But in 1247, Shams abruptly disappeared. It is assumed that Rumi’s followers murdered him out of
jealousy. Rumi made all attempts to search for Shams but had no luck and so went into seclusion. While
he was mourning for Shams, he adorned the garments, which are now associated with the dervish order he
floated, and began to dance, or “whirl,” and spontaneously chant his poetry aloud.

After the death of Shams, Rumi developed close association with two other men. Initially Salah al – Din
was one of his pupils but soon became Rumi’s devoted companion. But Salah al – Din died in 1261. The
next man who came in Rumi’s life was Husam al – Din Hasan. Rumi was passionately attached with him
and he succeeded Rumi after his death in 1273.

Rumi was a humble man and he treated everybody equal. He spent his time in the company of poor and
needy. He was very much respected and loved by his pupils. After his death his disciples bathed his body
and drank the water dripping from it.

Around 1258 Rumi’s mystical poem ‘The Mathnavi’ was chanted aloud to his successor Husam.

Love is reckless, not reason.

Reason seeks a profit.
Love comes on strong,
Consuming herself, unabashed.

Yet, in the midst of suffering,

Love proceeds like a millstone,
Hard surfaced and straightforward.

Having died of self-interest,

She risks everything and asks for nothing.

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Love gambles away every gift God bestows.

Without cause God gave us Being;

Without cause, gave it back again. (Mathnawi VI)

The tone of ‘The Divan’ is uplifting and it is the magic of Rumi who mixes mysticism and spiritualism with
eroticism. “My mouth tastes sweet with your name in it.” In’The Divan’ one can find the younger men
providing his moving accounts of his love for the older:
“I turn my face to you, and into eternity:
We have been in love that long.”

In heaven too, Rumi cannot imagine to be without Shams:

“There is a grainy taste I prefer to every
Idea of heaven : human friendship”

Rumi expresses love for another man more profoundly and more poetically than any other writer. In one
of his ghazals for Shams he says:

“I see my beauty in you”

On friendship he says:

“One who does what the Friend wants done

will never need a friend.

There’s a bankruptcy that’s pure gain.

The moon stays bright when it
doesn’t avoid the night.

A rose’s rarest essence

lives in the thorn.”

For his beloved Rumi writes:

“I belong to the beloved, have seen the two

worlds as one and that one call to and know,

first, last, outer, inner, only that

breath breathing human being.”

Persian poetic traditions influenced Persian and, later, Urdu poetry in India. Most of this poetry was
produced by writers influenced by the Sufis. In this poetry, the shahid (beloved) was invariably male.
Schimmel describes the ideal beloved of Persian poetry as having a “round, light coloured moon face, a
mouth like a mim or a dot, and slightly slanting eyes”, and ideally, being a boy of fourteen. Consistently
used tropes were the adoring gaze, the rose, celestial wine, and heavenly cupbearers. The beloved was
described as a young male with the stature of a cypress, wayward tresses, and cap awry. The overpowering
and cruel beloved was compared to a Turk, both in Persian and Urdu poetry.

The ghazal, when it first appeared in south India, followed the indigenous tradition of using a female voice
and addressing a male as the beloved. Once it moved north, it evolved toward the Persian style in which
the poet assumes a male voice to address a male beloved. Early Urdu contains a large body of homoerotic
poetry. According to one critic, Urdu poetry was franker in its expression and closer to life in the period
before Indian rebellion against British rule in 1857. The homoeroticism of this poetry has been largely
ignored by the modern commentators.

Among those whose poetry represents homoeroticism, Abru and Mir Taqi Mir are the most prominent.
Mir and Abru, along with other poets, developed a discourse of commentary on young males. They
openly discussed their attraction to males, dwelt on what they found attractive in young males, and

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recounted their experiences of pleasure, longing and heartbreak. They narrated details that may or may not
be autobiographical but are rich in detail.

References:
1. www.nimatullahi.org
2. Same - sex love in India by Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai.
3. www.glbtq.com/literature/rumi.html
4. www.khamush.com/love_poems.html

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Medieval times
The period this reflects is that drawn from Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai’s book Same-Sex Love in India
(St. Martin’s Press, New York, © 2000) which is between 8th and 18th century, as one of their three
periodisations, that of the ancient running from the Vedic period (begins ca. 1500B.C.) and the modern,
from the full establishment of British rule in the 18th century till the present.

Excerpts from Same Sex Love in India

Edited by Ruth Vanita & Saleem Kidwai

Amir Khusro (Persian and Hindvi)

Introduced and translated by Saleem Kidwai

Amir Khusro (ca. 1253 – 1325) is today known as the mystic – poet – musician par excellence. He is also
venerated as a saint, with the suffix Hazrat (Honorable) attached to his name. His annual urs (death
anniversary) is among the most popular of Sufi religious celebrations.

Amir Khusro grew up in the house of his maternal grandfather who was employed by the Sultans of Delhi
to recruit for their army. It was probably in this military environment that he learned the many languages
he knew. Although not disciplined enough to undergo the rigors of formal education, Khusro was a well –
known poet by the age of eighteen. His poetic skills and charm earned him the position of a courtier –
poet, a position he held under six Sultans, some of whom had replaced the previous ones through violence.
He wrote elaborate and skilful panegyrics to all of them.

His Persian poetry is a voluminous and valuable source for the history of the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries. However, today he is more famed for his Hindvi mystical poetry developed through his
association with the Chishti saint Sheikh Nizamuddin Aulia for his court poetry.

Khusro seems to have come under Chishti mystic influence around 1272. He soon became a favourite of
Nizamuddin whose extremely popular hospice was particularly conducive to Khusro’s poetic and musical
skills. Nizamuddin was partial to the use of music in devotional exercise and had a clearly stated
preference for Hindvi over Persian poetry in many genres – devotional songs, couplets, and riddles.

There is no written document containing Khusro’s Hindvi poetry dating earlier than the eighteenth
century. But Khusro in his Persian books does say that he loves writing in Hindvi and has distributed
Hindvi works among his friends. Unlike his Persian poems, Khusro’s Hindvi poems are not compiled. They
were transmitted orally, particularly by qawwals – musicians who sang qawwali, Sufi devotional music. It
is almost impossible to establish the authenticity of any of Khusro’s Hindvi poems. An enormous body of
Hindvi poetry, much of it probably composed centuries later is pseudonymously attributed to him. This
kind of accretive ness is entirely typical of the oeuvres of most medieval devotional poets, both Bhaktas
and Sufis.

Qawwals also sing many different versions of the same poem. A consistent feature of the poems is the
theme of Khusro’s great love for Nizamuddin. His poetry continues to be the staple of qawwali concerts
today, even when these are held on nonreligious occasions. The Hindvi poems translated here represent the
tradition of vernacular devotional poetry with which Khusro is identified. They have all the features of this
genre as it is found in Bhakta poetry in other languages: folk idiom, the use of the female voice to address a
male beloved, and images drawn from the domestic lives of women. All verbs for the “I” in these poems
are gendered female. In most poems the beloved is gendered male. The use of the signature name in each
couplet is common to both Urdu and other Indian language traditions. Khusro died a few months after the
death of Nizamuddin.

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Persian Poetry

Translated from Masood Qureshi, ed., Khusarau – i –Shireen – i Sukhan (Islamabad: Lok Virsa Isha’at
Ghar, n.d.) 160

Tonight I heard that he whom I want to see will come –

May my head be sacrificed to the road you will take.
The gazelles in the desert carry their heads in their hands,
Hoping that you will come hunting them one day.
The attraction of love will not leave you unaffected –
If you don’t come to my funeral you will come to my grave.
My soul has reached the edge; come so that I may live.
Once I am no more, what use will it be if you come?*

Translated from Z.Ansari, Khusrau ka Zahani Safar (New Delhi: Anjuman Taraqqi Urdu Hind, 1986)

Delhi – Oh, its unadorned beloveds

Wear turbans but their tresses are loose.
They openly kill with their pride Though they drink liquor in the secret.
The Muslims have become sun – worshippers
Because of these simple sprightly Hindu boys.
I am desolate and intoxicated
Because of these pure Hindu boys.
Tied up in their locks,
Khusro is like a dog with a collar (123)**

That pert one drinks and then denies it to me –

What am I to do for I dare not smell his breath?
I saw him once in a dream, and now for years
Every night and day I remind myself of that dream.
Only the wind can now carry my feelings to the beloved’s abode
For no caravan bearing solace passes this way any more.
Alas, I am too weak to inquire about him –
Enough that I am lying at his door. (129)

You know that Khusro is famed for his sweet words

It is not for my heart’s sake, come for my tongue. (136)

“Sugar is that which is under my tongue”

And these are the words that I say. (136)

The language of my beloved is Turkish, and Turkish I do not know

Would it not be wonderful if his tongue were in my mouth (139)

Beloved, if at night I put my lips to yours,

Pretend to be asleep – don’t ask whose mouth this is. (139)
Oh lord, is this me with my shoulder next to my beloved?
Have I been in bed sleeping by his side? (139)

The sun that is his face scorched me from afar –

It was relief when I found the shade of his tresses. (140)

Don’t tie a band around your waist,

Let me wrap my hands around instead. (140)

Oh cruel one with you askew, whose beloved are you?

With your words of love whom are you seducing now? (142)

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Pseudonymous Hindi Poetry

This famous couplet is generally considered an epitaph Khusro wrote for herself on hearing of his master’s
death. It is exceptional in that the beloved here is gendered female.

The beauty sleeps on the bridal bed, for tresses all over your face;
Come, Khusro, let’s go home, for darkness settles around. *

Looking at the empty bed, I weep day and night

Every moment I yearn for my beloved, cannot find a moment’s peace.

He has gone, my beloved has crossed the river,

He has gone across, and I am left behind.

I adorned myself before I went to my beloved,

But when I saw his beauty, I forgot my own.

Khusro, I play the game of love with my beloved –

If I win, he will be mine; if I lose, I am his.

