1 History For HCS PDF

History for HCS, © Nitin Sangwan www.meandupsc.blogspot.
com
History
For HCS
One of the first confirmed semi-permanent settlements (बस्ती) appeared 9,000 years ago in the Bhimbetka rock
shelters (भीमबेटका चट्टान गुफा) in modern Madhya Pradesh. Bhimbetka is famous for the oldest ‘Rock paintings’ (शैल
चचत्र) in India.
CHAPTER 1
MEHARGARH CIVILISATION ( मेहरगढ़ संस्कृति) – Bronze Age in India
(Important) INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION ( ससंधु घाटी की सभ्यिा or सैंधव सभ्यिा)
The first urban civilization of the region began with the Indus Valley Civilization and it heralded (घोषणा) Bronze
Age (काांस्य युग) in India around 3300 BCE. Harappa and Mohenjodaro were the first sites to be discovered and
they are also the largest of all other sites. However,
Dholavira is the single largest site. Accepted period of
this civilization is 2300-1750 BCE. It is believed that
the Dravidians (द्रविड़) were the founders of his
civilization who later upon, due to attacks from West
Asia and Europe, moved to south. The civilization
included urban centers such as Dholavira (धौलािीर)
and Lothal (लोथल) in Gujarat, Kalibangan (कालीबांगा) in
Rajsthan, Rupar (रोपड़) in Punjab, Rakhigarhi (राखीगढ़ी)
and Banawali (बणािली) in Haryana, in modern-day
India, and Harappa (हड़प्पा) (Montegomari district of
Punjab in Pakistan on Ravi river bank) and Mohenjo-
daro (मोहनजोदाड़ो) (Larkana district of Sindh in
Pakistan, on Indus (स ांध)ु river bank) (Mohnjodaro
literally means – ‘mound of the dead’ (मुदो का टीला)) in
modern-day Pakistan.
The civilization is noted for its cities built of Burnt-
Brick (जली ईंट), roadside underground (भूसमगत)
drainage system ( ड़क के ककनारे जल ननका ी व्यिस्था),
and multistoried houses (बहुमांजजला घरों). The most characteristic feature of the Harappan Civilization was its
urbanization (नगरीकरण) and town planning.
Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced
copper, bronze, lead, and tin (ताांबा, पीतल, ी ा और टटन). As per historians Indus people obtained gold fromKola and
Anantpur in modern day South India around Karnatka and copper from modern day Rajasthan. They didn’t know
the use of Iron. They knew use of Cotton, Wheat, Barley and Wool also. The streets were all well planned (गसलयाां
ुननयोजजत थी). Fire altars (आग िेटदयों), camel bones and ink pot (दिात) were found in Kalibangan.
Some features of this civilization are –
a. The houses were of varying sizes which suggest class differences in Harappan society.
b. Pictographic script was the script used by Indus valley people.
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History for HCS, © Nitin Sangwan www.meandupsc.blogspot.com
c. Shiva (in form of Pasupati Mahadeva) was one of the deities (दे िता). They also held the bull sacred (पवित्र).
Godess Shakti was another deity which was worshipped during Harappan period. Among female deities
(दे िताओां), they worshipped Mother Goddess (दे िी मााँ/ मात ृ -दे िी). They also worshipped many natural
gods like – wind, air, tree, snake, pigeon etc. They believed that there was life after death because
the graves (कब्र) often contained household pottery, ornaments (गहने) and mirrors.
d. Lothal had a well developed port/dock yard (बांदरगाह/गोदी बाड़ा). Unlike other places like Harappa and
Mohnjedaro, it didn’t have two parts of the city.
e. Evidence of land ploughing (भूसम जुताई के ाक्ष्य) was found in Kalibangan (Rajasthan)
f. The animals around the Pasupati (Siva) on a seal (मुहर) are – Rhinoceros, Buffalo, Elephant and Deer.
g. Discovery of toy ploughs (हल) have shown that they used plough for agriculture.
h. Cattle breeding was important in Indus culture. Besides sheep and goats, dogs, humped cattle buffalo
and elephant was certainly domesticated. The camel was rare and horse was not known.
i. Mohnjedaro is well known for – ‘Dancing Girl (नतृ याांगना) statue’ and ‘Bearded Chief Priest (दाढ़ी यक्
ु त प्रधान
अनष्ु ठानकताा)’ sculpture (मूनत).
j. Black and red pottery (समट्टी के बतानों) with designs is also found.
k. They domesticated (पालतू बनाया) pig, dog, ox, buffalo etc, but didn’t know use of horse. Some of such
information is obtained by pictures and seals where images of animals like bull is there.
l. They also played a chess (शतरांज) like game.
m. Kalibanga – This was famous for bangles in ancient time, these bangles were made of stones. (यह प्राचीन
मय में चूडियों के सलए प्रस द्ध था, ये चूडियााँ पत ्थरों की बनी होती थी।)
n. The Harappans cultivated wheat and barley (जौ) the two main food crops. Rice was known in Lothal.
o. The Harappan people traded with the people of Sumer ( म ु ेर) and with the towns lying along the Persian
Gulf. Harappan seals (महु र) and other small objects used by the merchants and traders for stamping
their goods have been found in Mesopotamia (मे ोपोटासमया – today’s Iraq). Other countries of tade
relations were – Egypt, Babylonia
p. Charles Mesorn (चार्ल ा मैन् ना) was first to discover the remains (अिशेष) of Harappa in 1826. However it
was Dayaram Sahni who started detailed work on the site in 1921 along with John Marshell (जॉन माशाल) of
Archeological Survey of India.
q. Each city was divided into the citadel area where the essential institutions of civic and religious life were
located and the residential area where the urban population lived.
r. Out of the two discovered mounds/cliffs of Harrapa, eastern mound was called ‘Town Mound/Cliff’ and
the western one was called ‘Castle/fort mound’ (हड़प्पा े प्राप्त दो टीलों में पूिी टीले को 'नगर टीला' तथा पजचचमी
टीले को 'दग
ु ग टीला' के नाम े म्बोचधत ककया गया).
s. Weights and measures (बाट और माप) were also used, which were very accurate. The weights proceeded in
a series, first doubling from 1, 2, 4, 8 to 64 and then in decimal multiples of 16.
t. The street ran straight and at right angles to each other following the grid system. The rectangular town
planning was unique to the Harappans and was not known in Mesopotamia or Egypt (समस्र).
u. Great Bath (विशाल स्नागार) and Huge granaries (विशाल 'अन्नागार') are also features of Mohenjodaro. Great
Bath was perhaps used only for rituals (अनष्ु ठानों).
v. Western part of Fort Mound of Mohenjodaro is also called ‘Stupa Mound’ as Kushan kings built a Stupa at
this place (मोहनजोदाड़ो के पजचचमी भाग में जस्थत दग
ु ग टीले को 'स्िप
ू टीला' भी कहा जाता है , क्योंकक यहााँ पर कुषाण शा कों ने
एक स्तूप का ननमााण करिाया था।)
w. Causes of end of Indus valley civilization are not known.
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CHAPTER 2
(Important) VEDIC CIVILISATION (वैददक सभ्यिा) – 1500 – 500 BCE (ईसा पूव)ग
The Vedic period is characterized by Indo-Aryan (टहांद - आया) culture associated with the texts of Vedas, sacred to
Hindus, which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. Aryans are said to have written Vedas. Rig Veda tells about
the Aryans when they settled in Sindh and Punjab regions. Aryans attacked India several times and came to India
in 1500 BCE. (भारत में आयो का आगमन 1500 ई.पू. े कुछ पहले हुआ।) First of all they settled in Sapt-Sindhu area (भारत में
उन्होंने िाप्रथम प्त न्ै धि प्रदेश में ब ना प्रारम्भ ककया।) Seven rivers of Sapt Sindhu area were - स ध
ां ,ु रस्िती, शिुदि
( तलज
ु ) ववपशा (व्या ), परुष्णी (रािी), वविस्िा (झेलम), अस्स्कनी (चचनाब) आटद।
Deities/gods that were known during that time were – य ू ,ा िरुण/िाय,ु विष्ण,ु इन्द्र, अजनन, ोम, पथ्
ृ िी, बह
ृ स्पनत, नटदयाां.
Vedic people believed in the transmigration (The Rig Vedic people believed in life after death.) of the soul, and the
Peepul tree and cow were sanctified (पवित्र) by the time of the Atharva Veda. Rig Veda are the oldest Vedas among
all Vedas. For vedic Vedas are - Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda.
During Vedic period, around 1000 BCE, ‘Painted Grey Wares’ (चचत्रत्रत धू र मदृ भाण्ि) were made around plains of
Ganga. Iron, horse and plough were nearly absent in Harappan Civilisation, but were used extensively in Vedic
Civilization.
Earlier, Aryans settled around Punjab, but later moved towards Ganga-Yamuna doab (गांगा - यमुना दोआब).
Some short information –
a. Main difference between the Indus Valley civilization and Vedic civilization – ‘Indus Valley civilization was
urban, whereas the Vedic civilization was rural’
b. Gayatri Mantra is mentioned in Rig Veda
c. Performance of sacrifices (बसल) was one of the chief features of the Rig Vedic Civilization or Early Vedic
CIvilisation
d. Atharva Veda is youngest Veda
e. The lowest unit of administration was the family or Kul and its chief was known as Grihapati or Kulapati. A
group pf families or kuls constituted a village which in the Rig Vedic days were called Grama. Several
villages together formed a Vis or clan and its chief was called Vispati. Similarly, many Vis made a Jana and
Jana made a Rashtra. (कुल > ग्राम > विश > जन > राष्र)
f. Aryans in early Vedic period introduced use of plough (हल) drawn by oxen and bulls.
g. The first three Vedas - Rig, Sam and Yajur Veda are collectively known as Trayi.
h. Indra and Varuna lost their previous importance and Prajapati (Brahma) attained the supreme position in
later Vedic age.
i. Vedic texts are also called ‘Srutis’ (श्रुनत) as they are only in oral form and not written.
j. Atharvaveda is a collection of spells (तांत्र- मांत्र) and magic.
k. The Sanskrit word Veda "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the root vid- "to know".
l. Vyas was author of Ramayana.
m. Purushasukta is found in the Rigveda.
n. Languages like Punjabi, Bengali, Hindi, Gujrati etc derived from Sanskrit are also called Aryan languages.
o. MLECHCHHAS – They were the foreign people and historically, contact with them was viewed by the
upper caste Hindus as polluting.
(Important) BUDHHA, JAINA and LATER VEDIC PERIOD
The educated speech during the later Vedic period was Sanskrit, while the languages of the general population of
northern India are referred to as Prakrits (प्राकृत). Both Buddha and Mahavir Jaina preached (उपदे श दे ना) in language
of masses i.e. Prakrit. Buddhism and Jainism are believed to be a reaction to the orthodoxies (रूटढ़िाटदता) of
Hinduism and provided an alternative during those times.
Kingdoms during this time were called ‘Janpadas’ (जनपद) and larger Kingdoms were called ‘Mahajanpadas’
(महाजनपद). Magadh as one of the biggest and most powerful Mahajanpad during that time. It should be that
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Mahjanpads were not hereditary monarchical systems, but were ‘Republics’ (महाजनपद िांशानग ु त राजतांत्रीय प्रणाली नहीां
थे लेककन गणराज्य थे)
BUDHHA
th
He is said to have live between 563-480 BCE (6 to 5thCentury BCE) i.e around same time as Jaina and
Confucius of China.
The word Buddha is a title for the first awakened being in an era. His name was Sidhartha and he was
prince of Shakya janpada.
‘Buddha’ means ‘awakened/enlightened (प्रबद्ध ु ) one’. He is also called Shakyamuni (शाक्यमुनन) and
Thathagat (तथागत)
He was born in Kapilavastu, in present-day Nepal (some say he was born at Lumbini, Nepal), he delivered
his first sermon (धमोपदेश) at Sarnath (Deer Park) near Varanasi, and died (attained Parinirvana) at
Kushinigar. The first discourse of Buddha at Deer Park in Sarnath is called ‘Dharmachakrapravartan’
(धमाचक्रप्रितान).
His father’s name was Sudodhana and he was a king of ‘Shakya’ janpad. His mother was ‘Maha Maya’ and
his wife name was Yasodhara and name of their son was ‘Rahul’
Siddhartha left his kingdom at the age of 29
He propounded (प्रनतपाटदत) ‘Middle Path’ compared to the severe (कठोर) asceticism (िैरानय) of other
religions like Jainism. He attained enlightenment under a peeple tree named as ‘Bodhi’ tree in Bodh
Gaya, of today’s Bihar. According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight
(अन्तर्दाजष्ट) into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became
known as the "Four Noble Truths". Buddha described Nirvana (ननिााण) as the perfect peace of a mind
that's free from ignorance (अज्ञान), greed, hatred etc. Buddha also formed ‘Sanghas’ ( ांघ) – or company
of Buddhist monks. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the
VINAYA PITAKA.
‘Tripitka’ (त्रत्रवपटक) or Three Baskets are the sacred (पवित्र) books of the Buddhas. They are – Vinaya Pitka,
Sutta Pitka, Abhidham Pitka. Vinaya Pitaka – is the Buddhist Canon is related to dealing with rules for
monks and nuns (It is one of Canons of Tripitaka)
Buddha himself didn’t recognize – Life after birth or soul, Idol worship and sacrifice. Buddha's preachings
were mainly related to ‘Purity of thought and conduct’ given in his ‘8-fold path’. He said that males and
females had an equal capacity for awakening/enlightenment. But he gave women additional rules
(Vinaya) to follow.
Mahaparinirvana (महापररननिााण) – Nirvana of Buddha himself is called Mahaparinirvana.
Bodhistva (बोचध तति) in Buddhism means an enlightened (bodhi) existence (sattva) or an ‘enlightenment-
being’.
Jataka tales (जातक कथा) tell previous lives of Gautama as a Bodhisattva. Fresco paintings in the caves of
Ajanta (अजांता की गुफाएां) also tell about Jatak Tales and about life of Buddha.
Later on, Buddhism was divided into various branches. Out of these, ‘Hinayana’ (टहनयान) is the oldest. It
doesn’t show Buddha as a person, but only through certain symbols. Later on ‘Mahayana’ (महायान)
Buddhism depicted him in human form that we see today in pictures etc and its major element was belief
in Bodhisattva (These were supposed to be persons who had attained enlightenment.). ‘Thervada’ is also
a branch of Buddhism. "Mahayana" also refers to the path of seeking complete enlightenment for the
benefit of all sentient beings, also called "Bodhisattvayana". So Bodhisttva is an important part of
teachings of Mahayana. Workship of Gods and Goddesses is the most fundamental difference of
Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism. Mahayana sect (पांथ) worships Buddha as God.
After Buddha died, his teachings were spread by many kings and merchants. Many monasteries were
made for this. In monasteries, there are two major parts – ‘Chaitya’ (चैतय) – Where rituals and
ceremonies took place and ‘Vihar’ (विहार) – where disciples lived.
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Stupas are the places where relics (अिशेष) of Buddha were placed after his death. Sanchi Stupa in Madhya
Pradesh is one of such famous Stupa.
Anicca in Buddhist philosophy means – ‘That all things that come to be have an end’.
In Buddhist philosophy, there are 8 scared symbols. They represents various stages of life of Budhha
Some of which are –
a. Dharmachakra - The wheel of the law. It has 8 spokes representing the eightfold path of Buddha.
b. Lotus – It represents ‘Purity’. It can be of any color except blue.
c. A wheel - It stood for first seremon at Sarnath,
d. Empty chair - as Mahaparinirvana,
e. Peeple Tree as enlightenment
Arhat or Arhant (अहात) in Buddhism, is a spiritual (आध्याजतमक) practitioner who is liberated and has
attained nirvana. (Note - In Jainism, Arihant (अररहन्त or "destroyer of enemies") a step before becoming
siddha.)
Bimbisara once asked Buddha to share his Kingdom, but Buddha denied to rule.
According to Hinduism, Buddha is considered as an incarnation (अितार) of Vishnu.
After his death, many Buddhist Councils ( गां ीनत/ पररषद) were held aiming at preserving his teachings –
a. First Buddhist Council (पहली बौद्ध ग ां ीनत/ पररषद) was held soon after his death. It was sponsored by
king Ajatsatru in Rajgir.
b. Second Buddhist council took place at ‘Vaishali’ 100 years after first council
c. Third Buddhist council was held at Patliputra under patronage ( ांरक्षण) of King Ashoka Ashoka sent
missionaries in various countries after this council. Ashoka was much influenced by a Buddhist monk
called - Upagupta
d. Fourth Buddhist Council – They were actually two councils. One was held in Sri Lanka and other in
Kashmir. The fourth council in Kashmir was organized by Kushan ruler Kanishka. Kanishka patronized
Mahayana form of Buddhism.
Buddhacarita is the earliest full biography written by the poet Asvaghosa.
'Bull' in Buddhism is associated with ‘Birth of Buddha’.
During the time of Harshavardhana, a great Buddhist assembly was held at Prayag and Harshvardhna
organized religious assembly at Prayag after every five years.
Sri Lanka was the first foreign country where Buddhism was preached.
Vajrayana is also called Tantric Buddhism.
The Buddha's first disciples (अनयु ायी) were his five former ascetic (योगी) companions.
Nalanda is considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. It was the center of Buddhist
learning and research in the world from 450 to 1193 CE.
Zen in Buddhism means – ‘Meditation’
Original Buddhist religious texts were compiled in Pali
JAINA
Rishabha (ऋषभ) is the founder of Jainism and is regarded as first Tirthankar (तीथंकर). However,
‘Mahavira’ the 24th Tirthankara gave Jainism its current form. He was born in 599 BC. Mahavir's father’s
name was Siddhartha who was a kshatriya. Mahavir was married to ‘Yashoda’ and had a daughter named
‘Priyadarshna’. ‘Kaivalya’ means perfect knowledge, which Mahavir attained at the age of 42 and
became a ‘Jina’ or ‘conqueror’. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state
of Supreme Being is called a ‘jina’ or victor. As after attaining Kaivalya he was known a Jina, so his
followers are known as Jains. Mahavir was born in ‘Kundangrama’ and attained enlightenment at ‘Pav
Puri’.
Mahavir gave his first sermon in Pali Language. Angas are holy texts of Jainas which are written in Prakrit
language. There are 12 Angas.
It should be noted that while Buddha didn’t preached (उपदेश टदया) vegetarianism, but Jains call for strict
vegetarianism. Further, Jains also call for strict ‘Ahimsa or Non-Violence’ (अटहां ा). This was also the
reason that farmers and soldiers couldn’t be attracted towards Jainism as farmers have to kill pests (कीट)
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and other animals to protect their crops and hence, Jainism was adopted by traders largely. Mahavira
added one more doctrine (स द्धाांत) to the four other doctrines propounded by previous teachers –
‘Doctrine of Brahmcharya’ (ब्रह्मचया का स द्धाांत). Since, principles of Jainism were tough, they couldn’t
attract masses.
According to Mahavira, God doesn’t exist.
In Jainism, a Tirthankara (तीथंकर) is a human being who helps in achieving liberation and enlightenment
rd
as an "Arihant". Parshavanath was 23 Thirthankara and there are total 24 Tirthankara and Mahavir was
last Tirthankar.
Triratnas (Three Jewels) in Jainism - Right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. ( ही आस्था, ही ज्ञान
और ही आचरण)
First Buddhist Council was held at Patliputra and second was held at Vallabhi.
Later on Jainas were divided into Shwetambras (चिेताम्बर) and Digambaras (टदगांबर). Shwetambara wear
white cloth, while Digambara don’t wear anything.
Chandragupta Maurya was one of the rulers who converted to Jainism towards end of his life and he took
it to Karnatka.
Bhadrabahu is credited to take Jainism to South India. He also wrote one of the most sacred/holy book of
Jainas – ‘Kalpasutra’. In this book, all the 24 Tirthankaras and their lives are written about.
In India, the famous Jain temples are the Dilwara Temples in Mount Abu, Rajasthan, Shravanabelagola in
Hassan District in Karnataka.
Jains have the highest degree of literacy for a religious community in India.
Gandhi took idea o Ahimsa from Jainism.
OTHER Events in Early History
Alexander (स कांदर) defeated King Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern-day Jhelum,
Pakistan) in 326 BCE and he was the first European Invader (आक्रमणकारी) in India. However, he couldn’t
win further part of India as his armies were afraid of mighty (शजक्तमान) kings like Nanda (नांद) kings of
Magadh.
CHAPTER 3
(Important) MAURYA DYNASTY (मौया िांश) – 321-185 BCE
The two literary works Arthasastra and Indica are the main source
material for Maurya period. Credit for the establishment of Maurya
Dynasty goes to Chandragupta Maurya and his minister Chanyakya,
who defeated Empreror Ghanananda of Nanda Dynasty in 322 BCE
to establish it. (मौया िांश की स्थापना का श्रेय चन्द्रगुप्त मौया और उ के मन्त्री
चाणक्य को टदया जाता है, जजन्होंने नंदवंश के म्राट घनानन्द को पराजजत कर
इ की स्थापना 322 ई ा पि
ू ा की). Chankya (rel name was Vishnugupta)
was humiliated (नीचा टदखलाया) by Nandas, to revenge (प्रनतशोध) that
he made Chandragupta king. Vishakhadutta also wrote a Sanskrit
play on this named ‘Mudrarakshasa’ (मुद्राराक्ष ) about Chanakya and
Chandragupta Maurya. Patliputra (today’s Patna) was capital of
Mayrya Dynasty. The name ‘Maurya’ comes from the word ‘Mura’
(मुरा) which according to some was the name of mother of
Chandragupta and who was a Shudra (शुद्र). Selucus Nictor (He became king of Syria after the death of Alexander)
attacked Mauryan Empire during Chandragupta Maurya period and was defeated on banks of Sindhu River and
after signing a peace treaty Chandragupta married Helina the daughter of Selucus. He embraced Jainism during
last years of his life under influence of Bhadrabahu and died at Sarvanabelagola (It is one of the holiest places for
Jainas and is n Karnataka).
It was during Chandragupta that Megasthnese,
(मेगस्थनीज) the ambassador of Selucus, also came
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to India in his court (दरबार). He wrote a book called Indica.