Khusro, I spent the wedding night awake with my beloved –

My body is still mine, my heart his, both dyed the same colour.

Haqiqat al – Fuqara:
Poetic Biography of “Madho Lal” Hussayn (Persian)
Commentary and translation by Scott Kugle

With Hussayn’s Poem’s (Punjabi)

Translated by Aditya Behl.

Sufi mystic Shah Hussayn was born ca. 1539 into a Muslim weaver family. When he was about ten years
old, he was initiated into the Qadri Sufi lineage by Sheikh Bahlul Darya’l, who lived in Chiniot, a village
outside Lahore. He lived as a mendicant student, wandering in the empty lands outside the city walls by
day and returning to stay at the shrine of Lahore’s patron saint, Ali Hujwiri, by night. At the age of thirty
– six he had a profound spiritual experience while studying the Quran, when his teacher Sa’dullah recited
the verse, “the life of the world is nothing but play and pleasurable distraction. * (Ma Hayyat al – Dunya
ila lab wa Lahw – Sura al – Anam 6:32. The Quran contains two separate verses that echo this phrase
closely in Sura Al – Ankabut 29:64 and Sura Muhammad 47:36) Hussayn immediately resolved to throw
off all constraints of piety and instead to live like a child at play, abandoning hypocrisy and ambition as
well as fear of social disrepute.

Hussayn’s biography is preserved largely in one source, a lengthy Persian poem entitled Haqiqat al –
Fuqara (The Truth of those Impoverished by Love) written by Shaikh Mahmud ibn Muhammad Pir, ca.
1662, just sixty – two years after Shah Hussayn’s death. The author’s father had been a companion of
Shah Hussayn, while the author himself was a close attendant of Hussayn’s companion Madho. Although
this source is quoted by all subsequent biographies in Persian and Urdu, biographers in English have
ignored it. Passages are translated here for the first time in English. (Haqiqat al Fuqara, folio 30. The
Persian manuscript is housed in Pakistan in Punjab University Library, number 3253/248 Farsi).

The following poem recounts how Hussayn met and fell in love with Madho, a Brahman youth:

Madho was wondrous in his beauty and his grace,

A young man refined, noble Brahman by descent,
Tender and delicate – from the liquor of this youth’s wink
the worshiper of grace would fall down flat drunk.
Raised as a Hindu, his faith was pure haughty infidelity –
stone – hearted, he flaunted beauty to oppress those ensnared.
Madho went out one day to steal hearts for sport,

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 riding through the streets with alluring arrogance and captivating pride.
On that same street Hussayn was reeling,
drunk with wine, surrounded by his loving companions.
In that state of ecstasy, he saw Madho’s glowing face
and his heart wailed with a cry of delicious pain.
My friends, he cried out, look over there –
that young man has just stolen away my heart!
He lifted everything I had from me with a glance
he snatched my heart from my soul, swiped my soul from my body.
I’m dazzled with passion for this youth,
my friends, what should I do, I’m helpless in his grasp,
I’m a captive to the sorrow of being separated from him
I can’t bear the burning fever of not seeing him for an instant!
When his companion heard him reveal this secret
they replied by revealing another secret:
O God, our friend Hussayn doesn’t even know
who this boy is who is playing with his heart.
I know, insisted Hussayn, that my heart’s curse
is a young infidel, who will raze the house of my faith to the ground.
With the graceful curls of his hair, this bare – chested idol
has tied up my heart, hung it from the sacred thread on his shoulder*

Haqiqat al – Fuqara, folio 38)

He soon began to follow Madho wherever he went, and spent nights on his doorstep:

From longing to glimpse his beloved

Hussayn would stand weeping before Madho’s door.
Crying with passion he would remain immobile
standing day and night in Madho’s alleyway.
Even when his tears ran dry Hussayn stayed restless,
without sleep, without patience, without sense, without peace.
Since he dropped the reins of self – control
this open passion ruined the reputation throughout Lahore.
Vitality vacated his soul, tranquillity slipped his mind –
he writhed in the searing flames of passion.
Burning day and night in the fire of yearning,
his heart fevered in the heat of longing,
He wandered restless with this incendiary love
yet Madho never once glanced his way.*

Haqiqat al – Fuqara, folio 39)

Dargah Quli Khan: Portrait of a City (Persian)

Translation from Muraqqa I Dehli
Commentary and translation by Saleem Kidwai

Durgah Quli Khan belonged to a family of Persians who migrated to India in the first half of the
seventeenth century. He was born in 1710 A.D. in Aurangabad and, at the age of fourteen, joined the
service of Nawab Nizamul Mulk Asaf Jah I, autonomous Mughal governor of Deccan Province. Later
appointed official chronicler, Quli Khan was a part of the retinue of Asaf Jah I when he travelled to Delhi.
They were in Delhi from June 1738 to July 1741 and witnessed the sack of Delhi by Nadir Shah in 1739.

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Dargah Quli Khan kept a record of his visit, known as the Risalah e Salar Jung (The Treatise of Salar
Jung). In 1926 the sections concerning Delhi were extracted and published as Muraqqa i Dehli. Since then
Dargah Quli Khan’s journal has been known by this title.

Dargah Quli Khan was an enthusiastic chronicler of the life of Delhi and its people – the nobility, the
common folk, musicians, dancers, poets, artistes, and sex workers – as well as the social occasions that
marked the calendar of Delhi. He vividly sketched the bazaars and dargahs (shrines), two of the most
important, predominantly male, social spaces of the city. His work is a useful description of the metropolis
and some of its remarkable inhabitants.

The commercial life of the city centred around two markets – Chowk Sa’adullah Khan and Chandni
Chowk. Both were near the main mosque, Jama Masjid, and the royal palace, the Red Fort. A variety of
goods imported from distant Indian provinces as well as from the Middle East and Europe were on sale
here, and the squares were full of storytellers, astrologers, pavement doctors, and hawkers of all sorts. Men
from all classes visited these bazaars, some to patronize the coffee and tea shops where poets recited their
compositions. Aristocrats had to pass through the milling crowds on their way to the mosque or the
palace, and many lingered to enjoy the sights. As Quli Khan described it: “Young good – looking men
danced everywhere and created excitement……..Young men and pubescent boys are at the fringes of the
crowds. Whenever one lifts one’s eyes, the gaze glides over the beauty of a moon – faced one and if one
extends one’s arm it seems to become entangled in some young man’s tresses”.

There were other places too where crowds gathered. Reti Mahabat Khan, the ruins of riverside home on
the sandy banks of the Yamuna, had become a wrestling arena popular with the aristocracy as well as the
common people. Huge crowds gathered to watch the wrestlers display their skills. According to Quli Khan,
“this place is full of attractions. Many beautiful men too come here, much to the pleasure of the
spectators”.

Popular faith centred to the saints’ shrines. The belief that the barakka (grace) of the saint lingered around
his grave led many to seek a saint’s intercession. The popularity of shrines encouraged commerce around
them. The most important ritual associated with the dargah was the urs (lit. marriage, celebrated on the
day of the saint’s death anniversary when he was wedded to his divine beloved in eternal union.)

The Urs of Khuld Manzil

The widow of Bahadur Shah (The Mughal emperor ruled from 1707 to 1712) made elaborate
arrangements for his urs. The mood was set for indulgence. Young men and their admirers gathered on
these occasions.

In every corner lovers embrace. In every lane and street pleasure seekers search for carnal pleasures and
dance with joy. Those who drink do so without worrying about the public censor. The enamoured show
devotion to their lovers without fear of public rebuke. The crowd of pubescent young men is enough to
break the resolve of hermits. These young deer, brimming with unparalleled ardour, could shake the
foundations of propriety and rectitude. Wherever the gaze falls you see lovestricken faces ……. [There are
so many distractions that] when a person comes back to his senses a youth winks at him and by the time
his eyes light up, some wretch sends her message. The bazaars and lanes are crowded with aristocrats and
nobles and every nook and corner is abuzz with the rich and the poor. There are more singers than flies
and more beggars than mosquitoes.

Mir Taqi “Mir”

Autobiography (Persian) and Poems (Urdu)
Introduced and translated by Saleem Kidwai

Mir Taqi “Mir” (ca. 1723 – 1810) is generally considered the greatest poet. He is also an originator of
much in Urdu literary tradition. It was during his time that Urdu replaced Persian as the more popular
literary language.

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His father, Mir Muhammad Ali (died 1733), was a Sufi saint living in Akbarabad (modern Agra), the
former Mughal capital. After his father’s death, Mir shifted to the current Mughal capital, Shahjahanabad
(modern Delhi), where he lived until about 1782, when he migrated to Lucknow, the emerging cultural
capital of the newly independent province of Avadh.

Mir is the only classical Urdu poet to have written an autobiography. This work, Zikr – i – Mir, is in
Persian. In the introductory episode, translated here, Mir recalls the relationship between his father, Mir
Muhammad Ali (also known as Ali Muttaqi because of his piety), a Sufi preacher, and one of his disciples,
Amanullah. At the time when the events described occurred, Mir was not quite eleven. He wrote about
these events nearly forty years later. This is the only portion of the work that deals at length with a
member of the author’s family, and therefore it is of special importance.

The editor of a recent edition of Zikr – i – Mir dismisses Mir’s claims about his father’s spiritual
achievements as exaggerated and adds that the events described lack historicity. [N.A.Faruqi, Mir ki
Aapbiti: A Translation of Zikr – i – Mir into Urdu, with the Persian text – New Delhi: Anjuman Taraqqi –
i – Urdu – (Hind 1996)]. Yet this is how the events appeared to Mir when he was reconstructing his life.
His father had suddenly left home in Agra and had wandered to Delhi and then to Bayana where he sat
down on the steps of a mosque, exhausted:

There he saw a good – looking, rosy – cheeked young man, the son of a Saiyyid (one who claims to be of
the Prophet’s lineage). One look at the boy and his spiritual gaze drew the boy to him. The fairy – faced
shy boy was suddenly transformed. He went into a trance and fell at my father’s feet, in a faint.

Mir’s father revived the boy, Amanullah, and when the boy was able to, he pleaded with the Sufi to stay
with him for a few days. Mir Muhammad Ali resisted but was eventually persuaded by the people who had
gathered around. The day he moved in with Amanullah was also the day the young man was to be
married. When asked to join in the festivities Mir Muhammad Ali commented that marriage was a
hindrance to the spiritual quest, and that he was lucky to have been “freed from this trap.” When
Amanullah and his party left for the bride’s home, Mir Muhammad Ali disappeared without informing
anybody. When Amanullah returned, he immediately set out to look for the wandering Sufi. He suffered
tremendously in the search but his prayers were answered when he was told that Mir Muhammad Ali
would be found in Agra.

He entered the city at midnight, asked about the mystic and the way to his home, and finally earned the
pleasure of kissing his feet. Tears of happiness rolled down his glowing cheeks. The fear of loss was
replaced by the pleasure of having his wishes granted unexpectedly.

The wounded – hearted Darvesh (a wandering ascetic) looked at him. Just this one pure look at his beauty
transformed the beautiful youngster into a perfected one. I cannot describe how lovingly my father
behaved toward him. His demonstration of affection was beyond words. He drew his head to his bosom
and said “O Mir Amanullah. You have been through hell and you’ve seen the ups and downs of life. Now
you’ll no longer miss your family. This house is yours as are the servants. Be grateful that you have merged
your stream with this wonderful river. Be thankful that like the cypress which stands beside the river and
yet doesn’t get wet, you too have saved your purity. Now, relax, go to your room, look yourself in and get
lost within yourself. That is what attracts the divine.

I was seven years old then. I was very close to him. He had adopted me as a son and never left me with my
parents. I spent all my time with him and he even taught me how to read the Quran.

One day he [Amanullah] went for a stroll in the Friday bazaar. There he saw the son of an oil
manufacturer and vendor, a rich young man. (The term used to denote this young man’s caste, Teli,
suggests that he was a Hindu.) Instantly, he lost his heart and his natural poise. He grew visibly agitated
but when he got no response he returned home with an aching heart. He tried very hard to regain his self –
control but he had no power over his yearning heart.

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He was reduced to leaning on an attendant’s shoulder in order to walk. He would constantly reprimand
his heart: “Beloved, how did you play this trick on yourself? How could you get yourself embroiled in a
scandal which involves streets and bazaars? I, who had reached the stage of detachment, am now on the
throes of longing. Even a child wouldn’t play such a cruel trick. The path on which you have lead me is
one that even the blind avoid. My heart, you are too precious to be sacrificed for a boy from the bazaar.
You burn for one who doesn’t even step out into the sun. You have fallen in love with one who does not
know how to take a single step along the path of love. It seems as if my eyes have been waiting for a
chance to weep, and my heart has been longing to ache. How shall I deal with this? Even in my youth I
was never enamoured so. Now, when my face is wrinkled, my heart is creating havoc. If I suffer silently,
my eyes cause a flood. I am lost, what shall I do – how shall I untangle this knot? There seems no other
way than to go the master for help.”

Close to the time of sunset prayer, he entered [my father’s presence], leaning on the shoulder of the
attendant, completely distraught, tears in his eyes and sighs on his lips. Those present at the gathering paid
him respects. The Darvesh beckoned him to sit beside him. Father asked, “Where have you been – it’s been
a long time since you showed your face.”

He replied: “I went for a walk in the Friday bazaar.”

The Darvesh said: “Have you heard this couplet?:
‘Only those afflicted by love know the passion and scandal
That arises from looking at boys in the bazaar.’

“Go to your room and do not leave it for eight days. Don’t think about this. Allah may be kind and send
him to you to save you from dishonour.”

What a coincidence! The same week, the moon – faced one, restless at home, came and sat at his shop. The
hawker at the stall next to his shop asked him: “What’s the matter with you? You look worried.” The boy
replied, “How can I tell you what happened to me? It is so difficult to talk about. Yet, since you are my
friend, I will tell you. Six days ago, a Darvesh passed this way and he saw me and my beauty. He stood
still for some time, lost and transfixed. I, in my arrogance, pretended to pay him no attention. Wounded,
the Darvesh sighed deeply and left. Now it is I who am constantly thinking of him, and his face stays with
me all the time. What shall I do? How should I distract myself? Where do I go, whom shall I ask who he
was, where he lives?”

The hawkers said that he knew the Darvesh – he was the brother of the famous saint Ali Muttaqi who
himself had hundreds of followers. The hawker took the youth to meet the saint.

Thus, that lowly man brought the youth to my father who heard them and the said: “Finally, heedless love
has triumphed over indifference.” He called a servant and told him to tell his dear brother to come to him,
since what he sought had come looking for him. When this good news reached the broken – hearted one
who had been languishing in a corner, he emerged from the hell hole of his misery, dancing.

First he bent his head to kiss his master’s feet and then extended a welcoming arm toward the boy and
drew him to his side. True to his heart’s yearning he hugged him to his bosom, and his deep desire was
fulfilled.

The pir allowed them to go and sit by themselves and talk. They started talking and when the subject came
up, the Darvesh said: “Beautiful one, I am a faqir [mendicant] and my heart is already possessed, and free
from desire. Don’t think I will become a prisoner of your tresses. God knows that my heart is caught with
Him. So don’t be under any illusions and don’t put on airs or you will regret it. We Darveshes, unlike
other people, do not live under this dome of the sky, yet like other people our states are unpredictable. Go
now, you must have suffered a lot.”

The boy replied: “Yes, I have suffered but have now found a treasure. I know the privilege it is to be even
the sweeper of this abode. I hope you will not turn me away – do not withdraw your benevolent gaze from
me.”

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He used to come everyday and did everything to serve his pir.

One day the Darvesh was in a state of contemplation. The boy turned up and the pir called to him: “Dear
young man” and made him sit next to him. He looked at him in such a way that the youth found his
answers. He graduated to enlightenment. He became famous. The powerful of the city began to respect
him and the other advanced murids became jealous of him. Soon he was to become one of those
unparalleled on the mystic path.

It is a fact that when the gaze of the Darveshes works, it transforms dust into gold.

Mir’s Poetry

All translations are from Z. A. Abbasi, ed., Kulliyat-i Mir, Vol. 1(Delhi: Taraqqi Urdu Bureau, 1983)

My mind has been tossed like a ball in the playing field of love
Since the days when I too roamed around, tossing a ball. (138)

When another turban – fold of the intoxicated one came undone,

It seemed as if a whip lashed across the ocean of beauty. (881)

His life passed amongst amorous young men –

The tavern keeper was a wonder of an old man. (970)

The boys of Delhi with their caps askew

Were the nemesis of all lovers,
No lovers are now to be seen –
The ones wearing caps have carried out a massacre. (1003 -04)

Yesterday while strolling in the garden I lost my heart

When a smooth – faced flower seller came with his wares
And as the spring disappeared from my sight,
Today, without him, my heart mourns in the darkness. (1562 – 63)

If you have to come to these boys of the tavern, O Sheikh

Be prepared to lose your gown and turban. (1735)

When the beautifully statured mount horses

The cypress and the moon fall victims. (2071)
There was no one like him in those schools –
How shall I describe that perfect face of his? (3017)

Mir, why bemoan the fate of your crushed heart –

These boys have created havoc in the entire city, (3998)

Finding him inebriated, I pulled him into my arms last night.

He said “So you too have become intoxicated tonight.” (4556)

God having given these boys such beautiful faces

Should have given them a bit of compassion too. (6678)

It would be strange if an angel could hold its own –

The fairy – faced boys of Delhi are far ahead of them. (7016)

After I kissed him, I too slipped away –

Say what you will, I care only for myself. (7668)

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The ways of my street boy are so deadly
A hundred youths die at each gesture. (9971)

My classmates have acquired knowledge and gone –

I, still ignorant, want to hang around schoolboys. (11442)
If not him, there is his brother –
Mir, are there any restrictions in love? (12446)

These pert smooth – faced boys of the city,

What cruelty they inflict on young men. (12810)

These boys have a strange sense of honour

Let’s see, Mir, if you can save your own. (13395)

The Judge of Hamdam

By Sa’di
Translated by Stephen W. Foster
(Source: Newsletter of the Abu Nuwas Society – First Issue – Spring 1994)

Sa’di
Sa’di (ca. 1213 – 92) is one of the famous Persian poets and writers. He is particularly known for his
worldly and anecdotal “Gulistan” (Rose Garden) and the more profound and spiritual “Bustan”
(Orchard), both consisting of stories and poems which are moralistic, didactic, mystical and amusing.

There was a judge of Hamdam who fell in love with a working class boy and, his heart being on fire, the
judge tried for a while to find opportunities to meet the boy, roaming around, as the poet says,

“My eyes saw a tall and slender cypress,

My heart was stolen and I fell down.
My heart has been captured by those wanton eyes,
Only by shutting your eyes can you escape capture.”

The boy heard about the judge’s passion for him, and, happening one day to meet the judge on the street,
the boy flew into a rage, hurled disrespectful and insulting words at him, threw stones at him, did
everything to injure him. The judge later said to theologian with similar tastes in boys, “Look at that pretty
boy, doesn’t he look even more beautiful when he is angry?”

The Arabs say that a slap from a lover is as sweet as a raisin. A slap on the mouth is sweeter than bread.
Just as rulers put up a false front of hostility when they really want peace,
So the boy’s impudence was perhaps a mask for kindness.
Unripe grapes are sour,
but wait two or three days
and they turn sweet.

The judge left the theologian and returned to the court of law, where some of his respectable friends kissed
the ground and said to him, beginning with apologies for daring to find fault with him, in highfalutin
phrases worthy of his dignity as a judge, “Your servants inform you that it is wrong to give way to your
feelings for this boy, for your dignity is high and must note be polluted by such a vile sin. As the poet says,

A boy who has done many shameful things

cares nothing for the reputation of his lovers.
A respectable name can last for fifty years,
only to be lost by one misdeed.