After Chandragupta, Bindusara (त्रबन्द ु ार) become king. After Bidusara, Ashoka (अशोक) become king. Ashoka ruled
from 273 BCE to 232 BCE (273 ई ा पि
ू ा -232 ई ा पि
ू )ा . During time of Ashoka great massacre of Kalinga happened
and he adopted Buddhism after being touched by it. (अशोक के मय में कसलांग का भारी नर ांहार हुआ जज े द्रवित
होकर उ ने बौद्ध धमा ग्रहण कर सलया।). Kalinga war took place in 261 BC. He was influenced by Buddhist monk ( ाध)ु
Upagupta (उपगुप्त).
Brihadratha was the last ruler/king of this dynasty. In 185 BCE he was killed by his commander/general
Pushyamitra and a new dynasty of Sunga Dynasty was started. (इ िांश के अांनतम राजा बहृ िथ मौया था। 185 ई.प.ू में उ के
ेनापनत पुष्यसमत्र ने उ की हतया कर िाली और शग
ुं वंश नाम का एक नया राजिांश आरां भ हुआ।)
Other information on Maurya Dynasty –
a. Chanakya wrote the famous book on Politics called ‘Arthshastra’ (अथाशास्त्र)
b. Chandragupta is referred to as Sandrocottos in the Greek accounts.
c. Ashok was also called ‘Devnam Priya’ ('दे िनाम वप्रय') or Priydarshi.
d. One of the important aspects of Ashok’s rule was that many ‘rock edicts’ (सशलालेख). Ashok got inspiration
for inscriptions from Iranian ruler ‘Darius’. (अशोक को असभलेखों की प्रेरणा ईरान के शा क 'िेररय ' े समली थी) They
tell us about his ‘Dhamma’ (धम्म). His dhamma is a set of principles which are influenced by Buddhism.
Sarnath pillar is one of such inscriptions (असभलेख) where four lions stand on a pillar. The Ashokan
inscriptions were in local script. Most of the edicts were in Prakrit with Brahmi script. Those found in
north-west, in the region of Peshawar,
are in the Kharoshthi script (derived
from Aramaic script used in Iran).
Maski edict is the only edict which
mentions the name 'Ashoka'.
e. 3rd Buddhist Council was held during
Ashoka’s time at Patliputra. Ashoka
also sent his son Mahindra and
daughter Sanghmitra for preaching
Buddhism in Sri Lanka
f. It was Ashoka who dug irrigational
canals from Sudarshana tank, Gujarat,
he also built city of Sri Nagar in
Kashmir according to some texts. He
also did many other welfare works like
– Planting of trees, building of hospitals
etc.
g. Taxila (तक्षीला) was the centre of
education during Mauryan regime
(शा न).
h. Pali (पाली) was the language of the
common masses (जन) during Mauryan
Empire.
i. Minor Rock-edict –XIII (13िें लघु सशला
लेख) inscription gives an account of the Kalinga war and its effects.
SUNGA DYNASTY (शुंग वंश) – 185-75 BCE
Sunga Dynasty as started by Pushyamitra (पुष्यसमत्र) Sunga who killed he last Mauryan King to become king of
Magadh. After him, his son Agnimitra became the second king. Devhuti (दे िहूनत) was the last king of this dynasity.
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KANV DYNASTY (कण्व वंश) – 75-30 BCE

This dynasty was started by a Brahman named Vasudev (िा द ु ेि) who was the minister of last Sunga King Devhuti.
He killed Devhuti in a conspiracy (षड़यांत्र) and became king. Susharma ( श ु माा) was last king of this dynasty and he
was killed by Simuk who started Andhra Dynasty.
STVAHANA EMPIRE (सािवाहन साम्राज्य) – 230 BC-220 AD/CE
It reached at its pinnacle (सशखर) after decline of Mauryan Kingdom. Srimukh/Srimukh (स मक ु /श्रीमख
ु ) was its first
king. Its capital was ‘Pratisthan’ (प्रनतष्ठान) on Godavari River. It was mainly limited to Deccan (दक्कन) area.
Gautamiputra Satakarni (गौतमीपत्रु ताकरनी) was the greatest king of Satvahana kingdom. The Satavahanas are
credited for establishing peace in the country, resisting the onslaught of foreigners (विदे सशयों के हमले का विरोध) after
the decline of Mauryan Empire. One of their biggest achievements was creation of many temples in Ellora. The
Satavahanas also contributed greatly to the repair and improvement of the Buddhist stupa of Sanchi.
SHAKA EMPIRE (शक साम्राज्य)
Shakas in India arrived from Europe. After weakening of the Mauryan Empire they attacked India and settled down
at many places. Saka kings called themselves as ‘Satrap’ in India (भारत में शक राजा अपने आप को 'क्षत्रप' कहते थे।). Saka
Rulers in India had two branches – Northern Satraps (उततरी क्षत्रप) in Taxila and Mathura and Western Satrap
(पजचचमी क्षत्रप) in Nasik and Ujjain.
(Important) KUSHANA EMPIRE (कुषाण साम्राज्य) – 60-240 AD/CE
Kushans (कुषाण) came from Central Asia and took advantage of current political situation of India. Kujula Kadphises
(कुजुल किफाइस ) was the founder of this dynasty and Kushans originally belonged to Yuchi/Yuezhi Tribe (यइु सश
जानत). Kanishka (कननष्क) – the greatest of all Kushan kings and 5 Kushan King - was a devotee (अनय ु ायी) of
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‘Mahayana’ (महायान) branch of Buddhism and has assumed title (उपाचध) of Devaputra (दे िपुत्र). His territory was
administered from two capitals - Purushapura (now Peshawar in northwestern Pakistan) and Mathura, in northern
India. In fact, it is said that Buddhism got divided into Hinayana and Mahayana during the Fourth Buddhist Council
(बौद्ध धमा की चौथी ग ां ीनत) that Kanishka organized in Kundal Vana (कुण्िल िन) Kashmir. It was chaired (अध्यक्ष) by
Vasudev (ि ुसमत्र) and Co-chaired (उपाध्यक्ष) by Ashvaghosh (अचिघोष) (Ashvaghosh was ‘court poet’ (राजकवि) of
Kanishka. He wrote ‘Buddhacharita’ (बुद्धचररत्र) and ‘Saundarananda’. Nagarjuna (नागाजन ुा ) who was a philosopher
and mathematician also participated in this council and wrote ‘Madhyamika Sutra’ ('माध्यसमक त्र ू '). Though
Kanishka was a follower (अनुयायी) of Buddhism, he was tolerant ( ाटहष्ण)ु to other religions also and pictures of
gods of Greek, Hindu etc are found on his coins. Charaka (चरक) – the famous physician (चचककत क) who wrote
‘Charaka Samhita’ ('चरक टां हता') – was also a jewel (रतन) of his court. Bharavi (भारवि) the great dramatist (नाटककार)
was also in his court, he wrote ‘Swapanavsadatta’ (स्िप्निा िदतता) which is considered as the first full play (नाटक)
of India.
Kanishka was a great patron of art and many statues of Buddha are found in Matura in India and Gandhara in
Pakistan of today. The style was influenced by Indo-Greek (इांिो - यन ू ानी) art of making sculptures (मनू तायाां). Gandhara
art (गाांधार कला) flourished (फला - फूला) during his time which is seen in statues at Mathura, Gandhara etc
Other information on Kushan dynasty –
a. They issued the first gold coin of India, introduced under Vima Kadphises
b. Kanishka started ‘Saka Era’ from 78 A.D.
c. The last known great emperor ( म्राट) of Kushan was Vasudeva I (िा ुदेि प्रथम).
(Important) GUPTA EMPIRE (गुप्ि साम्राज्य) – 320-550 AD/CE
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This dynasty was founded by Sri Gupta (श्री गुप्त) in 280 AD

with its capital in Patliputra, however Gupta Era (गुप्त काल)
actually started with Chandragupta I in 320 AD/CE and kings
of Gupta dynasty called themselves as Maharajadhiraj after
him only. Guptas were feudatories (जागीरदार/ ामन्त) of
Kushanas.
Some important kings of this dynasty in ‘chronological order’
(कालक्रम) are -
Sri Gupta (First) > Ghatotkacha > Chandragupta I >
Samudragupta > Chandragupta II Vikramaditya 375-
415 AD > Kumaragupta I > Skandagupta >>>
Vishnugupta (Last)
Gupta time was classical age (क्लास कल युग) of Indian history
when much of the Indian subcontinent (उपमहाद्िीप) was
reunited under the Gupta Empire. This period has also been
called the Golden Age (स्िणा यग ु ) of India and was marked by
extensive achievements in science, technology, engineering, art, literature ( ाटहतय), mathematics, astronomy,
religion etc. The Gupta period produced scholars (विद्िान) such as Kalidasa (He is called ‘Indian Shakespeare’
wrote Abhigyan Shankutlam (असभज्ञान शाकुन्तलम),् Kumar Sambhava (कुमार ांभि), Malvikaagnimitram
(मालविकाजननसमत्रम),् Vikramorvashiyam (विक्रमोिाशीयम)् Raghuvansha (रघि
ु ांश), Meghdutam (मेघदत ू ) etc), Aryabhata
(was a mathematician and invented ‘Zero’, decimal system and wrote Surya Sidhanta ( ूया स द्धान्त)), Varahamihira
(िराह समटहर was an astronomer (खगोलशास्त्री) and wrote ‘Panchsidhantika’ ('पञ्चस द्धजन्तका') and Brihat Samhita (बहृ त ्
ांटहता)), Vishnu Sharma (wrote Panchtantra (पांचतांत्र)) etc. Further, it also led to resurrection/revival (पुनरूतथान) of
Hinduism and they patronized ( ांरक्षण दे ना) Sanskrit language.
The empire gradually declined (पतन) because of many factors such as substantial (पयााप्त) loss of territory to their
own erstwhile (भूतपि ू )ा feudatories (जागीरदार/ ामन्त) and the invasion (आक्रमण) by the Huna (हुण) from Central Asia.
Finally, Harsh Vardhana succeeded Gupta Empire in 7th Century (He became king in 606 AD/CE).
Other information on Gupta Dynasty –
a. Fa Xian (फाह्यान) – He came to India during Chandragupta II Vikramaditya’s rule in 5th century (405
CE/AD).
b. Garuda (गरुड़) was symbol of Gupta Empire.
c. Samudragupta is called ‘Napoleon of India’.
d. The Ajanta paintings were also made during the Gupta period. They are Buddhist paintings in Ajanta
caves.
e. The Dashavatara Temple or Vishnu Temple also called Gupta temple at Deogarh.
f. Bharavi (भारवि) wrote Kiratarjuniyam (ककराताजन ुा ीयम)् which is based on ‘Van parva’ (िनपिा) episode of
Mahabharata also lived during Gupta period.
g. Shudrak (शूद्रक) wrote Mrichkatikam (मच्ृ छकटटकम) during Gupta period.
h. 57 BCE - Beginning of Vikram Era (विक्रम ांित). It was started by emperor Vikramaditya of Ujjain following
his victory over the Sakas in 56 BCE and not by Chandragupta VIkramaditya.
i. Vishakhadutta (विशाखदतत) wrote Mudrarakhshasam (मुद्राराक्ष म)् during Gupta period.
j. The gold coins during Gupta Period were called ‘Rupaka’
k. Kumargupta is said to have started Nalanda University of Bihar. He was also called ‘Mahendraditya’.
l. Harisena was court poet of Samudragupta. He is said to be writer of ‘Allahabad/Prayag inscriptions’ (प्रयाग
प्रशजस्त लेख) of Allahabad/Prayag Pillar which was erected by Samudra Gupta. Samudra Gupta was a good
player of Veena. He was also called ‘Kaviraj’ and Chandra Gupta II Vikramaditya was his son.
m. Kumara Gupta I was the king who had maximum inscriptions. He later in his life became a Buddhist.
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n. Bhaskaracharya wrote 'Siddhanta Siromani' (स द्धाांत

सशरोमणण).
o. Mehrauli (महरौली) iron pillor inscription in Delhi
belongs to Chandragupta II Vikramaditya. He also
made Ujjain in Malwa as the second capital of Gupta
Empire. 9 great poets or Nav Ratnas existed in his
court. Dhanvantri (धन्िांतरर) the famous physician
(चचककत क) was also from his court. Physicians of
Gupta period also knew about surgery (शर्लय चचककत ा)
p. The officers of the village during the Guptas period
were called – Gramika (ग्रासमक) and Bhojak (भोजक)
q. Bhasa (भा ) wrote Swapanawasavdutta
(स्िप्निा िदततम) and Charudatta (चारुदततम)्
(Important) HARSHVARDHANA (हषगवधगन) – 606-647
AD/CE
After fall of Gupta Empire, Hunas established control in his
Western Empire (today’s Punjab in Pakistan) and Prabhakar
Vardhana started ‘Vardhan Dynasty’ which s also called Pushabhuti dynasty from Thaneshwar (थानेचिर near
Kurukshetra, Haryana). In 605 AD, Prabhakar Vardhana died and left two sons behind – Rajyavardhana and
Harshvardhana. Out of these, elder brother Rajyavardhana also died and in 606 AD/CE and Harshavardhana
became king at the age of 16 Years. After his accession (पदप्राजप्त), Harsha united the two kingdoms of Thanesar
and Kannauj (कन्नौज) and transferred his capital from Thanesar to Kannauj. He was also known as Shiladitya
(सशलाटदतय)
Harsha's ambition (महतिाकाांक्षा) of extending his power to the Deccan and Southern India were stopped by the
great Chalukya (चालक्ु य) Emperor of South India Pulakeshin II (पुलकेसशन द्वितीय), the Chalukya king of
Vatapi/Badami in Northern Karnataka along the banks of river Narmada. As mentioned in Aihole inscription (ऐहोल
प्रशजस्त, Karnataka) Pulakeshin defeated Harsha's army on the banks of the river Narmada in 620. A peace
agreement was reached upon and the river Narmada was marked as the southern boundary of Harsha's kingdom.
Harsha himself was a good writer and he wrote – Ratnavali (रतनािली), Priyadarshika and Nagananda (नागानन्द).
Banbhatta (बाणभट्ट) was his court poet who wrote ‘Harshcharita’ (हषाचररत). Harsha was the chief patron
(पोषक/ ांरक्षक) of the University of Nalanda where about 10,000 students from all parts of India and abroad studied.
It was during his time that Heun Tsang (ह्िेन ाांग also called Xuanzang) the Chinese traveler and Buddhist monk
(सभक्षु) came to India and stayed at Nalanda. He is also called as ‘traveler Saint’. Harsha himself was a Mahayana
Buddhist. He ruled for 41 years. After Harsha's death, his empire died with him.
Some other important information of Harsha ruler –
a. The last Hindu king of North India was – Harshavardhana
b. His brother Rajyavardhana was killed by Sasanka, king of Gauda with the help of king of Malwa
c. He organized
d. Mahamoksha parishad which was held once in 5 years at Prayag (today’s Allahbad).
CHALUKYA DYNASTY (चालुक्य वंश) – 543-753 AD/CE
Chalukyas ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the ‘Badami Chalukyas’,
(बादामी चालक्
ु य) ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century (543 AD/CE). The Chalukya
dynasty was established by Pulakesi I in 543. Pulakeshin II was most famous king of Early Chalukyas or
Badami/Vatapi Chalukyas in modern day Karnataka. The last Badami Chalukya king, Kirtivarman II, (कीनतािमान
द्वितीय) was overthrown (परास्त) by the Rashtrakuta King Dantidurga (दजन्तदग
ु )ा in 753 AD/CE.
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Other two Chalukyas are – Eastern Chalukyas (पूिी चालक्ु य) or Chalukyas of Vengi (िेंचग) and Wesstern Chalukyas or
Chalukyas of Kalyani. Western Chalukyas ruled from 973–1189 AD/CE, and Eastern Chalukyas ruled from 624–
1189.
Architectural style is called Chalukyan style or Karnataka-Dravidian Style (कनााटक - द्रविड़ शैली) and has following
major achievements – Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Mahakuta in modern Karnataka state have their
magnificent temples etc. Virupaksha temple (िीरूपक्ष मांटदर) in Dravidian style at Pattadakal. Badami, a town in the
Bagalkot District in the north part of Karnataka has Cave Temples (गुफा मांटदर) made by Chalukyas. Aihoḷe has many
temples in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka. Vijnaneshwara who wrote Mitakshara, a book on Hindu law was
also lived during Chalukya period.
Other important information related to Chalukyas -
a. Heun Tsang (ह्िेन ाांग) was the Chinese traveler who visited the kingdom of Pulakesin II.
b. Narasimhavarman I defeated and killed Pulakesin II in the battle of Manimangalam.
c. Vikramaditya I restored (बहाल) the glory of Chalukyas in 655 AD/CE.
d. Aihole inscriptions (असभलेख) describe the victories of Pulakesin II.
e. The statue of Gomathesvara (Bahubali) in Sravana Belagola was erected during the period of Badami
Chalukyas. Gomathesvara (Bahubali) was an Arihant and his statue is one of the biggest Jain statues in
India.
f. Telugu and Kannada languages emerged during period of Chalukyas.
RASHTRAKUTA DYNASTY (राष्रकूट वंश) – 753-982 AD/CE
Rashtrakuta dynasty was started by Dantidurga in 753 and he made Nashik his capital after he killed the last
Chalukya king Kirtivarman II and ended Chalukya dynasty. Later Manyakhet (मान्यखेट/मानखेड़) became their
capital. At the same time the Pala dynasty of Bengal and the Prathihara dynasty of Malwa were rising in eastern
and northwestern India respectively. Amoghavarsha I (अमोघिषा) was the most famous king of this dynasty and
wrote Kavirajamarga, a landmark (मील का पतथर) literary work in the Kannada language. Kannada language
flourished during his time.
Brahmanism and Jaina religion flourished
(फला) during the Rashtrakutas. Most
famous temple of Rashtrakuta is Kailash
temple of Elora made in Dravida Style by
Krishna I. Other important contributions
are the sculptures of Elephanta Caves in
modern Maharashtra as well as the
Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain
Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern
Karnataka, all of which are UNESCO World
Heritage Sites (यनू ेस्को विचि धरोहर स्थल).
The Most powerful ruler of Rashtrakutas
was perhaps Krishna III.
PALLAV DYNASTY (पल्लव वंश) – 2nd -
9th Century AD/CE
Pallavas ruled regions of today’s northern
Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra
nd th
Pradesh between the 2 to the 9
century AD/CE. The Pallavas gained
prominence (विसशष्ठता) after the decline
(पिन) of the Satavahana dynasty, whom
the Pallavas served as feudatories (जागीरदार/ ामन्त). Their capital was Kanchi and they were Hindu rulers. They
captured Kanchi from Chola under rule of Sivaskandavarma.
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One of the most notable (प्रस द्ध) achievements of Pallavas was construction of rock cut temples at Mahabalipuram
(महाबलीपुरम) or Mamlapuram (ममार्ललापुरम) in today’s Tamil Nadu in Dravida Style (द्रविड़ शैली). They were
constructed under the rule of Mahendravarman I (महे न्द्रिमान प्रथम) and Narsimhavarman I (नस म्ा ह्िमान प्रथम). Early
temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram and the Shore Temple built by
Narasimhavarman II in Mahabalipuram are some of the finest examples of Pallava art.
Some other important information about Pallava dynasty -
a. Famous saint Appar lived in court of Mahendravarma I.
b. Mahendravarman I wrote Mattavilasa Prahasanam (मजततिला प्रह नम) in Sanskrit.
c. Chinese pilgrim Hieun-Tsang visited the court of Narasimhavarma I. Famous poet Bharavi also lived in the
court of Narasimhavarma I. Narasimhavarma I is also credited to have built city of Mahabalipuram.
d. Title of Narasimhavarma was ‘Vatapikonda’ (as he had destroyed the city of Vatapi/Badami) and
‘Mamla’.
e. Aparajita Varma was last Pallava ruler and was killed by a Chalukya ruler.
f. Pallavas had a strong navy (नौ ेना) also.
GURJAR PRATIHAR DYNASTY (गुर्रग प्रतिहार वंश) – 6th Century CE-1036 CE
Gurjar Pratihars ruled for many years in North West India after Gupta rule. Kannauj was the capital of imperial
(शाही) Gurjara Pratiharas. Mihir Bhoj (समटहरभोज) or Raja Bhoj I (राजा भोज प्रथम) was the most powerful ruler of this
dynasty. The most important contribution of Pratihars is that they resisted (विरोध ककया) attacks of Arabs in 712
AD/CE. Rajyapala (राज्यपाल) was the last Pratihar king and he was defeated by Ghazni.
First major Pratihar king was Nagbhata. He was the one who occupied Kannauj.
PALA DYNASTY (पाल वंश) – 750-1174 AD/CE
It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal and today’s Bihar. Gopala (गोपाल) was the first ruler from the
dynasty. He came to power in 750 in Gaur by a democratic election (probably the only democratic election in
medieval India). His son was Dharampala who was the greatest ruler of Pala dynasty. Dharampala united Bengal
and Bihar, he assumed title of 'Paramasanga'. Nalanda University (a Buddhist University) reached at its peak
during Pala rule and Dharampala established Vikramshila (विक्रमसशला) University for Buddhist teachings. Both
Nalanda and Vikramshila universities were destroyed by Bahktiyar Khalji (बजततयार ण़िलजी) in 1208 AD/CE. The
empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala (son of Dharampala). The Pala Empire can be
considered as the golden era of Bengal. The Pala Empire eventually disintegrated in the 12th century weakened by
attacks of the Sena dynasty followed by the invasion (आक्रमण) of Bakhtiyar Khilji's Muslim armies.
The Palas were responsible for the spread of Mahayana Buddhism to Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and the
Malay archipelago (द्िीप मूह). Somapura Mahaviharaa, a creation of Dharmapala, at Paharpur, Bangladesh, is the
largest Buddhist Vihara in the Indian subcontinent.
Pala, Rashtrakuta and Pratihara struggled for Kannauj for many years as it was an important city from trade,
strategic (रणनीनत) etc point of view.
(Important) CHOLA EMPIRE ( चोल साम्राज्य) – 848-
1279 AD/CE
Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the
longest-ruling dynasties in southern India. Though, the
royal empire is agreed to be started by Vijyala (विजयालय )
Chola in 848, Chola ruled in South India much before than
that from around 2nd century BCE. Their capital shifted
from time to time and Tanjaur was one of their capitals.
Tiger was their royal symbol.
Rajaraja I (राजराज प्रथम) was the greatest of all Chola kings
and built Brihadeshwara temple ('बहृ दीचिर मजन्दर') at
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Tanjore (तांजािरु ). His son Rajendra was also a great king. Rajendra Chola I assumed title of ‘Gangaikonda Chola’
(गांगई कौंिचोल) after his victory of Ganga plains. He built a new town called GangaiKonda CholaPuram.
Cholas captured (कब्जा) territories outside India also. For example – Sri Lanka (called Ceylon at that time),
Maldives etc.
Another achievement of Cholas was their art of Bronze sculpture making. ‘Natraj’ (नटराज) statue is one of the
famous examples of Chola art. Kamban (कांबन) the famous poet (He wrote Tamil Ramayanam ‘Ramavatharam’,
popularly known as Kambaramayanam) flourished during the reign of Kulothunga Chola III (he was the last
important Chola king).
Karaikal founded Kaveri Patnam and was greatest Chola during Sangam Age.
Parantaka I captured Madurai from the Pandyas and he was called Madurai Konda.
The cholas were the pioneers (अग्रणी) in the field of local self government. 'BRAHMA-DEYA' was called land gifted
to Brahmanas
HOYSALA KINGDOM (होयसल वंश) – 1026-1326 AD/CE
The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur but was later moved to Halebidu. Among Hoysala kings,
Vishnuvardhan (विष्णिु धान) was most powerful king. The empire ended after attack of Allaudin Khalji (अलाउद्दीन
ण़िलजी).
The empire is remembered today primarily for its temple architecture. Over a hundred surviving temples are
scattered across Karnataka, including the well known Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at
Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura.
PANDYAS DYNASTY (पाण््य वंश) 6th Century BCE – 16th Century AD/CE
Pandyan or Pandian dynasty was an ancient Tamil dynasty, one of the three Tamil dynasties (the other two being
Chola and Chera). Meenakshi temple of Madurai is constructed by Pandyas. Their capital was also Madurai (मदरु ई)
while Korakai was capital of earlier Pandyas. For 300 years, Pandyas remain under Cholas. In 1219 AD/CE Maravarman Sundara
Pandya invaded Chola kingdom and defeated Rajaraja III and set fire to Tanjore.
(Important) VIJAYNAGARA EMPIRE
(ववर्यनगर साम्राज्य) – 1336-1646 AD/CE
It was an empire based in South India, in the Deccan
Plateau (दक्कन के पठार) region. It was established in
1336 by Harihara I (हररहर प्रथम) and his brother
Bukka I (बुक्का प्रथम) of Sangama Dynasty. Harihara I
was first ruler of this dynasty as succeeded by
Bukka. The empire is named after its capital city of
Vijayanagara, whose ruins (खांिहर) surround present
day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka.
Sultan of Delhi was Muhammad Bin Tughluq when
VIjaynagar Empire was established. The empire
actually had many dynasties like (in chronological
(कालक्रमानु ार) order) – Sangama Dynasty ( ग ां म िांश),
Saluva Dynasty ( ालि ु िां श), Tuluva Dynasty (त ल
ु ि
ु िांश)
and Aravidu Dynasty (अरवििु िांश). They were Hindu
kings. Vijayanagara and Bahmani (बहमनी) Sultans
fought frequently for control over Raichur Doab
(रायचरू दोआब) to control resource rich areas.
Devraya II (दे िराय द्वितीय (1422-1446)) was one of the
13
greatest kings of Vijaynagara Empire. After him the empire declined and it was rejuvenated (कफर े जीिांत) by
Krishandev Rai who is considered the greatest of all Vijayanagar kings. Italian Travellar Nicolas Konti visited
Vijayanagaram during the period of Devaraya II. Devaraya II built Vittala Swami temple In Hampi.
Krishandev Rai (कृष्णदे ि राय (1509-1530)) was the most famous ruler of Tuluva dynasty. He also made a treaty
( ांचध) with Portugese. He also defeated Bijapur king Ismail Adil Shah. He wrote Amuktamalyada (अमुक्तामार्लयादा).
Eight poets Ashtadiggajas (अष्टटदनगज) also flourished (फला) in his court. Krishnadev Rai was also called Andhra
Bhoja (आांध्र भोज). He also built Hazara Ramaswami temple at Hampi.
Other important information about VIjaynagar empire –
a. The Persian (फार ी) ambassador who visited Vijayanagara empire in 1443 was Abdul Razzak.
b. The gold coins of Vijayanagara kingdom were called as - Varah
c. Tallikota war between Vijayanagara and Deccan Sultans took place in 1565 and Vijayanagara king
Ramaraya was defeated.
BAHAMANI SULTANATE (बहमनी सल्िनि) – 1347-1527 AD/CE
Bahmanid Sultanate was the first independent Islamic Kingdom in South India. It was contemporary ( मकालीन) of
Vijayanagara Empire. The Hindu Vijayanagar Empire often came into conflict with the Islamic Bahmani Sultanate.
The kingdom was established by an Turk (तुका) named ‘Alauddin Hasan’ ('अलाउद्दीन ह न') also called ‘Hasan Gangu’
('ह न गांगू') as he gained power under the guidance of a Brahmin named ‘Gangu’ who was a governor of
Muhammad bin Tughluq and who has revolted against him. Gulbarga (called Ahasanabad at that time) (1347–
1425) and Bidar were their capitals over the time. He divided Bahamani into four provinces - Gulbarga,
Daulatabad, Berar and Bidar (गुलबगा, दौलताबाद, बरार और बीदर)
DECCAN SULTANATES (दक्कन सल्िनि) – 1527-1686 AD/CE
The Deccan sultanates were five Muslim-ruled medieval (मध्यकालीन) kingdoms—Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar,
Bidar, and Berar—of south-western India. These kingdoms became independent during the breakup of the
Bahmani Sultanate. They were generally rivals (प्रनतद्िांद्िी), but they did ally (समत्र) against the Vijayanagar empire
and in 1565 after Battle of Talikota (तालीकोटा की लड़ाई), Vijayanagar empire was permanently weakened.
Other important information about Deccan Sultanate –
a. Chand Bibi was one of the rulers of Ahmednagar who fought bravely against Mughal Army of Akbar.
b. The greatest monument in Bijapur is Gol Gumbaz, the mausoleum (मक़बरा) of Muhammad Adil Shah.
c. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah constructed Char Minar in today’s Hyderabad.
(Important) DELHI SULTANATE (ददल्ली सल्िनि) – 1206-1526
AD/CE
In India, Delhi became center of power after decline of earlier dynasties. In
the 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern
India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Rajput territory. First
dynasty under the Delhi Sultanate was Ghulam Dynasty (मामलक ू अथिा गुलाम
िांश) whose first ruler was Qutb-ud-din Aibak (कुतबु द्दीन ऐबक). He was a slave
of Muhammad Ghor (मुहम्मद गौरी).
Qutub Minar - the world's tallest brick minaret (मीनार), was built by Qutb-
ud-din Aibak of the Slave dynasty. He was also founder of slave dynasty.
Qutb-ud-din Aibak was also called ‘Lakh basksh’ (लाख बख्श) or giver of
Lakhs. He died while playing game of Chaugan (चौगन), when he fell from
horse.
Khalji dynasty was founded by Jalaludin Phiroz Khalji (जलालुद्दीन कफरोज ण़िलजी). His nephew Juna Khan ('जूना ़िााँ' or
Ala-ud-din Khalji) killed him to himself become Sultan. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to have
enthroned (गद्दी पर बैठाना) one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultana (रज़िया ुर्लताना) (1236–1240). Amir
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Khusro (अमीर खु रों also called Tuti e Hind (तनू त-ए-टहन्द)) was a poet in court of Ala-ud-din Khalji (अलाउद्दीन ण़िलजी).
Giyasuddin Balnban (ग़या द्द ु ीन बलबन) was founder of Balban dynasty and was a Sulatan of Slave Dynasty. Siri was
the capital of Ala-ud-din Khilji. Iltutmish (इर्लतत
ु समश) was the Sultan who shifted the capital from Lahore to Delhi.
He was founder of Shamsi dynasty within Slave Dynasty.
Giyasudin Tuglak (ग़या द्दु ीन तग़
ु लक़) was founder ( ांस्थापक) of Tuglak dynasty. Muhammad Bin Tuglak (मह ु म्मद त्रबन
तुग़लक़)was son of Giyassudin Tuglak. He is infamous (बदनाम) for shifting his capital from Delhi to Devgiri (दे िचगरर)
and then back to Delhi and suffered huge loss of man and material in process. He also once increased taxes when
there was famine (अकाल) in his state. Timur (Tamerlane or तैमूर लांग), attacked the reigning (राज कर रहा) Sultan
Nasir-u-Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty.
Bahlol Lodhi (बहलोल लोदी) was founder of Lodhi dynasty. Sikandar Lodhi shifted the capital from Delhi to Agra.
Ibrahim Lodhi इब्राहीम लोदी was last ruler of Delhi Sultanante.
Under Delhi Sultanate, Empire was divided into Iktas (इक्ता).
(Important) MUGHAL EMPIRE (मुग़ल साम्राज्य) – 1526-1857 AD/CE
It was started by Babur (बाबर) who was a descendent (िांशज) of Timur (तैमूर) on father side and Genghis Khan (चांगेज
खान) on his mother’s side in 1526 when he defeated Ibrahim Shah Lodi (इब्राटहम लोदी), in the First Battle of Panipat.
He was a king of Fargana kingdom in Central Asia and belonged to Chagtai clan (कुल). Umar Sheikh Mirza was
father of Babur. Babur's son Humayun (हुमाय)ाँू succeeded him in 1530; however he was defeated by Sher Shah Suri
in 1939 in Battle of Chausa (चौ ा की लड़ाई). Further, in Battle of Kannuj, Sher Shah completely defeated Humayun
in 1940. During 1553–1556, the Hindu king, Hemu or Hemchandra Vikramaditya acceded to the throne of Delhi by
defeating forces of the Mughal Emperor Akbar at Agra and Delhi. Humayun died by slipping from library stairs in a
building known as ‘Din Panah’. In 1556, Akbar’s forces under Bairam Khan (बैरम खान) (He was the guardian of
Akbar) defeated Hemu in Second Battle of Panipat and Mughals once again came to power. He was called Akbar
as he was a wise ruler. He abolished ( माप्त कर टदया) Zaziya (जज़िया a religious tax on non-Muslims) in 1563,
propagated Din-e-Ilahi (दीन-ए-इलाही) religion which was collection of all religions in 1582, and so on.
BABUR, 1526 > HUMAYUN > AKBAR > JAHANGIR > SHAH JAHAN > AURANGZEB >>> BAHADUR SHAH ZAFAR 1857
Jahangir (Salim), son of Emperor Akbar, ruled the empire from 1605–1627. Noor Jahan was wife of Jahangir and
she played an important role in administration. He was succedded by Shahjahan under whose rule Mughal art and
Architecture was at its peak/zenith (सशखर). He made Taj Mahal, Jama Masjid, Red Fort, Jahangir mausoleum, and
Shalimar Gardens in Lahore. After him Aurangzeb (औरांग़िेब) came to power who was relatively intolerant
(अ टहष्ण)ु king. Later Mughal kings were not very effective. Bahadur Shah Zafar (बहादरु शाह ़िफर) was the last
Mughal king. He was imprisoned (बन्दी) by British at Rangoon after the rebellion (विद्रोह) of 1857 and he died there.
The main outside force contributing to the decline of the Mughal Empire was the Hindu Maratha Empire.
Chatrapati Shivaji declared "Hindu Swarajya" (Independence for Hindus) and raised an army.
Other information regarding Mughal rule –
a. Babur defeated Medini Roy to win battle of Chanderi and acquired Malwa. In the battle of Ghagra Babar
fought against Afghans in 1929.
b. Babar Wrote Tujki-i-Babri in Turky (तुकी). He also wrote Babarnama.
c. Babur gave Sasram to Shershah. Sher Shah Suri was contemporary ( मकालीन) of Babur and Humayun and
he challenged Mughals and ruled till 1545 AD/CE. He built the famous Grand Trunk Road (GT Road). It
was initially made to connect Agra, his capital, with Sasaram, his home town. Later it was extended to
Multan, in today’s Pakistan, and to Sonargaon in Bengal. His mausoleum (मकबरा) lies at Sasram ( ा ाराम)
in Bihar. He issued the silver currency ‘Rupiya’ which was the first Rupee in India. He also introduced a
new currency Dam. The empire of Shershah was divided into ‘Sarkars’ ( रकार), Sarkars were divided into
Parganas (परगना). Mughals also adopted this system of Sher Shah, above Sarkars there were also Subas
( ूबा). Shershah laid foundation for the Ryotwari System.
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d. Gulbadan Begum (was daughter of Babur) wrote Humayun Nama.