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The judge agreed with his friends and appreciated their concern about his welfare. He said to them, “Your
views are perfectly right, and cannot be contradicted. However, as the Arab says,
Although my boyfriend has insulted me,
sometimes such words are not sincere.

As the poet again says,

Blame me as much as you like,

for the leopard cannot change his spots.
Nothing can stop me from remembering you.
I cannot turn my head away from you,
as if I were a snake with a broken head.

Having spoken these words, the judge sent some servants to ask about the boy, and spent a great deal of
money in his quest, for money speaks, but poverty is silent, and every man has his price. At last, the judge
was able to get the boy into a private room, but the vice squad was informed that the judge was spending
the night with wine and a sweetheart, enjoying himself without sleeping, and singing.

Hasn’t this cock crowed at the right time tonight,

and haven’t the lovers embraced and kissed in delight,
The guards are asleep, so come, let us keep
awake to enjoy this night with a boy,
for life is too short, until dawns the day,
and the call from the mosque demands us to pray,
or the beat of the war – drum commands us to slay.
The tulip’s called “Cock’s eye”, so come, let us stock
up on kisses from two – lips and be deaf to the cock.

In the midst of this party, one of the judge’s servants entered and said, “Get away as fast and as far as you
can, for your enemies have ratted on you to police. We may be able to use strategy to combat confusion,
but if it gets out of hand, all may be lost.” However the judge replied,

When the lion has prey in his power,

will he be frightened away by a jackal?
Continue to gaze at your lover and let
your envious enemies die in their own rage.

At the same time, the king was informed that such a sin had been committed in his land, and he was asked
for his opinion. He replied, “This judge is known to be one of the most brilliant men of our day. As it is
possible that this report is lie of one of his enemies, I refuse to believe it unless I see it with my own eyes.”

Philosophers have said that he who executes a man

on flimsy evidence will have a long time to repent
the death of an innocent man falsely accused.

At dawn, the king and some of his nobles arrived at the private room and saw a lamp burning, the boy
sitting, the wine spilled, the cup broken and the judge in intoxicating sleep, oblivious to everything. The
king gently awakened him and said, “Get up, it is sunrise.”
The judge, seeing how things were, asked, “From which direction has the sun risen?”
The king astonished, replied, “Why? from the east, of course.”
The judge exclaimed, “Allah be praised! The scripture say that a man is permitted to repent at any time
before the day in which the sun rises in the west and the world comes to an end. My sin was caused by two
things, bad luck and stupidity. I deserve to be punished, but pardon is better than revenge.”

The king replied, “It is no use to repent, for you know that you must be executed.
As the Prophet says, “But their faith was to no avail when they had been punished.”

As the poet says,

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If the gold is out of reach,
there is no point in promising to avoid theft.
If the fruit is on a tall tree,
the short man cannot reach it.

For you, who have committed such a sin, there is no mercy.” When the king had spoken, the executioner
took hold of the judge, who then said, “I have one more thing to say.” The king, hearing him, asked,
“What is it?” The judge recited
“You who are angry at me, do not think
that I shall fail to ask for mercy.
If I cannot avoid having committed a crime,
I trust in the clemency which you possess.”

The king replied, “You have said clever things and argued clever arguments, but reason and custom
prevent your accomplishments and cleverness from saving you after I have ordered this punishment this
day; and you shall be properly thrown headlong from the tower in order that you may be an example to
others.”

The judge continued, “Lord of the World, I have been the servant of this dynasty, and I am not the only
man guilty of this sin. Therefore, throw another man headlong from the tower as an example to me.” The
king burst into laughter, pardoned the judge’s sin and said to his nobles who wanted the judge to be
executed, “Let him who is without sin cast the first stone.”

The tale of Nur Al-Din Ali and his son Badr Al-Din Hasan
From The Arabian Nights, translated by Sir Richard Francis Burton
(Source: www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/arabian1.html)

It is clear that Medieval Muslim culture was open to homosexual eros. One place to see this is in some of
the stories collected in the Thousand and One Nights [ or Arabian Nights], which are much more sexually
explicit than selected stories [Aladdin, Sindbad, Ali Baba] which are commonly known. The excerpt from
the story that follows is anything but discreet.

KNOW, O Commander of the Faithful, that in times of yore the land of Egypt was ruled by a Sultan
endowed with justice and generosity, one who loved the pious poor and companied with the Ulema and
learned men. And he had a Wazir, a wise and an experienced, well versed in affairs and in the art of
government. This Minister, who was a very old man, had two sons, as they were two moons. Never man
saw the like of them for beauty and grace – the elder called Shams al – Din Mohammed and the younger
Nur al – Din Ali. But the younger excelled the elder in seemliness and pleasing semblance, so that folk
heard his fame in far countries and men flocked to Egypt for the purpose of seeing him.

Then he let load the saddlebags and the silk and prayer carpets on the mule and carried Nur al–Din to his
own house, where he lodged him in a pleasant place and entreated him honourably and made much of
him, for he inclined to love him with exceeding love.

And after the bath, when he came out and donned the dress, he was even as the full moon of the
fourteenth night, and he mounted his mule and stayed not till he reached the Wazir’s palace.

and the wife of Nur al–Din of a son, none more beautiful was ever seen in his time, as one of the poets said
concerning the like of him:

That jetty hair, that glossy brow,

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My slender waisted youth, of thine,
Can darkness round creation throw,
Or make it brightly shine.
The dusky mole that faintly shows
Upon his cheek, ah! blame it not.
The tulip flower never blows
Undarkened by its spot.

They named the boy Badr al-Din Hasan…………..

The Sultan looked at Nur al-Din and liked him, so he established him in office as the Wazir had requested
and formally appointed him, presenting him with a splendid dress of honour and a she-mule from his
private stud, and assigning to him soldier, stipend and supplies.

Wherefore he loved him and took him into intimacy. When the Divan was dismissed, Nur al-Din returned
to his house and related what had passed to his father-in-law, who rejoiced.

The King gazed at Badr al-Din and marvelled at his comeliness and loved him. As for the city folk, when
he first passed before them with his father, they marvelled at his exceeding beauty and sat down on the
road expecting his return, that they might look their fill on his beauty and loveliness and symmetry and
perfect grace…………………… The Sultan entreated the lad with especial favour and said to his father, “O
Wazir, thou must needs bring him daily to my presence.” Whereupon he replied, “I hear and obey.”

Then the Wazir returned home with his son and ceased not to carry him to court till he reached the age of
twenty.

Now the cemetery was haunted day and night by Jinns who were of True Believers, and presently came out
a Jinniyah who, seeing Hasan asleep, marvelled at his beauty and loveliness and cried: “Glory to God! This
youth can be none other than one of the Wuldan of Paradise.”

At this the Jinniyah cried at him: “Thou liest! This youth is handsomer than anyone of his day.”

As the people were bandying guesses about him, suddenly the morning breeze blew upon Badr al – Din
and raising his shirt to the middle, showed a stomach and naval with something below it, and legs and
thighs clear as crystal and smooth as cream. Cried the people, “By Allah, he is a pretty fellow!”

When the Caliph Harun al – Rashid heard his story from the mouth of his Wazir, Ja’afar the Barmecide, he
marvelled much and said, “It behoves that these stories be written in letters of liquid gold.” Then he set the
slaves at liberty and assigned to the youth who had slain his wife such a monthly stipend as sufficed to
make his life easy. He also gave him a concubine from amongst his own slave girls, and the young man
became one of his cup companions.

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The life of Abu Nuwas
Excerpts from “O tribe that loves boys – a poetry of Abu Nuwas translated by Hakim Bey, Entimos Press,
Amsterdam and The Abu Nuwas Society, Ultrecht, 1993

Hasan ibn Hani al – Hakami, called Abu Nuwas, “the most famous Arabic poet of the Abbasid period” [
Ewald Wagner, “Abu Nuwas”, Encyclopedia of Islam – (IInd Edition: E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1960) Vol. 1, pp
143 – 4], was infact a Persian, born in Ahwaz around 747 to 762 CE, of a Persian mother, Gullaban, and
a Persian father. His father was, however a “client” of a South Arabian or Yemini Arab leader named al –
Hakami. According to the usual practice of the early Islamic period, Persians and other non – Arabs had to
be adopted into Arab tribes in order to enjoy what we might cal “citizenship” in Islamdom. Although this
practice was widely resented by the “client” peoples (many of whom embraced revolutionary Shiism in
protest), Abu Nuwas seems to have been proud of his Yemini connection, although he expressed some
prejudice against northern Arabs. He occasionally used Persian expressions in his poems, but is considered
a master of Arabic language. Abu Nuwas harboured no illusions about his class origins. Once on a visit to
Egypt he was asked bu al – Kasib, Chief of the Revenue Service, to what “family” he belonged. “My
talents,” Abu Nuwas replied, “stand me instead of noble birth.” Al – Kasib asked him no more questions
after that.
Ibn Khallikan, Biographical Dictionary, trans. Baron MacGuckin DeSlane (Paris, 1843-1871), Vol. I, pp.
391-5]

Abu Nuwas’ father served in the army of the last Ummayad Caliph, Marwan II. The Ummayads were
overthrown by the new dynasty, the Abbasids. No doubt the consequent upheavals reduced the family to
poverty, for Abu Nuwas’ mother sold the boy into slavery. He was purchased by Sa’ad al-Ashira of Basra,
another displaced Yemini Arab, apparently a druggist by trade. Abu Nuwas, future lover of boys, was
himself famous for his beauty as a boy; his pen – name means “master of the ringlets”, long curly locks of
hair. This beauty, and no doubt his obvious intelligence, may explain why Sa’ad al-Ashira gave him his
freedom when he was still quite young. Apparently he then took to a free and easy life; one might have
called him a street – boy, although he was already intent on becoming a poet.