e. Hamida Begum (wife of Humayun) built mausoleum (मकबरा) of Humayun.
f. Akbar’s full name was Zalaluddin/Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur (जलालुद्दीन मुहम्मद अकबर) and he was
born in 1942 at Amarkot. He was totally illiterate. Hamida Banu Begam (हमीदा बान)ू was mother of Akbar.
He became king at the age of 13 years. Ain-e-Akbari (आइना-ए-अकबरी) and Akbarnama were written by
Abu Fazl (अबुल फ़िल). He made Fatehpur Sikri his capital in 1571 after victory of Gujarat. Akbar’s
mausoleum (मक़बरा) is in Sikandara which was constructed by Jahangir. He also constructed Ibadat
Khana in Fatepur Sikri in 1575. Abkbar was given epithet (उपाचध) of Zille-i-illahi. Akbar borrowed
Mansabdari system from Persia (फार ). Akbar conquered (विजय प्राप्त की) Kashmir in 1586 and he died in
1605. East India Company in India was established during Akbar’s time in 1600.
g. Persian (फार ी) was the "official" language of the Mughal Empire. Razmnama (ऱिम-नामा) is the name of
Persian edition of illustrated ( चचत्र) Mahabharata made during Akbar’s rule.
h. There were Navratnas (निरतन) in Akbar’s court – Birbal (he was the first and last to accept Din-e-Ilahi
religion of Akbar), Abu Fazl, Todarmal (टोिरमल) (was Finance Minister during Akbar’s time), Mansingh etc.
i. Durgawati (दग ु ाािती) was a famous and brave queen of Gondwana of today’s Madhya Pradesh during
Akbar’s time she died fighting Akbar’s army in 1564.
j. Thomas Roe and Hawkins visited courts of Jahangir.
k. Shah Jahan was also called as Khurram (़िुराम). During Shahjahan’s rule many foreign travelers came to
India in his court like – Jean Baptist Tavernier (जीन बपनतस्ते टे िननायर, he was a diamond Merchant) and
Francis Bernier (फ्रेंस बननायर, he was a physician (चचककत क)). Shahjahan was also known as 'Zinda Pir'
(ज़िन्दा पीर). Muntaz Mahal died in 1631.
l. Aurangzeb abolished Tuladan and Jharoka darshan. He gave death sentence to Sambhaji the Maratha
King. He was a good player of Veena. Empire was largest in terms of territory/area during the rule of
Aurangzeb. Shajahan declared Dara Shikoh his successor (उततराचधकारी), but Aurangzeb killed him and
became king. He reintroduced Zajiya in 1679. He was also the first Mughal emperor to have conflict with
British. He also abolished Music and Dance in his court. He gave death punishment to Sikh guru Tej
Bahdur. He banned the festivals of Deepavali, Dasara,Holi and Muharram.
m. Nur Jahan was also called Mehr-Un-Nisaa.
n. Peacock Throne or Takht-e-Taus ('मयूर स हां ा न' या 'तख्त-ए-ताउ ') was the royal throne of Mughal empire.
(Important) RAJPUT KINGDOMS
Rajputs in India were spread in North India and ruled from medieval India onwards. Their areas and territories
varied and there were hundreds of kings over hundreds of years.
Some of the important information regarding them is –
a. Battle of Khanwa (खानिा की लड़ाई) - Rana Sanga or Sangram Singh of Chittor fought in 1527 with army of
Babur bravely, but was defeated.
b. Maharana Pratap – He was son of Maharana Udya Singh (महाराणा उदयस हां ). He was king of Chittorgarh.
He had a great battle with Mughal King Akbar in Haldighati in 1624. After the battle of Haldighati,
c. Maharana Pratap made his capital at Manda.
d. Chand Birdei (चांदबरदाई) wrote ‘Prathvirajraso’ (पथ्ृ िीराज रा ो) on life of Prithvi Raj Chauhan.
Kalhana (कर्लहण) wrote history of Kashmir in Rajtarangini in 12 Century.
th
e.
f. Khajuraho temples were built by CHandels. Khajuraho was apital of Chandel Rajputs. Dhanga was the
famous Chandel ruler who built Khajuraho temples.
g. First battle of Tarain ('तराइन के युद्ध' also known as the Battle of Taraori, was fought near the town of
Tarain (Taraori), near Thanesar in present-day Haryana) between Mohammed Gauri (मोहम्मद गौरी) and
Prithviraj III. Ghauri is defeated by Prithivi Raj Chauhan III, 1191.
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h. Second battle of Tarain fought between Gauri and Prithivi Raj Chauhan III. Prithvi Raj Chauhan III is
defeated and killed by Mohammed Ghori, 1192. After his victory, Muhammad Gauri (मुहम्मद गौरी)
established first Islamic empire in India in Delhi.
(Important) MARATHA EMPIRE – 1674-1818 AD/CE

Rise of Maratha power lead to decline of Mughal Empire. The Marathas were a peasant (कक ान) warrior (योद्धा)
group. Its capital was Raigad and then Pune. First Chatrapati king was Shivaji Bhosle and he consolidated ( ग ां टठत)
Maratha Empire. The Maratha Empire waged war for 27 years with the Mughals from 1681 to 1707. Shivaji
pioneered (अगुआ/मागा टदखलाना) "Shiva sutra" or Ganimi Kava (guerrilla tactics (गुररर्लला रणनीनत)). Chatrapati Shahu
appointed Peshwas as the prime ministers of the Maratha Empire. After fall of Aurangzeb and Mughal Empire,
Marathas gained huge power. However, they were resisted by Ahmed Shah Abdali of Durrani Empire who
defeated Marathas under Balaji Bajirao in Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. Three battles took between British and
Marathas and finally in third battle, Marathas were completely defeated. After death of Madhavrao Peshwa,
Maratha Empire declined and came under British Rule by 1818 AD/CE.
Other information related to Maratha Empire –
a. Shivaji was born in 1627 and proclaimed himself king (Chatrapati) in 1674. He had two sons – Sambhaji
and Rajaram. Shivaji ruled with the help of Ashtpradhans (अष्टप्रधान).
b. Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram etc were saints of Maharashtra and they helped in uniting Marathas.
OTHER INFORMATION
 Tholkappiyam (थोर्लकाजप्पयम) describes the grammar and morphology of Tamil; it is the oldest existing
Tamil grammar.
 Chaitra (चैत्र) is the first month of Hindu calendar and Phalguna (फार्लगुन) is the last month.
 Foreign travelers in India -
 Invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni – 1000 AD/CE.
 Gitagovindam is written by Jaydeva.
 Ravanvaddha is written by Bhatti.
 First Muslim invaders (आक्रमणकारी) were – Arabs in 718 AD/CE
 ANTYAJA - A person of the lowest class, outside of the varnasrama system; literally antya means 'born
last'. They used to provide labor to both Zamindars and peasants.
 Dahir (दाटहर) was the Hindu king at the time of invasion of Muhammad-Bin-Quasim on Sind.
 Muhammad Ghazni (महु म्मद गजनी) invaded India 17 times between 1000-1026 AD/CE. He attacked for
second time in 1021 and finally in 1024 and he destroyed the Somnath Temple of Gujarat. Alberuni was
poet of Ghazni. Bhima Raja I was the ruler of Gujrat at the time of invasion of Muhammad Gazini on
Somnath temple.
 Vasco de Gama's first voyage from Europe to India 1497.
 Guilds - Since traders had to pass through many kingdoms and forests, they usually travelled in caravans
and formed guilds to protect their interests. Under this system, payment was made at one place and
received at another place by producing a token etc which was called as ‘Hundi’ also. There were several
such guilds in south India from the eighth century onwards – the most famous being the 'MANIGRAMAM'
and 'NANADESI'.
 Alavars were Vaishnava saints of South India. Andal is the only female Alvar of the 12 Alvar saints of
South India.
 VIRSHAIVA MOVEMENT - It was in a reaction to Bhakti and temple worship. Virashaiva movement
initiated by BASAVANNA/BASAVESVARA and his companions like ALLAMAPRABHU and AKKAMAHA
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DEVI. Their followers were known as – VIRSHAIVA (heroes of Shiva) and LINGYATS (wearers of Linga). The
Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution” attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas. This
movement began in Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century.
 BIHU DANCE – Assam. CHHAU DANCE – Orissa. KODDIYATTAM – Kerala. YAKSHA GANA – Karnataka.
 Sangeet Natak Akademi currently confers classical status on eight Indian dance styles - Bharatanatyam
(Tamil Nadu) Kathakali (Kerala) Odissi (Orissa) Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) Manipuri (Manipur) Kathak
(North India, especially UP), Mohiniyattam (Kerala) and Sattriya (Assam) are those defined by Akademi.
 KUMBHA MELA - Kumbh Mela is held at four places which are supposed to be the ones where the drops
of nector fell when Indra was carrying the Kumbh to save it from demons.
 The Ardh (half) Kumbh Mela is celebrated every six years at Haridwar and Allahabad, the Purna
(complete) Kumbh takes place every twelve years, at four places Allahabad, Haridwar, Ujjain, and Nashik.
The Maha (great) Kumbh Mela which comes after 12 'Purna Kumbh Melas', or 144 years, is held at
Allahabad.
 ONAM - It is a festival of Kerala, India. The festival commemorates the Vamana avatar of Vishnu and the
subsequent homecoming of the legendary Emperor Mahabali.
 HITOPDESHA – It is a collection of stories written by NARAYANA.
 KITAB – UL – HIND see AL BARUNI
 NATYA SHASTRA is the ancient book on theater, dance etc written by Bharat Muni.
 SHAHNAMA was written by Firdausai.
 Kalamkari is a type of hand-painted or block-printed cotton textile, produced in parts of India especially
in Andhra Pradesh.
 KALIGHAT painting originated in the 19th century Bengal.
 BUNDI, BIKANERI, KISHANGARH, MEWAR, MARWAR, JODHPUR etc SCHOOL OF PAINTING are all from
Rajasthani/Rajput miniature painting school.
 GULER, KANGRA, BASHOLI PAINTINGS belong to Pahari miniature school of painting.
 MADHUBANI PAINTING or MITHILA painting is a style of Indian painting, practiced in the Mithila region of
Bihar state.
 In India, temple building styles are mainly of three types – Dravida style (South Indian), Nagara style
(North Indian) and Vesara style (mix of both).
 BAGH CAVES are rock-cut monuments, situated in MP on life of Buddha
 AJANTA caves are in Maharashtra are 29 rock-cut cave monuments on Buddhist religious art telling
Jataka tales.
 The Bhimbetka shelters are the earliest rock cut caves in Madhya Pradesh.
 ELEPHANTA CAVES in Mumbai are Hindu and Buddhist caves.
 Ellora Caves are near Aurangabad in the Indian state of Maharashtra built by the Rashtrakuta rulers. The
caves have Buddhist, Hindu and Jain rock-cut temples and monasteries. Kailashnath temple is the most
magnificient among these cave temples.
 HAMPI sits on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in the ruins of the ancient city of Vijayanagar.
Virupaksha Temple is the main center of pilgrimage at Hampi.
 Khajuraho has the largest group of medieval Hindu (Vishnav and Shiva deities) and Jain temples. The
temples were built by Chandels and the city was the cultural capital of Chandel Rajputs.
 Some of monasteries (Buddhist religious places) are - Tabo Monastery – Himachal Pradesh. Dhanker
Monastery – Himachal Pradesh. Vikramshila Monastery – Bihar. Rumtek Monatery - Sikkim
 SANCHI STUPA near Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh
 VICTORIA MEMORIAL is in Kolkatta.
 BUDHAYANA Indian Mathematician, he calculated value of ‘Pi’
 CHAITANYA MAHAPRABHU was a Vaishnava saint in West Bengal.
 EKANATH preached Vedanta philosophy and he was from Aurangabad.
 IBN BATTUTA is called ‘the world's first tourist’. He wrote a book called RHILA.
 MUTHUSWAMI DIKSHITAR was one of the most renowned composers of Carnatic music. He is the oldest
among the Trinity of Carnatic music, TYAGARAJA and SYAMA SASTRI being the other two.
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 PANINI was a Sanskrit grammer specialist known as Ashtadhyayi.