There exist two versions of his “first” poem. Ibn Khallikan, author of a great biographical dictionary or
encyclopaedia, gives this:

Who bears the weight of love is soon worn down,

and laughs with love when he might better frown,
vibrates with love – ’though he should sooner weep –
it’s no more bagatelle – he’s in too deep!
And as for you, you wanton, do you grin
to see your lover sigh and grow so thin?
“Oh my!” you cry, “you look so deathly pale!”
The real surprise would be to find me hale.

Tifashi also preserves the other version of Abu Nawas’ first poem, along with an anecdote explaining its
genesis:
Ahmad al – Tifashi, The Delight of Hearts, or What You Will Not Find In Any Book, translated from the
French version of Rene R. Khawam (Paris: Editions Phoebus, 1981) by Edward A. Lacey, and edited by
Winston Leyland]

Here’s how I came to compose my first poem. I was still a teenager at the time. My entire literary
education had been picked up on the Mirbad of Basra, the place where they lay out the dates to dry.
Anyhow, one day I met a Bedouin nomad there, who had just sold some camels. He was sitting in a corner,
busy counting out the money he had received from the sale. I heard him speaking, and the purity and the
correctness of his speech had charmed. I sat down nearby, and he began to stare at me.

“What are you looking at me for?” I asked him.

“I certainly am looking at you, and there are lots of other things I’d like to do with you too!”
“Recite some of your poetry to me!”
He recited a qassida, an ode that spoke of camels and ruined buildings, with end rhymes in “n”.
“I can do better than that!” I exclaimed.
“Let’s hear it, then!”

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I kept concentrating and working on my poem in my mind until finally I came up with the following lines:

Better than the contents

of the subtlest minds,
better than a city
which time has destroyed,

better far than ruins

that the years have pardoned
so that tears and sadness
may flow there at their ease:
a young gazelle, whose liquid pupils
have thrown all his peers
into disrepute
tenderly sleeping
as if dazed by his own beauty……..

Sun of brightness
on a sculptured sand dune,
free of blemish, when he bends
over a branch clad in green,
he is the sun’s equal!

“Those lines not only describe you,” remarked the Bedouin. “They also demonstrate your style of
composing. By my mother and father, I wouldn’t have believed that you were capable of making up
something so fine!”

He dug into the pile of coins he had been given, pulled out a brimming handful and pressed them on me. I
accepted them, and from that moment decided to dedicate myself to poetry. ( Ibid, pp 134 -5)

As for Abu Nuwas’s life in Baturunja, the following tale related by Tifashi may belong to this period:

The following anecdote was related by al-Jammaz, whose given name, as everybody knows, was Abu’l
Abbas Muhammad son of Amr, son of Khalid, son of Ata, son of Yassir. He was a friend of both Abu
Nuwas and al-Jahiz, and was in fact related to them both somehow.

“In the days of our youth,” he recalls, “Abu Nuwas and I were sitting one day in front of Abu Othman al-
Jahiz’s house, when who should walk by but Ahmad al-Taqafi son of Abd al-Wahhab. He was a young
man with perfect features. Abu Nuwas couldn’t resist calling out to him:

“Give me a kiss!”
“As you wish, but first give me a poem saying something nice about me.”

On the spot, Abu Nuwas improvised this quatrain:

My love for you, oh Ahmad,

leaves me no health or joy:
you are the moon that has taken me on
the shape of a boy!

Ahmad agreed to kiss him, and I protested:

“What about me?”

“Well, then compose a poem for me, too!”

So I improvised the following:

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 Abu Nuwas got from you
the kiss he wished to win.
Be just as kind to Abu’l – Abbas,
his almost twin.

At this, Abu Nuwas added:

“And you can take this poem, too, it’s for you.”

Ah, rose, did someone warn you

roses must be plucked before it grows too late?
Behold this flower that came to us
at Abu – Othman’s gate!
Tifashi, op. cit., pp. 136 – 7

Abu Nuwas’s Poetry

Based on The Diwan of Abu Nuwas al Hasan ibn al Hakami, translated from the recension of Abu Bakr al
– Suli by Arthur Wormhoudt (Oskaloosa, lowa: William Penn College, 1974).

A pound of meat, a few loaves of bread,

A jug of wine, at least one willing boy,
A pipe of hashish. Now the picnic’s spread
My garden beggars paradise’s joy.

XV

Once I loved a boy

who loved me. We were so happy
that I never doubted him
when he was away,
& vice versa.
And if I should happen
to want a tongue – kiss from him
in the middle of a public crowd,
he’d do it, & no stare
would deter him from
granting my wish.

XVI

I’m in love with two cup – bearers at once

but particularly with the smaller of them
who runs about without a shirt
& whose curls escape like scorpions
from beneath his cap, who urges me
smiling to drink more & more
who bends close to me in silence
as he pours, & I can smell
the perfume he uses in his hair.

XVII

Son of Sayyar, singing boy

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(and to me a star already)
I cannot for the moment think
of anything beautiful as you.
My imagination seeks out poems
for you but my tongue falters –
as if you were something that had
locked up all my meanings.

XVIII

W’allah! What a dream last night

Ambuscaded me from dreary sleep
& embraced me like ropes from the stars.
Your face: like a moon riding
above a cypress grove. My seducer,
most charming of youths. Why come
only in dreams? I register official complaint
in the usual terms: your “cruelty”,
my request for just one embrace,
hyperbole about my weeping in solitude, etc.
“Mad pervert!” Oh, it’s true,
a boy has ruined my once – keen literary taste.
No more odes on the ruined abode of so – and – so
abandoned by the banal wheel of Time!
No no no more panegyrics to camels!
No more verse. I’ll not work at all
except to describe your beauty.

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A dialogue between two believers
Dr Maarten Schild
reprinted by kind permission of Dr. Maarten Schild from the Newsletter of the Abu Nuwas Societ, Spring,
1994

This text is an imaginary conversation between a gay-identified man and a Muslim, and has been included
in this report to illustrate how many Muslims deal with male-to-male sex. For such Muslims it is the
behaviour that is important not the identity. In fact developing a sexual identity around homosexual
behaviour creates a condition of disorder in a Muslim society. The key condition here is the concept of
masculinity and sex role.

While this may not be in harmony with orthodox beliefs, what is important is the lived experience of
Islamic thinking and understanding.

Setting: A grand cafe, high ceiling, majestic. Ordinary chairs and table. No background-music, only the
hum of voices. Once in a while a waiter stops by to ask if the guests want to have another drink

Characters:
Marcel: A tall, slim young man, 25 years old. Blue eyes. A crew cut, dyed black, with his natural blond
showing through. An earring in his left ear. Jeans, brightly-coloured shirt, black Italian booties. He carries
a linen bag with “Pink Saturday” printed on it. Drinks tea.

Khalid: A somewhat corpulent, greying man, 35-40 years old. Dark eyes. His hair is smoothly combed
backwards, some rebellious curls. Brown corduroy trousers, white shirt, striped tie, black jacket, brown
shoes. Has with him a somewhat worn briefcase. Drinks coffee and smokes a lot.

Conversation:
(Khalid is waiting. Drinks coffee, smokes and thumbs through his papers, which are spread out on the
table. Marcel walks in hurriedly, with a flushed face. They shake hands.)
M: “Sorry I am not in time, but the action-meeting ran late and a lot of bicycles blocked mine.
K: “No problem. Would you like something to drink?”
M: “Tea, please, but I will get it myself.”
(he gets up, walks over to the bar, and after a little while returns with his tea)
K: (Is left somewhat stunned . After M has rejoined him he seeks the eye of the waiter and says) “Waiter,
can I have another coffee, please?”
M: I would like to start off right away. I want to talk to you about homosexuality and Islam. I am
interested in doing a small research project and I thought that you might be able to help me, because you
are both a Muslim and a professor in history.”
K: (surprised) Well, you do not beat about the bush, do you? Let’s see. Homosexuality and Islam, you
say, why that subject?"
M: “I am gay myself and active in the Gay Movement and I wonder why Moslems have to be so
intolerant towards homosexuals.”
K: “Are they intolerant?”
M: “I have a couple of Moroccan friends, and they feel really embarrassed when they are called
homosexual, although I know that they are gay. Besides in Iran homosexuals have been executed.”
K: “I see. And what do you want to achieve with your research?”
M: “I want Moslems to treat homosexuals more tolerantly. I want them to accept homosexuals, even if
they are their own children.”
K: "That is quite a lot for a small research project, isn’t it?”
M: “It does not have to happen overnight, but I think something definitely has to change.”
K: “Does it bother you, then?”
M: “Well, it is not fair if they do not accept me, because I am gay”
K: “Do you accept them as being Muslims?”
M: “Yes. I think it is fine that they have their own mosques, and that they can practice their religious
beliefs here.”
K: “But does this imply that you also agree with the fact that being Muslims, they have ideas that differ
from your own?”