 RAMANANDA was a Vaishnava saint and lived in the holy city of Varanasi.
 RAMANUJA was a devotee of Vishnu. Thus Ramanuja was the exponent of the Visishtadvaita philosophy.
 VARAHMIHIRA Varahamihira was an Indian astronomer, mathematician.
 KAMRAJ PLAN was formulated by CM of Kerala in 1963 asking the senior ministers to leave government
and rejuvenate party.
SANGAM - These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled
in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai. Sangam Poems falls into two
categories: the 'inner field', and the 'outer field'.
ASHVAGHOSHA – Budhcharita
PILGRIMS
1. FA XIAN or Fa Hian - Chandragupta II.
2. XUAN ZANG or HIEUN TSANG (who came around 600 AD – stayed for a long time in Harsha’s Court)
Xuan Zang, who took the land route back to China. Visited Empreror Harsha.
3. I-CING or I-TSING came about 50 years after Xuan Zang - around 650 AD. He visited Nalanda.
'BRAHMA-DEYA' - land gifted to Brahmanas during Chola period
'SHALA-BHOGA'- land for the maintenance of a school during Chola period
'DEVA-DANA', 'TIRU-NAMAT-TUKKANI' - land gifted to temples
IQTA - Khalji and Tughluq monarchs appointed military commanders as governors of territories of varying sizes.
Iqtas Were the land pieces in the sultanate period, holders were called Iqtadars.
HUNDI - Hundi is a note recording a deposit made by a person. The amount deposited can be claimed in another
place by presenting the record of the deposit.
Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) who came from all castes.
Andal is the only female Alvar of the 12 Alvar saints of South India.
SHANKARA or ADI SHANKARA - Kerala in the eighth century. He was an advocate of ‘ADVAITA’.
RAMANUJA - Tamil Nadu ‘VISHISHTADVAITA’.
VIRSHAIVA/LINGYATS MOVEMENT - It was in a reaction to Bhakti and temple worship. Initiated by

BASAVANNA/BASAVESVARA and his companions like ALLAMAPRABHU and AKKAMAHA DEVI.
SAINTS OF MAHARASHTRA - Most of them belonged to the Untouchable 'Mahar' Caste. This regional
tradition of bhakti focused on the Vitthala (a form of Vishnu). Prominent saints and women were –
JANESHWARA; NAMDEVA; EKNATH; TUKARAM; SAKKUBAI
DADU DAYAL - Gujarat. He later moved to Amber forming a sect that is known as the Dadu-panth.
SULH-I-KUL - ‘Universal Peace’ Idea of peace and harmony, which was the basis of Akbar’s and later
Jahangir’s administration. It was idea of Abu Fazl. In sulh-i kul all religions and schools of thought had
freedom of expression but on condition that they did not undermine the authority of the state or fight
among themselves.
MIR BAKHSHI - He was the head of the military department during Mughal period.
MANSABDARI - It was introduced by Akbar for administration purpose. Mansabdars were supposed to
keep standing armies to help king.
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(Important) PART 2
INDIAN FREEDOM STRUGGLE
COMPANY RULE
East India Company got the trading rights to India via a Charter in 1600 and Diwani in 1675.
Regulating Act of 1773 laid the foundation of ‘Centralised Administration’ in India and put
curbs on activities of company.
Charter Act 1833. Governor General of Bengal was made Governor General of India. (Bentick
was first such GG).
COMPANY RULE - AGRICULTURE

British bought tea and silk from China and lost currency and gold. To avoid that they
encouraged growing of opium in India which was sold to Chinese. While English developed a
taste for tea, Chinese became addicted for opium. Another item was indigo which was used in
British textile industry. Large numbers of Indian weavers and spinners were left without work,
and important traditional textile weaving centres such as Murshidabad, Machilipatnam and
Surat declined as demand fell.
‘Neel Dapan’ – It is the name of a book and famous play by writer Deen Bandhu Mitra. It highlighted
the plight of Indigo farmers.
DECCAN PEASANT REVOLT - 19th century Poona district. Around 1857, cotton industries started to come
up in England in Manchaster area. The supply of raw cotton was mainly from US. However as civil war
broke in US in 1961, supplies dried up and prices soared. Peasants took distress loans. Records of
sahookars were burnt. Bonds and deeds were burnt. This forced the Company to agree for a Revenue
Settlement.
CULTURAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC SCENERIO IN 19TH CENTURY

In the late eighteenth century, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras rose in importance as Presidency
cities. Cities such as Machlipatnam, Surat and Seringapatamwere deurbanised.
New initiatives like Census were taken. In the first census of 1871.
CORONATION of KING GEORGE V and DELHI DARBAR - In 1911. The decision to shift the capital
of India from Calcutta to Delhi was announced at this Durbar.
20
NOMADS OF MOUNTAINES - BAKRIWALS of Kashmir and GADDI of Himachal.
TRIBAL UPRISINGS
WHY BRITISH WANT TO PUT RESTRAINS OVER TRIBES?
I. Settled peasants were easier to control and administer than people who were always
on the move.
II. The British also wanted a regular revenue source for the state.
So they introduced land settlements – that is, they measured the land, defined the rights of each
individual to that land, and fixed the revenue demand for the state. Some peasants were declared
landowners, others tenants.
BIRSA MOVEMENT - While growing up, Birsa heard stories of a golden age when the Mundas had been
free of the oppression of dikus. They arrested Birsa in 1895, convicted him on charges of rioting and
jailed him for two years. In 1900 Birsa died of cholera and the movement faded out.
Causes of Failure of Tribal Movements – Failure to Identify the real Enenmy ; Primitive Methods;
Unorganised; Superstition
a. KHOND UPRISING – These tribal lived from Tamil Nadu to Bengal and mainly in Orissa.
b. CHAUR UPRISING, 1832 – Uprising by the Tribals in Bihar and Bengal region.
c. KOL and HO UPRISING, Chota Nagpur, 1832 – They belonged to Chota Nagpur belt, the kols
inhabited large portion of the Chota Nagpur region.
d. SANTHAL REBELLION, 1856 – They belonged to Bengal Region, commonly known as SANTAL
HOOL was a native rebellion in present day Jharkhand, in eastern India against both the
British colonial authority and corrupt upper caste zamindari system by the Santal people. Led
by Sidhha and Kanku.
e. RAMPA REBELLION, Andhra, 1879 - It was against money lenders.
f. ORAON REVOLT, Chota Nagpur, 1914 – Led by Jatra Bhagat
g. KUKI REVOLT, Manipur, 1917-19. The first Resistance movement by the kuki People was the
kuki Rebellion of 1917-19. It was against the British hegemony.
Charles Metcalfe became acting Governor General and he lift of all the restrictions from press. Thus he
is termed as ‘liberator of press in India’.
In 1878, the 'Vernacular Press Act' was passed, modelled on the Irish Press Laws.
LAND REVENUE POLICIES of THE BRITISH

They had Jagirdari System, Malguzari System, Mehalawari System and Ryotwari System etc.
However, the most important and most controversial has been the Zamindari System.
Zamindari System was implemented by Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar and part of Orissa in 1793
under Permanent Settlement. This was an opaque system and pushed tenants into
indebtedness in many parts and it introduced many sub-zamindars. Mahalwari System – was
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introduced by Hold McKenzi, unit of revenue settlement was a village or mahal. Ryotwari
System – It was prevalent in Deccan and South (first in Madras, then in Bombay). In this every
registered holder was recognized as owner of the land (unlike Zamindari system, in which
landlord was the owner).
FAMINES in INDIA and the BRITISH POLICY
The first major famine that took place under British rule was the Bengal Famine of 1770. Lord
Lytton organised an ostentatious Delhi Darbar amidst famine attracted much criticism from all
quartes. It was Ripon after Lytton who introduced Famine Code in 1880. There was no major
famine from 1910 to 1943 and then again a major famine struck in 1943 in Bengal. The famine
was exacerbated by the ongoing war and scarcity of resources. It proved to be one of the
biggest famines.
Anand Math – This epic novel by Bankim Chandra highlights the event of Sanyasi Rebellion.
MAKING OF A MUTINY/CAUSES
a. POLITICAL CAUSES
I. After demise of Bahadurshah Jafar, British refused to recognize his descendants as ‘Kings’
(but only as ‘Princes’). His name was also removed from coins.
II. Doctrine of Lapse of Dalhousie. Annexations and Loss of Sovereignity - In Jhansi,
Lakshmibai declared her adopted son as heir of her kingdom.
III. Ban on Pension. Nanashaeb, similarly claimed pensions of on behalf of his father after his
demise. However company refused to entertain both of these.
IV. Subsidiary Alliance (Wellesely). Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to fall under it. It made
it mandatory for a ruler to – Maintain military force trained by company but paid by
ruler, No relation with other European nations
b. ECONOMIC CAUSES –
I. Peasant Disatisafaction
II. Permanent Settlememt - Zamindari System
III. Drain of Wealth Dadabhai Narji and R C Dutt
IV. Ruin of traditional and handicraft industry
c. RELIGIOUS CAUSES
I. ‘Religious Disability Act’, 1856 was passed it legalized conversion.
II. Sati was banned, widow remarriage was allowed and reforms were seen as anti-religion
campaign.
d. ADMINISTRATIVE CASUES
I. Sepoys of the company were also discontented.
II. Racial nature and access to only menial jobs
III. Alien Rule – the very fact that British rule was alien hurt the self-respect of Indians.
e. IMMEDIATE CAUSES
I. Rumours of Bone mixed in flour, Cow/Pig fat coated cartridges in Enfield rifles.
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II. Treatment of soldiers

III. Indian troops were in majority and European troops were also busy in war in Europe
REBELLION SPREADS
Rebellion started from Meerut and after the British were routed from Delhi, a spurt of
mutinies began. KANPUR - Nana Saheb, the adopted son of the late Peshwa Baji Rao.
LUCKNOW - In Lucknow, Birjis Qadr, the son of the deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, and
his mother Begum Hazrat Mahal took an active part. KUNWAR SINGH from
JAGDISHPUR, Bihar, joined the rebel sepoys.
CAUSES of FAILURE
I.
Apathy of Many Indian Rulers – like SINDHIA and HOLKAR. If Sindhia would have revolted
all Maratha forces would have joined against British. Similarly Nizam of Hyderabad sided
with the British.
II. There was a lack of popular support also.
III. Lack of leadership
IV. Unorganised nature of the revolt
V. Dated weaponary
NATURE of THE REVOLT
a. Nationalist School
b. Apologistic School
AFTERMATHS of THE REBELLION
I. POWER TRANSFER & END of COMPANY RULE - A member of the British Cabinet was
appointed Secretary of State. He was given a council to advise him, called the India
Council. The Governor-General of India was given the title of Viceroy. QUEEN’s
PROCLAMATION & ACT for GOOD GOVERNANCE in INDIA – GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT
1858 - A viceroy was appointed in India; Princes were given the right to adopt a son
(abolition of Doctrine of Lapse); Treaties were honoured;
II. REDUCTION in INDIAN SOLDIERS
III. ANTAGONISM TOWARDS MUSLIMS.
IV. CHANGED OUTLOOK TOWARDS CUSTOMS and RELIGION.
BRITISH POLICY towards INDIAN STATES

According to William Lee Warner in his book – ‘The Native States of India’, The British policy was mainly
divided into three phases – Ring Fence, Subordinate Isolation and Subordinate Union.
a. Ring Fence Policy or Buffer State Policy (1765-1813).

b. Policy of Subordinate Isolation (1813-1858).
c. Policy of subordinate union (1858-1835).
d. Policy of Equal Federation – This policy was followed after 1935 onwards
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RISE of NATIONALISM
a. Negative Aspects
I. Racial Arrogance of British
II. Economic Exploitation – Econmic exploitation that was highlighted by likes of RC Dutt
b. Positive Aspects
I. Administrative Unity
II. Introduction of English as Lingua Franca
III. Means of Communication
IV. Rediscovery of Glorious Past
V. Social Movements
GOVERNOR GENERALS and VICEROYS
LORD DALHOUSIE (1847-56) - Dalhousie was appointed the Governor-General of India in 1847. It was
under him that the last major expansion of India took place. Annexations - ‘Doctrine of Lapse’.
Annexation of Punjab, Jhansi, Oudh
LORD LYTTON (1876 and 1880) - He was termed as ‘reactionary Viceroy’. Reduced age for civil services
from 21 to 19. Venracular Press Act, 1878. Delhi Durbar – While country was mired in famine.
LORD RIPON (1880-84) - Repealed Vernacular Press Act and Arms Act. Gave Autonomy to Local Bodies,
called ‘Father of Indian Local Self Governance’. Ilbert Bill.
LORD CURZON (1899–1905) - Partition of Bengal -1905. He also held Delhi Durbar. Police Act – This led
to formation of CID
CIVIL SERVICES in INDIA - Cornwallis is called ‘Father of Indian Civil Services’. He started Coveneted and
Non-Coveneted services. Lord Wellesly took initiative to institutionalize the training of Civil Services in
India and he established Fort William College in Calcutta. First legislation came in 1861 in form of
Indian Civil Services Act. Aithchson Committee of 1886. Later on Islington Commission (1912) and Lee
Commission or Royal Commission (1926) were also appointed.
LOCAL GOVERNANCE GROWTH in INDIA -
Lord Mayo’s Resolution of 1870 dealt with the issue of decentralization of Finance. However,
real impetus came during time of Lord Ripon, 1882. In his famous resolution on local self-
government. The provincial autonomy under the Government of India Act, 1935, marked the
evolution of panchayats in India. Among national leadership, on the one end Gandhi favoured
Village Swaraj and strengthening the village panchayat to the fullest extent and on the other
end, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar opposed this idea. He believed that the village represented regressive
India, a source of oppression.
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EARLY POLITICAL ORGANISATIONS in INDIA

a. Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1867) – This was the first important organsisation setup post
1857 uprising. It was a brainchild of Mahadev Govind Ranade.
b. India League (1875) – It was established in Bengal and one of the founding members
was Sisir Kumar Ghosh (founder of Amrita Bazar Patrika).
c. Indian Association – The India League was soon replaced by Indian Association. It was
led by Anand Mohan Bose and Surendranath Banarjee.
Other Associations were like – Madras Mahajan sabha, Bombay Presidency Association etc.
LOWER CASTE MOVEMENTS

Jyotiba Phule and his wife founded Satya Shodhak samaj in Maharashtra where they worked
against unouchability and upliftment of lower caste women. Another notable social reformer
was Narayan Guru and his SNDP (Sri Narayana Dharam paripalana) movement or Ezhawa
Movement. The first political movement in modern India was launched in 1917, by P
Theyagaraya and T M Nair and they organsied first Non-Brahmnical organization called South
Indian Liberal Federation which later came to known as Justice Party.
RISE of REVOLUTIONARIES
Major Reasons/Inspiration for Revolutionaries are –
a. Inspiration form aggressiveness of Extremists and failure of Moderates to make headway in the
Independence movement.
b. International Events – Defeat of Italy by Ethopia, Defeat of Russia by Japan. It broke the notion
of Western Supermacy
c. Inspiration from revolutionary movement under Mazini in Italy.
First phase of the rise of revolutionaries coincide with Partition of Bengal and Bengal and Punjab acted
as breeding grounds for the revolutionaries. Anushilan Samiti, Ghadar Party etc were outcome of this
wave. It started in Bengal and Punjab region Aurobindo Ghosh was pioneer in Bengal. In Punjab, biggest
name was Sardar Ajit Singh and he established Bharat Mata Society of Lahore.
Second phase started after the failure of Non Cooperation movement and events like – foundation of
HRA/HSRA, Kakori Robery, Saunders Murders took place during this phase. Chittagong Revolutionaries
didn’t focus on individual heroism, but focused on group actions.
Third phase was with rise of Azad Hind Fauz.
INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRSS and CONSEQUENT EVENTS TILL ARRIVAL

of GANDHI
History of India post the formation of Indian National Congress can be viewed in 3 phases –
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a. 1885-1905 - Moderate Phase

b. 1905-1916 – Extremist Phase
c. 1916-1947 – Gandhian Era
INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (1885)
1885 in Bombay in presence of 72 delegates. Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay. Allan
Octavian Hume helped. The first President of the Congress was W.C. Bannerjee.
Broad aims of the early moderates were –
a. To unite Indians politically as well and raise their political awareness level
b. To sow the seeds of a secular and all inclusive national movement
c. To develop and propagate an anti-colonial ideology
d. To adopt methods of Constitutional Agitation and thus secure more political rights
Congress as a Saftey Valve Teory.
British Response to Congress – It grew suspicious of Congress activities soon after its formation.
Curzon hoped that Congress will face a ‘Peaceful Demise’. They resorted again to ‘Divide and
Rule’ and propped up Syed Ahmed Khan and Raja Shiva Prasad of Benaras to start anti-
Congress movement.
Criticism of Congress – In its early phase it remains largey an organization of educated middle
class and hence its demands also reflected their vested interests (more space in Civil Services,
expansion of Legislative council etc.). Thus it was accused of representing only a narrow
minority.
On the achievement of early moderates, Bipin Chandra Pal commented – ‘The period of 1885 –
1905 was a seed-time of Indian Nationalism, and the early nationalists sowed the seeds well
and deep’
- Lord Gross was secretary of state, while Dufferein was Viceroy at that time.
- J B Kriplani was the president at the time of Independence.
PARTITION OF BENGAL and SWADESHI MOVEMENT (1905)

19th July 1905. In Curzon’s Words – It attempted ‘to dethrone Calcutta’. Partition also lead to
conflict of opinion among Congress as Moderates wanted to confine the partition agitation to
Bengal only. On the other hand, Extremists wanted to launch a nation wide agitation and
wanted to make it impact feel through launching a Swadeshi Movement.
Leadership of the Movement Swadeshi Movement –
- Ajit Singh and Lajpat Rai led the movement in Punjab.

- Syed Haider Raza took command in Delhi.
- Chidambaram Pillai took the movement to Madras Presidency which was also
galvanized by Bipin Chandra Pal’s extensive lecture tour.
26
- Tilak toured many parts of the country and tried to make the movement a national one.
The Indian National Congress took up the Swadeshi call in Benaras Session, 1905, presided
over by G.K. Gokhale. During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green
and yellow) was designed.
Success of Swadeshi Movement –
a. For the first time mass participation was seen

b. Economic Expolitation point was further pushed forward and this time even some
Zamindars also involved in the movement. Many factories observed strikes.
c. Women and Student for the first time participated in large number
d. Population of the nation saw the first political awakening
e. All major political trends of future – militant nationalism, socialism etc all had their origin in
Swadeshi Movement
f. The richness was reflected in arts, literature, music, science and industry as well. P C Ray’s
Bengal chemical Factory was a shining example of successful indegenious venture.
Abnindra Nath Tagore broke the domination of Victorian style.
g. Fresh ideas were put forward by militant nationalists and extremists
h. Some leaders like Tilak used the movement to creatively celebrate the traditional festival
(Ganesh Chaturthi and Shivaji festival).
Causes of Demise of Movement –
By 1908, the movement has weaned away. Major causes were –
a. The movement was mired with inertia.

b. Government came down heavily
c. There was squabble in Congress and its split in 1907 (Surat Split)
d. The movement was largely untouched in Southern states
e. It could also not take it along the peasant class and is criticized as a middleclass movement.
f. Mass of the Muslim didn’t participate. Ultimately Muslim League was established in 1906.
RISE of EXTREMISTS
a. Failure of Moderators
b. International Events - Defeat of Russia by Japan and of Italian Army by Ethopians broke
the myth of Western Supermacy.
c. Immediate Causes - Bengal Partition
MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS and GoI Act (1909)

a. Separate Electorates. Lord Minto came to be called as ‘Father of Communal
Electorate’.
b. Expanded Legislative Councils, but still no power.
c. Association of Indians with Executive Council of Viceroy and Governors Satyendra
Prasad Sinha (SP Sinha)
27
d. Franchisee was introduced for the first time

e. Element of Self Rule was not introduced - It made provisions for Indirect Elections.
HOME RULE MOVEMENT and REUNION of EXTREMISTS and LUCKNOW

PACT (1916)
HOME RULE LEAGUE MOVEMENT (September 1916)
Dr. Annie Besant (along with George Arundale), inspired by the Irish rebellion, started a Home
Rule Movement in India in September 1916. Bal Gangadhar Tilak also launched another Home
Rule Movement and whole heartedly supported this movement. Annie Besant was arrested in
1917, S Subramania Aiyer renounced his knighthood in protest and joined the movement.
Owing to her popularity due to the movement, she was chosen as the next – and the first
woman – president of Congress in 1917.
Decline of Home Rule Movement –
a. After release of Besant, moderates were pacified and the anger was calmed down
b. Rise of Gandhi and talks of Civil Disobedience diverted the national attention
c. Tilak went to US and this left a leadership void
LUCKNOW PACT (December 1916),
Background – In the First World War Turkey entered against Britain, Muslims were on side of
Turkey and were angered by the British. Congress was also exhausted with its pleas for self-rule.
In 1916, sessions of both Muslim League and Congress were held in Lucknow. An agreement
made by the Indian National Congress headed by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and the All-India Muslim
League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah;
Following agreements were reached –
- Direct Elections to the Legislative Councils

- More Powers should be conferred upon Councils
- At least half of the Viceroy’s ‘Executive Council’ should be filled by Indians
Among most controversial outcomes of the pact was that the Congress also agreed to separate
electorates for Muslims
FIRST WORLD WAR and ITS IMPACT

Start of First World War lead to following –
I. Loss of India – Millions of Rupees from India was diverted

II. Working Class – Middle class had more job opportunities
III. Capitalists – Capitalists had a field day as industrial production boomed.
IV. Agriculture – After scrouge of famine, World War further led to crash in prices
28
V. Politics and National Movement – While extremists and revolutionaries saw the
predicament of British as their opportunity. Home Rule League by Annie Besant and
Tilak. Moderates extended support to government hoping that government. Ghadar
party saw this as an opportunity that they have been waiting for.
MONTEGUE CHELMSFORD REFORMS (1919)

The Act provided a dual form of government (a "dyarchy") for the major provinces. In each
such province, control of some areas of government, the "transferred list", were given to a
Government of ministers answerable to the Provincial Council. For the first time introduced
‘Direct Eclections’ and limited franchise was granted.
Separate Electoral provision of Morley Minto was retained.
REVIEW PROVISION for REFORMS - The Montagu-Chelmsford report stated that there should
be a review after 10 years. Sir John Simon headed the committee (Simon Commission)
START of GANDHIAN ERA