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M: “What do you mean?”
K: “I will try to explain it to you. In Islam sex is considered to be a normal and natural urge of every
human being. Symbolic for this is the important place sex is accorded in paradise. Paradise promises the
believer a climax, also in the sexual field, with eternally virginal girls, immortal boys as beautiful as pearls,
permanent erections and eternal orgasms.”
M: “Wow, that sounds great!”
K: “Mmmm, but on earth sex has a problematic side to it, because of human imperfection. According to
Islam unregulated sex would threaten the social order and would lead to anarchy and chaos. Therefore sex
is restricted to marriage.”
M: “Wait a minute, I will get a pen and paper to write this down.”
K: “All right. Marriage is a social obligation, and forms the basis of orderly society. It gives expression to
the divine harmony of life, which consists of a man and a woman complementing each other. Sex within
marriage is a tribute to divine will, an acknowledgement of God’s kindness and generosity, and a foretaste
of the joys of paradise, often leading to a renewal of God’s creation.”
M: “I understand, but what about sex between men?”
K: “Sex outside marriage is adultery and is regarded a crime against humanity. It divides the community
of believers, opening the door to many other shameful acts, and affects the reputation and property of the
family, thereby disrupting the social fabric. Sexual acts between people of the same sex are regarded as
adultery, being sex with an illicit partner. Homosexual acts are regarded as an extraordinary corruption,
since people involved in it challenge the harmony of the sexes and topsy-turvy God’s creation. The Prophet
said, “Cursed are the men who behave effeminately, and cursed the women who behave in a masculine
way.” It is a revolt against God, which violates the order of the world, being a source of evil and anarchy.
Therefore Islamic law condemns homosexual acts.”
M: “Tell me more about this condemnation,”
K: “You probably remember that during class I told you that the Islamic law, the Shari’a, is a
comprehensive code of behaviour for believers. Law is based on the Koran, the word of God as revealed to
his Prophet, on the Hadith , which is a collection of the words and deeds attributed to the Prophet. and on
the interpretations of the Islamic jurists (ulama).
The Koran explicitly condemns sexual acts between members of the same sex. Sura 4: 16 reads: “And
as for the two of you who are guilty thereof, punish them both. If they repent and mend their ways, let
them be. God is forgiving and merciful.”
M: “Wow, you know that by heart!”
K: “In school I had to learn the Koran by heart, and I still remember most of it. But let me continue. The
Koran also tells the parable of the apostle Lot and the corrupted and evil-minded people of his village. You
probably remember the story of Sodom in the Bible, which is almost the same. Lot’s villagers were
unbelievers, who consciously transgressed against the bounds of God. Their avarice led to inhospitality
and robbery, which in turn led to the humiliation of strangers by mistreatment and rape. It was their
homosexual behaviour however, their “approaching men instead of women with lustful desire”, which
was seen as symptomatic of their attitude. Particularly because it was regarded as “an abomination such as
none in the world has ever committed before.” Obstinately refusing to accept God’s message brought by
his messenger Lot, the villagers were punished by God raining upon them “stones of heated clay”. It killed
them all, and left their village in ruins, as a sign of the power of God, for all to see.
The Arabic words liwat and luti both derive from amal qaum lut, “behaving like the people of Lot”.
Liwat referring to male homosexual acts (mainly involving anal penetration) and luti referring to the active
male partner.
M: “Gee, that is fascinating. How should they be punished?”
K: (smiling) ‘Don’t be so impatient, I was about to tell you that. In the Hadith homosexual acts are
condemned in rather violent terms. He or she who is guilty of homosexual acts will await terrible agonies
in the hereafter, and before that capital punishment on earth. “If you see two people who act like the
people of Lot, then kill the active and the passive.” According to Islamic jurists, the ulama, adultery, and
thus homosexual acts, should be punished heavily. Married people should be stoned to death, while singles
should be whipped a hundred times,
M: “Stoning or whipping, that’s rather barbarous isn’t it? If I understand you correctly, you are telling me
that I can never expect a Muslim to accept me, because according to his belief homosexual acts are
condemned and should be punished severely.”
K: “Exactly! Just like a Christian could not accept it according to his faith.”
M: “But I have never heard of Christians stoning or whipping homosexuals.”
K: “Ho, ho. Wait a minute! Now you mix theory and practice. That occurs rather often in the West.
People comparing the theory of Islam with the contemporary practice in the West. According to the theory

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of Christianity homosexual acts are also are condemned. Discrimination against “practising homosexuals”
is even allowed by the Vatican, because the homosexual orientation is considered to be an “objective
disorder” like mental illness or contagious diseases, Of course this turns out differently in practice. The
same can be said of the theory of Islam. But let me first tell you a little bit more about the theory of Islam
concerning homosexual behaviour. It is a very complex matter. The idea behind the rather extravagant
punishment (stoning or whipping) which are prescribed for adultery, and thus for homosexual acts, are
meant to have a deterring effect. Deterrence and repentance are considered more important than
punishment.
Therefore we find that punishment is to be carried out publicly, while also a number of restricting
conditions have to be fulfilled before a person can be condemned for homosexual acts. Write this down
very carefully, because it is very important. Four adult Muslims of the male sex, of impeccable reputation,
have to swear that they have personally been eyewitnesses to the sexual encounter. Which means that these
men must have seen how the pen was dipped in the inkpot, if you understand my meaning.”
M: “So they must see the fucking itself?”
K: “Mmmm, that is another way of putting it.”
M: “But that hardly ever happens, does it? I mean, it is asking for trouble to do it with four people present
or where four people can see you doing it? Particularly if you know that it is prohibited?
K: “I agree completely. However, there are more conditions, so let me continue. If there are less than four
witnesses, the witnesses themselves are punished. Furthermore, witnesses are forced to be present at the
execution of the punishment, and in case of stoning they even have to throw the first stones.”
M: “My goodness, that is incredible! So, it is not very appealing to be a witness.”
K: “You’re a good listener. Should it turn out that the accusation is unjustified, the accuser is punished by
eighty lashes, because of slander.”
M: “So you better be careful just accusing someone.”
K: “Exactly! An accusation of adultery or of homosexual acts, are a very serious matter, having
enormous social consequences. However we haven’t dealt with everything as yet. A perpetrator can only be
punished if he or she is adult, sane and Muslim, and has acted of his or her own free will. So, he or she
must not have been raped. A confession of the accused is sufficient for condemnation only, if four times
repeated. While before a confession is accepted the judge has to point out to the accused not only the
consequences of his confession, but also the fact that repentance before the giving of testimony will be
punished less harshly. So, as I said before, deterrence and repentance are definitely more important than
punishment, therefore all these conditions.”
M: “Gee, it’s really complicated
K: “It gets even more complicated.”
M: “But if these conditions are as you tell me, how can people really be convicted for homosexual
behaviour, because it seems rather impossible to me?”
K: “You are right again, it is very rare that a person is condemned for homosexual acts, and when it
happens, it is mostly because of exceptional circumstances, often involving politics. Only in the case of
homosexual rape, particularly of minors, punishment is carried out practically. Also you must not forgot
the fact that the Shari’a, Islamic law, is no longer enforced in practice in most countries of the Middle East,
except for Iran and Saudi Arabia. In other countries, Islamic law has been replaced by civil law which
mostly follows a western pattern. Sometimes we find in this civil law punishments for homosexual
behaviour, but I know nothing of punishments in practice.”
M: “Still, I don’t get it, because I have heard that homosexuality very often occurs in Middle Eastern
countries, like Morocco and Egypt. That it is some kind of a paradise for homosexuals, where boys do it
to earn something extra, like Dutch boys pick onions in Drente or peal shrimp in Katwijk.”
K: “I like the way you put that.”
M: “Yes, that is what Gerard Reve, the famous Dutch writer, says. Compulsory reading for Dutch gays. I
know his work as well as you know the Koran. But if homosexual behaviour really occurs that frequent,
then it should really be punished more often because it is prohibited, isn’t it? Or do I misunderstand you?”
K: “So, what you mean is that the attitude of Muslims towards homosexual acts is rather contradictory.
In principle it is forbidden, but in practice it occurs frequently and is even treated rather tolerantly.”
M: “Exactly How is that possible?”
K: “That is a complicated story. Do you have the time to listen to it?”
M: “No problem, I find it very interesting. Please continue.”
K: “All right. Let me first of all explain something. Until now I have spoken of Islam in general, as is
often done. However in practice there are many differences between Muslims themselves. For example,
you have Moroccan and Indonesian Muslims, illiterate and intellectual ones, orthodox, mystical and
liberal Muslims, Sunnites and Shi’ites, etc. Having said this, I like to continue speaking generally of Islam,

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to make things quite clear to you. Now Islam is a tolerant belief. I know you can give me many examples
of intolerance, but generally these are only conspicuous exceptions! According to Islam God is the only one
who is perfect. Human beings are imperfect creatures who make mistakes and consequently act sinfully.
God is understanding regarding man’s weaknesses If a person is sincere in his shame and shows repentance
for his sinful behaviour, he will be mercifully forgiven by God. What does this mean practically? The
majority of Muslims accept and respect the norms and morals which Islamic law has decreed for society.
However, they won’t be able to live without sin, because as human beings they are imperfect.”
M: "Then even religious Muslims practice homosexual acts?”
K: “Definitely. In addition it is only public transgression of Islamic morals that is condemned. Which is
why Islamic law stresses the role of eyewitnesses to an offence. The police are not allowed to go in search
of possible sinners behind the veil of decency of their closed doors. In a way concealment is advised.
because to disclose a dreadful sin would be a sin in itself. So, you could say, that if a person cannot avoid
sinful behaviour, he better do it secretly.”
M: "That’s ridiculous! How hypocritical! It is just like the Roman Catholic Church. You are allowed to
be homosexual, but whatever you do, don’t do it in public.”
K: “Ho, ho, wait a minute. Like Islam the Catholic church respects human weaknesses. And you can
hardly expect them to openly accept what is contrary to their doctrine.
M: “Bullshit! Human weaknesses, my arse! My homosexuality is not a weakness, but a strength. It’s a
strength which determines my whole life. I don ‘t want to act secretive anymore. I did that more than
enough when I was a child. I am grown up now and I openly admit that I am gay. I am a homosexual and
that’s that!
K: “I understand you saying that, but you ignore the essence of what I am telling you. The emphasis of
externals in Islamic law, and the concealing of dreadful sins, confirms the validity of Islamic morals,
thereby preserving the system as it is. By publicly breaking the rules, you consciously oppose the system,
organised society, and that is about the worst thing you can think of.”
M: “So openness is scandalous?
K: “Precisely! So, how can you expect a Muslim to accept you, while you openly express that you
practice homosexual acts. And if that is not enough you even declare yourself to be homosexual, as if that
is something to be proud of.”
M: “Well, it is something I am proud of.”
K: ‘That’s fine with me, only do not expect a Muslim to accept you as a homosexual
M: “So, you don’t accept me?”
K: “As a human being, with all your weaknesses, I accept you. As a homosexual I cannot accept you. Do
you understand?”
M: “Yes, I think I understand you. However, I think it’ s a shame.”
K: “Can I ask you something? Because there is something I do not understand. Why is practising
homosexual acts so important to you, that you call yourself homosexual? I mean, someone who penetrates
a chicken does not openly declare himself to be a chickenfucker, does he?”
M: “I do not like you comparing me with an abuser of chickens, but I understand your meaning. I myself,
prefer human beings, men in particular, and that determines who I am. It influences my whole life.
K: “Why? Whoever or whatever you do it with, in my opinion has got nothing to do with who your
personality.
M: “With most gays it does.”
K: “With us, I mean in the Islamic world, it is completely different. Most of us behave as we are supposed
to do, as is expected of us. Which doesn’t say anything about who we are. We are supposed to marry and
have babies. And we are supposed to be ashamed about public behaviour which is indecent and shameful.
Most important is that you keep to your role, as a man, or as a father, or as a son. Whatever you do in
bed, whether it is with women, boys or chickens, is of no importance to anyone, as long as you do not
make it public. It is only something between you and God.”
M: “Now that sounds rather tolerant. But I still think it is weird, and rather hypocritical.”
K: “It must be rather difficult to understand from a western point of view. You see, in the Middle East
there is a very strict separation between the world of men and the world of women. Consequently a boy or
a man often has to rely on his own sex to have intercourse. And that’s why it occurs a lot.”
M: “So, it only occurs, because there is nothing better available?”
K: “It is not that simple. You know, there is a lot more grey between black and white than you can
imagine. It doesn’t hurt anyone, nobody gets pregnant, and boys can be quite attractive.
M: “I agree with that
K: “Meanwhile it does not prevent men from getting married and having babies as they are supposed to.
In the west you now even have gay-marriages, which I think are totally ridiculous

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M: "That must be a complete scandal for Muslims. But I don’ agree with gay marriages either. Some gays,
are afraid of the heterosexual masses and want to make homosexuality as ordinary as possible, which in
my opinion it can not be. I am rather proud of being different. I don’t necessarily have to be accepted by
everybody.”
K: “But why then do you want to be accepted by Muslims?”
M: “Well, not for myself but rather for my Moroccan friends. Gay Muslims have many problems coming
out of the closet.”
K: “But do you know any Muslims who want to be accepted as homosexuals?”
M: “No, I already told you. My Moroccan friends do not want to be called homosexual, because they fear
for their manhood and for their reputation. I think that is such nonsense
K: “So, you know what’s right for them, even better than they do themselves, do you? That really annoys
me, this western sense of superiority! I mean, you don’t accept their choice! They apparently think it’s
wiser not to express their homosexuality, because of the cultural background they come from, with their
families, and all. I mean, try to imagine. The concept of homosexuality has a very negative ring to it for a
Muslim. It clashes with the God-given order in society and with social norms of what is right and what is
wrong. Homosexuality specifically refers to passive homosexual behaviour, which is considered extremely
humiliating for a man, because it implies being penetrated like a woman. On the other hand a man who
adopts an active role, behaves like a man, and is therefore not considered a homosexual
M: “That’s a rather old fashioned way of thinking! Most gays do not penetrate at all, you know,
particularly now that most of them practice safe sex.
K: “That might be so in the west, but in the Middle East the preferred form of sexual contact with a man
or a boy involves penetration. Oral sex is considered with disgust, because it would be impure, while
mutual masturbation would be rather boring.
K: “But let me continue! Passive homosexual behaviour is considered particularly objectionable, because
it topsy turvies God’s creation, and threatens the God-given harmony between men and women. Socially it
is considered to be scandalous for a man, because it is seen as effeminate behaviour. Deviant behaviour like
this was of old viewed as abnormal and unnatural. Sometimes it was even characterised as an illness,
because it was incomprehensible that a man could voluntarily dishonour and debase himself in the role of
a woman. Now you will probably understand something of the disapproval of homosexuality. But that is
not all there is to it. Homosexuality furthermore indicates the public expression of shameful and offensive
behaviour. Not hiding yourself behind a veil of secrecy, as is expected of you, but consciously opposing
established norms and values. Finally, homosexuality is considered to be a typical example of western
decadence, not found in real Muslims. This idea is closely linked to the image of western society as being
shameless and depraved, permissiveness ultimately leading to social chaos. That homosexuality has become
a negative label is apparent with the executions in Iran that you mentioned earlier. These executions,
which for the larger part took place between 1979 and 1984, involved people who were already,
considered to be criminals. It did not matter much what they had done exactly, it was sufficient to know
they were anti-social and evil. In this way political opponents could be eliminated without any legal
justification.”
M: “That’s horrific! But in my opinion you contradict yourself. because you just told me that homosexual
behaviour was treated tolerantly.”
K: "As most Westerners you keep confusing homosexuality and the practice of homosexual acts, which
are different things altogether. I just mentioned the way Muslims in general see homosexuality. And as far
as homosexual acts is concerned, I said earlier that it is treated tolerantly in practice. You must understand
that in practice people will be careful that homosexual acts take place secretly, so it won’t disturb
anybody. Besides homosexual acts are less threatening to society than illegal sexual contact with a woman.
In the case of homosexual acts no man's property is abused, and there is no loss of face or honour for
either the husband or the family. Furthermore there is no danger of pregnancy. The only evil about
homosexual acts would be if somebody is raped, and that is severely punished in practice.”
M: “So homosexuality is rejected, while homosexual acts are tolerated, if you act discretely and don’t
express your homosexual preferences publicly.”
K: ‘Mmmm.”
M: “But that means that Muslim fathers will never accept the homosexuality of their sons.
K: “Exactly, and I think their children will understand they won’t, and therefore will not bother them
with it. But let me ask you something, since when can you openly express your homosexuality in Holland?
Since when do Dutch parents accept their homosexual children?”
M: “I think since the sixties.”
K: “Exactly ! So even in the west homosexuality has not been tolerated for a long time! Also you must
not forget that in the West the beliefs and morals of the more strict, orthodox Moslems, the ones that are

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called “fundamentalists”, attract the most attention. But they are certainly not representative for the beliefs
of Muslims in general. I mean, it would be the same thing if you would regard the ideas of the Vatican on
homosexuality to be typical for the attitude of Christians!”
M: “I suppose you are right. But why can’t we try to create more understanding in Islam for
homosexuals?”
K: “But then strict believers should also be respected for their beliefs, however extreme they may be. I do
not think it is realistic to expect everybody to understand and accept each other. Do you really think that I
am accepted by everybody, that everybody will understand me, whatever I do? That is nonsense. Why
don’t we leave each other in peace? As long as we don’t harm or hurt each other, nothing is wrong, is
there? Nobody bothers you personally, do they? Why bother other people asking for “understanding” and
“acceptance”? You better be more realistic, because you will never be accepted by everyone. Can you
accept that?”
M: “Pff. (hesitant) Yes well, it can’t hurt to talk about it, can it?”
K: “What do you think we have been doing?”
M: “I like our conversation, but still I would like to achieve something practical
K: “I can understand that, but we have already achieved a lot. You listened to me, I listened to you.”
M: (Heaves a deep sigh. He looks at the clock and suddenly his face changes. ) “Shit! I have to rush now,
because I am already late for the meeting of the homo-disco.”
(He runs outside, leaving K behind, bewildered with his hand stretched out before him. He sighs. Shaking
his head, he thinks)
K: “And I still had some interesting material for him. I even remember an appropriate poem. It is by
unknown Arab poet, and goes like this,

“As the boy looked at it, my thing moved,

and he whispered, “It is splendid!
Do let me try its love making.
I answered,
“Such an act is reprehended,
in fact many people call it awful.”
But he said, “Oh they, oh they!
With me all things are lawful.”
And I was too polite to disobey.”

(He chuckles to himself. Again he shakes his head. He collects his things from the table, pays the bill, also
for the tea which M has forgotten to pay in his hurry, and leaves the cafe.)

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Concluding remarks
Islam is the combination of the Quran, the Hadith and the Sharia says, but the Quran is central to the
belief. However, the Hadith and the Sharia, whether Sunni or Shia, are not always supported by verses in
the Quran, which then raises the question of their authenticity.

Many a story has been told about Imam Bukhari in his struggles in collecting Hadith literature. He
travelled to many different places gathering the precious gems that fell from the lips of the noble Prophet
Muhammad. It is said that Imam Bukhari collected over 300,000 Hadiths and he himself memorised
200,000 of which some were unreliable. He was born at a time when Hadith was being forged either to
please rulers or Kings or to corrupt the religion of Islam.

It was a great task for him to sift the forged Hadiths from the authentic ones. He laboured day and night
and although he had memorised such a large number he chose approximately 7275 of which there is no
doubt about their authenticity. (From the Introduction of Sahih Al Bukhari Vol.1 by Dr. Muhammad
Muhsin Khan, Islamic University, Medina Al – Munawwara, Saudi Arabia.)

In Fatima Menisci’s book, The Veil and the Male Elite – a feminist interpretation of women’s rights in
Islam (Peruses Book Publishing, © 1991), page 44, she talks of 600,000 Hadith from al-Burkhari after
interviewing 1,080 persons, which he then reduced to “7,257 authentic Hadith, if the repetitions, which
number 4,000, are eliminated”.

The Quran, while central to Islam as the spoken word of God to the Prophet through the angel Gabriel,
has been interpreted and translated by different scholars from differing schools and sects. Thus Sufi
interpretations are different from Wahabi, the latter having a very traditional and conservative viewpoint.
Along with this is of course the reality of differing interpretations of the translations themselves.

Too often textual translations and utterances give a negative picture because they are often taken out of
context of the original text, while different scholars have explained the contexts in their own way leading
to different meanings. The Quran recognises the possibility of these differing interpretations, as it says:
(Sura 2, al-Baqarah, Ayat 26)

YUZILLO BEHI QASEERAN WA YAHDI BEHI QASEERA

Many people get the right way from this Quran and many people are misled by this Quran.