Major Influencing factors on his personality are –
a. Reigious Factors – He borrowed the Karma Theory from Buddhism and took the idea of
Ram Rajya from Hinduism while on the other hand his idea of Non-Violence is inspired
from Jaina teachings. Hijrat – Leave the place where you are not respected – from
Kuran.
b. Personalities –Tolstoy and Henery David Thoreau. Civil Disobedience is influenced by
Thourou.
c. Idea of Trusteeship.
d. He believed in ‘Sarvodya’.
e. He believed in local self governance and local self rule.
Initial Stayagrahas by Gandhi after coming to India -
I. CHAMPARAN, 1917 – Tinkathia Sysytem - farmers were under compusion to grow

Indigo on 3/20th of their land and were allowed to take only one-third. Raj Kumar
Shukla was an indigo cultivator of Champaran (Bihar), who met Gandhiji. He was joined
Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Dr. Anugrah Narayan Sinha and Jawaharlal Nehru. It was during
this agitation, that Gandhi was addressed by the people as Bapu (This was given by
Subhash Chandra Bose) and Mahatma (It was given by Rabindranath Tagore).
II. AHEMBDABAD MILLS STRIKE, 1918 - In 1918, cotton mill workers demanding
continuation of ‘Plague Bonus’ post epidemic. He advised the workers to go on strike
and to demand a 35 per cent increase in wages. Anasuya Behn was one of the major
lieutinent. He also founded – ‘AHEMBDABAD TEXTILE LABOR ASSOCIATION’ – after the
mill strike. It gave Gandhi an urban and industrial base.
29
III. KHEDA or KAIRA - 1918, Gujarat. Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the
peasants of Kheda could not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue
collection be relaxed. Despite their difficulties, British government raised the revenue.
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and a close coterie of devoted Gandhians, namely Narhari
Parikh, Mohanlal Pandya, Indulal Yagnik and Ravi Shankar Vyas.
ROWLETT SATYAGRAHA and JALIANWALA BAGH MASSACRE

ANARCHICAL and REVOLUTIONARY CRIMES ACT or ROWLETT ACT – Termed as ‘Black Act’. Indefinitely
extending "emergency measures" (of the Defence of India Regulations Act, 1915) enacted during the
First World War which authorizes the authority to imprision a person suspected of terrorism for
maximum of two years without trial. Emboldened with the success of initial efforts in Ahemdabad,
Kheda and Champaran, Gandhiji in 1919 decided to launch a nationwide Satyagraha against the
proposed Rowlatt Act (1919). This also saw the arrest of Saifudin Kitchlew and Satya Paul.
Jallianwalla Bagh – On 13 April 1919, a crowd of villagers who had come to Amritsar to attend a fair
gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh to celebrate Basakhi and to protest arrest f
Saiffudin Kichlew and Satyapaul. Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, to ‘produce a moral
effect’. In a protest, Tagore renounced his knighthood by removing ‘Sir’ before his name.
KHILAFAT and NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT

The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. Caliphet (Khalifa) was viewed as
symbolic representative of Pan-Islamic group and the leadership was abolished by ‘Treaty of Severs’
and Mustafa Kamal Attaturk later replaced the puppet Sultan of Turkey. To defend the Khalifa’s
temporal powers, a Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in 1919 by brothers Muhammad Ali
and Shaukat Ali. At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he convinced other leaders
of the need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.
FROM COOPERATION to NON-COOPERATION - While Gandhi was initially cooperative with British but
events of Punjab (Jalianwala, Marshel Law, Hunter report) and Treatment of Khalifa of Turkey forced
him to take the route of Non-Cooperation.
The 'Non-Cooperation-Khilafat' Movement was launched on 1st August 1920. Tilak died on same day.
Gandhiji famousluy said that – ‘Swaraj is possible within 1 year if Non-Cooperation is continued as a
movement’. It was a wide spread movement. From Punjab Lala Lajpat Rai. Peasants in Avadh were led
by Baba Ram Chandra. In Andhra likes of T Prakasam and Pattabhai Sitaramaiya took the lead
Decline of Non-Cooperation Movement –
a. Moplah Incident generated considerable acrimony between Hindu and Muslims

b. Ali Brothers also started to give way and started to apologise to Viceroy Reading and they
were aarrested soon (their arrest was however resented by Gandhi and others).
30
c. ‘The treaty of Severs’ was revised by the British in favor of Turkey. The cause of unity was
no longer there and Muslims were no longer attached to Congress.
d. Chaura Chauri Incident
DIFFERENT INERPRETATION OF NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT –
‘GUDEM HILL’ TRIBE WAR, Andhra, 1922 - Tribal peasants. 'Alluri Sitaram Raju' The Gudem
rebels attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried on guerrilla warfare
for achieving swaraj. Raju was captured and executed in 1924.
Chaura chauri incident- At Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, a peaceful demonstration in a bazaar

turned into a violent clash with the police and they torched the poloice station, in the fire
several police personnel perished.
ACHIEVEMENTS of NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT –
a. Congress became a mass party –Joining fee was reduced (25 paisa per annum)
b. Charkha a National Symbol
c. Muslims also Particiated
d. Removed fear of British Might from the minds of people
FAILURES of NON-CCOPERATION MOVEMENT –
a. Swaraj – as it was claimed – was not achieved within 1 year. This disheartened many.
b. Divide in Congress – Swaraj Party is born.
c. Revival of Revolutionary Activities – Second phase of revolutionary activities
d. Mass Reach – Khadi was unaffordable to poor
e. Alienation of Muslims – Failure of Non-Cooperation also meant failure of Khilafat.
SWARAJ PARTY (1923)

After decline of Non-Cooperation Movement, at Gaya Session of Congress debated this issue of joining
the legislative council (where it was rejected, but later in 1923 meet at Delhi, the differences were
reconciled). Those who favored joining were termed as Pro Changers and involved C R Das, Motilal
Nehru, and NC Kelkar. The foundations of the 'Swaraj Party' were laid on January 1, 1923, as the
'Congress-Khilafat-Swarajya Patty'. Gandhi initially opposed, but later agreed. It declared that they
will take the Non-Cooperation inside the legislature and will disrupt the business in legislature and
will attract attention towards national Issues. The party fought the 1923-24 elections and won
majority of seats. They exposed hollowness of budgets etc. After death of CR Das in 1925, in response
to government’s failure to bring self-rule reforms, Swarajists decide to walk away from legislatures. In
wake of imminent Civil Disobedience Movement, party completely pulled back from the assemblies in
1930.
The elections that Swaraj Party participated were for Legislative Council, provincial elections were
held in 1937 for the first time only after 1935 Act.
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RISE OF COMMUNISM IN INDIA (1920s Onwards)

The Communists in India rose in two different streams –
a. As a branch of International Communist Movement led by MN Roy and others started with CPI,
1920 with launch of CPI India in Tashkent. Wth other leaders being Shaukat Ali, S A Dange etc.
b. Congress Socialist Party within Congress started 1934 by likes of J P Narayan, Subhash Chandra
and Jawahar Lal Nehru. Influenced by Fabianism as well as Marxism-Leninism.
However, Gandhi was not impressed with socialistic thinking of communists. He called this ideology
as – ‘Importated Political Wisdom’ and communists as – ‘a body of men in hurry’
SIMON COMMISSION (1928)

New Tory government in Britain constituted a Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon to review
the constitutional reforms (made during Government of India Act 1919).
The Commission’s recommendations were -
I. An outline of new constitution was put forward.

II. Dyarchy should be scrapped.
III. It suggested a formally federal union.
IV. It recommended that the franchise should be extended; and the Legislature enlarged
Congress in its Madras session of 1927 decided to oppose it as all its members were white and there
was no Indian member.
NEHRU REPORT (1928) & FOURTEEN POINTS (1929)

The "Nehru Report" (1928) was a memorandum outlining (it was an outline and not a constitution
itself) a proposed new Dominion constitution for India. It was prepared by a committee of the All
Parties Conference chaired by Motilal Nehru. The report didn’t seek complete independence but, the
constitution outlined by the Nehru report was for Indian enjoying dominion status within the British
Commonwealth. Recommendations (were mostly adopted in Indian Constitution) –
- Unlike the eventual Government of India Act 1935 it contained a Bill of Rights.
- It did not provide for separate electorates (which angered Dalits and Muslims).
- It advocated federal structure (Muslim league opposed it).
- A parliamentary form of Government
- Adult franchise
- Redistribution of provincial boundries on a linguistic basis
MUSLIMS REACTION & FOURTEEN POINTS
League leaders rejected the Nehru proposals. They objected the provision of single electorate and
wanted separate electorate. They also saw residual powers in federal structure with center as
unacceptable as they were not in majority at national level. In reaction, Mohammad Ali Jinnah drafted
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his Fourteen Points in 1929 which became the core demands the Muslim community put forward as the
price of their participating in an independent united India. Main points of 14 Point Formula were –
- Separate Electorate
- 33% seats reserved for Muslims in Central Legislatures
- Residual Powers vested with provinces
RISE OF RADICALS, DEMAND for PURNA SWARAJ (1929)

Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose and Satyamurti became more assertive after the Nehru
Report which defied their expectations. In December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru,
the Lahore Congress formalized the demand of ‘Purna Swaraj’ or full independence for India. Jawahar
unfurled Indian flag at the bank of Ravi on midnight of 31st December. It was declared that 26 January
1930, would be celebrated as the Independence Day.
GANDHI’s 11 POINTS, SALT MARCH & CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

Mahatma Gandhi found in salt a powerful symbol that could unite the nation. On 31 January 1930 –
Soon after demand for Purna Swaraj, he sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands (11
points). These included among others - Total prohibition; Release of political prisioners; Reduce
expenditure on civil services and military; Levy of duty on foreign cloth; Abolition of Salt Tax. Irwin was
unwilling to negotiate and no-response was given to deamnds. Gandhi decided to go for Civil
Disobedience.
So Mahatma Gandhi started his famous salt march accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers which
also included Sarojini Naidu from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of Dandi.
On 6 April. There was a wide scale boycott of liquor shops and in protest toddy trees were cut down.
Women and Student participated in masses. CHOWKIDAR TAX NON-PYMENT CAMPAIGN was initiated
in the Eastern part of the nation. UP saw another form of ‘NO-REVENUE, NO RENT’ CAMPIGN. Prabhat
Pheris, Patrikas (illegal newsprint) were used. Children were organized into Vanar Sena and Girls into
Manjari (cat) Sena. Muslims – except in NEFP under Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan – show apathetic
response.
GANDHI – IRWIN PACT (MARCH 1931), KARACHI SESSION (MARCH

1931) & 2nd ROUND SECOND TABLE CONFERENCE (DEC 1931)
As British repression became harder, it led to sufferance of common people. In such a situation,
Mahatma Gandhi once again decided to call off the movement. Irwin was also anxious to find a solution
and in a gesture he released the political prisioners and decided to directly talk to Gandhi. Thus, he
entered into a pact with Irwin on 5 March 1931.
Below were the proposed conditions.
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I. Discontinuation of the civil disobedience movement by the Indian National Congress

II. Participation by the Indian National Congress in the Round Table Conference
III. Withdrawal of all ordinances issued by the British Government imposing curbs on the activities
of the Indian National Congress
IV. Release of prisoners arrested for participating in the civil disobedience movement
V. Removal of the tax on salt, which allowed the Indians to produce, trade, and sell salt legally and
for their own private use
Objective of Round table Conference – Round table conference were in line with the demands of
Indians for more autonomy and dominion status and British promise for all party discussion.
But it was a great disappointment and when Gandhi returned, most of the leaders were in jails. He tried
to re-launch the Civil Disobedience Moement, but it failed. New Viceroy Willingdon refused to have talks
with Gandhi.
KARACHI SESSION OF CONGRESS (1931)
It was organised even as many Congress leaders opposed the Gandhi-Irwin pact. Gandhiji was
greeted with black flag and flowers by angry protestors.
However, the session is significant because for the first time it moved a resolution on
Fundamental Rights and the draft resolution was prepared by Jawahar Lal.
Significance of the Karacahi Resolution lies in the fact that – it remained the basic essence of
political and economic programmes of Congress in later years.
LIMITATIONS of CIVIL DISOBIDIENCE –
I. Non-Inclusion of Lower Castes

II. Lukewarm Muslim Support
III. Lukewarm Support from Industrial Class
IV. Poor participant from peasents
In the meanwhile, many nationalists thought that the struggle against the British could not be won
through non-violence. In 1928, the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA) was founded at a
meeting in Ferozeshah Kotla ground in Delhi. Amongst its leaders were Bhagat Singh, Jatin Das and Ajoy
Ghosh. In a series of dramatic actions in different parts of India, the HSRA targeted some of the symbols
of British power. In April 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeswar Dutta threw a bomb in the Legislative
Assembly. In the same year there was an attempt to blow up the train that Lord Irwin was travelling in.
COMMUNAL AWARD (1932) and POONA PACT (1933)

After Gandhi returned from Round Table Conference, British PM Ramasay McDonald sent Communal
Award to India (Ambedkar, who attended all round table conferences, had asked for Separate
Electorate). ‘English Attack on Hindu Muslim Unity’ – Gandhi. Gandhi resented the award and went on
a fast unto death in Yerwada Jail and Madan Mohan Malviya mediated it which led to Poona Pact
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(1933). Seats for dalits were reserved and electorates for other religions like Muslim and Sikh remained
separate. He started a magazine called – Harijan and he also spent one year in community service of
Dalits and spreading the message of untouchability.
GOVERNMENT of INDIA ACT (1935)
a. It introduced Federalism in India. However, this never became a reality for Princly States didn’t
approve this.
b. Provincial Autonomy replaced Provincial Dyarchy, Dyarchy – federal structure – was introduced at
Center
c. Bicameralism was introduced in 6 out of 11 Provinces.
d. Separate Electorate was provided for Hindu and Muslims as was provided by 1909 and 1919 Acts
too.
e. Limited Franchise - Only 14 per cent (1/6) of the total population in British India was given the
right to vote.
f. Emergency power was vested in Governor General and Governors in Provinces
The act was condemned by one and all. Jawaharlal Nehru termed this Act as - “The Act is car without
engines, but all brakes”
The first ‘provincial elections’ held in 1937, Congress and it recorded majority in 8/11 provinces.
Jawahar Lal Nehru, Bose, Congress Socialists and Communists were against the idea of entering into
Provincial elections as paticipating would dilute their stand and will be akin to cooperating with the
repressive government. The election came as a great disappointment for Muslim League. This failure left
it with no choice but to resort to communalism and it got manifested in the 1937 by elections in UP
when it rallied the voters on the name of Allah and Kuran. Nehru strongly condemned this Act. This was
turning point in the history of communalism in India.
TIRUPURI SESSION and FORWARD BLOCK (1939)

Subhas was chosen unanimously in February 1938 session of Congress at Haripura to built upon that
trend. Gandhi had a sympathetic corner for British in wake of WW2 and he also didn’t like the idea of
Subhash to join the other European forces in a bid to bring freedom to India. These differences came in
open in the next session of Congress of 1939 in Tirupuri when Gandhi fielded Patabhai Sitaramaiya as
candidate and he was defeated and Bose re-elected. He openly criticized moderate policies of Congress
and called for an aggressive movement. This open criticism irked many veterans and 12 of the working
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Committee members (out of 15) resigned and in the same year Govind Vallabh Pant moved a
resolution to form a new working committee under Gandhian leadership.
SECOND WORLD WAR and INDIA

In 1939 World war broke out and British declared participation of India in War without
permission from Indians. As a result Provincial Ministeries of Congress resigned. League (on
conditional support that constitutional decisions will be taken with its consent) and Princly
States supported the War.
To negotiate the demands of Indians of Complete dependence Viceroy made an offer known as
– ‘August Offer’ – which didn’t talk of independence and was rejected by both League and
Congress.
Gandhi launched an Individual Satyagraha in the meanwhile and League a demand for separate
state in famous 2 Nations Theory in its Lahore Resolution in 1940.
Amidst this, British PM sent Stafford Cripps to forge a compromise with Gandhi and Congress
and seek their support for war.
CRIPPS MISSION (1942)

It was an attempt in late March 1942 by the British government to secure Indian cooperation
and support for their efforts in World War II. Cripps proposed for a dominion status, with a
later option of exiting commonwealth. Other Features of Cripps Mission were – Constitutional
Making Body for India and a war executive council. While the demand of Congress was of
Independence, Gandhi said that Cripp's offer of Dominion status after the war was a "Post
dated cheque drawn on a crashing bank".
QUIT INDIA (1942) or AUGUST KRANTI

It was first truly pan Indian mass movement. In the 8th August Bombay session Congress
passed the Quit India resolution at Gowalia Tank. Gandhi called for a ‘Do or Die’ and gave
slogans of ‘Quit India’ and ‘Bharat Choro’. Very next day of Gowalia Tank meet, major leaders
were arrested. A new underground leadership emerged led by Achyut Patwardhan, R M Lohia,
Sucheta Kriplani, Chhotubhai Puranik, R P Goenka and J P Narayan.
The movement was short lived, but significant as it marked a new high in mass participation
and made it amply clear to British that it will no longer be possible to suppress the masses.
Muslim league after the Quit India came with its own ‘Divide and Quit’ demand.
FEATURES OF QUIT INDIA – It was a spontenous movement; It was not non-violent like earlier
movements of Gandhi; It didn’t attract labor class in general
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PHASES OF QUIT INDIA –
a. Urban Phase – Lasted for Only one week

b. Rural Phase – Sabotage of government communication lines and transportation. It lasted for
a few months around 3-4 months
c. Under ground movement – it was the most violent and long lasting. Parallel governments
were established. All India Congress Radio was operated by Usha Mehta.
INA and AZAD HIND FAUJ and INA TRIALS

INA was first formed by Capt Mohan Singh and was later reorganized by Rash Behari Bose.
Command of INA was given to Subhash when he arrived in 1943. Subhash formed a provisional
government in Singapore and formed INA headquarters in Rangoon and Singapore. Netaji
hoisted Indian flag in Andamans in December 1943 and renamed the islands as – ‘Shahid’ and
‘Swaraj’ in memory of martyrs. In 1944, INA started to advance along the eatern border and
Kohima was taken. However the failure of Imphal Campign and unequal treatment by Japanese
demoralized INA soldiers. With the Japanese surrender in 1945, Azad Hind Fauj’s dream to
liberate India was also shattered.
CABINET MISSION (1946)

Cabinet mission stood for united India. It was a last opportunity to avoid partition. Its members were –
Cripps, Pathwick Lawrence, Alexender. After failure of Gandhi-Jinnha talks (1944) and Wavell plan
(1945) Cabinet Mission was sent to India to - Discuss the formation of interim government and outline
of future government; Setting up of a constituent assembly. It failed to get the Congress and the League
to agree on a federal system that would keep India together while allowing the provinces a degree of
autonomy.
Congress rejected the concept of compulsary grouping – while League was vouching for compulsory
grouping under which Hindu and Muslim dominated areas were grouped into two regions compulsarily,
but Congress wanted a choice for provinces to join any grouping - as well as power to provinces and in
this wake a revision was made which envisaged separate states for Hindus and Muslims and a choice for
provinces to take any of the sides.
The rejection of cabinet mission plan combined with recent Constituent Assembly results led to a
resurgence of confrontational politics beginning with the Muslim League's call for general strike known
as ‘Direct action day’ and they called for – ‘Lekar rahenge Pakistan, Larkar lenge Pakisatan’.
In a last bid, Wavell was replaced by Mounbetton for last round of talks, but that too failed.
WOMEN IN INDIAN FREEDOM STRUGGLE

EARLY LEADERS – Rani Laxmi Bai of Jhansi, Hazrat Mahal Begum. She was the wife of the
deposed ruler of Lucknow.
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PATRIOTIC LITERATURE – Sarojini Naidu
REVOLUTIONARIES – Kalpanna Dutta, Preetilate Wadedkar (Chittagong Raid), Bina Das (shot
Governor)
WOMEN ABROAD – Bhikaji Cama – Lakshmi Sehgal – led the only women regiment of INA etc
NATIONAL MOVEMENT –Sarojini Naidu. Aruna Asaf Ali, Usa Mehta.
RISE of COMMUNALISM in INDIA

During 1857 revolt both the communities fought side by side. Roots of Communalism in India lies
in the ‘Divide and Rule policy’ of British in India. After establishment of Congress in 1885, British
propped popular leaders like Syed Ahmed Khan and Raja Shiva Prasad of Benaras to wdge a rift
between people and Congress. Partition of Bengal, 1905, was the most inglorious. Separate
Electorate introduced by 1909 Morley-Minto reforms.
There were economic reasons too. While Muslim remained more of a closed community. This
gave birth to the idea of Hindu-Domination.
While it is argued that when seeds of communalism were sown, some say that consent of
Congress to join Khilafat Movement was start of it. By accepting separate identities of Hindus
and Muslims, it allowed the communal seeds to take their roots.
In the following years ‘Shuddhi Movement’ of Arya Samaj and Later ‘Tabligh’ and ‘Tanzeem’
movements didn’t help either.
In 1932, the Communal Award and then the Government of India Act of 1935 accepted nearly
all the liberal communal demands.
Electoral Politics was the last straw in 1937.
Thus, basic change from liberal communalism to extreme communalism. Later events were –
Lahore resolution and 2 states theory, Naokhali Massacre and direct action day.
EDUCATION SYSTEM DURING BRITISH

First major development in the field of education was made with the establishment of Woods
Despatch (1854) by the then Secretary of State Woods. It recommended promotion of both
Western educations. As a result, universities were established at Calcutta (Jan 1857) Bombay
(Jul 1857), Madras (Sep 1857), Punjab (1882) and Allahabad (1887).
Another big push came in 1929, with the establishement of Hartog Commission which
recommended reforms at elementary level and university level.
In the meanwhile, Gandhiji proposed Wardha Sysytem of Basic Education in 1937.
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In 1944, came the Sergeant Plan of Education which advocated universal education in 40 years.
NEGATIVES of BRITISH EDUCATION POLICY – Education system during the British period was
determined by the needs of the colonial powers.
WORKING CLASS & TRADE UNION MOVEMENT BEFORE INDEPENDENCE

‘Working Men's Club’ was perhaps the first organized group formed in 1870. Later many more such
organizations were established like - Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association, by Gandhiji. By the efforts
of the leaders like N.M. Joshi, Lala Lajpat Rai and Joseph, one of the most important organization ‘the
All-India Trade Union Congress’ (AITUC) was established in 1920.
The first Factory Act of 1881 could not end the plights of the working class people.
PEASANT MOVEMENTS in INDIA

THE SANTHAL REBELLION, 1855-56 - The Santals of Hazaribagh, Midnapur, Bankura, Birbhum,
Manbhum etc. were the worst sufferers due to the permanent settlement. The Santhals under the
leadership of Sidhu and Kanhu raised in 1856 disrupted the railway and postal communications
between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal.
STRIKE OF BENGAL INDIGO CULTIVATORS 1860 - A commission was set up which opined in favor of
peasants. This freed the peasants from the clutches of the planters who left Bengal and ultimately went
to Bihar and U. P.
PEASANT UPRISING IN DECCAN, 1875 - The payment of Government revenue, fall of the price of
cotton and manipulation of bonds/deeds by the money-lenders in Deccan added plights to the life of
the peasants. Riots broke and a ‘Deccan Riots Commission’ was appointed to investigate the course of
such uprising. The ‘Agriculturists' Relief Act of 1879’ was passed which facilitated the peasants in the
payment of their loan but under no circumstance they could be arrested and sent to jail for non
payment of loans.
CHAMPARAN MOVEMENT OF 1917; KHEDA SATYAGRAHA, 1918; THE MOPLAH UPRISING, 1921-22;
THE KISHAN SABHAS, 1922-28; The TEBHAGA MOVEMENT IN BENGAL
FACTORIES COMING UP and INITIAL ENTREPRENEURS

The first cotton mill in Bombay came up in 1854 and it went into production two years later. Around
the same time jute mills came up in Bengal, the first being set up in 1855. However, the first world war
some new opportunities. With British mills busy with war production to meet the needs of the army,
Manchester imports into India declined.
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BATTLE of PLASSEY (1757) - This was the first major battle of British against the Nawab Sirajudaullah of
Bengal. British under Robert Clive were aided by tritor Mir Zafar in this bid and British were eventually
able to establish their first colony in India and Mir Jafar acted as their puppet.
ASIATIC SOCIETY (1784) - The Asiatic Society was founded by Sir William Jones (1746–1794) on January
15, 1784 at the Fort William in Calcutta, then capital of the British Raj, to enhance and further the
cause of Oriental research.
SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE (1798-1805) - Was introduced by Wellesley. Terms of Subsidiary Alliance –
- An Indian ruler entering into a subsidiary alliance with the British had to accept British forces
within his territory and also agreed to pay for their maintenance. In lieu of the payments
being made, some of the ruler's territory would be forfeit to the British.
- An Indian ruler who entered into a subsidiary alliance would not enter into any further alliance
with any other power, nor would he declare war against any power without the permission of
the British.
- The ruler would not employ any Europeans other than the British, and if he were already doing
so, he would dismiss them.
- The ruler would acknowledge the East India Company as the paramount power in India.
The ‘Nizam of Hyderabad’ was the first to enter into such an alliance.
YOUNG BENGAL MOVEMENT (1805 - 1870) - The Young Bengal movement was a group of radical
Bengali free thinkers emerging from Hindu College, Calcutta in the early 19th century. They were also
known as Derozians, after their firebrand teacher at Hindu College, Henry Louis Vivian Derozio.
WAHABI MOVEMENT (1830-1864) - Led by Syed Ahmed of Bareli, who was greatly influenced by the
teaching of Abdul Wahab of Arabia. Had a reviavalist Agenda. In Bengal, Titu Mir led the movement.
DOCTRINE of LAPSE (1848-56) - Was an annexation policy purportedly devised by Lord Dalhousie. The
company took over the princely states of Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambalpur (1849), Nagpur and
Jhansi (1854) and Awadh (Oudh)(1856) and Udaipur using this doctrine.
NIRANKARI MOVEMENT -The Nirankari movement originated in Rawalpindi in the North West region of
Punjab in first half of 19th century. The Nirankari movement was founded by BABA DAYAL DAS and was
considered to be a movement of purification and return.
KUKA or NAMDHARI MOVEMENT (1872) - Kuka Movement or Namdhari movement was started by
Bhagat Jawahar Mal, but in its most crucial phase was led by Baba Ram Singh Namdhari in 1872. The
Kuka Movement marked the first major reaction of the people in the Punjab to the new political order
initiated by the British after 1849. Ram Singh, who became its leader in 1863, gave military training to
his followers. The clash with British which started over the question of slaughter of cows culminated in
the Kuka raid on Malerkotla on January 15, 1872. A large number of Kuka prisoners were blown to
death with cannons, their leader Ram Singh was deported to Rangoon.
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BRAHMO SAMAJ (1828) - Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy. After him it was led by Debendranath
Tagore. It is credited with starting the Bengal Renaissance of the 19th century. Worked against Sati.
PRARTHANA SAMAJ (1867) - It was founded in Maharashtra by likes of Ranade. Following Rammohan's
ideas, the Paramhansa Sabha was founded in 1849. Their doctrine was to work for mankind and they
believed in 'service' not in 'prayer'.
AHMADIYYA MOVEMENT - Ahmediyya as a non-political Islamic reformist movement founded in

British India near the end of the 19th century, originating with the life and teachings of Mirza Ghulam
Ahmad (1835–1908), who claimed himself the divine reformer - the promised Messiah and Mahdi
awaited by Muslims. He began his work as a defender of Islam against the polemics of the Arya Samaj
and the Christian missionaries.
ALIGARH MOVEMENT - Aligarh Movement was the movement led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, to educate
the Muslims of the South Asia after the defeat of the rebels in the Indian rebellion of 1857.
Establishment of Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh, which later became Aligarh Muslim
University,
BENGAL RENAISSANCE (1770s-1940s) - The Bengal renaissance can be said to have started with Raja
Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833) and ended with Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941). Other socio-religious
reformers were Aurobindo Ghosh, Ishwer Chandra Vidyasagar etc. Others like Bankim Chandra
Chatterjee broadened it and built upon it. The Bengal Renaissance saw the emergence of pioneering
Bengali scientists such as Jagadish Chandra Bose, Satyendra Nath Bose. Art and Bengal Renaissance -
Late E. B. Havell, the Head of the Calcutta School of Art. A society called ‘The Indian Society of Oriental
Art’ was established and classes were taken by Abanindranath.
PUNE SARVAJANIK SABHA (1870) - Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was a sociopolitical organisation and
Mahadev Ranade was one of the initial members. The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha provided many of the
prominent leaders of national stature to the Indian freedom struggle including Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
PABNA RIOTS (1873) - These were against the landlords and rents (while Deccan Riots of 1975 were
against money lenders) in Bengal. They along with the Deccan riots were manifestation of Agrarian
unrest in the country under British rule.
MADRAS MAHAJAN SABHA (1884) - It was established in In May 1884 by S. RAMASWAMI MUDALIAR
and P. Anandacharlu.
THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY (1890) – Adyar. Their motivation was the "wisdom of the East". Annie Besant
(was not a founder) was one of the most important members of the Society.
MITRA MELA & ABHINAV BHARAT (1900) - This was a revolutionary organization setup by V D Savarkar
in Nasik.
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ANUSHILAN SAMITI (1902) - Pramathanath Mitra founded the Anushilan Samiti on 24 March, 1902 and
was sponsored by Aurobindo Ghosh and was started by Sarala Devi. Alipore Bomb Conspiracy is one of
the major events that were attributed to the activities of Samiti..
THE INDIAN HOME RULE SOCIETY (1905) - The Indian Home Rule Society (IHRS) was an Indian
organisation founded in London in 1905 by Shyamji Krishna Varma, with Bhikaji Cama, Dadabhai
Naoroji and S.R. Rana etc.
SERVANTS of INDIA (1905) - The Servants of India Society was formed in Pune, Maharashtra, on June
12, 1905 by Gopal Krishna Gokhale to promote social and human development.
INDIA HOUSE (1905) - India House was an informal Indian nationalist organisation based in London with
the patronage of Shyamji Krishna Varma. Published an anti-colonialist newspaper ‘The Indian
Sociologist’, After madan Lal Dhingra shot William Curzon Wyllie, India House faced decline.
JUGANTAR (1906) - This extremist outfit was established by leaders like Aurobindo Ghosh, his brother
BARIN GHOSH, BHUPENDRANATH DATTA, RAJA SUBODH MALLIK in April 1906.
MUSLIM LEAGUE (1906) - In 1906, All India Muslim League was set up under the leader-ship of Aga
Khan, Nawab Salimul-lah of Dacca and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk in Dacca.
SURAT SPLIT (1907) - Causes –
I. Failure of Moderates
II. Bengal Split Agitation Issue - Led by Tilak and others they demanded for extension of mass
movement and demand for Swaraj during Swadeshi Movement.
In 1906 an imminient confrontation was avoided with appointment of Dadabhai Naroji as
the new president and a compromise was reached by passing a resolution.
ALIPORE BOMB TRIAL (1909) - The trial involved more than 37 suspects, following a bomb attack on
the then Chief Presidency Magistrate Kingsford, and was held in Alipore Sessions Court, in Calcutta.
Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki attempted to kill Magistrate Kingsford, a judge known for handing
down particularly harsh sentences against nationalists.
NASIK CONSPIRACY (1910) - The members of ‘Abhinav Bharat’ – set up by V D Savarkar - planned to
assassin Mr. Jackson – collector of Nasik who sentenced for life to Babarao Savarkar (elder brother of V
D Savarkar) for indulging in revolutionary activities. ‘Anant Laxman Kanhare’ took the responsibility of
execution of Jackson. Death of Jackson set a whole chain of government inquiry into vigorous activity
and it was found that there was a deep-laid, widespread conspiracy to overthrow British Government
in India.
DELHI CONSPIRACY aka DELHI-LAHORE CONSPIRACY (1912) - Hatched by the Indian revolutionary
underground in Bengal and Punjab and headed by Rash Behari Bose to assassinate the then Viceroy of
India, Lord Hardinge, on the occasion of transferring the capital of British India from Calcutta to New
Delhi. BASANT KUMAR BISWAS along with AMIR CHAND, BAL MUKUND and AVADH BEHARI executed.
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GHADAR PARTY (1913) - It was founded in San Fransisco by Hardayal in the office ‘Yugantar Ashram’.
KOMAGATA MARU (1914) - It was a Japanese ship that was used by Singapore based Indian
businessman and fisherman Gurdit Singh Sandhu. In the meanwhile, World War broke out and the ship
was returned from Canada and it also failed to find anchor at other places also. Ultimately it landed at
Indian port in Calcutta. The government of the British Raj saw the men on the Komagata Maru as
dangerous political agitators and ship was kept under surveillance for 6 months in sea. The incident
was as a rallying point to recruit members for the Ghadar movement.
GHADAR CONSPIRACY or GHADAR MUTINY or FEBRUARY MUTINY (1915) - The Ghadar Conspiracy was
a conspiracy for a pan-Indian mutiny. Kartar Singh Sarabha and Raghubar Dayal Gupta, Rash Behari
Bose were main members. It led to FIRST LAHORE CONSPIRACY TRIAL (1915).
JUSTICE PARTY or SOUTH INDIAN LIBERAL FEDERATION (1917) - The party was established in 1917 by T.
M. NAIR and THEAGAROYA CHETTY as a result of a series of non-Brahmin conferences.
UP KISAN SABHA (1918) - Kisan Sabhas were mostly founded and led by the nationalist leaders. It was
founded by Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narayan Dwivedi with support from Madan Mohan
Malviya.
GURUDWARA REFORM MOVEMENT or AKALI MOVEMENT (1920 onwards) The movement led to the
introduction of ‘Sikh Gurdwara Bill in 1925’, which placed all the historical Sikh shrines in India under
the control of Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC). Gurudwara Reform movement was
largely peaceful, non-violent movement. Popular Sikh shrines like Nankana Sahib, Tarn Taran Sahib and
Guru-ka-Bagh were occupied by the Mahants. Master Tara Singh, Baba Kharak Singh etc were
imprisioned. But in the end government has to hand over the keys under popular pressure. Babar Akali
Movement - The Babbar Akali Movement took place during the years 1921 to 1925. The majority of the
Babbar Akalis were returned immigrants from Canada. Some of them had actively participated in the
Gadhar Movement.
THE ALL INDIA TRADE UNION CONGRESS (AITUC) (1920) - It was founded on 31 October 1920 in
Bombay by Lala Lajpat Rai (its first president) and N M Joshi.
EKA MOVEMENT (1921) - United Provinces had grievances relating to the extraction of a rent that was
generally 50 percent higher than the recorded rent. Congress and Khilafat leaders provided the initial
thrust to the peasant grievances and the movement grew under the name Eka or unity movement, but
later the Eka Movement was also widespread and militant under MADARI PASI.
MOPLAH REBELLION or MALABAR REBELLION (1921) - The Malabar Rebellion was an armed uprising in
1921 against British authority and upper caste Hindu landlords (Jenmi) in the Malabar region.
BORSAD SATYAGRAHA (Against Punitive Taxes, 1922) - The Borsad Satyagraha took place in 1922, in
Borsad, Gujarat. Borsad Satyagraha was a fight against dual tyranny. The first involved two dacoits
(Babar Deva and Ali) who committed robberies and murders unchecked. Second, the Government
levied a heavy punitive tax on the Taluka for deployment of additional police.
43
PESHAWAR CONSPIRACY (1923) - Peshawar Conspiracy 1923 (It was also a bid by government to curb
the rising Communists and is one of the 3 main Conpiracy cases against communists – other two being
Kanpur Bolshevik and Meerut Conspiracies.). The Peshawar Conspiracy Case refers to a set of five cases
which took place between 1922 to 1927 in the British India. The people who were tried in these cases
had sneaked into British India from Russia to start a revolution. Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case
tried the emerging leaders supporting communist ideology. Under this trial, Muzaffar Ahmad, S. A.
Dange, Shaukat Usmani and Nalini Gupta were jailed in May 1924.
MUDDIMAN COMMITTEE (1924) - Its main aim was to review the working of diarchy and other
constitutional provisions as laid down by Montegue Chelmsford reforms.
VAIKOM SATYAGRAHA (1924-25) - Shiva temple at Vaikom, in Travancore. Ezhavas and other
depressed classes under the leadership of Sree Narayana Guru, Periyar and T Madhavan.
SELF RESPECT MOVEMENT (1925) - Against Brahmnical Order. It was founded in 1925 by Periyar E. V.
Ramasamy
NAUJAWAN BHARAT SABHA (1928) - Bhagat Singh started the militant Naujawan Bharat Sabha. Along
with Kirti Kisan Sabha, it was one of the grass root level revolutionary organizations.
BARDOLI SATYAGRAHA (1928) - It was a major episode of civil disobedience and revolt in the Indian
Independence Movement. The Satyagraha started as the government raised revenue rates for the
already burdened peasants.
SECOND LAHORE CONSPIRACY TRIAL (1929) - This involved the trial of HSRA members after they thre a
bomb in Legislative Assembly. The charges that were framed included ‘war against crown’.
KHUDAI KHIDMATGAR (1929) - Khudai Khidmatgar literally translates as the servants of God,
represented a non-violent freedom struggle against the British Empire by the Pashtuns (also known as
Pathans, Pakhtuns or Afghans) of the North-West Frontier Province.
DHARSANA SATYAGRAHA (1930) - Hundreds of satyagrahis were beaten by soldiers under British
command at Dharasana. In a peaceful move led by Sarojini Naidu, files of Satyagrahis faced the lathis
of police and they fell in line, only to be replaced by other line.
GURUVAYUR SATYAGRAHA (1931-32) - Malabar district, led by K. Kelappan for right to enter temples
was granted to Backward Hindus like Ezhavas.
KISAN SABHA and ALL INDIA KISAN SABHA (1936) - All India Kisan Sabha was the name of the peasants
front of the undivided Communist Party of India (CPI), an important peasant movement formed by
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati in 1936, and which later split into two organizations, by the same name.
INDIVIDUAL SATYAGRAHA (1940) - First was Acharya Vinoba Bhave. He was arrested soon after he
started it. Other two were Jawaharlal Nehru and Brahama Dutt.
44
BOMBAY PLAN (1945) - The Bombay Plan is the name commonly given to a World War II-era set of
proposals for the development of the post-independence economy of India. Note – It was different
from ‘Bombay Manifesto, 1936’
TEBHAGA/TEBAGA MOVEMENT (1946) - The Tebhaga movement was a militant campaign initiated in
Bengal by the ‘Kisan Sabha’ (peasants’ front of Communist Party of India) in 1946. At that time share-
cropping peasants (essentially, tenants) had to give half of their harvest to the owners of the land. As a
response to the agitations, the then Muslim League ministry in the province launched the Bargadari
Act.
TELANGANA MOVEMENT or VETTI CHAKRI MOVEMENT (1946) - It was a communist-led peasant

rebellion against the feudal lords. The communist led agitation was successful in liberating over 3000
villages from the feudal lords.
RIN RATING MUTINY (1946) - It started with an incident when a sailor on board of INS Talwar wrote
‘Quit India’. From the initial flashpoint in Bombay, the mutiny spread and found support throughout
British India, from Karachi to Calcutta and ultimately came to involve 78 ships, 20 shore
establishments and 20,000 sailors. It was repressed by force by the British Royal Navy. Only the
Communist Party supported the strikers; the Congress and the Muslim League condemned it.
WORLI REVOLT (1946) - It was a post war (WW-2) revolt by peasants and tribals in Worli, Maharashtra.
It is also noted for large scale tribal women participation in the revolt.
ILBERT BILL - The Criminal Procedure Code of 1873 laid down that except in Presidency towns no
Magistrate or Sessions Judge could try a European British subject unless he himself was a European by
birth.
THE DEFENCE OF INDIA ACT (1915) - The Defence of India Act 1915, also referred to as the Defence of
India Regulations Act, was an Emergency Criminal Law enacted by the Governor-General of India in
1915 with the intention of curtailing the nationalist and revolutionary activities during and in the
aftermath of the First World War.
BUTLER COMMITTEE (1927) - Harcourt Butler (1869-1938) accepted the chairmanship of a three-person
committee to examine the financial and economic relationships existing between British India and the
Indian Princly States. This committee thus, reviewed the question of Paramountcy.
HARTOG COMMITTEE (1929) - Simon Commission appointed a Commission to survey into the whole
system of education and it was termed as ‘Hartog Committe’. The Hartog Committee emphasized
primarily on the national importance of the primary education. Instead of expansion of the education
the commission recommended for the consolidation and the improvements of the education
procedure.
SARDA ACT or CHILD MARRIAGE ACT (1929) - Fixed the age of marriage for girls at 14 years and boys at
18 years. All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) (established in 1927) was one of the major forces
behind the Act.
45
WARDHA SCHEME of BASIC EDUCATION (1937) - This scheme was the first attempt to develop an
indigenous scheme of education in British India by Mahatma Gandhi, the father of our nation. ‘ZAKIR
HUSSAIN COMMITTEE’
LAHORE RESOLUTION (1940) - Also known as Pakistan Resolution. Gave 2 States Theory.
AUGUST OFFER (1940) - To seek support of India by providing some concessions. However, the
Congress as well as League rejected this offer, and Gandhi viewed it as having ‘widened the gulf
between Nationalist India and the British ruler’ and he launched ‘Individual Satyagraha’ as result.
CRIPPS MISSION (1942) - August offer had been rejected by Indians and Individual Satyagraha was
launched instead. Cripps spent much of his time in encouraging Congress leaders and Jinnah to come
to a common, public arrangement in support of the war and government. Gandhi said that Cripp's
offer of Dominion Status after the war was a "post-dated cheque drawn on a crashing bank". Cripps'
modification of the original British offer. The behind-the-scenes efforts of the Viceroy and Secretary of
State for India to sabotage the mission. Another major reason was the Cripps incapacity to bargain, he
was told to not go beyond the boundaries of Draft Plan.
C R FORMULA or RAJAJI FORMULA and GANDHI-JINNAH TALKS (1944) - C. Rajagopalachari, a Congress

leader from Madras, devised a proposal for the Congress to offer the League the Muslim Pakistan
based on plebiscite of all the peoples in the regions where Muslims made a majority and in turn
Muslim League should support the demand for Independence. Jinnah rejected the proposal and the
talks failed. Cause of Failure/Jinnah’s Refusal Reason - Jinnah refused to accept the Rajaji Formula as It
did not meet the League’s full demand for Pakistan. The provision of plebiscite in the formula didn’t go
down well with the Muslim leaders.
SHIMLA CONFERENCE and WAVELL PLAN (1945) - As the Gandhi-Jinnah talks over Rajaji formula failed,
Viceroy Wavell and the major political leaders of India at Simla. It reached a potential agreement for
the self-rule of India that provided separate representation to Muslims and reduced majority powers
for both communities in their majority regions.
CABINET MISSION (1946)
MOUNTBATTEN PLAN (1947) or 3rd JUNE PLAN – t conceded demand for separate state of Muslim
league. The main points of the plan were:
I. Partition - Muslim-dominated areas may be separated to form a Dominion.