Many Muslims are not literate, and for them the source of Islamic knowledge would be the religious
teacher, the madarsa, and the Maulana. Their understanding and practice arises from what they have been
told.

In other cases, many are also taught to read the Quran in its original Arabic text. This is done by
memorising the text, not understanding the text.

Some of the explanations of Lut’s story suggest that male-to-male sexual activity in amongst his people
was initiated by Satan while other explanations do not suggest this.

Instead they seem to suggest that the people of Lut were destroyed because they crossed some limits or they
were mischievous. What these limits or mischievous behaviour are, is not explained. Thus the belief that
they were destroyed because of male-to-male sexual behaviour is not in accordance with the textual
translations.

In fact, while there are references of male-to-male sexual behaviour in the Quran, Sharia and Hadith, there
are not any consistent statements either against or in favour of such behaviour.

For example, in a Shia Hadith, restrictions are imposed in marrying a girl who is the mother or sister of
the boy with whom the act of sodomy was done. After the act of sodomy Ghusl (bathing in a specific
manner) is prescribed as for any other heterosexual contact.

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Further the Quran on one hand recognises that there are men who lack any attraction towards women,
and treat such men as other females. (Women can go in front of other women and do not need to cover
themselves with a veil in doing so, in a similar way the females are allowed to go in front of these males
who lack “vigour” for woman and also can take them as attendants as any other women).

But the Hadith condemns such crossings of gender boundaries. Men are not supposed to do anything
which makes them similar to women. Women are advised not to do any activity which makes them similar
to men. There are no Quranic verses to support this Hadith.

Transgression and fitna are very ambiguously described in the texts. Being corrupt against the land is seen
as a transgression. Fitna is described as any activity which disturbs the social fabric of the society and
creates chaos. Being extravagant is also termed as fitna.

What is Islam? How is it practiced? These questions can not only be answered within specific contexts, but
also through the lived experience. Islam is not a monolithic belief system, but contexualised within
differing cultures, geographies and histories.

When Islam entered in the Indian sub-continent in the late 10th century and continued for several centuries
through a series of invasions, it was differing Islam(s) that confronted the indigenous beliefs, particularly
Sufism, of what became to be called Hinduism (and other beliefs such as Buddhism, Jainism and
Christianity). From an intolerance to an acceptance of different customs and beliefs, Islam was used to
justify both. Thus across the world there are many Islam(s) contextualised by prevalent cultural values,
local traditions, and beliefs. Added to this melting pot, is of course the differing sects of Islam, schools, and
interpretations.

This brief and limited study into Islam and its beliefs about male-to-male sexualities and behaviour
indicates that there is not one rigid belief, but a range of possible interpretations and beliefs from the
severely condemnatory to what appears to be a tolerance of such behaviours but within a gendered
framework, i.e. boys penetrated, and the existence of men who have no “vigour” towards women, and are
therefore like females.

More needs to be done in developing a fuller understanding of Islam in terms of its textual references, and
their various interpretations, along with the cultural mix in which they are practices, particularly Sufism.
Thus an in-depth study and of course vice versa, an anthropology of Islam as it were, would be in order.

Along with this, in terms of the evolution of Islamic beliefs and customs, meanings and significances in
South Asia, it would require a study on the impact of South Asian Islam of the East India Tea Company
and the British Raj’s conceptions of masculinities and sexualities, and the Muslim response to the Raj. 19th
century India saw a fervent response to the British Raj by both Hindus and Muslims, a reaction to all-
conquering Christian faith by the sword, by missionaries, and by economics.

This confrontation is not over. It manifests itself today as Al-Qaeda and the Taliban and the outgrowth of
such ideas as the “clash of civilisations” and the new veneration of al-Saladin who fought against Richard
III of the Crusades.

All over the Muslim world(s), Muslims perceive themselves as weakened by the Western world’s economic
and military might, a belief in a Western (read Christian) conspiracy to destroy Islam and build a new
imperial project.

In response to this belief two approaches appear to be manifesting themselves, one much more vocal, more
violent, and more newsworthy than the other. One response has been the personification of the word jihad
– holy war – against the “unbeliever”, where the word jihad had been interpreted to mean this struggle
against the “unbeliever”, an outer struggle and martyrdom. Here the suicidal bomber reigns supreme.

The other reflects a different interpretation of jihad which in this case means an inner struggle for truth
and meaning.

And of course one cannot forget the influence of oil and money that is being played out in the Muslim
world(s) which is reflected by the largess of Saudi Arabian funds through Wahabi supported groups in

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building mosques, supporting madarsas and religious teachers, and of course the hidden flow of funds to
support a fundamental approach to jihad and terrorist training camps.

Globalisation, economic dislocation, rising populations and poverty, the challenges of modern civilisation
(primarily Western), the growth of the electronic media which broadcasts across the world, is creating a
sense of disempowerment and disenfranchisement. For many this is creating a “fundamentalist” response,
of a turn to obscurantism and unshakeable belief in a singular “truth” provided by a “God”. This is not
only an Islamic response. Christianity in the United States is also in ferment, along with Buddhism in Sri
Lanka and South-East Asia, Hinduism in India, and Judaism in Israel and the “occupied territories”. A
back to basics movement so to speak.

In Islam there are some quiet voices (and some not so quiet but without the newsworthy power to make
themselves heard) raised against obscurantism. Fatima Mernisi is an excellent example of worthy
scholarship and knowledge. Her writings on women and feminism in an Islamic text challenge certain
excepted tenets of Islamic practice.

Another is Anwar Shaikh in Wales who challenges all to revisit Islamic teachings. The lesbian, gay,
bisexual and transgender network of Muslim identified people called Al-Fatiha, is also presenting a
challenge to accepted beliefs and practices. Many others exist across the world. No one has brought all
their writings together. This needs to be done.

The challenge of HIV/AIDS has also generated a range of responses from and about religious belief.
HIV/AIDS is about sexual transmission within a context of social frameworks, sexual practices, gender,
masculinities and femininities, and sexualities. The need to address vulnerabilities and risks, particularly in
terms of male-to-male sex in a broad range of societies and cultures has created a range of tensions and
conflict between public health and religious belief. How this challenge is addressed is an urgent enquiry.

This study is a small part of addressing this challenge.

The next phase of this study will be to explore the personal beliefs and practices of kothi-identified
Muslims in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. Here we will sense the interplay of sexuality, masculinity,
gender and Islamic belief interplay and acted out in terms of meaning, significance and practice. What does
it mean to such people to identify as a Muslim? What does Islam mean to them? How do they
contextualise their sexuality/gender with their belief in Islam? And how does their Islamic beliefs impede (if
it does at all) sexual health strategies in reducing risks for STI/HIV infection in terms of their gendered and
sexual selves.

This second phase can then feed into the textual review to identify particular misunderstanding,
misinterpretations, and just wrong beliefs from which (hopefully) a range of guides and tools can be
developed for providing understanding of self and same-sex desire within an Islamic context as a means of
psychological support and empowerment.

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Further reading
Reading material around Islam and sexualities, gender….
From the NFI Resource Centre, Lucknow

Afkhami, Mahnaz, editor: Faith & Freedom - women’s human rights in the Muslim world, I.B. Tauris
Publishers, 1995

Ahmed, Akbar S.: Postmodernism and Islam - predicament and promise, Routledge, 1992

Ahmed, Akbar and Hastngs Donnan, edited by: Islam, Globalisation and Postmodernity, Routedge, 1994

Ahmed, Leila: Women And Gender In Islam. Yale University Press, 1992

Afkhami, Mahnaz: Faith and Freedom - Women’s Rights in The Muslim World, IB Taurauis, 1995

Al-Azmeh, Aziz: Islam & Modernities, Verso, 1993

Alam, Shamsul: Islam and Family Planning, Islamic Foundation of Bangladesh, 1985

Al-Khayyat, Sona : Honour & Shame - women in Modern Iraq, Saqi Books 1990

Bouhdiba, Abdelwahab: Sexuality in Islam, translated by Alan Sheridan, Routledge & Keegan
Paul Ltd, 1985

Doi, Abdul Rahman I.: Women in Shari’ah, Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd. 1989

Ilkkaracan, Pinar, edited by: Women and Sexuality in Muslim societies, Women for Women’s Human
Rights WWHR) – New Ways, 2000

Khan, Badruddin: Sex, Longing & Not Belonging - a gay Muslim’s quest for love and meaning, Floating
Lotus, 1997

Mandelbaum, David G.: Women’s Seclusion and Men’s Honour - sex roles in North India, Bangladesh and
Pakistan, University of Arizona Press, 1988

Mernissi, Fatima: Beyond The Veil - male-female dynamics in Muslim society Schenkman Publishing
Company, 1975

Mernissi, Fatima: The Veil and the male elite – a feminist interpretation of women’s rights in Islam,
Perseus Book Publishing, 1991

Murray, O. Stephen & Will Roscoe, edited by: Islamic Homosexualities, New York University Press, 1997

Murray, Stephen O.: Homosexualities, University of Chicago Press, 2000

Musallam, B.F.: Sex & Society in Islam, Cambridge University Press, 1983

Nanda, Serena: Neither man nor Woman - Hijras of India, Wadsworth, USA, 1990

Pattison, Stephen: Shame - theory, therapy, theology, Cambridge University Press, 2000

Schimmel, Annemarie: And Muhammad Is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety
University of North Carolina Press, 1985

Schimmel, Annemarie: As Through A Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam, National Book Network, 2001

Schimmel, Annemarie: I am Wind, You are Fire: The life and work of Rumi, Random House, 1996

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Schmitt, Arno, and Jehoeda Sofer, edited by: Sexuality And Eroticism Among Males In Moslem Societies,
Haworth Press, 1992

Schmitt, Arno: Bio-bibliography of male-male sexuality and eroticism in Muslim societies, Verlag Rosa
Winkel, 1995

Vanita, Ruth and Saleem Kidwai, edited by: Same-Sex Love in India - readings from literature and history,
St. Martins Press, 2000

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