II. Referendum for NWFP and Sylhet –
III. India would be free by 15th August 1947.
IV. Princly States - Independence of princely states was ruled out.
V. A boundary commission to be set up in case of partition.
46
PART 3
(Don’t Do it now)
KING NONGBAH - He was the leader & the guiding spirit of the ‘Jaintiya rebellion’ of 1862. The root
cause of the rebellion was imposition of income tax, in addition to house tax. Apprehension of tax on
betal & betelnut created turmoil & a fierce rebellion broke; which king led; but was betrayed captured
& hanged publicly in 1862.
VASUDEV PHADKE - Vasudeo Balwant Phadke was an Indian revolutionary and is widely regarded as
‘the father of the armed struggle for India's independence’. He got control of the city of Pune for a few
days in 1879 when he caught the British soldiers off guard during one of his surprise attacks. He was
later captured and sent to Andeman Jail.
KESHUB CHANDRA SEN - Keshub Chandra Sen became a member of the Brahmo Samaj. Keshab
Chandra Sen was more liberal in his views compared to the other leaders of Brahmo Samaj and he was
an ardent supporter of inter-caste marriage and widow remarriage.
THEODORE BECK was a British educationalist working for the British Raj in India, who was invited by Sir
Syed Ahmed Khan to serve as the first principal of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College.
DEBENDRANATH TAGORE was social reformer and founded Tattwabodhi Sabha – an offshoot of
Brahmo Samaj. He was father of Rabindranath and Satendranath (first Indian ICS).
ISHWAR CHANDRA VIDYASAGAR Widow Remarriage. In 1856, a legislation was enacted.
JYOTIBA PHULE wife Savitribai Phule was the pioneer of women's education in India and against
untouchability. He founded Satya Shodhak Samaj.
MARGARET COUSINS was an Irish of origin and came to India with her husband to take Theosophical
avtivities and came into influence of Annie Besant. In 1917, she established the first Women’s
47
organisation in India - The ‘Women’s Indian Association’. The association also played a key role in
establishing the All India Women’s Conference, in 1926.
NARAYANA GURU - Kerala, revolted against casteism and worked for upliftment of Ezhavas.
N KUMAR ASAN was one of the triumvirate poets of Kerala, South India. He was also a philosopher, a
social reformer and a disciple of Sree Narayana Guru. He worked extensively through his poems and
social work for the cause of Ezhavas. He also participated in SNDP movement.
BADRUDDIN TAIYAB was the "First Muslim" to become the "President of Indian National Congress".
SATYENDRA PRASAD SINHA After Morley Minto Reforms Act of 1909 he became the first one to be a
member of Viceroy’s executive Council. He was a Law Member.
CHAPEKAR BROTHERS - They were three brothers. In the late 19th century (1896) plague spread in
Pune and thousands died. Rand – an ICS was chairman of the committee for plague. The brothers in a
daring act assassinated him. The brothers were found guilty and hanged. This was perhaps first major
revolutionary act.
PHIROZSHAH MEHTA was a moderate and was hence not directly opposed to the crown's sovereignty
but only demanded more autonomy for Indians to self-rule. Was one of the founders of INC and
presided its Calcutta session in 1890. He was one of the main moderates who vehemently opposed the
extremists and he blocked re-entry of Tilak till his death in 1915.
N C KELKAR - He was one of the founding members of the ‘Swaraj Party’ and was also later split away
from it to form ‘Responsivist Party’ with Jaykar.
SWAMI SHRADDHANAND an Arya Samaj missionary who established Gurukul Kangri University and
played a key role on the Sangathan (consolidation) and the Shuddhi (re-conversion).
MADANLAL DHINGRA - Madan Lal Dhingra (1883–1909) was an Indian revolutionary freedom fighter.
While studying in England, he assassinated Sir William Hutt Curzon Wyllie
SARLA DEVI CHAUDHURANI was the founder of the first women's organisation in India, the ‘Bharat
Stree Mahamandal’ in Allahabad in 1910.
PULIN BEHARI DAS - founder-president of the Dhaka Anushilan Samiti. He along with others was key
accused in Dacca Conspiracy Case. He was the one who organized the ‘Barrah Dacoity’ – said to be the
first major revolutionary event in east Bengal.
SARDAR AJIT SINGH - He organized Bharat Mata Society. He was the uncle of Sardar Bhagat Singh. In
1905 he along with Lala Lajpat Rai were key in spreading the Swadeshi Movement to Punjab. In 1918,
he came in close contact with the Ghadar Party in San Francisco. In 1939, he returned to Europe and
later on helped Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose in his mission in Italy.
48
DWIJENDRALAL RAY - Dwijendralal Ray, also known as D. L. Ray was a Bengali poet, playwright, and
musician.
ABNINDRANATH TAGORE - Abanindranath Tagore was the principal artist and along with E B Havell was
creator of ‘Indian Society of Oriental Art’
PRAFULLA CHANDRA RAY aka P C RAY was the founder of Bengal Chemicals & Pharmaceuticals, India's
first pharmaceutical company.
C F ANDREWS - a Christian missionary and social reformer in India. His students at St. Stephen's
College, Delhi named him Deenabandhu.
BASANT KUMAR BISWAS was a pro-independence activist involved in the Jugantar group who, in
December 1912, is believed to have bombed the Viceroy's Hardinge Parade in what came to be known
as the Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy. He was one of the youngest Indians to be executed.
BENOY BASU Connected with the ‘Jugantar Party’. Benoy started a local revolutionary unit of the
organisation in Dhaka, named Bengal Volunteers in Dacca with support of Subhash Chandra Bose. His
first major work was killing of ‘Lowman’, Inspector General police. Next, along with Badal Gupta and
Dinesh Gupta, he assassinated ‘Simpson’, IG Prisons.
SOHAN SINGH BAKHNA - Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna (1870–1968) was as Indian revolutionary, the
founding president of the Ghadar Party and was one of the three founding members – other two being
Lala Hardayal, Pandit Kanshi Ram.
VINAYAK DAMODAR SAVARKAR was associated with the ‘India House’ and founded student societies
including ABHINAV BHARAT SOCIETY and the FREE INDIA SOCIETY, as well as publications espousing the
cause of complete Indian independence by revolutionary means. Apart from these he also founded
‘Mitra Mela’ in Nasik. He was one of the accused in the ‘Nasik Conspiracy’. Savarkar published ‘The
Indian War of Independence’ about the Indian rebellion of 1857
VIRENDRANATH CHATTOPADHYAYA along with Madame Cama and S.R. Rana, he attended the
Stuttgart Conference. From Berlin he was responsible for the publication of ‘Talwar’. He also played a
key role in the famous Indo-German Conspiracy which however failed.
BHIKAJI KAMA - While getting treatment in Britain, she came in contact with Shyamji Krishna Verma.
Cama wrote, published and distributed revolutionary literature for the movement, including ‘Bande
Mataram’ (founded in response to the Crown ban on the poem Vande Mataram) and later ‘Madan's
Talwar’ (in response to the execution of Madan Lal Dhingra). On 22 August 1907, Cama attended the
International Socialist Conference in Stuttgart, Germany, where she unfurled what she called the ‘Flag
of Indian Independence’.
PRITILATA WADDEDAR was a Bengali anti-British revolutionary from Bengal. Pritilata joined Surya Sen's
armed resistance movement. In 1932, Surya Sen planned an attack on the Pahartali European Club,
49
which bore the notorious sign ‘Dogs and Indians not allowed’. The raid was successful but Pritilata,
dressed as a man was trapped without a way of escape on that fateful night. She committed suicide.
KALPANA DUTTA was a member of the armed resistance movement led by Surya Sen, which carried
out the Chittagong armoury raid in 1930.
SURYA SEN was a prominent Bengali freedom fighter, an Indian independence activist and the chief
architect of anti-British freedom movement active centered in Chittagong, Bengal. His major success in
the anti-British revolutionary violence was the Chittagong Armoury Raid
SACHINDRANATH SANYAL was a famous Indian revolutionary and the founder of Hindustan
Republican Association (HRA, which after 1928 became the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
or HSRA). He was sentenced for the Kakori train robbery and was tried and sentenced to life for the
same. He was sent to the dreaded Cellular Jail in the Andamans and in jail he wote the famous book
"Bandi Jeevan".
RAMPRASAD BISMIL was one of the founder members of the revolutionary organisation Hindustan
Republican Association. Bhagat Singh praised him as a great poet-writer of Urdu and Hindi. The famous
poem "Sarfaroshi ki Tamanna" is also popularly attributed to him. He was executed in the Kakori case
in 1927.
RAJENDRA LAHIRI was a Bengali revolutionary, who participated in various revolutionary activities of
the Hindustan Republican Association aimed at ousting the British forever from India. In 1925 he
participated in the famous ‘Kakori train robbery’. Later on was awarded death.
ASHFAQULLAH was tried under Kakori Conspiracy and was awarded death sentence.
CHANDRASHEKHAR AZAD He was involved in the famous Kakori Train Robbery of 1925, in the attempt
to blow up the Viceroy's train in 1926, and at last the shooting of J.P. Saunders at Lahore in 1928 to
avenge the killing of Lala Lajpat Rai. He died in a police encounter in Alfred Park.
BHAGWATI CHARAN VOHRA played a key role in HSRA, was founder member of ‘Naujawan Bharat
Sabha’, His wife Durga Bhabi was a leading woman revolutionary. Along with Sukhdev, he was active
revolutionary member of HSRA in Punjab.
SANTI GHOSH and SUNITI GHOSH -These two young school girls from Bengal shot District Magistrate
dead in 1931, a phase during which revolutionary activities were at peak in Bengal.
SHAH NAWAZ KHAN, GURBAKSH SINGH DHILLON, PREM SEHGAL
J B KRIPALANI - Jivatram Bhagwandas Kripalani (11 November 1888 – 19 March 1982), popularly known
as Acharya Kripalani, was an Indian politician, noted particularly for holding the presidency of the
Indian National Congress during the transfer of power in 1947.
K KELAPPAN played a dominant role in the famous Vaikom Satyagraha and was the leader of the
Guruvayur Satyagraha in 1932.
50
SAIFUDDIN KITCHLEW - Dr. Kitchlew was first exposed to Indian nationalism when the whole country
was outraged by the ‘Rowlatt Acts’. Kitchlew was one of the key leaders who were arrested with
Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. Satyapal for leading protests in Punjab against the legislation.
MAULANA AZAD - He was one of the most prominent Muslim leaders to support Hindu-Muslim unity,
opposing the partition of India on communal lines. , he became the first Minister of Education in the
Indian government. He was posthumously awarded India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna in
1992. Azad became the leader of the Khilafat Movement during which he came into close contact with
Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi. He was totally opposed to partition and along with Gandhi was most
disappointed on the Mountbatten Plan.
ANURAG NARAYAN left his flourishing law practice to join the Champaran Satyagraha movement.
C RAJAGOPALACHARI - Rajagopalachari was the last Governor-General of India. Rajaji founded the
‘Swatantra Party’ and was one of the first recipients of India's highest civilian award, the Bharat
Ratna.
ASIF ALI - He was the first ambassador from India to the United States. He defended Shaheed Bhagat
Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt as a lawyer. He and his wife Aruna Asaf Ali played a lead role during 1942
Quit India Movement when other leaders were in Jail. He was one of the defendants of the Red Fort
trials along with Tej Bahadur Sapru, Jawahar Lal Nehru, and Bhullbhai Desai.
ARUNA ASIF ALI - She is widely remembered for hoisting the Indian National Congress flag at the
Gowalia Tank maidan in Bombay during the Quit India Movement, 1942. However her most prominent
role was during Quit India movement when most of the big leaders were in jails and he along with likes
of Ram Manohar Lohia, Achyut Patwardhan, Sucheta Kriplani, Chootubhai Puranik and Usha Mehta
operated underground and kept the movement going on.
BHULLABHAI DESAI - He is well-remembered for his defense of the three INA soldiers accused of
treason during World War II, and for attempting to negotiate a secret power-sharing agreement with
Liaquat Ali Khan of the Muslim League.
SAHAJANAND SARASWATI - He was an ascetic, nationalist and peasant leader of India. He was a social
reformer. He is credited with giving birth to Kisan Sabha movement. He founded Bihar Kisan Sabha
(1929) and played a key role in formation of All India Kisan Mahasabha in 1936.
N M JOSHI - He is termed as ‘father of trade union movement in India’. He was the one who along with
Lala Lajpat Rai established the landmark trade union ‘All India Trade Union Congress’ (AITUC) in 1920
while he was in Congree.
KAZI NAZRUL ISLAM - ‘Bidrohi Kobi’, was a Bengali poet, musician and revolutionary.
K M MUNSHI - Munshi was on the ad hoc Flag Committee that selected the Flag of India in August 1947,
and on the committee which drafted the Constitution of India under the chairmanship of B. R.
Ambedkar.
51
T PRAKASAM - Freedom Fighter and the first Chief Minister of the Indian province Andhra state. He
was also known as Andhra Kesari.
TEJ BAHADUR SAPRU - He carried forward the moderate policies of Gopal Krishna Gokhale in the
radicalized post-Amritsar Massacre period after World War I. He however acted as mediator on many
occasions between the British and Nationalist. He played a critical role in settling Gandhi-Irwin pact.
PURUSHOTTAM DAS TANDON - Purushottam Das Tandon was a freedom fighter from Uttar Pradesh in
India and led non-cooperation movement in central provinces in 1920. He along with G B Pant is widely
remembered for his efforts in achieving the Official Language of India status for Hindi.
ACHYUT PATWARDHAN was an Indian independence activist and political leader and founder of the
Socialist Party of India. He took a prominent part in the Quit India movement which started in 1942
and led the underground activists. In 1945–46 he went underground, and evading arrest, he ably
directed the movement of a parallel government mainly in the Satara district. He was called thereafter
by many as ‘Sataryacha Sinha’ (The Lion of Satara).
SUCHETA KRIPLANI - Sucheta Kriplani was an Indian freedom fighter and politician in Uttar Pradesh,
India. She became the first woman to be elected Chief Minister of any Indian state.
E M S NAMBOODIRIPAD was an Indian Communist leader, Socialist-Marxist theorist, revolutionary,

autho(r, historian, social commentator and the first Chief Minister of Kerala state. As the first non-
Indian National Congress Chief Minister in Republic of India, he became the leader of the first
democratically elected Communist government in the world. Namboodiripad pioneered radical land
and educational reforms in Kerala state that are today being duplicated by other states of India.
RAM MANOHAR LOHIA - However his most prominent role was during Quit India movement when
most of the big leaders were in jails and he along with likes of Achyut Batwardhan, Aruna Asaf Ali,
Sucheta Kriplani, Chootubhai Puranik and Usha Mehta operated underground and kept the movement
going on.
USHA MEHTA - Secret Congress Radio.
KAMALADEVI CHATTOPADHYAY - Indian social reformer, freedom fighter, and most remembered for
her contribution to Indian independence movement, for being the driving force behind the renaissance
of Indian handicrafts, handlooms, and theatre in post-Independence India she played a key role in
growth of National School of Drama, Sangeet Natak Akademi, Central Cottage Industries Emporium,
and The Crafts Council of India, to name a few.
BINA DAS - Bina Das (1911–1986) was an Indian revolutionary and nationalist from Bengal. On 6
February 1932, she attempted to assassinate the Bengal Governor Stanley Jackson, a former England
cricket captain, in the Convocation hall of the University of Calcutta.
52
RAJKUMARI AMRIT KAUR - She was the Princess of Kapurthala. She actively participated in the 1930
Salt Satyagraha and the Quit India Movement. After the independence, when Jawaharlal formed the
Interim Government, Amrit Kaur became the first women Union Minister.
RANI GUDIALLO led the Adivasi Movement in Nagaland and she became famous for her role in the civil
disobedience movement.
CHOUDHRY RAHMAT ALI - Cambridge graduate credited with creating the name "Pakistan"
PERIYAR (E V RAMASWAMY) - Indian independence and social activist, who started the ‘Self-Respect
Movement’ or ‘the Dravidian Movement’ and proposed the creation of an independent state called
Dravida Nadu comprising South India.
K KAMRAJ - Kumarasami Kamaraj was former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu widely acknowledged as the
"Kingmaker" in Indian politics during the 1960s.
C N ANNADURAI was a former Chief Minister of the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu first non-
Congress leader to form a majority government in independent India.
BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, IDEOLOGY and OTHER WORK

AL HILAL - Al-Hilal was a journal brought out by Abdul Kalam Azad
AMRITA BAZAR PATRIKA was started by SISIR GHOSH and MOTI LAL GHOSH.
COMMONWEALTH Annie Besant
DURGESH NANDINI A novel by Bankim Chandra Chattarjee
FIRST WAR of INDEPENDENCE V D Sawarkar
GITA RAHASYA It is a book written by Tilak on Srimadbhagwat Gita.
GHULAM GIRI Gulam Giri is written by Jyotirao Phule on untouchability.
HIND SWARAJ Surendranath Banarjee
INDIAN OPINION Newspaper that was operated by Gandhi in South Africa.
LIFE DIVINE Sri Aurobindo
SAMBAD KAUMUDI Bengali weekly newspaper Ram Mohan Roy.
SOM PRAKASH Iswar Chandra Vidya sagar
SUDHARAK Gokhale
TATTVABODHINI PTRIKA - Edited by Akshya Kumar Dutta in Bengal
YOUNG INDIA was a weekly journal published in English by Mahatma Gandhi from 1919 to 1932.
53
CULTURE
DANCES, MUSIC
CLASSICAL DANCES - The term "classical" or "Shastriya" was introduced by Sangeet Natak Akademi to
denote the Natya Shastra-based performing art styles whose theory can be traced back to the Natya
Shastra of Bharata Muni (400 BC).
Sangeet Natak Akademi currently confers classical status on eight Indian dance styles. Bharatanatyam
(Tamil Nadu) Kathakali (Kerala) Odissi (Orissa) Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) Manipuri (Manipur) Kathak,
Mohiniyattam (Kerala) and Sattriya (Assam) are those defined by Akademi.
HINDUSTANI vs CARNATIC MUSIC –
a. REEGION - Hindustani is mainly the northern Indian style and Carnatic Southern Indian style
b. STYLE and ELEMENTS - Carnatic Style has many more Ragas than the Hindustani style.
Carnatic music is characterized by the presence of 72-melakarta raga scheme. Each of the
72 principal ragas is divided into several subordinate ragas.
c. VOCALS - The main emphasis in Carnatic music is on vocal music; most compositions are
written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, they are meant to be performed
in gayaki (singing) style.
d. INFLUENCE - The Karnatic music evolved separately without the Persian and Mughal
influence as well as the European (Greek) influence where as in the North, these invaders
and their influences left a mark on Hindustani Music.
e. One distinct style of Hindustani is called Khyal - which simply translates to imagination. This
is the unstructured rendering of a Raaga.
f. VARIATIONS - Gharanas are important part of Hindustani Music and have their own style.
While Carnatic music is sung and performed in only one style, there are various styles of
singing and performing in Hindustani music. Each style of school is called a ‘gharana’.
g. FLEXIBILITY and FREEDOM - There is more freedom of expression and room for
improvisation in Hindustani. In Carnatic, it's all composition bound, though there is scope
for improvisation within the ambit of the Kriti.
h. SOURCE - The chief source for Hindustani music is the Sangita ratnakara of Sarangadeva.
On the other hand Carnatic music flourished mainly due to the efforts of Saint
Purandaradasa and the Carnatic music trinity comprising of Saint Tyagaraja, Muthuswami
Dikshitar and Syama Sastri.
i. INSTRUMENTS - Both the types of music differ in terms of the instruments used in the
playing of music as well. While both types of music use instruments such as violin and flute,
Hindustani music extensively employs the use of Tabla (a kind of drum or a percussion
instrument), Sarangi (a stringed instrument), Santoor, Sitar, Clarionet and the like. On the
other hand Carnatic music extensively employs the use of musical instruments such as
Veena (a stringed instrument), Mridangam (a percussion instrument), Gottuvadyam,
Mandolin, Violin, Flute, Jalatarangam and the like.
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BIHU – Assam
CHHAU DANCE - Orissa region took a keen interest in the development of this art. Some Chhau dances use large
stylized masks. The depiction of birds and animals is a distinctive feature.
DANCES
KATHAK - The kathaks were originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India. Under the
Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak was performed in the court, where it acquired its present
features and developed into a form of dance with a distinctive style. Subsequently, it developed in two
traditions or gharanas: Rajathan Gharana & Luknow Gharana. Lachhu Maharaj and Birju Maharaj are
exponents.
KATHAKALI. Kerala - Kathakali is one of the oldest theatre forms in the world. It originated in the area
of southwestern India now known as the state of Kerala. It is a form of dance as well as drama.
KHAYAL - Khyal is a Hindustani form of vocal music.
KODDIYATAM - Koodiyattam or Kutiyattam is a form of Sanskrit theatre traditionally performed in the

state of Kerala, India.
KUCHIPUDI - Kuchipudi is a Classical Indian dance form from Andhra Pradesh, India.
MOHINIATTAM Kerala performed as a solo recital by women. The dance was developed from the
Devadasi system in Kerala temples. It is a solo dance form unlike Kathakali. This has similarities with
Bharatnatyam.
ODISSI - Odissi has been revived in the past fifty years and can be considered as the oldest classical
Indian dance. The Odisshi dancer personifies the lord Jagganath philosophy. Apart from depicting the
lord, the dance includes verses from Gita Govinda.
SATTRIYA - Sattriya is one among eight principal classical Indian dance traditions and have origins in
Assam. The core of Sattriya Nritya has usually been mythological stories.
YAKSHA GANA - This belongs to Karnataka & has a rural origin. It is an admixture of dance & drama.
THEATRE
BHAVABHUTI - The next great Indian dramatist was Bhavabhuti (c. 7th century CE). He is said to have
written the following three plays: Malati-Madhava, Mahaviracharita and Uttar Ramacharita.
HARSHA - The powerful Indian emperor Harsha (606-648) is credited with having written three plays:
the comedy Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, and the Buddhist drama Nagananda.
ANKIA NAT - It is one act play with its roots in rural Assam. It is often accompanied by Sattriya music of
Assam.
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JATRA - Jatra has been popular in Bengal and its origin is traced to the Bhakti movement in the 16th
century, it is derived for Yatra – meaning travel. It is essentially an on the move theatre.
MUDIYITTU - It is a drama form of Kerala and it is themed on Goddess Kali. Mudiyettu is ritualistic
dance drama performed after the harvest of summer crops in Kerala. In 2010, was Mudiyettu included
in UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists.
NAUTANKI - It is one of the most popular folk operatic theater performance traditions of Maharashtra.
FAIRS, FESTIVALS and RITUAL ARTS

BAISAKHI - Baisakhi or Vaisakhi is a harvest festival which is celebrated across the northern Indian
subcontinent, especially in the Punjab region by the Sikh nation as this day commemorates the
establishment of the Khalsa.
DANDIYA RAAS - Dandiya Ras is the traditional folk dance form of Vrindavan, India, where it is
performed depicting scenes of Holi, and lila of Krishna and Radha.
GANESH CHATURTHI - It is the day Shiva declared his son Ganesha as superior to all the gods and is
celeberated as his birthday.
KUMBHA MELA - The Ardh (half) Kumbh Mela is celebrated every six years at Haridwar and Allahabad,
the Purna (complete) Kumbh takes place every twelve years, at four places Allahabad, Haridwar, Ujjain,
and Nashik. The Maha (great) Kumbh Mela which comes after 12 'Purna Kumbh Melas', or 144 years, is
held at Allahabad
MAHAMASTAKABHISHEKA - It is an important Jaina festival held every 12 years in the town of

Shravanbelagola in Karnanataka.
ONAM - It is a Hindu festival celebrated by the people of Kerala, India. The festival commemorates the
Vamana avatar of Vishnu and the subsequent homecoming of the legendary Emperor Mahabali. The
festival is marked by various festivities including intricate flower carpets, elaborate banquet lunch,
snake boat races. The celebrations of Onam start on Atham day, 10 days before Thiruvonam. The 10
days are part of the traditional Onam celebrations.
HITOPDESHA - It is an independent treatment of the Panchatantra. It is meant as an exposition on

statecraft (including the conduct of war and peace and the development of allies) but was produced in a
format easily digestible for young princes. It is supposedly written by NARAYANA.
JATAK KATHA - ‘Jatak Katha’ refers to a voluminous body of literature native to India concerning the
previous births (jati) of the Buddha.
KITAB – UL – HIND see AL BARUNI
KUMARSAMBHAVA - Kalidasa which narrates attempts of Parvati to woo Shiva and the birth of
Kartikeya.
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MALVIKAAGNIMITRAM – Kalidadsa.
NALANDA UNIVERSITY - Nalanda is the name of an ancient center of higher learning in Bihar, India and
was a Buddhist center of learning from the fifth or sixth century CE. Nalanda was ransacked and
destroyed by Turkic Muslim invaders under Bakhtiyar Khalji in 1193.
PRITHVIRAJ RASO - Prithviraj Raso is an epic poem composed by court poet, CHAND BARDAI, on the life
of Prithviraj Chauhan king.
RAZMNAMA - Razmnama is an abridged illustrated translation of the Mahabharata written in Persian

at the behest of the Mughal Emperor Akbar
VINAYA PITAKA - The Vinaya Pitaka is a Buddhist scripture, one of the three parts that make up the
Tripitaka. Its primary subject matter is the monastic rules for monks and nuns. The name Vinaya
Pitaka means basket of discipline. It was compiled at the First Council shortly after the Buddha's death.
RAGMALA PAINTINGS - Ragamala Paintings are a series of illustrative paintings from medieval India
based on Ragamala or the 'Garland of Ragas', depicting various Indian musical modes, Ragas. They
stand as a classical example of the amalgamation of art, poetry and classical music in medieval India.
RAJPUTANA PAINTING or RAJASTHANI PAINTING
Rajput painting, also known as Rajasthani Painting, is a style of Indian painting, evolved and
flourished during the 18th century in the royal courts of Rajputana, India, flowing from the style
of Mughal painting, itself derived from the Persian miniature.
VARIOUS SCHOOLS - Various identifiable styles developed in different Rajput art schools
particularly at Amber (near present-day Jaipur), Bikaner, Marwar (Jodhpur), Mewar (Udaipur)
etc. Jitendra Sahoo is a famous artist of Rajput painting.
ART, SCULPTURES and ARCHITECTURE

CHANGE IN ARCHITECTURE OVER TIME
Mauryan
 Monolithic Pillars
 Finely carved capitols – Bull capitol and Sarnath capitol
 Stupas start during this period – 4 gateways
o Surface built with bricks
 Viharas and Chaityas
o Barabar Caves
CAVE ARCHITECTURE
Progressed in three phases
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 Buddhist Jain Ajivika caves (3rd BC to 2nd AD)

o Kanheri, Nashik, Udaigiri
 Ajanta Ellora Cave (5th to 7th AD)
 Elephanta Ellora and Mahabs (7th to 10th)
AMRAVATI STYLE - This style was developed during Satvahanas. This was focused on Buddhist art and
architecture.
BADAMI CHALUKYA ARCHITECTURE - This style is sometimes called the Vesara style and Chalukya style.
Their earliest temples date back to around 450 in Aihole. Chalukya style originated in Aihole and was
perfected in Badami and Pattadakal.
INDO-SARCENIC - A new hybrid style called Indo-Saracenic was also developed during this period.
“Indo” was shorthand for Hindu and “Saracen” was a term Europeans used to designate Muslim.
CHAITYAS were places of worship whereas Viharas were residence of monks.
CHOLA ART - The Cholas continued the temple building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and elevated
the Dravidian temple design to greater heights. Common feature of architecture are - Mandapam,
Vimana, Gopura etc.The magnificent Siva temple of Thanjavur, completed around 1009, is a fitting
memorial to the material achievements of the time of Rajaraja. Chola period bronzes are exquisite
forms of art and were created using the lost wax technique. The most famous of all the bronze icons is
that of Nataraja.
DRAVIDA vs NAGARA STYLE of ARCHITECTURE
I. LOCATION – According to the Silpasastras, the temples in North India are Nagara style while
those situated between the Krishna river and Kanyakumari are Dravida.
II. CENTRAL TOWER - The Nagara style which developed for the fifth century is characterized by
a beehive shaped tower (called a shikhara, in northern terminology) made up of layer upon
layer of architectural elements and a cruciform ground plan. While Dravida architecture had
a pyramidical shaped central tower.
III. GOPURAM – THE GATEWAY - The most significant visual difference between the later
northern and southern styles are the gateways. In the north the shikhara remains the most
prominent element of the temple and the gateway is usually modest. While in Dravidian
style, the Gopurams are very stylized.
IV. DEITIES ON THE OUTSIDE – Dravida architecture had deities on the outside, while mostly
Nagara style temples have deities inside.
V. CONSISTENCY OF ARCHITECTURE - Since Southern Dravida style was restricted in small area
its architecture style was more or less consistent over the period, while Nagra style had
more variation due to influence of other style such as Greeko Roman, Buddhist, Islamist etc.
GANDHARA SCHOOL of ART - The new Gandhara style of art that developed in sculpture was a fusion of
Greco-Roman/ Hellenisitc and Indian styles from the 1st to the 5th century during period of Kanishka
and Mathura and Gandhara are examples of it. The characteristic features of the Gandhara School of art
was that - The subject was Indian, but the form of art was foreign.
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GARBHGRIHA is a Sanskrit word meaning the interior of the sanctum sanctorum.
HYOSALA ARCHITECTURE - The Hoysala architectural style is considered an intermediate between the
Nagara and Dravidian traditions and is an example of ‘Vesara’ style. The temples have a star shaped
base with the main structure standing on a raised platform. Hoysala architecture is the building style
developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire between the 11th and 14th centuries, in the region
known today as Karnataka. Their architectural style, an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style, shows
distinct Dravidian influences.
MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE - Mughal architecture, an amalgam of Islamic, Persian, Turkish and Indian
architecture, is the distinctive style developed by the Mughals in the 16th and 17th. It is symmetrical
and decorative in style. The central towering dome and the tall gateway (pishtaq) became important
aspects of Mughal architecture, first visible in Humayun’s tomb. It was placed in the centre of a huge
formal chahar bagh. Its main components are – Arches; Domes; Jalis; Minarets; Caligraphy; Use of Red
Sandstone was prominent which was later replaced by Marble; Pietra Dura.
PALLAVA ART and ARCHITECTURE - The Pallavas were instrumental in the transition from rock-cut
architecture to stone temples. Famous shore temples in Mahabalipuram are example of their
architecture.
ROCK CUT ARCHITECTURE - The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, a World Heritage Site are the earliest
example of Rock Cut architecture. That style mainly used cave-architectures. Another example of cave
temple architecture are the Badami Cave Temples at Badami, the early Chalukya capital. Another
earliest example of rock cut temples is Ajanta temples which were influenced by Buddhist art and
temples depict life of Buddha. Later rock-cut cave architecture became more sophisticated as in the
Ellora Caves, culminating ultimately in the monolithic Kailash Temple. The Pallava architects in South
started the carving of rock for the creation of monolithic copies of structural temples. Shore temple at
Mahabalipuram is also an example of this architectural style.
SUNGA ART - This was a Buddhist art and is visible in the stupas around Sanchi (originally
commissioned by Ashoka, but later repaired by Sunga and other), Amravati etc. This mainly involed
stonework along the railings. Their works includes small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and
architectural monuments such as the chaitya at Bhaja Caves, the Stupa at Bharhut, and the renowned
Great Stupa at Sanchi.
VESARA - Vesara is a combination of these two temple styles. The Hoysalas temples at Belur, Halebidu
and Somnathpura are supreme examples of this style. Karnatka major focus.
VIJAYANAGA ART and ARCHITECTURE - Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant combination of the

Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles in Karnataka. The monuments in and around Hampi, in the
Vijayanagara principality, are listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
FEATURES –
I. MONOLITHIC STRUCTURES.
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II. MASSIVE WALLS and SMALL SHRINES.

III. GOPURAMS.
IV. PILLARED STRUCTURES
VIMANA or SHIKHARA - Vimana is a term for the tower above the Garbhagriha or Sanctum sanctorum
in a Hindu temple.
AJANTA - The Ajanta Cave, Maharashtra, India are 29 rock-cut cave monuments which date from the
2nd century BCE. The caves include paintings and sculptures considered to be masterpieces of both
Buddhist religious art (which depict the Jataka tales) as well as frescos.
BAGH CAVES - The Bagh Caves are a group of nine rock-cut monuments, situated in MP. They are rock
cut caves having paitings from life of Buddha.
BHIMBETKA - The Bhimbetka rock shelters are located in Raisen District in the Indian state of Madhya
Pradesh. The Bhimbetka shelters are the earliest rock cut caves. The word Bhimbetka is said to derive
from Bhimbaithka, meaning "sitting place of Bhima". Atleast 10000 years old.
BRIHADESHWARA TEMPLE - Brihadeeswarar Temple also known as Rajarajeswaram, at Thanjavur in the

Indian state of Tamil Nadu, is the world's first complete granite temple and a brilliant example of the
major heights achieved by Cholas kingdom Vishwakarmas in Dravidian temple architecture. It was
constructed by RajaRaja Chola. Primary deity is Shiva and all deities are made in huge sizes. A statue of
Nandi Bull in the copound is said to be second largest after the one at Lepksha Temple in Vijayanagar,
Karnataka.
ELEPHANTA CAVES - The Elephanta Caves are a network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Island
in Mumbai Harbour. They consist of two groups of caves—the first is a large group of five Hindu caves,
the second, a smaller group of two Buddhist caves.
ELLORA - Maharashtra built by the Rashtrakuta rulers. Ellora represents the epitome of Indian rock-cut
cave architecture. The caves have Buddhist, Hindu and Jain rock-cut temples and monasteries.
HAMPI - Ancient city of Vijayanagar, capital of the Vijayanagara empire. Virupaksha Temple is the
main center of pilgrimage at Hampi and has been considered the most sacred over the centuries and is
an epitome of Vijayanagara Architecture. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva, known here as
Virupaksha.
HALEBIDU - Halebidu is located in Karnataka. Halebidu was the capital of the Hoysala Empire.
JAMA MASJID KASHMIR - Its architecture is similar to a Buddhist Pagoda with Persian style.
KHUJRAHO TEMPLE - Hindu (Vishnav and Shiva deities) and Jain temples. The temples were built by
Chandels Rajputs, a Hindu dynasty.
MONASTRIES
Tabo Monastery – Himachal Pradesh. Often referred as Ajanta of Himalayas.
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Dhanker Monastery – Himachal Pradesh
Vikramshila Monastery – Bihar
Rumtek Monatery - Sikkim
PEOPLE – ART, LITERATURE, TRAVELLERS, RELIGION Etc

AHILYA BAI HOLKAR - Ahilya Bai Sahib Holkar was the Holkar Maharani of the Malwa kingdom.
Ahilyabai's husband was killed in a battle. She is also famous for her sense of justice.
AL BERUNI - He was a scholar during Mahmud of Ghaznvi KITAB UL HIND.
AMIR KHUSRO He is regarded as the ‘father of qawwali’ He was known by ‘Tuti-e-Hind’ nickname.
BHARVI - Sanskrit poet KIRATARJUNIYA (Arjuna and the Mountain Man)
BHASA The most respected of Bhasa's plays is Svapnavasavadatta.
BHAVBHUTI Maltimadhav is his most famous play.
BUDHAYANA Indian Mathematician, he calculated value of ‘Pi’
FA HIAN and OTHER TRAVELLERS (Chronological Order)
I. MEGASTHENESE – was a Greek ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta
Maurya by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator.
II. FA-HIAN - Gupta Period, 5th Century AD. He is most known for his pilgrimage to Lumbini. He
visited India during the reign of Chandragupta VIkramaditya.
III. HIEUN TSANG or XUAN XANG – Post Gupta Period, 7th Century AD. He visited court of Kushana
king Kanishka and attended 4th Buddhist council. He also visited court of Harsha.
IV. I-TSING or I-CHING – Post Harsha Period, 8th Century AD. I-Ching was a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim
and was the first Buddhist monk to take a sea route to India. He studied at Nalanda
JAYDEVA GITA GOVINDA.
MAGHA His epic poem Shishupala Vadha.
MIRZA GHALIB - Mirza Ghalib was a classical Urdu and Persian poet from India during British colonial
rule. Mirza Ghalib is also known as the last great poet of the Mughal Era.
NAMDEV - Born in the year 1270 in a low caste tailor family in Maharashtra, Namdev was well famous
as a medieval saint. Namdev he was a devoutee of Wittala.
NIZAMUDDIN AULIYA or HAZRAT NIZAMUDDIN was a famous Sufi saint of the Chishti Order.
PANINI grammar known as Ashtadhyayi.
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RAMANANDA Swami Ramanand, was a Vaishnava saint. He is considered to be the reviver of the
Ramanandi sect. Ramananda for the most part of his life lived in the holy city of Varanasi, and was a
pioneer of the Bhakti movement, as well as a social reformer in Northern India. Kabir – a weaver,
Namdev – a tailor, Sain – a barber and Ravidas – a Cobbler were all his disciples
RAMANUJA was a native of the South of India and a devotee of Vishnu. Visishtadvaita philosophy.
SHUDRAKA He wrote MRICHKATIKA that deals with the love affair of a rich merchant.
TAVERNIER - French traveller and pioneer of trade with India.
THOMAS ROE He was an ambassador to the Court of Jahangir. The principal object of the mission was
to obtain protection for an English factory at Surat.
THYAGARAJA - He, along with his contemporaries Muthuswami Dikshitar and Shyama Shastry, forms
the Trinity of Carnatic music.
TUKARAM - Maharashtra Saint Tukarm accepted Sant Namdev as his Guru. Sant Tukaram was a
devotee of god Vitthala or Vithoba, a form of Krishna.
VARAHMIHIRA - Varahamihira was an Indian astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer.
CHISTIS groups of sufis who migrated to India in the late twelfth century, the Chishtis were the most
influential. Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti introduced Chisti Silsila in India who came along with Mohammad
Ghori in India. Chisti is the name of a place in Afghanistan where Silsila began.
DARUL ULOOM is an Arabic term which literally means "house of knowledge". The term generally
means an Islamic seminary or educational institution—similar to or often the same as a madrassa or
Islamic school.
LINGYATS or VIRASHAIVAS The twelfth century witnessed the emergence of a new movement in
Karnataka, led by a Brahmana named Basavanna. The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the
“pollution”.
MAHAYANA school believes in image worship of Buddha, which was earlier not part of Hinyana school.
Its another central idea is Bodhisattva.
BADSHAH NAMA- A pupil of Abu’l Fazl, Abdul Hamid Lahoriis known as the author of the Badshah
Nama. Emperor Shah Jahan,
UPSC QUESTIONS of LAST YEARS

1. Evaluate the influence of three important women’s organisations of the early twentieth century
in India on country’s society and politics. To what extent do you think were the social objectives
of these organisations constrained by their political objectives?
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Bharat Stree Mahamandal (Sarla Devi Chaudhrani), All India Women’s Conference and Women’s
India Association (Margret Cousins, Annie Besant) were some of the important women’s
associations of the early twentieth century.
Bharat Stree Mahamandal was the first women's organisation in India founded by Sarala Devi
Chaudhurani in Allahabad in 1910.
All India Women’s Conference was founded in 1927 by Margret cousins having Sarojni Naidu, Lady
Dorab Tata as its founding members. It worked towards women’s education, abolition of purdah
system, legislative reform, abolition of child marriage, harijan welfare, family planning, and rural
reconstruction.Their efforts led to several legislative reforms in Sharda Act (1929), Hindu Women’s
Right to Property Act (1937), Factory Act (1947), Hindu Marriage and Divorce Act
2. CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY WAS FORMED FROM ELECTED MEMBERS OF 1941 PROVINCIAL
ELECTIONS, BUT AFTER MUSLIM LEAGUE WITHDREW, HOW IT FORMED A WIDER SOCIAL BASE?
It took representatives from princely states
It invited written submissions from public at large
Congress in itself had large representation from all classes
3. GANDHI’s SUGGESTION to MOUNTBETTON to AVERT PARTICIPATION
Gandhi in 1947 suggested Mountbetton to invite Jinnah to form government. However it was
opposed by both Congress and Muslim league.
4. MOST SHORTLIVED of ALL CONSTITUTIONAL EXPERIMENTS of BRITISH in INDIA
Indian Councils Act (Morley-Minto Reforms) 1909
5. WHY MUSLIMS WERE NOT ATTRACTED to THE EXTREMIST MOVEMENT
Early Extremists like Tilak emphasized upon the use of Hindu symbols like Shivaji and Ganesh
festivals, holy dip during Swadeshi movement, India was shown as Bharat Mata like a Hindu godess
etc. These deterred Muslims to join extremist force.
6. ALLAHBAD PILLAR
Samudragupta
7. SOCIAL LEGISLATIONS DURING ‘EAST INDIA COMPANY’
India in the 18th century did not have any universally accepted legal code. Rather, Indians used
multiple legal traditions. Not only the Hindus, Muslims, Parsees, Jains, Jews and tribals followed
their own legal and social customs, within Mahomedans, Shia’s and Sunni’s too followed different
law codes. There were also many social evils that were prevalent on the name of religion.
Initially, the Company decided to interfere as little as possible with the indigenous laws and social
customs. In 1827, it decreed that in case of a dispute between people of two different faiths or
castes, the law of the defendant would prevail.
It was only in 1790 that the Company also acquired the adminstration of criminal justice. From
1790 to 1860, the Company declared Muslim criminal law as the law of the land except in Bombay
where Hindu criminal law was reserved for the Hindus.
I. 1829 - Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829

II. 1843 – ‘The Indian Slavery Act’ – This was an act passed in British India under East India
Company rule, which outlawed many economic transactions associated with slavery.
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III. In 1850 ‘Removal of the Caste Disability Act’

IV. In 1856 ‘Widow Remarriage Act’ - This was a legislation that was enacted during Lord
Dalhousie’s tenure to allow widow remarriage.
8. SHORT NOTES
Bramhadeya: a form of land grant started from the pallava period in which the village
settlements were meant specifically for the up keep of Brahmans so that they may perform their
usual works. These were exempted from royal taxes & levies.
Razakars: Razakars were a private militia organized Nawab of Hyderabad durig his bid to
suppress the popular revolt especially in the reason of Telangana where peasants revolted
against the Nawab’s oppressive acts. These militia also fought against Government of India forces
when military launched the operation to integrate Hyderabad into India.
9. CHAUTH and SARDESMUKHI

Chauth (from Sanskrit meaning one-fourth) was an annual tax or tribute imposed, from early
18th century, by the Maratha Empire in India. It was nominally levied at 25% on revenue or
produce, hence the name.
The right to assess and collect this tax was asserted first by Shivaji in the later 17th century, on
spurious grounds that his family was hereditary tax collectors in Maharashtra. He extracted
chauth from the Muslim kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda. The sardeshmukhi was an
additional 10% levy on top of the chauth. It is a tribute paid to the king.
10. BHAKTI MOVEMENT

The Bhakti movement is a Hindu religious movement in which the main spiritual practice is loving
devotion among the Shaivite and Vaishnava saints. The Bhakti movement originated in ancient
Tamil Nadu and began to spread to the north during the late medieval ages when north India was
under Islamic rule. The movement was spontaneous and the mystics had their own versions of
devotional expression. Unlike in the south, where devotion was centered on both Shiva and
Vishnu (in all his forms), the northern devotional movement was centered on Rama and Krishna,
both of whom are considered incarnations of Vishnu.
FEATURES, EFFECTS and SIGNIFICANCE of THE MOVEMENT –
a. Firstly, it helped a lot in removing the existing bitterness between the Hindus and the
Muslims. Both became more tolerant towards each other.
b. Secondly, the Bhaktas exposed the hollowness of empty rituals and ceremonies and taught
the people to give up evils like belief in superstitions etc. This movement delta a blow to the
superiority of the Brahmins, for it propagated the equality of all men. This also helped in
checking conversions.
c. Thirdly, the Bhakti reformers preached in the common language of the people, which gave
rise to the vernacular languages such as Bengali in the east, Gujarati and Marathi in the west
and Punjabi in the north.
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d. The Bhakti movement was essentially monothe-istic and the devotees worshipped one
personal God, who could either have form (saguna) or be formless (nirguna).
e. One of the philosophical sides, the Saguna and Nirguna both believed in the Upanishadic
philoso-phy of advaita, with minor variations suggested by various Bhakti saints.
f. Bhakti Movement was not as movement of the wise few, but of the wider mass. It is said that
after Buddhism, the Bhakti cult saw the next most popular religious awakening.
g. The movement supplied incentive of social reforms in Hindu society. The caste system
became less rigid.
h. Finally, the Bhakti Movement resulted in as great literary wave. The preachers did not preach
in Sanskrit, but in the mother tongues of the common people. Thus, everywhere local
languages began to develop.
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1 History For HCS PDF

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History for HCS, © Nitin Sangwan www.meandupsc.blogspot.

to India in his court (दरबार). He wrote a book called Indica.

KANV DYNASTY (कण्व वंश) – 75-30 BCE

This dynasty was founded by Sri Gupta (श्री गुप्त) in 280 AD

n. Bhaskaracharya wrote 'Siddhanta Siromani' (स द्धाांत

d. Gulbadan Begum (was daughter of Babur) wrote Humayun Nama.

(Important) MARATHA EMPIRE – 1674-1818 AD/CE

 PANINI was a Sanskrit grammer specialist known as Ashtadhyayi.

RAMANUJA - Tamil Nadu ‘VISHISHTADVAITA’.

VIRSHAIVA/LINGYATS MOVEMENT - It was in a reaction to Bhakti and temple worship. Initiated by

COMPANY RULE - AGRICULTURE

CULTURAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC SCENERIO IN 19TH CENTURY

NOMADS OF MOUNTAINES - BAKRIWALS of Kashmir and GADDI of Himachal.

LAND REVENUE POLICIES of THE BRITISH

FAMINES in INDIA and the BRITISH POLICY

II. Treatment of soldiers

BRITISH POLICY towards INDIAN STATES

a. Ring Fence Policy or Buffer State Policy (1765-1813).

LOCAL GOVERNANCE GROWTH in INDIA -

EARLY POLITICAL ORGANISATIONS in INDIA

LOWER CASTE MOVEMENTS

Third phase was with rise of Azad Hind Fauz.

INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRSS and CONSEQUENT EVENTS TILL ARRIVAL

a. 1885-1905 - Moderate Phase

Broad aims of the early moderates were –

PARTITION OF BENGAL and SWADESHI MOVEMENT (1905)

Leadership of the Movement Swadeshi Movement –

- Ajit Singh and Lajpat Rai led the movement in Punjab.

Success of Swadeshi Movement –

a. For the first time mass participation was seen

By 1908, the movement has weaned away. Major causes were –

a. The movement was mired with inertia.

MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS and GoI Act (1909)

d. Franchisee was introduced for the first time

HOME RULE MOVEMENT and REUNION of EXTREMISTS and LUCKNOW

Decline of Home Rule Movement –

Following agreements were reached –

- Direct Elections to the Legislative Councils

FIRST WORLD WAR and ITS IMPACT

I. Loss of India – Millions of Rupees from India was diverted

MONTEGUE CHELMSFORD REFORMS (1919)

Separate Electoral provision of Morley Minto was retained.

START of GANDHIAN ERA

I. CHAMPARAN, 1917 – Tinkathia Sysytem - farmers were under compusion to grow

ROWLETT SATYAGRAHA and JALIANWALA BAGH MASSACRE

KHILAFAT and NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT

Decline of Non-Cooperation Movement –

a. Moplah Incident generated considerable acrimony between Hindu and Muslims

Chaura chauri incident- At Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, a peaceful demonstration in a bazaar

ACHIEVEMENTS of NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT –

SWARAJ PARTY (1923)

RISE OF COMMUNISM IN INDIA (1920s Onwards)

SIMON COMMISSION (1928)

The Commission’s recommendations were -

I. An outline of new constitution was put forward.

NEHRU REPORT (1928) & FOURTEEN POINTS (1929)

RISE OF RADICALS, DEMAND for PURNA SWARAJ (1929)

GANDHI’s 11 POINTS, SALT MARCH & CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

GANDHI – IRWIN PACT (MARCH 1931), KARACHI SESSION (MARCH

Below were the proposed conditions.

I. Discontinuation of the civil disobedience movement by the Indian National Congress

KARACHI SESSION OF CONGRESS (1931)

LIMITATIONS of CIVIL DISOBIDIENCE –